Upload
others
View
1
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ASIAN MIGRANTS
UNDER AUSTRALIAN MIGRATION POLICY
By
DAVID T. LAM (Student Number: 10033698)
A Thesis submitted in full fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
School of Economics and Finance
University of Western Sydney
Parramatta Campus
Australia
June 2006 (revised)
Abstract
For many years, migration has been intensively politicised in Australia. Political parties
have different stands about migration and the government has rai sed its transparency to
such a high level that the public is aware of developments and policy directions in
migration for the present and future years. What happens in the past about migration was
its motivation by population and labour needs and family re union. It was later realized that
well-educated migrants with skills and experience are able to accomplish better
employment prospects and settlement outcomes. Skilled migration has therefore been
emphasized. From time to time, governments have e xamined and re-focused the objectives
of migration so as to plan and decide for changes to migration policy. Changes to the
requirements and categories will affect the skills and quality of future migrants and hence
the future economic developments.
This thesis consists of literature review on some of the motivations that support the
objectives of migration over past years , outcomes brought b y migration and overview of
the migration program and main categories under skilled migration . As skilled migration
has been placed with more emphasis since the 1990s and a larger quota has been allocated
to facilitate younger migrants with the skills and expertise that are of use to Australia, it has
become necessary to assess the economic impact brought by some of these skill ed
migrants.
Coinciding with the emphasis of skilled migration, the trend of settler arrivals has changed
so that Asians have increase d their presence in Australia and the focus of this thesis is
narrowed down to assess the economic impact of A sian groups. A description of general
Asian culture and characteristics is also included in the literature review.
Although Asian s in Australia maintain their own cultures and some common
characteristics, I have chosen the two biggest groups, namely Chinese and V ietnamese, to
explore and identify their differences and economic contributions. The comparison of
human attributes between Asians and Australia ns at any po int of time is never intended to
put forward a theory about any outstanding race or races. Using the 1996 Census data and
quantitative analysis namely regression and probit analysis, this study attempts to assess the
economic impact of Chinese and Vie tnamese in Australia. Apart from ethnicity factor,
other elements specifically educational attainment, oc cupational achievements, labour force
status in which they have participated, age, English language proficiency, years of arrival
and hours worked are tested for significance in enabling Chinese and Vietnamese migrants
to earn income.
This study also exa mines whether higher qualifications would increase the prospects of
employability and hence higher income as this has been a common belief for Asians .
However, while Chinese are generally motivated towards higher qualifications, Vietnamese
would be less en thusiastic. Nevertheless, t he test results should point out that this factor
alone would not enable a person to be richer, as other factors including work experience
and English proficiency are predominantly significant in earning income.
One incentive for Asian migrants to study for higher qualifications could be the
advancement to occupations of managers and professionals. This study examines if it is
significant to Australian economy for Asians participation in these occupations. Also,
statistics indicated that the source of business migrants over past years was from Asia .
However, the number of business migrants ha s continuously been dropping over the last
few years and the future directions of this sector will be another topic for research.
Acknowledgements I wish to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor
Tom Valentine. His support and guidance at every stage of this thesis, especially on the
developments and testing of econometric models have always been helpful and
encouraging. Without his assistance, I would not have completed this thesis. I also like to
thank Professor Mike Wallace for his reference to enable me to apply for the scholarship.
Another lecturer I thank is Professor Kevin Daly who hel ps me in the revision before final
submission. I extend my thanks to the staff in Library and Student Services of University of
Western Sydney for their support services. Finally, I would like to say great thanks to my
beloved wife, Grace, for her enduring understanding and support throughout the study, and
to my daughter, Venus, for her allocation of time out of night shifts in assisting with final
proof-reading.
………………………. David Taiwan LAM
Statement of Authentication
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work. All such work presented in this thesis is, to the best o f my knowledge and belief, original and contains no material
previously published or written by another person nor material which, to a substantial extent, has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.
………………………. David Taiwan LAM
Ja-bez prayer:
‘Oh that thou wouldest bless me indeed,
and enlarge my territory, and that thine hand might be with me,
and that thou wouldest keep me from evil, that it may not grieve me!
And God granted him that which he requested.’
(I Chronicles, 4:10)
i
CONTENTS List of Figures List of Tables Definitions PART I INTRODUCTION 1 PART II LITERATURE REVIEW – OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES OF MIGRATION 4 2.0 Introduction 4 2.1 Concept of Migration 4 2.2 Policy Objectives 5 2.2.1 First Years of Settlement 1770–1850 5 2.2.2 The Golden Years 1850–1910 6 2.2.3 From Federation to Depression 1910–45 7 2.2.4 Post-War Years of Prosperity 1945–79 8 2.2.5 Awakening 1979–86 13 2.2.6 The New Era 1986–2003 14 2.3 Outcomes of Migration 24 2.3.1 The Influence of the Ethnic Groups 24
2.3.1.1 Italian 25
2.3.1.2 Greek 27
2.3.1.3 Yugoslavian 29
2.3.1.4 Asian 29
2.3.1.5 The Characteristics of Ethnic Groups 31 2.3.2 Australian Population and Economy 34
ii
2.3.3 A Highly Urbanised Nation 36 2.3.4 Employment and Unemployment 39 2.3.5 Immigration, Trade and Economy 44 2.3.6 International Education as Part of Migration Policy 52 2.4 Conclusion 56
PART III LITERATURE REVIEW – MIGRATION PRINCIPLES AND
POLICY 58
3.0 Introduction 58
3.1 Migration Policy 58
3.2 The Migration Program 59
3.3 Migrant Categories 63
3.3.1 Family Stream 63
3.3.2 Skill Stream 64
3.3.2.1 Independent Migrants 64
3.3.2.2 Skilled–Australian Sponsored 67
3.3.2.3 Employer Nomination 67
3.3.2.4 Business Migration 69
3.3.2.5 Distinguished Talent 72
3.3.3 Refugee and Special Humanitarian Program 74
3.3.4 Temporary Residence 75
3.3.5 Overstayers and Illegal Entrants 81
iii
3.4 Conclusion 82
PART IV LITERATURE REVIEW – ASIAN CULTURE, IMPACT AND
CHALLENGES 83
4.0 Introduction 83
4.1 Attitude of Asia towards Australia 84
4.2 Nature and Dynamics of Culture 85
4.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Asian Culture 86
4.3.1 Human Culture 86
4.3.2 Economic Strategy 93
4.4 The Significance of Overseas Chinese 94
4.4.1 South-East Asia 94
4.4.2 The Chinese in the United States 96
4.4.3 The Chinese in Canada 97
4.4.4 The Chinese in New Zealand 99
4.4.5 The Chinese in Australia 101
4.5 Conclusion 103
PART V RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105
5.0 Research Background 105
5.1 Trends 106
iv
5.2 Objectives 110
5.3 Methodology 112
5.3.1 Introduction 112
5.3.2 Explanation of the Theory 112
5.3.3 Statement of Hypotheses 118
5.3.4 Obtaining the Data 121
5.3.5 Development of the Econometric Models and Hypotheses Testing 127
5.4 Analysis of Results and Discussion of Findings 171
5.4.1 Equation 1 171
5.4.1.1 Results of Equation 1 171
5.4.1.2 Findings on Ethnicity Factors 172
5.4.1.3 Findings on Qualifications Factors 175
5.4.1.4 Findings on Occupation Factors 177
5.4.1.5 Findings on Labour Force Status 180
5.4.1.6 Findings when combining Factors of Qualifications,
Types of Occupation and Labour Force Status 182
5.4.1.7 Findings on Hours Worked 183
5.4.1.8 Findings on English Language Factor 183
5.4.1.9 Results of Equation 1A 184
5.4.1.10 Findings on Age Factor 184
v
5.4.1.11 Findings on Years of Arrival 187
5.4.1.12 Findings on Sex Factor 188
5.4.1.13 General Findings of Equation 1 188
5.4.2 Equation 2 189
5.4.2.1 Results of Equation 2 190
5.4.2.2 Interactions between Ethnicity and Qualifications 191
5.4.2.2.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and
Qualifications 191
5.4.2.2.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and
Qualifications 196
5.4.2.3 Interactions between Ethnicity and Occupations 199
5.4.2.3.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and
Occupations 199
5.4.2.3.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and
Occupations 203
5.4.2.4 Interaction between Ethnicity and Labour Force Status 211
5.4.2.4.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and
Labour Force Status 211
5.4.2.4.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and
Labour Force Status 213
vi
5.4.2.5 General Findings of Equation 2 216
5.4.3 Equation 3 219
5.4.3.1 Results of Equation 3A 219
5.4.3.2 Results of Equation 3B 222
5.4.3.3 General Findings of Equations 3A and 3B 224
5.4.4 Equation 4 224
5.4.4.1 Results of Equation 4A 225
5.4.4.2 Results of Equation 4B 227
5.4.4.3 Results of Equation 4C 229
5.4.4.4 Results of Equation 4D 230
5.4.4.5 Results of Equation 4E 232
5.4.4.6 General Findings of Equations 4A to 4E 234
5.4.5 Equation 5 235
5.4.5.1 Results of Equation 5A 235
5.4.5.2 Results of Equation 5B 237
5.4.5.3 Results of Equation 5C 241
5.4.5.4 Results of Equation 5D 243
5.4.5.5 General Findings of Equations 5A to 5D 244
5.4.6 Equation 6 246
5.5 Conclusion 250
vii
PART VI CONCLUSION 251
6.0 Conclusion 251
6.1 Qualifications to the Analysis 256
6.2 Further Areas for Research 257
BIBLIOGRAPHY 259
APPENDICES
ABBREVIATIONS
ABS CATEGORY NUMBERS
viii
List of Figures 1 Trend in the Fertility Rate
2 Labour Force Estimates and Projections
3 Percentage of Overseas-Born by Country of Origin, 2000
4 Labour Force Participation and Employment Status
5 Australia–China Two-Way Investment
6 International Students Enrolled in Australia, Top Source Countries, 1999
7 Migration Program outcomes, total persons by stream, 1983–84 to 2002–03
8 Migration Program from 1995 to 2002
9 Trends in Intake of Family Stream Settlers, 1977–1999
10 Trends in Intake of Skilled Stream Settlers, 1977–1999
11 Trends in Intake of Humanitarian Stream Settlers, 1977–1999
12 Top 10 Countries of Birth for Settlers arriving in Australia, 2000
13 Total and Taxable Income, Various Age Groups, 2001
ix
List of Tables 1 Regional Population after the Gold Rush
2A Population by Country of Birth
2B Increase of Total Overseas-Born and Australian-Born Population
3 Net Overseas Migration as at 30 June 2003
4 Settler Arrival Figures
5 Components of Resident Population Change
6 Comparison of Types and Numbers of Migrants admitted in 1998
7 Population by Country of Origin (per cent)
8 Occupation of European Migrants on Arrival, 1967–68
9 Australian Population
10 Housing Costs in Sydney, 1976–96
11 Distribution of Occupations by Place of Birth, 1986, per cent
12 Percentage of degree holders employed in their appropriate professional field by
selected country of origin pre-1981 arrivals and 1986–1991 arrivals
13 Australia’s Trade with Asia and Europe
14 Country of Birth of Settler Arrivals
15 Australia’s Export Markets, 1991–92 to 2000–01
16 Planning Level for 2003–2004
17 Performance of Family Stream Migration
18 Performance of Skilled Stream Migration
19 Refugee and Special Humanitarian Program
20 Temporary Business Entrants from 1987–99
21 Temporary Resident Visa Grants
22 Average Annual Workload of Industrialised Countries, 1990
29 Degree of Unionisation
30 Share of the Overseas Chinese in East Asia
26 Distribution of Chinese in the World, 2002
27 Chinese Share of New Zealand Population, 1991–2001
23 Overseas-Born Population
24 Number of Asian Migrants in Australia, 2000
25 Ancestry Responses, 2001
25 Most Commonly Spoken Languages other than English
35 Cross-Classification of Income Distribution
x
36 Number of People in the Labour Force
37 Occupations of Primary and Secondary Applicants under Skilled Stream
Migration, 1999–2000
38 Comparison of Employability of Skilled Migrants and Other People, 2001
39 Labour Force Participation, 2001
xi
Definitions
Chinese
In broad terms, ‘Chinese’ refers to those who are born in China or those ancestors who
originate in China irrespective of their whereabouts. The research centre of Australian
National University indicated that it is a very complex issue to define Chinese identity
or ethnicity. One problem is their scattering in several regions and countries and another
problem is their sub-ethnicity and network (http://rspas.anu.edu.au/cscsd/about.php).
It was found that there had been migration of Chinese people to various parts of Asia
such as Vietnam, Malaysia, Cambodia and Taiwan in the 1970s and 1980s. There were
also movements of Chinese immigrants from Singapore, Hong Kong and Mainland
China from the mid 1980s onwards to other countries such as Australia
(http://abcasiapacific.com/nexus/stories/ s1134683.htm). Smaller numbers of Chinese
migrants came to Fiji, The Philippines, New Zealand, Britain, Burma, Christmas Island,
Mauritius, South Africa, India and Japan. Second generations of Chinese migrants in
Australia are the Australian born Chinese and those of mixed race
(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). Further complexity arises in the
case of inter-marriage between Chinese settlers and Australians. Owing to the diversity
in country of origin and socio-economic status of Chinese migrants, it is not possible to
limit Chinese according to their whereabouts or to just one or more groups of Chinese.
Vietnamese
Vietnam has a border with China and Chinese is one of the most common minority
groups in Vietnam (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Vietnam). There have been
several waves of exodus of Vietnamese refugees since the 1970s
(www.huongduong.com.au/article_88.html). These outflows have enabled them to
settle in the US, Canada, Europe and Australia. For the purposes of this research,
Vietnamese means those who have Vietnam as their country of origin and these include
Chinese who had migrated to Vietnam and re-migrated to Australia.
For the same reasons as in the case of Chinese, it is not possible to define ‘Vietnamese’
according to their country of residence.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
43
43
Figure 4: Labour Force Par ticipation and Employment Status
Note: ‘LSIA’ is the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia, a systematic study of settlement outcomes for new arrivals over time. It analyses and compares the experiences of two cohorts of migrants
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
44
44
who arrived r espectively between September 1993 and August 1995 (LSIA1) and between September 1999 and August 2000 (LSIA2). The cohorts were interviewed in ‘waves’ at set intervals of around six months (wave 1) and 18 months (wave 2) on arrival. The cohorts were inter viewed again at 42 months (wave 3) after arrival.
(www.immi.gov.au/settle/settle_review/pdfs/chap04 web.pdf)
2.3.5 Immigration, Trade and Economy
An economist has produced a publication with a heading of ‘Immigration m eans
business’,7 meaning there has been a positive correlation between migration and trade .
During the gold rush when the population was tripled to 237,000 by 1854
(www.sbs.com.au/gold/story.html?storyid =49), Victoria contributed more than one third
of the world’s gold output in the 1830s, r esulting in a hu ge increase in business
investment, thereby stimulating loc al production activities (www.cultureandrecreation.
gov.au/articles/goldrush/). In the 1890s, when Australia predominantly accepted migrants
from Britain and Ireland, trade activiti es were largely based on farming and mining .
During this period, about 70 % of Australian exports went to the UK, and Britain
remained one of Australia’s largest trading partners and largest source of investment
capital until 1961 (Tavan 2005:111). In Table 2A, the UK was the top source country of
birth of the population and Australia’s export to the UK has remained cons istent at
approximately $2 billion from 1992 to 1997, rising to $4 bil lion since 1999. Export
growth to the UK amounted to 140% over the nin e-year period from 1992 to 2001 (Table
11). In 2004, the UK was still Aust ralia’s fifth largest source of imports and total two -
way trade reached A$17.5 billio n (http://uktradeinvest.britaus.net/news/
newsdefault.asp?id=298). When New Zealand ha d become Australia’s second largest
source country of migrants since 1991 (Table 2A), exports to New Zealand grew steadily
7 Tim Harcourt, Chief Economist, Australian Trade Commission, 26 March 2003 (www.austrade.gov.au/ corporate/layout/0,,0_S1 -
1_CORPXID0029-2_3_PWB11006346-4_-5_-6_-7_,00.html)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
45
45
from the 1990s to 2001 and the overall change in export growth was also about 140%
over the same period (T able 14).
One important role played by the government in exploiting migration in further
development of Australia’s trade and economy is the introduction of business migration
and temporary business entry regime. It has been realised that migrants are more readily
able to utilise their knowl edge and connections with the ir home countries to bring
Australia into international trade. Since the 1980s, Australia has accepted business
migrants, temporary business entrants and foreign investors (2.2.6). The top five source
countries for business mig ration are all located in Asia (Burns 19 98:41). With business
migration dominated by North-East Asians, Australia has reaped benefits from having a
group of people with business and language skills that are relevant to the development of
international trade with Asia (Garnaut 1989:287). One immediate benefit has been fast
and growing trade with Asian countries. Coinciding with the Asian economic boom 8 and
increasing migrants from Asia in the 1980s (Table 2A), Australia took advantage of its
proximity to Asia to participate in foreign tr ade in the Asia–Pacific region. In a report
submitted by Dr Vincent FitzGerald , he anticipated that there were immense trading
opportunities for Australia in the Asia–Pacific region and immigration policy has pl ayed
a part in enabling Australia to exploit this potential (Fitzge rald 1991). He argued that
migration has a p ivotal role to play in helping Australia to maximise economic benefits
from the growth of East Asia, and migrants have played a role similar to an economic,
political and cultural bridge between Australia and North-East Asia9 (Garnaut 1989:300 –
301). This has become a continued process of interaction among Australians, migrants,
visitors and temporary settlers and has urged Australia to move towards globali sation.
8 http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/terry. html
9 North-East Asia was defined to include C hina (including Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan and Korea (Garnaut 1989:3) .
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
46
46
In conjunction with the policy was the entry of temporary residents to encourage
international trade and investment ( DIEA FORM 147). Japan is the country that has
become Australia's most influential Asian partner in terms of tourism, transportation,
rural and mining markets, and real estate investment in the 1980s and 1990s, but was not
listed as one of the major source countries of origin of migra nts (Table 2A). However,
there is a relatively high representation of Japanese temporary entrants who have ma de
investments and developed business links with Australia (Brooks 1994). As of 1998,
Japanese visitors remained Australia’s largest source of overseas visitors, totalling
751,100 arrivals, constituting 18 % of the country’s inbound market ( ABS 1301.0
2000:50). Also, it has been estimated that the Japanese short -term visits accounted for an
average of 740,000 visitors per year (www.atc.net .au).
One of the most noticeable result s since the turn of the century is the development of
China being Australia’s im portant trading partner and source of migrants since the 1980s .
Early in 1973, exports to China amounted to only 1 % of Australia’s total exports
(Pinkstone and Meredith 1992). By 1978, China was the eighth most important trading
partner when measured by Australia’s exports to China (Burn s 1998:25). Starting from
the early 1980s, China has eme rged as a close economic partner of Australia (Department
of Foreign Affairs and T rade 1995:42). Between 1982 and 1983, the number of Chinese
settlers was about 1.3 % of all settle r arrivals, as can be seen from Table 14. On a
progressive bas is, the number of settlers from China has increased fr om 1983 to 2003.
The table shows that Chinese -born settlers exceeded 6,000 for the years 2002 and 2003,
accounting for more than 7% of total arrivals, and ranking third highest after the United
Kingdom and New Zealand. Alon gside the increasing presence of Chinese settlers is the
increase in two-way investments between the two countries. Figure 5 below indicates that
in the year 1999 bilateral trade between China and Australia increased dramatically.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
47
47
Figure 5: Australia–China Two -Way Investment
(www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/proc_bilat_fs.html)
As forecasted by Dr FitzGerald (1991), Australia has moved towards tr ading with China,
the ‘great growth pole of the twenty-first century’ (Chai et al. 1997:337). In 2000, China
became the fifth largest source country of origin of the overseas -born population (Table
2A). In the same year, 47 % of Australian exports went to C hina and the ir value e xceeded
A$6 million (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/ china/). This is consistent with statistics compiled by
the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, as p resented in Table 13. The value of
exports from Australia to China was reported to be A$ 7.5 million in 2001
(www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/). Imports also rose on an annual basis from 1996 to 2000,
and in 2000 reached a record of A$9 million (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/). Overall trade
with the Asia–Pacific countries accounted for 71.8% o f the total value of imports and
exports for 2000–2001. Table 15 shows that export value to China h as exceeded that to
the UK since 1994–95, and from 1992 to 2001 Australia experienced 370% growth in
exports to China. This is the highest rate of change in export gr owth over the years. By
2002, China had become the third largest trading partner w ith Australia, and the fourth
largest export market accounting for merchandise trade. Analysts predict that in the next
20 years China will e xperience an extraordinary pace of change and has the potential to
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
48
48
become the second largest economy in the world (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/chin a/). In 2004,
China became Australia’s second largest merchandise export market as well as the
second largest source of merchandise imports. In the d ecade leading up to 2004,
merchandise trade between Australia and China more than quadrupled to $29 billion
(www.trademinister.gov.au/releases/2005/mvt040_05.html).
Table 13: Australia’s Trade with Asia and Europe
Trading Partners Exports Imports 2000–01 2000–01 $m $m Japan 23,479 15,371 Korea 9,209 4,710 China 6,846 9,881 Hong Kong 3,904 1,367 Taiwan 5,871 3,327 Singapore 5,997 3,898 Indonesia 3,119 3,277 Malaysia 2,506 4,177 Philippines 14,954 513 Thailand 2,219 2,780 Vietnam 499 2,431 Other Asian countries 8,750 31,808 Total Exports and Imports with APEC * 87,353 83,540 Europe 13,963 25,509 Other countries 18,286 9,215
Total Exports and Imports with Europe and other countries 32,249 34,724 Total Trade with all Countr ies 119,602 118,264
* APEC (Asia–Pacific Economic Co-operation) comprising members of Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong SAR, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Gui nea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taipei, Thailand, United States and Vietnam (www.apec.org.au/docs/oxley2004.pdf )
(ABS 1301.0 2002:837)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
49
49
Table 14: Country of Birth of Settler Arrivals
Number %
1982–83 China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) 1,167 1.3India 1,673 1.8New Zealand 6,867 7.4South A frica 2,758 3.0United Kingdom 26,444 28.4Vietnam 8,690 9.3All settler arrivals 93,011 100.0
1992–93 China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) 3,046 4.0India 3,553 4.7New Zealand 6,694 8.8South A frica 1,021 1.3United Kingdom 9,484 12.4Vietnam 5,651 7.4All settler arrivals 76,330 100.0
2001–02 China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) 6,708 7.5India 5,091 5.7New Zealand 15,663 17.6South A frica 5,714 6.4United Kingdom 8,749 9.8Vietnam 1,919 2.2All settler arrivals 88,900 100.0
2002–03 China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) 6,664 7.1India 5,783 6.2New Zealand 12,368 13.2South A frica 4,603 4.9United Kingdom 12,508 13.3Vietnam 2,568 2.7All settler arrivals 93,914 100.0
(ABS 3412.0)
Apart from China , Australian’s trading relations with other Asian countries are also of
considerable significance. Table 15 shows Australia’s export markets from 1992 to
2001. The top of the list remains Japan , accounting for 19.6% of total exports. Although
the US ranked the second, the value of exports to the US has been consistent in the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
50
50
1990s with increases at the turn of the century. The third is Korea followed by New
Zealand and China. The trend has shown that Asian countries have played an
increasingly important rol e as export markets for Australia. Later reports showed that
from 1999 to 2004, positive growth trends for two -way trade with ASEAN were
recorded and , in 2004, ASEAN10 countries consumed 11.7 % of Australia’s total
merchandise exports, worth $13.7 billion. A SEAN has become Australia’s second most
important export market after Japan, taking over 15 % of total merchandise exports and
becoming the third largest trading partner, after the United States and the European
Union (www.dfat.gov.au/media/speeches/trade/ 1997/asean29aug97.html).
10 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) was established in 1967, and comprises Burma, Brunei, Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailan d and Vietnam (www.dfat.gov.au/asean/).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
51
51
Table 15: Australia’s Export Markets, 1991 –92 to 2000–01
Country 91–92 $m
92–93 $m
93–94 $m
94–95 $m
95–96 $m
96–97 $m
97–98 $m
98–99 $m
99–00 $m
00–01 $m
% Change from 92–01
Japan 14,574 15,206 15,924 16,282 16,429 15,377 17,580 16,566 18,822 23,479 19.6 61
USA 5,220 4,940 5,075 4,643 4,619 5,526 7,794 7,984 9,602 11654 9.7 123
Korea 3,365 3,970 4,706 5,250 6,615 7,134 6,397 6,320 7,615 9,209 7.7 174
NZ 2,830 3,365 4,009 4,791 5,609 6,214 5,662 5,838 6,739 6,872 5.7 143
China 1,458 2,268 2,590 2,964 3,781 3,584 3,872 3,948 4,966 6,846 5.7 370
Singapore 3,189 3,787 3,197 3,643 3,556 3,410 3,697 3,417 4,855 5,997 5 88
Taiwan 2,519 2,680 2,757 3,102 3,452 3,620 4,180 4,203 4,696 5,871 4.9 133
UK 1,930 2,394 2,901 2,275 2,829 2,357 3,040 4,473 4,158 4,639 3.9 140
Hong Kong 2,106 2,597 2,797 2,632 3,052 3,105 4,138 3,071 3,211 3,904 3.3 85
Indonesia 1,627 1,715 1,906 2,113 2,716 3,305 2,751 2,199 2,408 3,119 2.6 92
Malaysia 1,103 1,311 1,759 2,033 2,289 2,332 2,097 1,859 2,141 2,506 2.1 127
Thailand 816 1,205 1,278 1,560 1,779 1,693 1,390 1,306 1,703 2,219 1.9 172
Saudi Arabia 266 329 344 277 452 448 545 1,060 1,334 2,196 1.8 726
Italy 979 872 1,052 1,250 1,282 1,354 1,752 1,564 1,575 2,100 1.8 115
India 754 889 865 979 1,185 1,493 1,852 1,837 1,588 2,086 1.7 177
Canada 845 1,158 1,149 1,150 1,267 1,178 1,276 1,274 1,175 1,768 1.5 109
Netherlands 856 876 703 707 695 584 829 866 1,378 1,738 1.5 103
Philippines 513 598 699 839 1,075 1,226 1,163 1,207 1,304 1,495 1.2 191
Germany 1,092 991 1,006 1,083 1,152 1,058 1,243 1,409 1,245 1,490 1.2 36
South Africa 226 334 350 566 776 1,014 1,093 944 1,039 1,296 1.1 473
UAE 329 408 417 338 542 665 1,006 835 872 1,162 1 253
Others 8,430 8,809 9,064 8,575 10,853 12,255 14,411 13,811 14,860 17,956 15 113 TOTAL 55,027 60,702 64,548 67,052 76,005 78,932 87,768 85,991 97,286 119,602 100 117
(ABS 5422.0 2001)
Migration has not only contributed to the economy by bringing Australia into trade with
other countries, it has also played a p art in stimulating international travel for visiting
family members , friends and relatives . Tourism is a key growth industry that contributes
significantly to job c reation, export earnings, regional development, and stimulation of
international trade and i nvestment prospects. Australia's Tourism Forecasting Council
predicted in 1996 that overall visitor numbers to Australia would double within the
subsequent 10 years with significant changes in the composition of tourists and family
visitors, for holidays, sports, recreation and entertainment. It is expected that more than
60% of tourists will come from Asia ( www.aph.gov.au/ library/Pubs/bp/1996-97/
97bp9.htm).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
52
52
The interaction between increasing migrants, visitors and international trade has
influenced the Australian economy and trade in various ways. Firstly, alongside business
migrants, temporary business executives and investors developed successful businesses
in their home countries and aim to do so in Australia. Research shows that the arrivals of
business migrants over the three years from 1996 to 1999 created 7,700 jobs and
generated $348 million in exports. The report also showed that 75 % of business
migrants engaged in business and that each new business employed an average of 5.4
staff within two yea rs of arrival (Boccabella 2000). In addition, 62 % of these businesses
earned export income and 10 % of the export businesses had earnings worth over $1
million (Boccabella 2000). Secondly, increasing numbers of migrants, especially
business entrants, contin ue to influence Australia’s international linkages in the Asia
Pacific economies and composition of trade. Over the decade from 1985 to 1995,
manufacturing and services have been the fastest growing industries. Manufactured
exports have grown at an average rate of 17 .8% per annum, constituting 29 % of
merchandise exports (Department of Foreign Affairs and T rade 1995:120).
Migration embracing the concept of multiculturalism together with increasing economi c
focus on APEC has enabled Australia to improve its competitive edge. The Minister for
Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs, Peter McGauran, emphasised that cultural
diversity has resulted in economic benefits for Australia in the global market and
provides a significant business advantage in internationa l trade. He added that migrants
have helped Australia to gain and maintain a competitive edge in its export markets. At
present, among the top 15 Australian export markets, 12 are non-English speaking
(www.minister.immi.gov.au/cam/media/media -releases/medrel05/05064.htm).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
53
53
2.3.6 International Education as Part of Migration Policy
One relatively new yet significant aspect of migration policy since the 1980s is the
acceptance of overseas students to study in Australia, generating revenue for the
Australian economy through the international education industry. Before 1979, this
industry was operated on a ‘low key’ basis, and overseas students were not required to
pay fees (Marginson 1993:184). In the 1980s, following the US and Canada, Australia
revised its migration policy to include the category of overseas students and
incorporating tuition fees as one of the requirements of the visa application. It has been
estimated that Canada earned revenue from international education to the value of C$2.8
billion from its 100,000 foreign students up to 1995, of whom 60 % came from Asia
(Stockley 1997:115). Education has therefore been promoted in overseas countries to
attract international students to Australia and , as a result, education has become a
marketed economic commodity.
Year Number of international students
1986 4,503 1987 7,131 1988 21,128 1989 32,198 1990 47,065 1991 47,882 1995 63,073 1996 68,611 1998 102,700 1999 162,865 2000 188,277
(Marginson 1993:172 ; Migration Institute of Australia, Student and Other Visas 1999 ;
Department of Education , Science and Training 2001)
Over the 10 years from 1985 to 1995, Asians represented the largest group of
international students, partly because of the ratio of students to universities in their home
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
54
54
countries and par tly also because of the status of western education and more
opportunities for graduates in their career path on return (Lloyd and Williams 1996:215).
Between 1998 and 1999 , there was a 58% increase in arrivals of Asian international
students despite the Asian economic downturn. This growth appears to be a long -term
trend. By 1999, Asian countries accounted for nearly two-thirds (62%) of all visitors
arriving in Australia for education purposes (www.abs.gov.au).
Figure 6: International Students Enrolled in Australia, Top Source Countries, 1999
(Department of Education, Science and Training 2001) (www.idp.edu.au /research))
As Figure 6 demonstrates, the top 10 source countries for overseas students are all
located in Asia. In the 1990s, the greatest num ber of international students came from
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
55
55
Indonesia, Malaysia and Hong Kong. Since 1999, s trong increases in enrolments
occurred among students from China, Thailand and South Korea. Statistics show that in
2000, Singapore was the top ranking country with 20, 866 students (Department of
Education, Science and Training 2001:13) and the number of students from China rose
by 69% to 14,948, representing 7.9 % of total overseas students. Students from Th ailand
have also risen by 22 % to 8,179 and South Korea by 19 % to 11,485 (www.dest.gov.au).
A direct consequence of the export of education services was a significance increase in
earnings of foreign currency. By 1998 –99, education was the eighth largest export and
the income stream from international education totalle d $3.2 billion (www.idp.edu.au).
By 2000, enrolments from the international sector had grown by 19 % to 107,622 and
income was estimated to be $3 .7 billion (www.dest.gov.au). Professor Garnaut indicated
that international education has become Australia’s th ird largest service export industry
after tourism and transportatio n (www.immi.gov.au/statistics/publications/
popflows2003_4/ch6_pt3 .pdf). It was predicted that 215 ,000 international students
would be studying in Australia by 2010. This prediction is mad e in the context of an
international student market in which 2.8 million students study outside their home
country, over half originating from Asia (Poole 1999). Income from international
education was estimated as follows:
1988 $100 million 1989 $174 million 1990 $392 million 1998 $3 billion 1999 $3.2 billion 2000 $3.7 billion
(Marginson 1993:185; Department of Immigration and Multicultura l Affairs, Population Flows : Immigration Aspects 1999:42 ; www.idp.edu.au)
According to the DIMIA statistics, a total of 171,616 visas were granted to overseas
students in 2003–04, representing a 5.6 % increase as compared with 162,575 for 2002 –
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
56
56
03 (www.immi.gov.au/facts/50students.htm#stats). On average, it has been estimated
that the overseas student sector contributes s ome $1.3 billion per annum while the
students spend $1.7 billion in Australia for living expenses (Poole 1999). Other indirect
results of the export of education include the creation of 19,000 jobs in the education
sector in teaching and support positions and the growth of research studies. An added
benefit of the growing numbers of overseas students is the increased level of skilled
migration. Prior to 2000, overseas students had to return to their own countries at the
conclusion of their studies. From 20 00, the migration policy allows for these students to
apply for permanent residence with the privilege of exemption of work experience
(www.immi.gov.au/migration/skilled/rqmnts_doc/br_recentwork_1.htm#rw e)
(Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Immigration: Federation to
Century’s End 1901 -2000 October 2001 ). This has the positive impact of increasing the
young and educ ated component of skilled migrants.
2.4 Conclusion
‘Australia is a country with too much geography and too little history.’ 11 Yet Australia ’s
migration history has undergone many important changes. The original basis of
migration has been tied up with population and labour needs and was then extended to
uniting family members from other countries . As time goes on, concerns of po licy
makers have not only been on the number of people arriving or which country Australia
has been accepting, but characteristics of migrants that intermingle with the future of the
Australian population including the build -up of the Aus tralian-born component for the
future generation. Whilst t he objectives underlying migration policy have focuses on
nation building in the economic sense , concerns have been raised as to the falling growth
11 Former Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King (Foster 1997:41).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
57
57
rate of the population together due to the downward trend in the rat e of natural increase,
the reduction in net migration gains, the threat of a rapidly ageing society, and the need
for a skilled work force to be internationally competiti ve. This process awakened
Australians to the importance of an open po licy for migration as absorbing young
migrants has the advantages of helping to slow down the effect of ageing, and competing
with the rest of the world for those skills that enable labour force participation. Another
motivation of migration has become the di version of migrants to areas with low
population growth.
Such an open policy on migration has led to the contribution of ethnic groups in terms of
labour and cultural di versity, stimulation of international trade, i nspiration of industries
such as tourism, and the deve lopment of international education. The arrival of ethnic
groups has contributed to the population build -up, labour force participation and also
laying the foundation of multiculturalism. These groups have significant impact on the
society as they generally retain their culture and continue into the second generation in
Australia. However, it was found that these groups mainly contribute to non -professional
occupations and one possible reason was the non -recognition of overseas qualifications
and the English language proficiency (2.3.4). In addition to their labour and skills
brought to this country, their presence contributes to local consumption being increased.
They also have the advantages or potential of linking their home countries with Australia
for trade involvements. One clear trend is the decline in the number of European arrivals
and this gap has been filled by increasing Asian participation since the 1960s (2.3.1.4).
These Asian groups have sho wn their interest in Australia and by way of migration have
increased their presence in international trade and exploiting Australian education
resources for stud y.
Following on from this discussion of the importance of the role of regulated migration,
the next Part examines the principles of migration and t he main components of the
migration program with a view to exploring how policy can influence the quality of
future migrants and hence the economic benefits to Australia. Part III presents the
principles of migration policy, quota and categories of the mig ration program.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy
Part III Literature Review – Migration Principles and Policy
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
79 79
(ii) Social and Cultural Exchange
This stream facilitates the entry of those with specialist skills such as academics and
film staff who contribute to the skill base and understanding between cultures
(DIMA Fact Sheet No. 46, April 2005).
(iii) International Relations
This stream seeks to foster international relations and cultural understanding between
countries (DIMA Fact Sheet No. 46, April 2005).
Table 20: Temporary Business Entrants from 1987–99 (a)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy
Part III Literature Review – Migration Principles and Policy
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
80 80
Before 1996, relatively little attention has been paid to the economic benefits of
temporary residence. During 1992–93, total number of temporary residence visas
was 73,400, of which 10,450 were granted to fill skilled shortages in the labour
market (Brooks 1994). Ten years later, more than 170,392 temporary resident visas
were issued. Table 21 shows that the number of temporary residents under the
economic stream has increased dramatically between 2000 and 2001, whereas the
number under the social and cultural stream remains rather stable over these years
(DIMIA Fact Sheet No. 47, November 2005).
Table 21: Temporary Resident Visa Grants a
Temporary Streams 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 Economic/Skilled Stream 37,024 39,180 45,669 43,303 47,382 Social/Cultural Stream 20,054 23,465 23,036 20,817 19,312 International Relations Stream 79,230 88,929 91,452 14,350 103,698
Total 136,308 151,574 160,157 78,470 170,392 a Combined onshore and offshore.
(www.immi.gov.au/facts/pdf/47temporary_residence.pdf)
On the whole, the economic stream of the Temporary Residence Program has an
important impact on society. Researchers have estimated the benefits of
employment-based residents. Firstly, highly qualified temporary entrants promote an
efficient labour market. Secondly, these skilled workers tend to reduce government
outlays because their jobs are under contract and fixed wages. Thirdly, these workers
tend to solve skill bottleneck problems when new workers are not able to perform
efficiently until they undergo training or accumulate experience. Fourthly, as the
workers have the skills already developed, the cost of skill acquisition is saved. They
also provide externalities to the firm and employees as they introduce to Australia
new methods, processes and the development of new products (Victoria University
of Technology 1999:17). In addition, these temporary workers have gained relevant
work experience during the time in Australia. In other words, should they be able to
change their status to permanent residents, they become more readily able to utilise
their occupational skills. This in turn contributes to reducing the likelihood of
unemployment in migrants.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy
Part III Literature Review – Migration Principles and Policy
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
81 81
3.3.5 Overstayers and Illegal Entrants
Migration law provides that anyone in Australia who is not a citizen and does not
have a current visa is an unlawful non-citizen, people commonly known as ‘illegal
immigrants’ or ‘illegal entrants’. Any person who overstays their temporary visa is
an unlawful non-citizen. Overstayers in Australia are people whose visa terms have
expired, and illegal entrants are generally people who arrive without a valid visa.
Illegal travel to and people smuggling into Australia pose a major threat to the
international protection framework, national sovereignty and political stability
causing significant fiscal and social costs to the government
(www.minister.immi.gov.au).
It is estimated that an average of 20,000 people overstay their visa in Australia every
year (Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:25, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance). 1990 was a peak period when there were about
90,000 people in Australia had no valid visa. This figure has decreased to 80,000 in
1993 and to 69,000 in 1994 (Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs
1999, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance). As at 30 June 1999,
approximately 53,000 were illegal. Statistics in 1999 indicate that the largest number
of overstayers were from the United Kingdom (10.8% of all overstayers), followed
by the United States (8.7%), China (6.6%), Indonesia (6.3%), the Philippines (5.5%)
and Japan (5.0%). In addition to the overstayers, a total of 3,032 people attempted to
enter Australia illegally, 2,106 by air and 926 by boat in 1998–99 (Department of
Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:48, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects). Most unauthorised air and boat arrivals were aged between 20 and 34 years
and they were found to be working in the sex industry, restaurants, factories and
hotels. In response to the continued unauthorised air and boat arrivals to Australia,
coastal surveillance procedures and systems on borders have been strengthened
(Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:25, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy
Part III Literature Review – Migration Principles and Policy
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
82 82
3.4 Conclusion
Over the years, Migration Policy has been carefully planned, with significant
transformation under the influence of economic strategies and, as a result, the
meaning and scope of migration have been enlarged. Under the post-war regime,
migration encompassed family reunion and refugee settlement. The system was later
revised and greater emphasis has been placed on skilled migration. Operating on the
basis of a points test, skilled migration sets out a list of criteria to be met, requiring
the support of government authorities and professional bodies in the assessment
process to ensure that only those people of the right calibre, with suitable skills or
training, are eligible for migration.
On the other hand, a number of pathways have been available to settlers by changing
from temporary status to permanent residence. One notable phenomenon occurring
since 1999 is the ability of overseas students to apply for permanent residence under
the category of skilled migration at the completion of their studies (3.3.2.1). The
majority of these students are from Asia (2.3.6). Another option for changing status
has been offered to temporary workers as their contribution to the economy by filling
specific occupational vacancies in demand has been recognised. An additional
benefit is the reduction in unemployment of this group of migrants, due to the local
experience they gain during the period of temporary residence. Another pathway is
open to temporary business executives as they have the opportunity of establishing
and maintaining business operations in remote or low growth regions for a specified
period of time with the support of state or territory government before permanent
residence is granted. However, this strategy may require reconsideration as there has
been a decline in the number of business visas issued since its introduction in 2003.
With the increasing numbers of Asian entrants as migrants, students and business
persons since the 1990s, the Asian population in Australia is likely to continue to
increase. The next part explores Asian culture in general with a view to an
assessment of the economic impact of this ethnic group in Australia.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
83
PART IV LITERATURE REVIEW – ASIAN CULTURE, IMPACT AND CHALLENGES
4.0 Introduction
Australia is a nation of immigrants. Over 40% of Australia’s total population of
about 19 million in 2000 was born or had one parent born overseas. This large
representation of overseas-born people has contributed to maintaining a linguistic
and cultural base in the Asia–Pacific region (Sexton 2001:5). One of the most
noticeable changes in the history of migration is the fall in importance of the
European segment. In addition, significant change has occurred in the migration
policy, to adopting a non-discriminatory and multicultural approach (2.2.6). Parallel
to this development was the involvement of Australia with Asian nations through the
settlers’ activities of business, studies and tourism (2.3.5). The group of Asian
migrants, once a minority, later offers immense potential as a source of migrants for
Australia.
FitzGerald (1997:140) predicted that the Australian population of Asian descent will
be between 7% and 10% by 2020. In fact, this may be an underestimate, as it does
not allow for the possibility of temporary residents such as students and business
entrants who may become permanent residents. A conservative projection made in
2001 was that Asians would make up more than 10% of the Australian population in
the next 10 years (ABS 1301.0 2002).
In response to the growing involvement of Asian people and the likely trend of
increasing numbers of Asians in Australia, this part investigates their culture,
behaviour and characteristics. In this part, an attempt is made to clarify Asian
traditions, customs and beliefs to form a generalised understanding of Asians
irrespective of their specific country of origin. Therefore, references are made to
cover not only those Asians in Australia but also in their own or other countries.
Since Chinese beliefs and customs have played a significant role in influencing
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
84
Asian culture, a study of some of the achievements of overseas Chinese is also
included. In this part, the reference to Chinese, Vietnamese and those of other Asian
nations is general in nature and covers those who were either born in those countries
or had ancestors born in those countries irrespective of whether they are in or outside
Australia.
4.1 Attitude of Asia towards Australia
Asia is defined as consisting of the countries listed in Appendix 14. Australia lies in
the southern hemisphere. Since the awakening period from 1986, Australia has
developed closer ties with the Asia–Pacific region. In the eyes of Asians, Australia is
one of the most favoured destinations both for tourism and for habitation. Research
undertaken to survey the way Australia and Australians are viewed in China and
Hong Kong in 1995 shows that Australia ranks third behind the United States and
Canada (Yu 1998:34). One major reason for the high esteem in which Australia is
held is its proximity to Asia. In terms of flying time, there is little difference between
the distance from Tokyo to Honolulu (7 hours) and the distance from Tokyo to
Cairns (7 hours 35 minutes) or Tokyo to Brisbane (8 hours 35 minutes). There is a
climatic variation from the cool temperate climate in Tasmania to tropical weather in
the north (PRD Realty 1989). Another attraction is the natural coastal beauty on the
east coast with its vast land and sparse population that suggest opportunities and
potential (Burns 1998:1).
Political stability, together with the welfare system, adds to Australia’s attraction. Yu
(1998:17) notes that Australia’s generous welfare system impresses the Chinese,
comparing this system to the ‘iron rice bowl’ in China. Furthermore, it is believed
that Australia is no longer a racist country but one which represents multiculturalism
and tolerance, together with a good human rights record. The image is one of a new
nation that has, in the contemporary world of multiculturalism, moved towards
globalisation. In addition, Australia is seen as prosperous with cosmopolitan cities
such as Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Strong preference for urban life is another
reason for Asians to concentrate in middle class suburbs such as the upper North
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
85
Shore and Hills districts in Sydney, and Doncaster and Waverley in Melbourne
(Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research 1995).
4.2 Nature and Dynamics of Culture
‘Culture’ is defined as personal refinement, establishing a person’s ideals, values,
formation and uses of categories, assumptions about life and goal-directed activities
(Burns 1998:6). Kershen (1998:15) describes ‘culture’ as human experience of
language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, rituals, ceremonies, religion and laws with
the option of being learnt and transferable geographically. Scholars studying the
competitiveness between the East and West have hypothesised that Confucian ethics
has had a positive influence on Asian leadership, education, the work ethic,
entrepreneurial spirit and management style. Adler presented a Cycle to point out
that personal culture influenced through its values will affect attitude which in turns
affects behaviour.
Culture
Behaviour Values
Attitudes
(Chen 1995:19)
Cross-cultural management transfer involves not only the technical dimension of
management implied in general principles, concepts and theories, but also a
behavioural dimension of management (Chen 1995:19). Over the years, Australia has
accommodated diverse nations and developed its own identity and culture which was
initially largely influenced by Britain and later by other ethnic groups. By 2000,
Asians in Australia accounted for 23% of overseas-born population (2.3.1.4). For this
reason, it is important to gain an understanding of Asian culture, its characteristics
and the challenges it offers to the mainstream Australian population.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
86
4.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Asian Culture
4.3.1 Human Culture
Diversity in Languages
Asian countries possess many languages and dialects, religions, customs and beliefs.
China, because of its many provinces, has maintained its customs and dialects.
Indonesia has more than 300 languages and dialects (Faulkner 1995:xv). Because of
the common customs and languages spoken, it is customary for the Chinese to group
themselves by family alliances, clan connections and other relations such as the same
province of birth. Appendix 15 lists the provincial origins of former Chinese
students, each speaking a different dialect (Backman 1995:115). The Malaysian
population consists of 60% Malays, mostly Muslims, 30% Chinese and 9% Indians
(Burns 1998:84). Singapore consists of 77% Chinese residents, 14% Malays, 7%
Indians and 1% persons of other ethnic groups (Boyd 1998:196) and the official
languages are Malay, Chinese (Mandarin), Tamil and English. Malay is the national
language and English the language used in business. Both Malaysians and
Singaporeans speak different dialects, such as Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka,
Hainanese, Teochiu and Malay (Backman 1995:112). In Indonesia, 80% are Muslims
and the major groups of the population are Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Batak and
those from East Java. In Vietnam, the popular languages are Vietnamese, French,
English, Chinese and Khmer (Faulkner 1995:7).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
87
Influence of Confucianism
Like other migrants, Asians bring not only languages, but also the intellectual
contribution of their history, geography, literature, religion, philosophy, music,
painting, theatre, science, medicine and mathematics. Owing to the diversity of Asian
societies, their languages and customs, way of thinking, etiquette and religion are
very different. In China, much respect is placed on Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism
and ancestor worship. Confucianism advocates family rules under which the male,
being the head of the family, is responsible for decision making on all family
matters. This traditional approach applies not only in China, but also in Vietnam,
Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan (Nish et al. 1996:90). In Vietnam, the family
unit is the centre of society and any failure of one person means failure for the whole
family (MDAA Fact Sheet No. 15: www.mdaa.org.au/publications/ethnicity/
vietnamese/vietnamese.practices.doc). In Indonesia, rules laid down by the bapak
(father) must be followed. Such customs have built up a tradition of favouring male
offspring over female. The Chinese also believe in the analects of Confucius, which
state that ‘man is good by nature’ and therefore a person has strong responsibility to
fulfil all promises and to demonstrate trust for all person-to-person dealings,
commercial engagements and political encounters. The belief is that if a person’s
character is generous, he will be well respected and be able to perform well in terms
of leadership. Subjectively, ritual and person-to-person relationships are a vital part
of the smooth functioning of society (Nish et al. 1996:90).
Social Relationships
In general, the Chinese place much importance on person-to-person relationships. It
is said that ‘having a good relationship network in China is the single most important
factor for business success’ as they prefer ‘relationships first, business later’ (Burns
1998:29). In this way, the Chinese have a highly structured style of negotiation that
goes well beyond the usual Western practices (De Mente 1994:237). These guanxi-based12 affiliations cut the cost and time involved in transactions. It is not only the
12 Guanxi, or ‘connections’, is a favoured mechanism whereby personal relationships can be traded on in exchange for work or other benefits.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
88
Chinese who adopt this special attitude of nurturing relationships; the Indonesians
also have a culture of waiting for ‘the smoke to curl to the ceiling and the body to
relax’ before coming to business terms. Similarly, the Japanese also have a practice
of cultivating connections and friendly relationships which can be useful in
protracted bargaining and negotiations (Faulkner 1995:105).
Another element of this person-to-person relationship is the sense of social prestige.
One cannot understand Chinese behaviour without an understanding of the concept
and role of this subjective feeling. An intangible respect exists in the family,
language group, neighbourhood, business circles and in society. Known as the ‘face’
of a person, this can be of overriding importance in the society that bestows it and it
is a grave matter if this standing is lost as this will destroy all an individual’s
personal and business relationships and future engagements (De Mente 1994:61).
This attitude is shared by Indonesians, who regard it to be the highest insult to cause
an Indonesian loss of face (Faulkner 1995:105). Japanese and Koreans also treat face
as an important obligation for a man and any damage of a person’s face shames the
whole group behind him (Burns 1998:156).
Materialistic Instinct
It is a strong desire commonly shared by Asians to be prosperous. Among Asians,
the Chinese are highly motivated towards the accumulation of wealth. A former
Prime Minister of China commented ‘To get rich is glorious’, although this was not
followed by a philosophy of how to get rich (Nish et al. 1996:132). It is a Chinese
traditional value to judge people’s wealth and power by assessing the value of their
land and property. Indonesians, too, see their wealth as being a priority so that they
work hard and persevere towards this underlying motive or goal (FitzGerald
1997:147). Because of this motive, the principle that ‘money can buy everything’ can
become a common official and unofficial means of getting through procedures and
systems. This ‘back door’ channel, also called the ‘Asian way’, refers to the
unofficial economy similar to the black market where one can get things done that
are not available or not possible in the official economy (De Mente 1994:234). A
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
89
high level of corruption exists not only in China, but also in many other Asian
countries such as Indonesia under Suharto’s regime (Daly and Logan 1998:14).
Since property is seen by many Asians as being a tangible asset, it is widely used as a
way of accumulating wealth and is therefore readily used as security to raise
additional capital. Through speculation in a property portfolio and its rising value
over time, there can be an accumulation of wealth. It is believed that investment in
real estate is a quick way of gaining wealth. Asian investors are particularly
interested in this market and this is one of the reasons why residential booms have
turned to busts in both Tokyo and Hong Kong from 1993 to 2003
(www.plt.law.uts.edu.au/~jwan/market_predictions.html).
High Expectations for the Second Generation
Traditionally, Chinese society separates its people into four classes. The highest
grade consists of scholars as it is thought that this group of people are able to achieve
rapid access to positions of wealth, high ranking and respect. The second class
consists of farmers, followed by the class of labourers and the lowest class of
merchants. When the Communist Party gained control of China, labourers were
glorified at the expense of scholars. In the twentieth century, however, class
distinctions have become blurred as merchants and farmers have strived for business
success (Chu 1995:226). Similar to the Chinese, the traditional Korean class system
was comprised of scholars, professionals, farmers and manual workers (Chu
1995:277). This has led to strong competition for places in universities for higher
education.
There is a maxim among Chinese parents that they put all their hope in the next
generation and strongly impress upon the young the importance of higher education
(Chu 1995:278; Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1995:29), so that they are
motivated to become high achievers. This axiom has been planted in their mindset
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
90
from generation to generation, stimulating a strong competitive spirit. Most Asian
countries are densely populated and places are limited in well-known colleges and
universities. It is these limited places for higher educational opportunities that yield
education and advancement. The accepted norm is to train students from a very
young age to adapt to heavy schedules of assignments, tests and examinations. This
value for higher qualifications has a strong influence on second generation migrants,
especially when the first generation has a low literacy level (Godement 1999:121).
US research investigated the time spent on homework and found that Indochinese
high school students spent an average of three hours and 10 minutes per day whereas
American students about one and a half hours (Caplan et al. 1992:21). The general
belief is that by studying hard and achieving academically, young Asians will
increase their opportunities of gaining wealth and respect, whereas without academic
achievement they will be disregarded in society. Appendix 16 shows the proportion
of the population with university qualifications by birthplace in 1990.
Working Culture
The hard-working and conscientious attitude among Asians is a well-known
characteristic. Working hard, for long hours and for lower than standard pay, was
observed among the early Asian coolies, particularly the Chinese, in the Gold Rush
period. The people of Hong Kong are possibly the most renowned for their culture of
‘workaholism’. A survey conducted in 1967 revealed that 52% of Hong Kong people
worked 10 hours a day. In a work attitude survey conducted in 1977, 51.4% of Hong
Kong people agreed that the harder they work, the more money they expect to earn
(Backman 1995:140). Korean workers have also demonstrated weekly average
working hours of 53, or 2,800 hours per year, as compared to 1,934 for a US
industrial worker (Burns 1998:188). On average, Koreans take 4.5 days for vacation
in a year whereas the average for Western countries exceeds 20.
Table 22: Average Annual Workload of Industrialised Countries, 1990
Working Days Working Hours Paid Vacation Days Japan 253 2,102 9 United States 231 1,924 19 Britain/Europe 230 1,600 23
(Terpstra and David 1991:115)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
91
This hard-working attitude comes from a desire for success as they seek promotion
and positions of authority. Among Asians, the Japanese and Koreans have a unique
attitude towards work. One Japanese management approach is to incorporate a sense
of commitment in the working environment. Within the management hierarchy,
workers share the responsibility for the benefits and fate of the employer so that
employee motivation is developed through constant learning and working. Nish et al.
(1996:135) describe this as the mainstream Confucian cultural heritage. This concept
emphasises a sense of belonging, building up loyalty and demonstrating a strong
national culture. It also indicates originality and in some ways the superiority of a
unique culture (Denoon et al. 1996:245).
Another feature of the Asian work culture is the longer working cycle among Asians.
Surveys that measure annual hours worked per person in 1979 reveal that Japan tops
the list with 2,129 hours, followed by 1,877 in Switzerland, 1,790 in Denmark, 1,619
in Australia and 1,607 in the US. Other research carried out in 1985 indicates that the
highest rate of working overtime of 8.4% was found in Japan, with the lowest
absenteeism of 35 when compared with industrialised countries in Europe and the
US (Bosch et al. 1994:9).
Degree of Unionisation
Overall, Asians place such importance on corporate culture and hard work that an
attitude of ‘the harder one works, the better personal achievements will be reaped’ is
developed. Benefits of this work ethic include promotion, gaining experience and
acquiring better skills. Because of the sociocultural milieu, industrial relations
between employers and employees is less problematic in Asia than in Western
societies. In Asian societies, the concept of trade unions differs significantly from
that in Western culture. In Hong Kong, the government takes the role of protecting
labour rights and wages. Similarly, the Singapore Government has legislated to
improve employee benefits, working conditions and real wages since 1986. The
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
92
military manipulates unions in Thailand and South Korea. In 1949, strikes were
forbidden in Taiwan (David and Wheelwright 1989:226). Instead of protecting the
wages and rights of union workers, some trade unions in Japan and Singapore are
integrated into institutions that increase workers’ co-operation, participation and
productivity (Nish et al. 1996:135). Unions in Japan emphasise the length of service
and loyalty of employees to the organisation, and advocate lifetime employment
(Terpstra and David 1991:179). In general terms, South-East Asia does not have a
reputation for strong trade unions.
Table 23: Degree of Unionisation
Country Percentage of workers unionised
Total workforce (millions)
Australia 42.00 7.13 New Zealand 53.00 1.37 Japan 21.06 57.06 Taiwan 17.03 7.50 Singapore 16.00 1.19 China 15.00 530.00 Hong Kong 14.02 2.52 South Korea 7.00 14.42 Malaysia 8.07 5.09 India 4.05 222.05 Indonesia 4.08 63 Thailand 1.01 26.06
(David and Wheelwright, 1989:223)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
93
4.3.2 Economic Strategy
Apart from the generally harmonious and hardworking culture, Asian nations have
been described as aggressive in maintaining high savings and investment ratios
(Haley et al. 1998:22). A survey was conducted in 1996 in order to explore what the
people of Hong Kong do with their savings and the results were as follows:
Save as much as possible 51.1% Spend half and save the rest 37.3% Immediately spent 10.2%
(Nish et al. 1996:135)
Not only do Asians save carefully, they are usually quick, flexible and responsive to
economic adversity. One important factor in the 1990s was the Asian emphasis on
export-oriented manufacturing industries, keeping wages at a low level and the rates
of productivity high (Nish et al. 1996:135). Korea is a good example of an economy
that turned from a labour-intensive nation into an export nation with a focus on
heavy industry (Kirk 2000:32). As in the case of other countries which face relatively
high labour and other production costs, Hong Kong’s manufacturing base has been
moved to southern China to make use of the low labour and material costs. This has
enabled it to focus more on technological developments (Tan 1995:21–33). Another
strategy is the encouragement of foreign investment in order to attract foreign capital
and technology. Singapore actively encourages foreign investment, especially in high
technology and high value-added industries in order to develop its industrial base.
Malaysia welcomes foreign investment in the manufacturing sector so as to become
export oriented although it imposes a maximum level of foreign participation in
terms of technology transfer and investment size. Foreign investors have built a city
of high technology near Kuala Lumpur and call it ‘Silicon Valley of South-East
Asia’ (Burns 1998:84). Both Thailand and Indonesia direct foreign investment
towards export-oriented manufacturing by way of joint ventures to facilitate skill and
technology transfer. The Philippines and Vietnam seek foreign investment so as to
make use of local labour, raw material and to generate foreign currency earnings for
the development of infrastructure (Fynmore and Hill 1992:287).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
94
4.4 The Significance of Overseas Chinese
In Asia, China has the longest history and also the strongest influence on social and
economic developments because a relatively high proportion of the Asian population
is of Chinese ancestry. For many years, these people have been called ‘overseas
Chinese’, reputed for their aggressive, vibrant and influential roles in Asia–Pacific
profiles. Distinctive characteristics include being hard working, pioneering,
progressive, and acquisitive. Further descriptions include that they are fond of
accumulating land as the traditional form of wealth with the rest of their capital being
held in liquid form, but lacking interest in participating in politics (Fitzgerald
1997:107). It is of interest to explore how the overseas Chinese have performed in
South-East Asia, the US, Canada, New Zealand and Australia.
4.4.1 South-East Asia
Statistics indicate a very high representation of Chinese living in South-East Asia.
About 78% of Singaporeans are of Chinese origin and the Malaysian population
consists of about 30% Chinese (Table 24).
Table 24: Share of the Overseas Chinese in East Asia
Share of population %
Share of market capitalisation%
Singapore 78 81 Malaysia 30 69 Thailand 14 81 Indonesia 3–4 73 Philippines 2 50–60
(The Economist March 2001:5)
In terms of economic development, overseas Chinese have achieved significant
penetration and control. As indicated in Table 24, the ethnic Chinese population in
Indonesia is about 3% to 4%, yet they control more than 70% of the country’s
business interests. In Malaysia, the Chinese and Indian communities are most
successful in their commercial interests and, in particular, the Chinese have been
strongly represented in the transport truck industry and rubber trade since 1969. It
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
95
was reported that 80% of business interests in Singapore are held by Chinese and
their business success has helped to build this nation into the ‘premier hub of
commerce for South-East Asia’ (Burns 1998:129). Furthermore, in the Philippines,
the Chinese minority of only 2% of the population contributes to over half of the
capital market (The Economist March 2001:5).
The Chinese have been sometimes been called ‘born traders’ and the enterprise
culture is a key feature, prioritising the strengthening of the organisation before
competing successfully with the outside world. Trust amongst businesses is built on
the foundation of undertakings, loyalty and commitment and is a culture
distinguishable from other ethnic groups. Another feature of Chinese business culture
is highly centralised decision-making. Businesses tend to adopt low profit margins
but with high volume stock, as a means of penetrating markets, with rigorous control
of inventory to achieve low capital investment and high rates of stock turnover
(Backman 1995:3). By keeping transaction costs to a minimum within ethnic
Chinese networks, there is a tendency to be involved in the cash economy to avoid
tax, and a tendency to take risks. For example, the Chinese often favour informal
internal financing in order to save banking charges and legal costs. In addition, a
popular method of raising finance is sometimes adopted, called the ‘Cash Generation
Cycle’, whereby the organisation operates on a thin margin in order to obtain a faster
turnover and to reduce the slumber period. This strategy is known as the ‘fast in fast
out’ mentality (Chen 1995:109). There is also a common tendency to undervalue
services and other intangibles such as goodwill and research and development costs.
The marginal utility of capital, labour and skills is emphasised in response to
circumstances such as changing size or structure, diversifying and transformations
(Backman 1995:3).
Haley et al. (1998:24) described the role played by the overseas Chinese in South-
East Asia as being ‘a large and ever-widening role in the international arena’. The
Chinese make use of their networks and contacts to bring Western companies into
businesses with the ‘liberalising’ countries, such as Vietnam. Other overseas Chinese
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
96
use their flexibility and adaptive ability to work through family businesses where all
members of the family are involved in a share of management, funds and investment
so as to guard against poverty during old age (FitzGerald 1997:64). Typical examples
are found in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia where the traditional firms are either
family owned or owned by groups of close friends and relatives (Burns 1998:84).
The advantages include team effort, group loyalty, shared funding, resolution carried
out by harmonised negotiation, and group morale.
4.4.2 The Chinese in the United States
Apart from South-East Asia, the United States is a favoured destination for the
Chinese. Since the arrival of Chinese migrants, there have been dramatic changes in
the US migration history as well as the local labour market. The early Chinese who
arrived in the 1800s tended to live in geographical clusters called Chinatowns, where
many opened and maintained stores, restaurants and other businesses. Research
found that 40% of the Chinese workers worked in the apparel manufacturing
industry, mostly women who worked in garment factories. The second industry that
accommodated most early Chinese migrants was Chinese restaurants in metropolitan
cities and states such as New York, California, Washington, Hawaii and Illinois
(www.interplan.org). These first and second generation Chinese migrants were
highly concentrated, and motivated to participate in the ownership of restaurants and
retail businesses while maintaining their traditional culture.
The Chinese population multiplied over the years and in the 1900s most of this
increase was by way of migration via the family stream (Iredale 1997:32). One
characteristic found among these more recent migrants was their high motivation to
study. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the number of Asian descendants in the leading
universities soared (Perlman and Waldinger 2000). As a comparison, Chinese
immigrants in the US had an average of 13.2 years of education during the 1970s
whereas those in Canada had 12.7 and Australia 11.3. In the 1990s, however, almost
one-fifth of Chinese migrants had college degrees (Jong 1994). The 2000 Census
pointed out that the average education level of Chinese migrants was higher than that
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
97
of US-born persons (http://dailynews.creaders.net/oversea/newsPool/3F170773.
html).
With the increasing population in the US in the 1990s, the Chinese have been
described as having education and family income levels far exceeding national norms
(http://www.easc.indiana.edu). One of their characteristics was their comparatively
easier adaptation to the labour market (Reitz 1997:87). They moved out of the
restaurants and manufacturing industries. The younger generation and the newer
migrants developed skills in various other industries. From 1995 to 1998, 29% of the
jobs in Silicon Valley were occupied by Chinese or Indian migrants. In 1998, Indians
or Chinese headed 2,775 Silicon Valley high-tech firms, employing 58,000 people,
with total sales of $16.8 billion (http://huaren.org/diaspora/n_americausa/
news/092199-02.html). Another characteristic shown by Chinese migrants in the US
is their high motivation to set up businesses. Between 1977 and 1980, the
participation rate as entrepreneurs for all Asian Americans was 28.6 per 1,000. By
1980, the participation rate for Chinese migrants involved in small business firms
was 60.2 per 1,000 as compared to 48.9 for Americans (Bolaria and Bolaria
1997:141). The 1997 Census indicated that businesses owned by Asians and Pacific
Islanders made up 4% of the nation’s 20.8 million businesses and generated 2% of all
income in the US. These businesses employed more than 2.2 million people and
generated $306.9 billion in revenues in 1997. Four states, California (316,000), New
York (123,300), Texas (60,200) and Hawaii (50,600), accounted for 60% of the firms
owned by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Six out of 10 Asians and Pacific Islanders
live in these states (www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/cb01-88.html).
By way of chain migration, the Chinese population continued to multiply, accounting
for 4% of the total US population in 2002 (www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0778584
.html). As a result, they have been identified as the fastest-growing ethnic minority in
America. Table 25 indicates that South East Asia accommodates 28 million Chinese
in 2002 and the US is the next place to find the largest portion of overseas Chinese.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
98
Table 25: Distribution of Chinese in the World, 2002
New Zealand 35,000 Australia 454,000 Canada 910,000 America 3,570,750 South East Asia 28,175,752 Europe 1,618,640 Total Chinese population overseas 34,764,142
(http://www.library.ohiou.edu/subjects/shao/databases_popdis.htm)
4.4.3 The Chinese in Canada
The history of the very early Chinese Canadians was one of struggle and
determination. Migration policy was largely family based until the introduction of
the points system in 1967, much earlier than in Australia, and this brought in many
more immigrants. Several developments in the late 1970s and 1980s had led to the
growth of Chinese migration to Canada. The first was the large-scale movement of
the ethnic Chinese people from Vietnam to Canada. Another event was the migration
of Hong Kong Chinese prompted by the fear of handover of Hong Kong back to
China in 1997 (Skeldon 1994:94).
Research has been undertaken to explore the impact of Chinese Canadians on society
and the economy. A comparison of the occupational profiles of the Chinese in
Canada in 1971 and 1981 discovered that Chinese Canadians were underrepresented
in administrative and managerial occupations but overrepresented in professional and
technical categories and clerical occupations (Skeldon 1994:94). Later studies found
that the Chinese population had expanded, with significant increases in the number
of overseas students of Chinese origin. Census data recorded the arrival of some
300,000 Chinese immigrants over the 10 years from 1990 to 2000, bringing ten
thousand million Canadian dollars to the country for investment and settlement
(www.interlog.com/~fccs/slides4.htm). As reported by the 1991 Census, there were
some 587,000 Chinese living in Canada. Other studies discovered that the earlier
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
99
Chinese communities in Chinatown, their traditionally designated area, declined after
the influx of Hong Kong Chinese. In the 2000s, unlike the pattern of the early settlers
who remained in restaurants and laundries, Chinese Canadians have overcome
numerous obstacles, moving into a wide variety of professions and achieving
political awareness. The 2001 Census showed that the Chinese-born population in
Canada has risen to 1.2 million, accounting for 3.5% of the total Canadian
population, and that the Chinese language ranked in third place after English and
French (http://dailynews.creaders.net/overseas/newsPool/22F157791.html).
The growth of Chinese migrants has resulted in increased activity in the Canadian
economy and has also been marked by flows of investment funds from Asia to
Canada. This has stimulated interest in surveys contrasting the wealth of Chinese
Canadians and local Canadians. Despite the increasing importance of the Chinese
population in Canada, the 1999 survey did not show that the Chinese are wealthier. It
reported the average income of the Chinese as C$19,848 compared to the Canadian
average of C$29,638 and the median income for the ethnic Chinese was C$13,955
compared with C$23,596 for Canadians (www.interlog.com/~fccs/slides4.htm).
4.4.4 The Chinese in New Zealand
Over the last hundred years, New Zealand has had an influx of small communities of
Asian citizens (primarily of Chinese and Indian descent). Like Australia, New
Zealand began to realise the importance of Asia in the 1990s and, thereafter, Asian
communities expanded, with inflows in particular of people from Korea, China,
Taiwan, Hong Kong and India. The New Zealand government is concerned about its
expectations of migrants – what they bring and what they leave behind. The Chinese
communities are considered to have brought money, skills, motivation, an ethic of
hard work, a commitment to education and cultural diversity. What the Chinese
migrants have left behind is also of great value. These are their ties with their home
countries that may be put to use for business, cultural and political purposes, and
have enabled New Zealand to interact more closely with Asia. The realisation of the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100
importance of the Chinese to New Zealand can be illustrated internally and
externally by trade. In a 2002 conference paper presented by Tim Beal, it was
pointed out that New Zealand’s fourth largest trading partner is the Chinese
economies (comprising Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and the
‘overseas Chinese’).13 However, he also estimated that if this trend of increasing
trading activities with Asia continues, overseas Chinese will soon dominate the New
Zealand economy (www.vuw.ac.nz/~caplabtb/shadows2.doc). This is not surprising
by looking at Table 26. It shows that the total population for New Zealand has
barely increased over the ten year period from 1991 to 2001 whereas the portion of
Chinese population has more than doubled from 1.3% to 2.9% of total population.
Table 26: Chinese Share of New Zealand Population, 1991–2001
1991 1996 2001 Total population 3,345,813 3,466,587 3,586,731 Chinese (not further defined) 44,136 78,663 100,203 Taiwanese Chinese 471 2721 3,768 Total Chinese 44,607 81,384 103,971 Asian 99,756 173,505 237,459 Chinese as % of total population 1.3 2.3 2.9 Chinese as % of Asian population 44.7 46.9 43.8
(http://www.asia2000.org.nz/about/issues/participation120802.shtml#Importance of Chinese
community to New Zealand)
The Chinese in New Zealand has not only increased in numbers, but also in social
and political participation for positions on community councils, school boards and
other voluntary organisations. It is suggested that Chinese in New Zealand are
‘coming out of the shadows’ and New Zealand is no longer a ‘Britain in the South
Pacific’ but a small, multicultural country engaged with the Chinese world in the
Asia–Pacific region (www.asia2000.org.nz/about/issues/participation120802.shtml#
Out of the shadows).
13 In this context, Chinese has been broadly defined to comprise those in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan and overseas Chinese in South-East Asia.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
101
4.4.5 The Chinese in Australia
Chinese migration to Australia has a long history. The earliest group of Chinese
workers arrived in 1848 to replace convict labour. Later in 1851 and 1856, more
Chinese came to work in gold mines. The early Chinese formed the first major group
of Asian settlers. By 1856 there were about 27,000 Chinese in Australia. Owing to
the 1901 federal Immigration Restriction Act against Chinese arrivals, the Chinese
population declined to about 20,000 in 1921. It was not until between 1947 and 1973
when some Chinese business people and professionals came, so that the Chinese-
born population rose to about 23,000 in the mid 1960s (www.mdaa.org.au/
publications/ethnicity/chinese/general.html). Research carried out in 1996 found that
80% of Chinese migrants arrived after 1981 (Reitz 1997:108). This means that
although Chinese migration started early, the majority came after the 1980s. One of
the impetuses for the rapid increase followed the events of Tiananmen Square in
1989, when some 40,000 Chinese students were granted permanent residence, with a
further 40,000 given residence through the family stream (www.mdaa.org.au/
publications/ethnicity/chinese/general.html). Also, more emphasis has been placed
on skill-based migration since the 1990s and Chinese were amongst other Asians to
offer their skills and qualifications as candidates for migration to Australia. This is
more apparent when overseas students have been allowed to change their status to
permanent residents since 1999 (3.3.2.1). Appendix 17 shows the arrival from and
departure to Asia by occupation showing a net gain of between 60% to 70% for
professionals (Lloyd and Williams 1996:225).
Like the Chinese in the US and Canada, early migrants in Australia concentrated in
Chinatown areas or owned restaurants, small-scale businesses, laundries and
groceries (Reitz 1997:108). However, later migrants extend their presence beyond
the Chinatown areas and become assimilated in the work force (Reitz 1997:108).
Chinese immigrant families like to retain their original cultural beliefs
(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). The most noticeable character-
istic retained of Chinese-born migrants is their interest in pursuing higher education.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
102
A survey was carried out in 1995 showing that Chinese immigrants in Australia have
acquired 2.6 years more education than native-born people (Reitz 1997:108). On the
other hand, Chinese migrants commonly experience problems such as low levels of
English proficiency and difficulties with local recognition of qualifications
(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). Some researchers compared
the occupation characteristics between Chinese and other Asian groups in Melbourne
in 1998. It was found that the most common occupations of the Cambodian and
Chinese groups were labourers and factory workers, whereas the Hong Kong group
was mostly engaged in business and the Malaysian group in professional and semi-
professional positions. On the other hand, a high representation in terms of
professional qualifications was found among the Chinese and Malaysian groups.
The report observed that the overseas qualifications of the Chinese group were not
accepted for employment on arrival (www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/
martinj.html). Facing this difficulty, some families practised a phenomenon known
as ‘astronauts’ (a phenomenon whereby families live in a foreign country while the
male breadwinners continue to work or carry out business in the source country)
(www.centrea.org/ESC/Artists/RoselinaH/index.html).
It is estimated that over 550,000 people of Chinese ancestry are in Australia,
according to the 2001 Census. In addition, there are about 30,000 new migrants from
China who are going to settle in the country and some 70,000 Chinese students are in
Australia (www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=1482). What is of
concern is the potential of Australians of Chinese background. Some researchers
forecasted that China will be the most important economic partner in Australia’s
history in the next decade or two, and this vision will be realised and strengthened by
education and immigration (http://ceda.com.au/public/media/release_china
_launch_20050517.html). According to Professor Garnaut, it is likely that China will
become the largest market for Australian exports over the next decade (Garnaut
August 2004:1). Looking to the future and on a long-term basis, the role played by
Chinese migrants will be of significance.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
103
4.5 Conclusion
Australia has made use of the advantage of close proximity to Asian countries to reap
economic benefits such as opening its door to Asia for business, studies and tourism.
Part of the reason is the increasing presence of Asians in Australia. In order to
estimate their influence, this part attempts to investigate Asian traditions, customs
and beliefs to form a generalised understanding of Asians.
One feature of Asian culture is their diversity in languages, dialects, religions,
customs and beliefs. On the other hand, Chinese heritage and characteristics are
affected by Confucianism, which emphasises harmony, positive attitudes to learning,
hard work, wealth accumulation through savings and entrepreneurial approaches.
Generally speaking, Asians tend to emphasise person-to-person relationships to form
a trust before advancing to further relationships. They have high motivation for
wealth and are fond of acquiring real estate, believing that property will increase in
value over time.
One common Asian characteristic is their high expectation of the second generation,
as they believe higher education will help their children to gain positions that bring
wealth and respect. Some Asians are reputed for their attitude to work hard and for
long hours. Among the Asian nations, China is said to have the greatest potential
given its sizeable sources of labour, skills, wealth, connections to world trade and
competitiveness. When comparing the achievements of overseas Chinese in South-
East Asia, the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, it is clear that they
contribute significantly to various social and economic developments in the
destination countries.
The majority of Chinese migrants in Australia came after the 1980s and after skill-
based migration was introduced. Considering the increasing Chinese overseas
students, visitors and business people, together with existing Chinese migrants in
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
104
Australia, a new generation of Australians is growing up with close relations with
China. This will be of significant impact to Australian economy. The next part
presents research methodology used to assess the economic impact of the two largest
groups of Asians in Australia, namely the Chinese and Vietnamese populations.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
152
Table 33: Occupations of Primary and Secondary App licants under Skilled Stream Migration,
1999–2000
Skilled Stream Migrants 1999–2000 Primary Secondary applicants applicants % % Managers and administrators 14.0 4.2 Professionals 57.3 11.9 Associate professionals 9.0 2.7 Tradespersons 14.8 1.8 Advanced clerical and service workers 0.8 1.9 Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers 1.5 2.9 Intermediate production and transport workers 0.1 0.3 Elementary clerical, sales and service workers 0.4 0.7 Labourers and related workers 0.1 0.1 Total employed 98.1 26.5 Total unemplo yed 1.7 0.6 Not in labour force 1.7 70.9
Total 100 100
(ABS 3412 .0, 11)
Another research study carried out by the ABS grouped managers with professionals and
found that an overall 27 .6% of recent migrants were in th is group in 2001.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
153
Table 34: Comparison of Employability of Skilled Migrants and Other People, 2001
Employability of Skilled Migrants 2001 Recent Other
migrants
%* people %**
Skill Level 1: Management, administration, professional 27.6 0.3 Skill Level 2: Associate professional 10.9 0.1 Skill Level 3: Tradesperson/advanced clerical 18.1 0.2 Skill Level 4: Sales/service/intermediate 23.3 0.3 Skill Level 5: Clerical and labourers 20.0 0.2
* Recent migrants in the survey are those born outside Aus tralia and arriving after 1980 ** Other people are people other than recent migrants
(ABS 3412.0 )
Owing to the difference in participation as managers among Australian -born people
versus Chinese and Vietnamese migrants, Equation 4A includes the du mmy variables
for Chinese and Vietnamese origin to test whether these origins contribute positively
towards the respondent being a manager. Based on the findings of DIMIA and the ABS
and the assumption that both Chinese and Vietnamese migrants are not highly
represented as managers and administrators, the coefficients b2 and b3 would be
negative.
Included also in Equation 4A are dummy variables for the two levels of qualifications.
One of the ma in purposes for studying for higher qualif ications is to obtain employ ment
in high status jobs and b4 and b5 are expected to be positive. Managers are expected to
work for long and non -standard hours and b6 would be posit ive. The factor of English
language proficiency is considered of significance to Chinese and Vietnamese m igrants
in their employment as managers and b7 would be pos itive. Assuming that a manager is
of mature age after obtaining qualifications and work experience, and that the age
correlates with the probability of being a manager up to a certain level, b8 should be
positive and b9 negative. With respect to the years since arrival, two possibilities exist.
The longer a person stays, the more likely it is that they obtain relevant work experience
to be managers, so b10 would be pos itive. The other possibility is that recently arrived
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
154
skilled migrants, especially business migrants, are more likely to be engaged as
managers. It is a long -established expectation for males to have more education, more
exposure to work expe rience and better opportunities f or senior positions than females
and b11 should be po sitive.
The second type of occupation is professional and a similar model is developed as
Equation 4B, as follows:
DOCCP2 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP1 + b5QALLP2 + b6HRSP + b7ENGP + b8AGEP + b9AGEP*AGEP + b10YARP + b11SEXP
(Equation 4B)
where DOCCP2 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable OCCP2 is 1.
Although Budd and Madden (1999) found that the coefficients for the variables of
managers and professionals are very similar, the ABS classified the occupations into two
separate categories as a difference in income is expected between the two occupations.
There are many explanations for the differences in income. Firstly, the Budd & Madden
research is based on data from the 1990s. During the period from 1990 to 1996,
improved economic circumstances may have given rise to greater access to education
and training so that the nature of work performed became more specialised, thereby
increasing the importance of professionals since the 1990s. Secondly, more employment
opportunities have been available for women as a result of the trend towards better
education and training. Their contributions to the p rofessions have become increasingly
significant. Thirdly, prospects exist for professionals to advance their careers to become
managers. Based on these assumptions, the occupation of professionals is considered to
be different from that of managers.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
155
Recent studies indicate a high percentage of migrants participating as professionals as a
result of the skills -based migration policy. ABS s tatistics show that the percentage of
principal and secondary applicants in the occupation of professionals is the highest for
the 1999 to 2000 sk illed stream migrants and that 57.3 % of principal migrants and
11.9% of secondary migrants have particip ated as professionals. DIMIA reported that
31% of migrants work as professionals during the first and second years of arriva l.
Related to this high rate of participation is the belief that the Chinese have largely been
employed as professionals, but this i s not supported by DIMIA statistics. It has been
reported that in 1996, only 1.1 % of employed computer p rofessionals and 0.7% of
accountants were Chinese -born (www.immi.gov.au/publications/ skilled_labour.html).
This would indicate that the Chinese in fact were not strongly represented in these
occupations prior to 1996. As a result, b2 would be insignificant. There is i nsufficient
evidence to support a high participation rate for Vietnamese as professionals and
therefore b3 is likely to be negative.
The other factors contributing to the decision to work as a professional are the same as
those in Equation 4A. One of the pre -requisites for occupations such as medical
practitioners, solicitors, accountants and engineers is sound academic qualifications.
This implies that postgraduate and bachelor qualifications add to the probability of being
a professional and therefore b2 and b3 are positive and significant. Hours worked is
another important factor in working as a professional and b6 is expected to be positive.
Being a professional implies very good English language ability and b7 would be
positive. As with the oc cupation of managers, age will have a non -linear effect and
therefore b8 is expected to be positive and b9 negative. For the variable of years since
arrival, it is expected that the longer a person lives in the country, the higher the
probability that they will obtain the necessary qualifications to become a professional, so
b10 would be pos itive. An alternative theory is that skilled migration attracts recent
migrants in the occupation of professionals, so b10 would be negative.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
156
Gender equity in professional oc cupations could be a research topic. Based on the
assumption that males generally have a higher level of education, they are more likely to
be professionals than females. It is estimated that b11 would be po sitive.
The third occupational category is assoc iate professionals and Equation 4C is as follows:
DOCCP3 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP2 + b5QALLP3 + b6HRSP + b7ENGP + b8AGEP + b9AGEP*AGEP + b10YARP + b11SEXP
(Equation 4C)
where DOCCP3 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable OCCP3 is 1.
This category has been established more recently due to i ts increasing significance in the
labour market. Under current migration regulations, para -professionals are awarded
lower marks than managers and professionals. Studies found an overall 9 % of migrants
working as para-professionals in the year of arrival, rising to 12 % in 2000. About 6 .5%
of Asians are employed as para -professionals (Coughlan and McNamara 1997:105).
This representation is higher than the proportion in the rest of the population and
therefore b2 and b3 are expected to be positive. Most of the work of associate
professionals requires less than bachelor degree qualifications and therefore the
variables of bachelor and basic qualifications are included. It is expected that b4 and b5
will be positive. It is estimated that the nature of the work is similar to that of
professionals but less technical and requires non -standard working hours. The
coefficient (b6) is expected to be positive. Regarding the level of English language
ability, this occupation also requires a functional standard and b7 would be positive.
As with the previous two categories of occupation, the age effect will be of a composite
nature and it is expected that b8 would be positive and b9 negative. Since the work of
associate professionals is classified as intermediary and does not necessarily require the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
157
extensive experience required in high status jobs, the coefficient of the variable for years
of arrival b10 may be negative. It is believed that females are more likely to work in
occupations that are of a supportive or a less technical nature and that b10 would be
negative.
Equation 4D models the relationship amongst the same human capital variables as in the
above three equations with the dummy variables for postgraduat e and bachelor degree
qualifications being replaced by the variable for having no qualifications. The model is
as follows:
DOCCP4 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP3 + b5HRSP + b6ENGP + b7AGEP + b8AGEP*AGEP + b9YARP + b10SEXP
(Equation 4D)
where DOCCP4 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable OCCP4 is 1.
The work of a tradesperson or clerical wo rker involves physical ability or general skills
and the score for the points test varies. Higher points are awarded to tradesmen with
skills identified as being in short supply or supervisory skills but no po ints are awarded
for general clerical workers. Statistics reporting the participation rate of migrants in this
occupation are not consistent. One ABS report indicated about 15 % of migrants worked
as tradespeople and clerks in 2000 and 18 % in 2001 (ABS 3412.0 , 11). This
participation rate is higher than for associate professionals. On the other hand, DIMIA
found that 38% of family stream migrants were tradespeople and intermediate clerical
workers during the first year of arrival and 18 % of independent migrants were
tradespeople and clerks in the first year of arrival. The percentage of independent
migrants working in this occupation dropped to 14 % during the second year after arrival.
Overall, the perc entage of all migrants working as tradespeople and clerks dropped from
13% in 1999 to 10% in 2000 (www.immi.gov.au/research/publications1sia/
settle_exp.pdf). One reason for the decreasing percentage of migrants working in this
category may be the emphasis on higher levels of education and aspirations to more
prestigious jobs.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
158
According to community profiles, Chinese and Vietnamese migrants who arrived e arlier
are more inclined to work as tradespeople and clerks. This is consistent with DIMIA’s
findings tha t large numbers of migrants under the family stream are tradespeople, and
therefore b2 and b3 would be positive. This occupation group has no emphasis on
qualifications, meaning that only the dummy variable for basic education or no
qualifications will be relevant (QALLP3) and b4 would be positive. It is estimated that
the working hours of tradespeople and clerks are standard, which correlates with the
probability of being in this type of occupation. This leads to an expectation of a positive
b5. English language ability is expected to be significant in the work of tradespeople
and clerks, so b6 would be positive. As in other occupations, the age effect is composite
and it is expected that b7 is positive and b8 is negative. Considering that those who
arrived earlier are more inclined to work as tradespeople and clerks, b9 would be
negative. Estimates on gender participation for this occupation are difficult because this
type of occupation includes a wide variety of work nature and industries. Some jobs or
industries such as building and construction requiring physical ability would be more
suitable for male tradespeople whereas clerical work may be mutually shared by males
and females. It is anticipated that there are more clerical workers than tradespeople
grouped in this category and therefore females contri bute to the prob ability of a person
being employed in this profession and b10 would be negative.
Using the same regressors as in Equation 4D, Equation 4E is as follows:
DOCCP5 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP2 + b5QALLP3 + b6HRSP + b7ENGP + b8AGEP + b9AGEP*AGEP + b10YARP + b11SEXP
(Equation 4E)
where DOCCP5 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable OCCP5 is 1.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
159
The last occupational group is that of labourers and machine operators. These workers
do not require spec ial skills, training, qualifications and work experience. There is no
score for this type of occupatio n under the points test as such work is not identified as a
skilled occupation. However, labourers’ jobs have been said to be of greatest
significance to Asian migrants, particularly those who arrived earlier through family and
humanitarian migration. This is reflected in the relatively large proportion of the first
generation Asians in this category. The 1991 occupational profile indicated that over
half of Chinese -born workers were employed in blue -collar occupations and were
concentrated in labouring and factory jobs (Coughlan and McNamara 1997:154).
DIMIA reported that 27.4 % of employed Chinese -born people are labourers and 22.3 %
of Vietnamese-born men are classified as labourers or related workers in 1991
(www.immi.gov.au/statistics/publications/communi ty-profiles). The ove rall participation
rate of Asians as labourers is relatively higher than those who are Australian -born. The
1996 statistics indicated that 14.5 % of Asians are labourers, compared with 12.4 % of
Australian-born people in this category ( Coughlan and McNamara 1997:105). More
recent migrants who came largely under skilled migration as a result of a reduced
emphasis on family migration may alter this trend. In addition, the children of these
migrants have had more opportunities for education and may also alter this career
imbalance. However, this research is based on 1996 Census data and does not include
recently arrived migrants. Therefore, b2 and b3 would be positive.
The nature of the work in this category is largely manual and does not r equire
educational qualifications. It follows that b4 is negative and b5 is positive. Compared
with the previous four types of occupation, this last group of labourers do not work
longer hours than the other jobs and therefore b6 will b e negative. English language
ability is required for all jobs but the requirement is less significant than other
occupations and therefore b7 is negative. The assumption is that these jobs are occupied
by either young people seek ing work experience or old people with outdated skills to
supplement their income. As the young people improve their education level, they are
more likely to leave to seek better jobs. Age therefore has a negative effect in
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
160
contributing to the likelihood of being a labourer and b8 is expected to be neg ative.
Older people are expected to work for these lowly paid jobs after retirement, so the
composite effect of age on this occupation will be different from that on the other
occupations in that a U -shaped relationship is expected and b9 will be positive. Earlier
migrants are more likely to participate in this occupation and b10 is negative. Work
involving more physical ability might lead to a higher participation rate of males and
b11 is expected to be positive.
Equation 5: Probit Analysis of Labour Fo rce Participation
Equation 5 attempts to compare behaviour across labour market groups and is sub -
divided into four models to address the four categories of labour force status. The first
category to examine is the employee status and Equation 5A addresses the influences on
employment status comprising ethnicity, age, hours worked, qualifications, types of
occupation and sex. This equation uses the variable for employee status as the
dependent variable as follows:
DLFSP1 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6HRSP + b7QALLP1 + b8QALLP2 + b9OCCP1 + b10OCCP2 + b11OCCP3 + b12OCCP4 + b13SEXP + b14YARP
(Equation 5A)
where DLFSP1 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable LFSP1 is 1.
Entering the Au stralian labour market is critical to migrants as well as to the economy as
they offer themselves to the labour market to earn a living and in turn pay tax towards
government revenue. Statistics have shown that some migrants arriving between 1986
and 1991 have deg ree qualifications but were not able to obtain employment in
managerial or professional positions (2.3.4). In general, research has found that migrants
in the 2001 Census have participation rates similar to those of the Australian -born.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
161
Many studies compare occupational performance and acceptability in the labour market
between ethnic migrants and the mainstream population. In Britain, Blackaby et al.
(2002) found significant differences in employment probabilities between the native
British population and ethnic minorities, including the second generation. In Australia,
more recent analysis has shown that 9.9 million people were in the Aust ralian labour
force in 2001, but the rates of employment are different for Australians and the overseas -
born. Specific studies have been carried out to explore the influences of the ethnicity
factor. The ABS report pointed out that the labour force participation rate for Australian -
born was higher than for all overseas -born, the employment rate for Australians was
67% whereas for the overseas -born it was 58 .1%, and the rate for South -East Asian
migrants was 61.2 %, higher than that for Europeans at 53.3 % (Table 35). Generally, a
higher participation rate is expected from migrants from English -speaking countries than
from non-English-speaking countries ( ABS 1301.0 2003 ). Another study investigated
whether Asians are disadvantaged in the labour market (Junankar et al. 2002). The
research indicated there is a higher probability of labour market success of Asian
migrants over non-Asian migrants over time.
Table 35: Labour Force Participation, 2001
CONTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS’ LABOUR
Total employed
’000
Unemployed %
Labour force ’000
Unemployment rate%
Participation rate %
N E Asia 142.8 9.60 152.4 6.3 54.80 S E Asia 263.5 30.10 293.50 10.20 61.20 Europe 1121.1 0.73 1194.00 6.10 53.30 Oceania 283.2 0.23 306.20 7.50 74.00 English-speaking countries 94.82 0.06 10.07 5.90 64.60 Other countries 291.19 133.18 414.33
Total born outside Australia 2196.61 173.90 2370.50 7.30 58.10
Total Australian-born 6720 487.50 72.07 6.80 67.00
TOTAL 8916.6 661.40 95.78 6.90 64.60
(ABS 1301.0 2002:218)
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
162
It follows that there is a difference in employability for different ethnic groups , and in
Equation 5A the variabl es for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are included. Owing to the
envisaged inequality in employability amongst ethnic groups and based on the analysis
of the ABS of labour force p articipation, both Chinese and Vietnamese groups were
disadvantaged in partici pating in the labour market and b2 and b3 are expected to be
negative.
Another controversial factor contributing to being employed in the labour market is age.
The ABS divided the working age population into three groups. The first is the youth
group, between 15 and 24. Next is the prim e working age group between 25 and 44, and
the last is the older working group between 45 and 64. Both the youth and prime
working groups are projected to decline over the next 50 years despite a continued
growing population. This is because the older grou p will have the highest growth rate for
the period (ABS 4102.0 1995 ; ABS 3222.0) . This ageing factor is of inc reasing concern.
Consistent with the assumptions in Equation 1, it is ant icipated that the youth and prime
working groups correlate with employmen t opportunities , and b4 is expected to be
positive. The effect of age on employment will be non -linear and b5 will be negative.
As an employee, the number of working hours is specified in the employment
conditions, although the employee works full time o r part time. Therefore b6 is
expected to be positive. The qualification factors, b7 and b8, are expected to be
positive. However, this hypothesis may overlook the risks of over -qualification in some
jobs or job dissatisfaction leading to limited choice for high-status careers. Equation 5A
also includes the four levels of occupation as di fferent occupations have different
demands for labour skills. It is expected that all four occupation regressors have positive
coefficients.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
163
Gender differences give rise t o different labour force participation rates due to the
differences in occupational concentration between men and women. Statistics have
reported a declining overall participation rate for men from 81 % to 71% from 1971 to
2001. In contrast, the participati on rate for women increased from 37 % to 55 % during
the same period. This shows general acceptance of women in the workforce and greater
opportunities for them for paid work ( ABS 4102.0 2003). However, the traditional view
of men as breadwinners is not like ly to change dramatically and b13 is posit ive.
Consistent with the assumptions in Equation 1, the longer a person settles in Aus tralia,
the higher the probability that they obtain employment and b14 is expected to be
positive.
Using the same variables in Equation 5A, the next equation examines the factors
affecting self-employed status. Equation 5B is as follows:
DLFSP2 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6HRSP + b7QALLP1 + b8QALLP2 + b9OCCP1 + b10OCCP2 + b11OCCP3 + b12OCCP4 + b13SEXP + b14YARP
(Equation 5B)
where DLFSP2 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable LFSP2 is 1.
There are many reasons for choosing self -employment. Some establish a business to take
advantage of flexibility and control over decisions while accepting the associated risks,
including failure. For a migrant, this decision can occur as a result of over -qualification,
non-acceptance of qualifications or overseas experience, or as an alternative to
unsatisfactory employment conditions. Others may conduct business ventures by virtue
of their business experience, managerial skills, cultural and other business connections,
links with associated industries in their home countries and the support of family
members. Another factor contributing to this decision is the mandatory requirement of
the migration laws for business migrants to continue in business. It has therefore been
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
164
assumed that there is a higher probability of a migrant being a business owner than an
Australian-born person.
One research study investigated the roles of migrant entrepren eurs and found that first -
generation entrepreneurs were motivated by economic necessity and unemployment.
Second generation business owners made use of the links to countries of origin and the
third generation saw and made use of business opportunities ( www.sbaer.uca.edu).
About 30% of all owner–managers are migrants and of the immigrant self -employed,
58.7% were born outside the main Eng lish-speaking countries ( www.cbs.curtin/edu /
research/wepau/ ). Many analysts have been interested in examining wage diffe rences,
occupational expectations, labour conditions and job satisfaction and their relationship to
ethnicity. Less attention is paid to the analysis and interpretation of the effect of ethnic
origins on earnings of en trepreneurs and small businesspeople. DIMIA carried out
studies on the economic impact of business migrants , but the scope was limited to visa
applicants under their monitoring system, and did not include migrant owners who had
arrived earlier. Also, their reports focused on compliance issues of business migrants
without relating country of origin to achievements.
Based on the assumption that a migrant has a higher probability of bein g a business
owner than an Australian, it is expected that Chinese migrants contribute positively to
the sector of self-employment and that b2 is positive. As for Vietnamese migrants, the
1991 Census reported th at the Vietnamese-born self-employed made up only 9.6 % of
business owners while 83.7 % of them are in employment. Therefore b3 will be
negative.
There are other factors that are conside red relevant to the decision to become self -
employed. Age is an important factor in self -employment but there are two extreme
views. According to one perspective, an increase in age entails a mature attitude,
experience and accumulation of capital which en ables a person to run a business. The
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
165
coefficient of the variable for age (b4) should therefore be positive. On the other hand,
in the business migration regime, people under 45 years of age are more preferred.
Those over 55 years of age are required to prove they can contribute exceptional benefits
to Australia (3.3.2.4). This i ndicates that age is expected to be an important and positive
factor in the probability that a person is self -employed, but this factor will gradually
decline in importance after a certain age. As a result, a non -linear relationship is
expected between age and the probability of being a self -employed person and it is
likely that b5 is negative.
As for hours worked, decisions about operating hours are entirely at the employers’
discretion and it is expected that entrepreneurs work longer hours than employees. The
coefficient of the variable for hours worked (b6) would therefore be positive. In
considering the variable of educational attainment, a business owner is not necessarily
expected to hold higher qualifications, with the exception of professionals such as
doctors, dentists, solicitors and engineers. Therefore, b7 and b8 might be negative.
Self-employed people are commonly found in the four levels of occupation and it is
expected that each type contributes positively towards the probability of being a self -
employed person and b9, b10, b11 and b12 are positive. Consistent with the belief that
males are more likely to be b readwinners, they have a higher probability of being
proprietors, and b13 is posit ive. The longer a person has been in Australia, the greater
the accumulation of experience and capital to run a business, and b14 is likely to be
positive.
The next model considers those who are unemployed and looking for full - or part-time
work. Amongst many other factors, unemployment is expected to be affected by
ethnicity, age, literacy skills, level of English ability and the length of time in Australia.
In Equation 5C, the variable for the unemployed (LFSP3) is the dependent variable with
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
166
regressors on ethnicity, basic or no qualifications, those with no En glish language
ability, age and years of arrival. The equation is as f ollows:
DLFSP3 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP3 + b7ENGP2 + b8YARP + b9SEXP
(Equation 5C)
where DLFSP3 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable LFSP3 is 1.
Statistics indicate that there is a wide difference in the un employment rates of ethnic
groups. The unemployment rate in 2001 –02 for migrants from mainly English -speaking
countries (5.5 %) was lower than that for people born in Australia (6.5 %) (ABS 1301.0
2003). Some studies have revealed significant differences in unemployment rates
between Asians and non -Asian groups. Table 3 5 shows that the unemployment rate for
those who come from South -East Asia is 10.2%, higher than the unemployment rate for
the Australian-born and migrants from other countries. Coughlan and McNamara
(1997:287) used 1991 Census data to sho w that Vietnamese-born males have an
unemployment rate of 36.1 % and women 44.9 % with a median year of arrival of 1985.
Based on these assumptions, it is expected that b2 and b3 are positive.
Age is likely to be an important influence on labour force participation. Youth
unemployment is often considered more serious than unemployment for other ages, and
older age should theoretically reduce the probability of being unemployed. It follows
that b4 would be e xpected to be negative. The non -linear effect of age should also apply
in estimating the probability of unemployment and b5 would be negative. Literac y skills
are linked to the duration of unemployment and the lack of qualifications would
normally be expected t o add to the p robability of being unemployed , and therefore b6 is
likely to be positive. As the variable of English language ability is anticipated to be
significant for unemployed migrants, Equation 5C is re -tested using the segregated
sample without the Australian-born people. The intention is to assess whether the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
167
language factor contributes to the probability of migrant unemployment. It is expected
that b7 is posit ive. The variable for years of arrival is included to test whether earlier
arrived migrants are less likely to be unemployed. If this is the case, then b7 would be
negative. The last variable is that for sex. If males are more likely to be breadwinners
and females are not in the labour force, there is a higher probability of males being
unemployed and b9 is positive.
Equation 5D uses the variable for those not in the labour force as the dependent variable.
Using the same regressors as in Equation 5C, this model examines the factors
contributing to the probability of not being in the labour forc e. The equation is:
DLFSP4 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP3 + b7SEXP + b8YARP
(Equation 5D)
where DLFSP4 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable LFSP4 is 1.
This group includes mostly family members such as wives, ch ildren and retired persons
who do not participate in the labour force. It is typical to find the main migration
applicant in the labour force and secondary members undertaking home -based duties.
Under migration regulations, additional points are awarded if both primary and
secondary migrants have qualifications and occupational skills. The policy encourages
participation of secondary migrants in the labour force. However, with the recent arrival
of Chinese and other Asian migrants, the so -called ‘astronaut’ phenomenon (4.4.5) has
developed where wives and children remain in Australia while husbands continue their
work or business engagements in home countries. This phenomenon is thought to occur
in Chinese migrants and b2 is positive. Vietnamese migrants arr ive predominantly via
family and humanitarian streams and thus the ‘astronaut’ situation may not apply.
However, some findings show that early Vietnamese migrants largely came as refugees
or family members and are not in the labour force. The refore b3 is likely to be positive.
Normally, age (b4) has a negative effect and a reverse U -shape is expected when age is
squared. Older retirees have a higher probability of being in this category and therefore
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
168
b5 is likely to be positive. Assuming that this group gen erally has only basic education
or no qualifications, b6 will be posit ive. The majority of this group is expected to be
female and this means that b7 will be negative. With respect to migrants, non -
participation in the labour force is more likely to occur in the first year of arrival than in
subsequent years , and b8 is expected to be negative.
Equation 6: Equation for Hours Worked
The subject of working hours has interested researchers in recent years. Although
sophisticated technology ha s led to improved efficiency and higher quality goods and
services, statist ics indicate a trend towards increased working h ours for full-time
workers. As defined by the ABS, hours of work is the number of hours worked in all
jobs held by employed people over 15 years of a ge (Australian Bureau of Statistics
1996). There are many interpretations of standard working hours, depending on
occupation, the nature of the work and personal choice. These vary widely on the basis
of sex, full- and part-time employment. Under migration policy, 35 hours a week
constitutes full -time employment with an exception for some highly sp ecialised
occupations that allow for a 35 –40 hour week (LBC Immigration Lawbook 2003,
Migration Regulation 1.20G). In general, average weekly hours for f ull-time adult non-
managerial employees are 40.4 for males and 38.0 for females ( ABS 6305.0 ). A study
reported that an increase in the proportion of the full -time workforce involved an
extension of working hours to more than 48 hours in the late 1990s. 15 Another study
found that the average increased from 42 to 45 hours per week when working hours
were measured from 1982 to 1994. This was reduced to 44 hours in 2002 ( ABS 4102
2003). Owing to the wide variation in working hours, a regression model is developed to
explore the factors contributing to the actual input of hours worked. However, the data
15 The Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Resea rch and Training (ACIRRT), 1999.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
169
consist of the working hours of full - and part-time workers and the actual effect may not
be measured. Equation 6 seeks to assess the factors affecting hours of work.
The equation is:
HRSP = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP1 + b7QALLP2 + b8OCCP1 + b9OCCP2 + b10OCCP3 + b11OCCP4 + b12LFSP1 + b13LFSP2 + b14SEXP
(Equation 6)
Part IV of this thesis illustrated the hard-working characterist ics of many Asian
migrants, which is demonstrated in their tendency to work excessive hours (4.3.1). The
general philosophy is that by working more, they gain more experience and hence earn
higher levels of income. Some Asians are described as wo rkaholics and, in particular, it
is thought that Chinese proprietors work seven days a week (4.3.1). To test the
assumption that Asians work longer hours, the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese
origin are included in the model and it is expected that b2 and b3 are positive.
In addition to racial factors, other explanatory variables that are thou ght to influence
hours worked are age, qualifications, occupation, labour force status and sex. In
addressing the age factor in the model, as age increases mo re work experience is
expected and therefore b4 has a positive rel ationship with hours worked. However, once
a certain age is reached, working hours will fall, and b5 is negative. Another attempt to
estimate the influence on working hours is to incorporate the variables for higher
qualifications. According to the traditional Asian belief, improvement in career path is
achieved by higher qualifications. This leads to the hypothesis that higher levels of
qualifications will help holders to advance to higher s tatus jobs, and as a result an
increased input of working hours is required. It is expected that b6 and b7 are positive.
Like Equations 1, 2 and 3, the four types of occupation are included in the model
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
170
because each occupation should have a different impact on hours worked. For example,
for the year 2001–02, the ABS recorded the highest average weekly hours of 51 for
people employed as managers and administrators and 47 for associate professionals. The
lowest recorded is 40 for labourers and related workers ( ABS 1301.0 2003 ). It is
estimated that the coefficients b8, b9, b10 and b11 are positive relative to the omitted
category.
With regard to labour force status, Equation 6 incorporates the dummy variables for
employees and self -employed status because these variables would ca use differences in
hours worked. Employees are usually required to work for a specified number of hours
per week. The coefficient of employee status ( b12) should therefore correlate with the
hours worked related to the omitted group and is expected to be positive. It is common
for self-employed people to wo rk very long hours. The ABS compared the working
hours of employees and self -employed workers using 2001 statistics. It r eported that
57% of self-employed workers worked 50 hours or more per week whereas 23 % of
employees stated their working hours exceed 50. Furthermore, 14 % of self-employed
workers worked for more than 70 hours per week while only 3 % of employees worked
more than 70 hours ( ABS 4102 .0 2003). It is expected that b13 will be positive.
In comparing the hours of work between males and females, the traditional belief is that
males have a highe r participation rate in full -time work than females and should work
for more hours. For example, in the occupation of managers, it was found that the males
worked for 5.3 hours per week more than the females (ABS 4102.0 2003). When there is
no segregation by type of occupation, females are generally more inclined to participate
in part-time work or home du ties and the coefficient (b14) is expected to be positive.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
171
5.4 Analysis of Results and Discussion of Findings
Although there is no direct evidence that a particular ethnic group has made Australia
wealthier or raised Australian living standards, the results of the models appear to show
some of the effects of the s kill-based migration program.
5.4.1 Equation 1
Equation 1 is developed from an earnings function to examine factors that are
considered as human capital factors that influence income.
5.4.1.1 Results of Equation 1 (using a sample of 91,751 )
Dependent Va riable: INCP Method: Least Squares Date: 01/24/04 Time: 11:18 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)
*OCCP1+C(7)*OCCP2+C(8)*OCCP3+C(9)*OCCP4+C(10)*LFS P1 +C(11)*LFSP2+C(12)*LFSP3+C(13)*HRSP+C(14)*ENGP+C(15) *AGEP+C(16)*AGEP*AGEP+C(17)*YARP+C(18)*SEXP
Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –139.1972 5.401164 –25.77171 0.0000 C(2) –61.97311 7.055380 –8.783809 0.0000 C(3) –46.38887 8.521921 –5.443476 0.0000 C(4) 223.5986 5.171525 43.23648 0.0000 C(5) 115.1709 2.653855 43.39760 0.0000 C(6) 234.6874 4.013296 58.47746 0.0000 C(7) 194.5062 3.538201 54.97319 0.0000 C(8) 139.8899 3.629232 38.54532 0.0000 C(9) 54.65247 2.655134 20.58369 0.0000
C(10) 9.919839 3.273922 3.029956 0.0024 C(11) –114.1450 4.660392 –24.49256 0.0000 C(12) –12.01668 3.968881 –3.027724 0.0025 C(13) 6.707176 0.072733 92.21586 0.0000 C(14) –7.697150 3.809137 –2.020707 0.0433 C(15) 12.13408 0.243794 49.77177 0.0000 C(16) –0.102860 0.002531 –40.63892 0.0000 C(17) 1.317424 0.469829 2.804050 0.0050 C(18) 101.7617 1.705788 59.65673 0.0000
R-squared 0.484880 Mean dependent var 423.3301 Adjusted R -squared 0.484785 S.D. dependent var 341.5926 S.E. of regression 245.1900 Akaike info criterion 13.84214 Sum squared resid 5.51E+09 Schwarz criterion 13.84399 Log likelihood –634997.1
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
172
5.4.1.2 Findings on Ethnicity Factors
As the results of Equation 1 show, all the estimated regression coefficients are
statistically significant relative to the omitted groups. The constant term (C(1) ) measures
the average earnings of an individual when all other variables are at their average values.
The coefficient of the v ariable for Chinese origin (C(2) ) is negative, as suggested by the
cross-classification of income and a comparison of the average income of Chinese and
Australian-born people. The partial effect of the Chinese variable on income is a
decrease of $62 per week, holding constant the effect of the other variables in the
equation. The first hypothesis, as expressed in the null hypothesis that there is no
significant difference in the mean income between Chinese and Australians, is tested as
follows:
H0 : b2 = 0 H1 : b2 • 0
The t-value of the coefficient of the variable for Chines e origin indicated in the above
results is –8.78, which differs significantly from zero. According to the decision rule,
this t-value does not fall between the critical value o f –1.96 and +1.96 and therefore the
null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion is that the variable for Chinese origin is
significant in explaining income in this equation.
Neither does the assumption of higher income apply to the Vietnamese. According to
Equation 1, this group , (C(3)) earns on average $46 less than benchmark earnin gs, after
allowing for other variables. This result is consistent with the findings of the 1991
community profile and those of Budd and Madden (1999). The Bureau of Immigration
and Population Research reported that 60% of Vietnam -born migrants have annual
incomes less than $16,000 whereas only 49% of the total Australian population are in
this income bracket (Bureau of Immigration and Popu lation Research 1994:28). The
results imply that from 1990 to 1996, the income levels of the Vietnamese groups were
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
173
still lower than those of the Australian born. The next null hypothesis states that there is
no significant difference in the mean income between Vietnamese and Australians:
H0 : b3 = 0 H1 : b3 • 0.
The t-value of b3 from the results is –5.44, which does not fall between the critical
value of –1.96 and +1.96 and, as a result, this null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion
is that the variable for Vietnamese origin is significant in being one of the factors
influencing income.
Another hypothesis tests wheth er the effect of the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese
origin is the same on income:
H0 : b2 = b3 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-test checks that the relationship between the dependent variable (I NCP) and the
two independent variables (CHN and VTNM) is significant. As a general rule, if the F-
value is greater than the critical value Fa
, the null hypothesis is rejected ; otherwise it is
accepted. At the significance level of 95 %, the critical value of F0.05 is obtained from the
statistical tables by locating the value corresponding to numerator degree of freedom
equal to k – 1 = 1 (where k is the number of coefficients) and denominator degree of
freedom equal to n – k = 91,749 (where n is the number of samples). At the significance
level of 95%, the critical value with one degree of freedom is 3.84. In considering
whether the effect of the variables for Chinese origin (C(2)) equals that for Vietnamese
origin (C(3)), the following test shows that the F-value of 2.609 is smaller than the
critical value of 3.84. The test also shows that the effect on income of the variable for
Chinese origin differs from that for Vietnamese origin by only $15. As a result, the null
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
174
hypothesis cannot be rejected. This implies that the effect of the variable for Chinese
origin is similar to the effect of that of Vietnamese origin.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 2.609058 (1, 91733) 0.1063 Chi-square 2.609058 1 0.1063
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(3) –15.58424 9.648142
The next hypothesis tests whether none of the ethnic origin s is statistically significant in
explaining differences in income. The null hypothesis is that there is no effect on income
for those of either Chinese or Vietnamese origin. If the null hypothesis is true, it implies
that the Chinese and Vietnamese variab les cannot explain any change in income. The
hypotheses are follows:
H0 : b2 = b3 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
In this case, there are two degrees of freedom and the critical value F0.05 = 3.00. The F-
value produced by the following Wald Test gives a value of 44.37, which is greater than
3.00. It follows that C(2) does not equal C(3) and does not equal zero. Therefore, the
null hypothesis is rejected, indicating that at least one ethnicity variable explains the
variation in income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 44.37423 (2, 91749) 0.0000 Chi-square 88.74846 2 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) –61.97311 7.055380 C(3) –46.38887 8.521921
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
175
5.4.1.3 Findings on Quali fications Factors
When looking at income -earning capacity, education level is considered to be one of the
most important determinants. The coefficients of the variables for the two levels of
education (QALLP1 and QALLP2) are positive and show significance relative to the
group omitted. As expected, the parameter for postgraduate qualifications (C(4)) shows
that this level of education is positively related to income after adjusting for all other
variables. With a unit increase in postgraduate holders, incom e is increased by $223 per
week on average, when other variables are controlled. This is consistent with the
migration criteria where postgraduate qualifications are more desirable and the general
belief that if an individual has unde rtaken more study, it follows that he or she should
have a higher income. In order to test for significance, the null hypothesis is that the
coefficient of the variable for postgraduate qualifications has no effect on income:
H0 : b4 = 0 H1 : b4 • 0
The t-value of this coefficient is 43.23 which is greater than the critical value of 1.96.
The above null hypothesis is rejected with the conclusion that the effect of pos tgraduate
qualifications on income is significant.
The coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications (C(5)) is also positive and
indicates that being a bachelor degree holder adds $115 per week to income earned
when other variables are held constant. The null hypothesis is that the coefficient of the
variable for bachelor qualifications has no effect on income:
H0 : b5 = 0 H1 : b5 • 0
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
176
Its t-value of 43.39 is greater than the critical value of 1.96 and the above null
hypothesis is rejected. This indicates that a bachelor level of education is significant in
explaining the increase in income.
The next hypothesis test s whether the two levels of education have the same impact on
income:
H0 : b4 = b5 H1 : H0 is not true
The critical value F0.05 is 3.84 with one degree of freedom. The following Wald Test
shows that the F-value is 432 which is greater than 3.84 and that C(4) is different from
C(5) by 108 relative to the excluded group . The null hypothesis is rejecte d as the result
indicates that the effect of the two levels of education on income is not the same.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 432.1173 (1, 91733) 0.0000 Chi-square 432.1173 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) – C(5) 108.4276 5.216019
Another hypothesis tests whether both levels of education have no effec t or cannot
explain any change in income:
H0 : b4 = b5 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
177
The critical value for F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. The F-value obtained
from the Wald Test is 1,513, which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.00 and the
above null hypothesis is rejected with the conclusion that at least one of the education
variables explains the differences in income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 1513.517 (2, 91749) 0.0000 Chi-square 3027.035 2 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) 223.5986 5.171525 C(5) 115.1709 2.653855
5.4.1.4 Findings on Occupation Factors
Statistically, all parameters for the four groups of occupations are positi ve and the
coefficients for the variables for all occupations are significant relative to the group of
labourers, clerical workers and machinery operators. Consistent with the expectation that
the first group of managers are the highest income earners amon g all occupations, the
coefficient (C(6)) shows that being a manager increases income by $234 per week, with
other variables held constant. The result is also consistent with the ABS findings that
average earnings for managers are the highest and are recorded as $1,229 per week for
2002 (ABS 6305 .0). Considering the t-value of 58.47, this variable is significant in
affecting income.
The coefficient of the second type of occupation (C(7)) of 194 ranks p rofessionals as the
second category of highest income e arners. This is also consistent with the 2001 Census
which reported an average income of $1,035 per week and this is the largest group in the
labour market, being 1,514,096 persons or 18 .2% of the labour force (ABS 2017.0).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
178
Having a t-value of 54.97, the c oefficient of the variable for professional employment is
significant in explaining income.
As expected, the coefficient of the variable for the occupation of para -professionals
(C(8)) is positive, producing an increase in income of $140 per week when o ther factors
remain the same. The t-value of 38.54 indicates the significance of this variable.
However, this is different to the findings of Budd and Madden (1999) which report that
the profession of associate professional does not have a significant impact on earnings.
This difference may be explained by the fact that Budd and Madden used 1991 Census
data and important variations in the earnings of para -professionals have occurred in
recent years.
With regard to the occupation of tradespeople, clerks and salespeople, the coefficient
(C(9)) indicates an increase in income of $54 per week, while holding all other variables
constant. In contrast, Budd and Madden find that this type of occupation has a negative
impact on earnings. With a t-value of 20.58, the coefficient for this occupation in
Equation 1 is significant.
A commonly asked question is whether the four types of occupation have no significant
effect on income. The next hypothesis tests whether the effect of the four types of
occupation have the sa me effect:
H0 : b6 = b7 = b8 = b9 H1 : H0 is not true
There are three degrees of freedom and the critical value F0.05 is 2.60. The F-value
obtained from the Wald Test of 871 is greater than 2.60 and the test shows that there are
differences in the average income of the four types of occupation relative to the omitted
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
179
group. As anticipated, there are differences in earnings among the four groups of
occupation. The income differential between a manager and a tradesperson could be as
high as $180 per week. Relative to the group of labourers, a professional earns $140
more than a tradesperson and a para -professional’s income is $85 more than that of a
tradesperson. Since the effect of the variables for four types of occupation on income is
significantly different, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 871.1941 (3, 91733) 0.0000 Chi-square 2613.582 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(6) – C(9) 180.0349 4.038214 C(7) – C(9) 139.8537 3.616731 C(8) – C(9) 85.23746 3.693443
The next hypothesis is developed to test that the four types of occupation have no impact
on income:
H0 : b6 = b7 = b8 = b9 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
With four degrees of freedom, the critical value of F0.05 obtained from the statistical
tables is 2.37. Since the F-value of 1,296 shown in the Wald Test is greater than the
critical value of F0.05 = 2.37, the nu ll hypothesis is rejected, meaning that at least one of
the four types of occupation explains the increase in income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 1296.794 (4, 91747) 0.0000 Chi-square 5187.177 4 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(6) 234.6874 4.013296 C(7) 194.5062 3.538201 C(8) 139.8899 3.629232 C(9) 54.65247 2.655134
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
180
5.4.1.5 Findings on Labour Force Status
The relationship between income and labour forc e status is not consistent with
expectations. The coefficient of the variable for employee status (C(10)) is positive,
confirming that employees increase income by about $10 per week. Having a t-statistic
of 3.03, the variable for employee status is signif icant in explaining earnings. The
variable for self -employed s tatus has a negative coefficient (C(11)) of –114.14,
indicating that business owners and contributing family workers do not have a positive
effect in increasing income. Contrary to the bel ief that entrepreneurs earn more than
employees, the results show that although self -employed people bear the risks of
operating a business, they earn less than employees. One possible reason to explain the
relatively lower e arnings of entrepreneurs is the diffe rent calculation in reaching
assessable income between employees and self -employed people from a taxation
perspective. For employees, gross wages and other income must be reported to the
Australian Taxation Office, with some deductions. In the case of busi ness owners and
contributing family workers, their salaries may represent the residual profit from the
business after deducting all relevant expenses incurred in running the business.
However, the effect of the self -employed sector on income is relatively unsatisfactory.
The coefficient of the variable for those who are looking for work (C(12)) is –12 with a
t-statistic of –3.03 when other factors are held constant. Although the unemployed
persons would still be expected to h ave income such as social benefi ts or other
investment income, their effect on Australian income is negative.
The next hypothesis tests whether the effect of status on income is the same for
employees, self -employed and unemployed:
H0 : b10 = b11 = b12 H1 : H0 is not true.
The critical value of F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. When compared with the
F-value obtained from the Wald Test, the F-value of 571 is greater than the critical value
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
181
F0.05 = 3.00. It also shows that the effect of the three labour force status variables is
significantly different. An employee has a higher average income than an unemployed
person by $22 per week. However, an unemployed income is higher than a self -
employed by $102. It follows that the null hypothesis is rejected and that the three
labour force status variables have a different effect on income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value Df Probability F-statistic 571.3947 (2, 91733) 0.0000 Chi-square 1142.789 2 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) – C(12) 21.93652 4.394758 C(11) – C(12) –102.1283 5.569986
Another hypothesis is developed to test whether none of the three labour force status
variables explains the change in income:
H0 : b10 = b11 =b12 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The critical value to determine the significance of the three variables with three degrees
of freedom obtained from the statistical tables is 2.60. Since the Wald Test shows an F-
value of 382.83 which is greater tha n F0.05 = 2.60, the above null hypothesis is rejected.
The conclusion is that at least one of the variables for labour force status explain s
variations in income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 382.8362 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1148.509 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) 9.919839 3.273922 C(11) –114.1450 4.660392 C(12) –12.01668 3.968881
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
182
5.4.1.6 Findings when combining Factors of Qualifications, Typ es of
Occupation and Labour Force Status
The data are further analysed to compare whether a self -employed person earns more
than an employee, given the same category of occupation. The st atus of unemployed is
not included in the above analysis for comparis on because it is thought that the income
of the unemployed comes from sources other than employment, such as social security
benefits. By combining the attributes of qualifications, occupations and labour force
status, the following matrix explains the imp ortance of the contribution of the work
force to the economy.
QALLP1 QALLP2 OCCP1 OCCP2 OCCP3 OCCP4 LFSP1 234 125 244 204 150 64 LFSP2 110 1 120 80 26 –60
The matrix shows a distinctive difference in earnings between an employee and a person
with self-employed status. On average an employee earns $124 per week more than self-
employed people for all occupations, irrespective of the qualifications held. For an
employee–manager, average earnings would be $244 (C(6)+C(10)) and this is the
highest amongst all other groups, but these earnings are very close to that of an
employee who has postgraduate qualifications of $234 (C(4)+C(10)). Assuming an
associate professional has a diploma or a bachelor degree, given that they are an
employee, their income of $15 0 (C(8)+C(10)) is higher than that of a postgraduate self -
employed person of $110 (C(4)+C(11)).
These results indicate that educational achievements are not as c ritical a factor as
occupational achievements in enabling a person to be richer , and that business owners
are disadvantaged as their income is much less than that of an employee in all four types
of occupation.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
183
5.4.1.7 Findings on Hours Worked
Hours worked is relevant to labour force participation. In the main sample 54,409
respondents supplied va lid hours. The estim ated coefficient, C(13), shows that with each
increase in working hours, income goes up by $6.70, while other factors are not
considered. This is consistent with the Asian belief that working harder and for longer
hours is likely to res ult in a higher income. The t-value of 92.2 is the highest in this
earnings function, indicating that this factor is highly significant.
5.4.1.8 Findings on English Language Factor
Contrary to the expectation that English proficiency has a positive effect on income, the
coefficient (C(16)) shows a negative figure of –7.697. In the sample, the total number of
respondents who answered functional English ability is only 5,226, although their
answers to other questions are valid. This implies many invalid answ ers to the Census
question and will affect the validity of testing. In an English-speaking country like
Australia, it is essential to have not only conversational English , but also wo rking
English, and the gradual improvement is through a combination of pr actice and study
(www.latrobe.edu.au/language/toeic/). Because of this importance, the sample is further
manipulated to exclude all Australians. Leaving only Chinese and Vietnamese in the
new sample as Equation 1A, the sample is reduced to 3,763. The resul ts of Equation 1A
show that the coefficient of the variable for English language facility (C(14)) is positive.
This supports the assumption that the language factor has a positive effect of $31.62 per
week on the income of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. With a t-value of 4.133, this
variable is significant for the income of these migrants.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
184
5.4.1.9 Results of Equation 1A (using a sample of 3,763)
Dependent Variable: INCP Method: Least Squa7res Date: 01/24/04 Time: 14:03 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)
*OCCP1+C(7)*OCCP2+C(8)*OCCP3+C(9)*OCCP4+C(10)*LFSP1 +C(11)*LFSP2+C(12)*LFSP3+C(13)*HRSP+C(14)*ENGP+C(15) *AGEP+C(16)*AGEP*AGEP+C(17)*YARP+C(18)*SEX P
Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –50.44640 29.78621 –1.693616 0.0904 C(2) –9.731754 17.92700 –0.542854 0.5873 C(3) –23.61610 17.98936 –1.312782 0.1893 C(4) 108.4697 18.42791 5.886163 0.0000 C(5) 41.44150 9.528537 4.349199 0.0000 C(6) 254.0060 22.68317 11.19800 0.0000 C(7) 286.4753 13.62862 21.02012 0.0000 C(8) 92.39378 16.48151 5.605906 0.0000 C(9) 39.68508 12.12451 3.273128 0.0011 C(10) 27.93231 13.63147 2.049104 0.0405 C(11) –122.5612 19.87834 –6.165564 0.0000 C(12) –16.00517 11.94657 –1.339730 0.1804 C(13) 5.442635 0.321069 16.95163 0.0000 C(14) 31.62424 7.650094 4.133837 0.0000 C(15) 8.136631 1.146092 70.99456 0.0000 C(16) –0.072833 0.012078 –6.030432 0.0000 C(17) 2.386764 0.720806 3.311244 0.0009 C(18) 43.75049 6.757245 6.474604 0.0000
R-squared 0.532234 Mean dependent var 356.1307 Adjusted R -squared 0.530110 S.D. dependent var 293.3177 S.E. of regression 201.0649 Akaike info criterion 13.44990 Sum squared resid 1.51E+08 Schwarz criterion 13.47972
5.4.1.10 Findings on Age Factor
Age is another criterion used to assess eligibility for migration. The average age in
Equation 1 is 42.8 years whereas in Equation 1A it is 40. Th is indicates the effectiveness
of the skilled migration policy in attracting younger migran ts in addition to attracting
skills. The age factor in Equation 1 shows a positive coeff icient (C(15)) of 12.13408
with a standard error of 0.243 when other variables are held constant. This is consistent
with the assumption that age implies work experienc e and therefore is directly related to
income. As explained, the age factor has a composite effect attached to the coefficients
of other variables and this variable is squared to highlight the non -linear effect of age.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
185
The coefficient (C(16)) is negative, as expected, confirming that age correlates with
income to a certain degree. The following computation attempts to measure at what age
that income will drop.
Let ‘AE’ stand for total age effect and ‘A’ for the linear effect of age. The total age
effect will be the combination of line ar and non-linear effects and gives the following
equation:
AE = 12.13408A + ( –0.10286)A2
According to the results of Equation 1, A is positive unti l retirement. To determine at
what age the effect of A starts to fall, we can use the following equation:
d AE = 0 d A Þ d AE = 12.13408 – (2 x 0.10286) = 0
d A Þ A = 58.98
This result shows that at the age of 59, income will fall. This confirms the assumption of
an inverse U-shaped relationship where income drops after ret irement. The significance
of the total effect of the age factor is confirmed by the t-values of –40.638 and –2.02,
both of which are greater than 1.96. It is interesting to find a different age effect of 55.85
in Equation 1A. In the case of Chinese and Vie tnamese migrants, their income drops at
an earlier age than Australians. This is not consistent with the hard -working attitude of
Asians where delayed retirement is expected.
The following null hypothesis is developed so that both the linear and non -linear effects
of age on income will be the same in Equation 1:
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
186
H0 : b15 = b16 H1 : H0 is not true.
The critical value obtained from the statistical tables with one degree of freedom is 3.84.
Since the Wald Test shows an F-value of 2469 which is greater than F0.05 = 3.84, the
above null hypothesis is rejected. The test also shows that the linear effect of the
variable for age is different from the non -linear effect by $12 per week.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 2469.062 (1, 91733) 0.0000 Chi-square 2469.062 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(15) – C(16) 12.23694 0.246267
The next hypothesis tests whether neither the linear and non -linear effects of income
explain the variations in income:
H0 : b15 = b16 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
In this case, the critical value F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. The F-value
from the following Wald Test of 1,932 is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.00 and
leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The conclusion is that either the linear or the
non-linear effect of age explains the variations in earnings.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
187
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 1932.279 (2, 91749) 0.0000 Chi-square 3864.559 2 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(15) 12.13408 0.243794 C(16) –0.102860 0.002531
5.4.1.11 Findings on Years of Arrival
The length of time migrants have been in Australia may have a n impact on the
Australian economy. However, 48,134 respondents entered a zero value to the question
of how long they have stayed in Australia, although their answers to other questions are
valid. This reduces the validity of the testing. For the segregate d sample, 735
respondents answered ‘less than 5 years after arrival’ and these could be identified as
recent migrants, for the purpose of this research. Most migrants (3,028) who have been
resident for eight years and over are considered as earlier migrant s. In Equation 1, the
coefficient of the variable for years of arrival (C(17 )) is 1.317. This indicates that the
longer a migrant stays in Australia, the higher their income. The coefficient of this
variable in Equation 1A is 2.38 and is consistent with Eq uation 1. The sample consists of
data up to 1996 and the effect on income of those arriving after this year is not
considered in this equation. The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival has a t-
value of 2.804 in Equation 1 and 3.311 in Equation 1A. In both cases, the value does not
fall between ±1.96 and therefore this variable is significant in e xplaining earnings.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
188
5.4.1.12 Findings on Sex Factor
The last variable in Equation 1 tests whether sex makes a difference to earnings. In the
main sample there are more females (46,484) than males (45,267) whereas in the
segregated sample the number of males (1,960) exceeds that of females (1,803).
However, gender is relatively balanced in the samples. In both Equations 1 and 1A,
being male contributes pos itively to income. In Equation 1, the coefficient for the male
sex (C(18)) is 101.76. This supports the expectation that be ing a male contributes
positively to income. Its t-value of 59.656 indicates that the variable f or sex is
significant in explaining i ncome. The coefficient of this variable in Equation 1A is 43.75
and it is consistent with the assumption that males are the breadwinners, irrespective of
ethnicity.
5.4.1.13 General Findings of Equation 1
In general, the results of Equation 1 have con formed to expectations, with the exception
of the impact of self -employed status, possibly due in part to the tax effect in arri ving at
their income. In assessing how well the variables fit in the model, the multiple
coefficient of determination R2 measures the strength of the relationship between the
dependent variable and all independent variables jointly. In Equation 1, the computed R2
is 0.48488, meaning that 48 % of the variation is explained by the regression. In the case
of 91,751 observations, this perce ntage is not expected to be very high. On this basis, the
results of Equation 1 indicate that the average income of the Chinese group is not higher
than that of the Au stralian-born group. The results support the belief that higher
education credentials hav e a positive impact on income. The equations also show that
the occupations of managers and p rofessionals generally lead to higher earnings than
those of tradesmen and labour . In the same type of occupation, employees earn more
than self-employed persons. The results are also consistent with the belief that working
for longer hours generates more income as this attribute is highly significant when the
effect of other factors is held constant. Age implies work experience and has a quadratic
relationship with income. Good English language proficiency including everyday
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
189
business English and conversational English is significant in the case of Chinese and
Vietnamese migrants . Their relatively low English standard partly explains why their
average income is lower than that of the Australian -born. The longer the period of time
in Australia, the greater the likelihood a migrant has of earning a higher income. A
common feature for Australians, Chinese and Vietnamese is the higher income of the
male population. The ne xt equation examines whether a combination of ethnicity and
other attributes affects income.
5.4.2 Equation 2
As noted earlier, Equation 1 explores the relationship between income and each of the
attributes when other factors are held constant. Equ ation 2 focuses on the differential
effect on income between migrants and Australians by examining variables in
interaction with the dummy variable for national origin. The variables for English
language proficiency and those who are not in the labour force have been omitted as the
results show that they are ins ignificant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
190
5.4.2.1 Results of Equation 2 (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: INCP Method: Least Squares Date: 03/30/04 Time: 20:06 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 a fter adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)
*CHN*QALLP1+C(7)*CHN*QALLP2+C(8)*VTNM*QALLP1+C(9) *VTNM*QALLP2+C(10)*OCCP1+C(11)*OCCP2+C(12)*OCCP3 +C(13)*OCCP4+C(14)*CHN*OCCP1+C(15)*CHN*OCCP2+C(16) *CHN*OCCP3+C(17)* CHN*OCCP4+C(18)*VTNM*OCCP1+C(19) *VTNM*OCCP2+C(20)*VTNM*OCCP3+C(21)*VTNM*OCCP4 +C(22)*LFSP1+C(23)*LFSP2+C(24)*CHN*LFSP1+C(25)*CHN *LFSP2+C(26)*VTNM*LFSP1+C(27)*VTNM*LFSP2+C(28)*SEXP +C(29)*AGEP+C(30)*AGEP*AGEP+C(31)*HRSP+C(32 )*YARP
Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –144.3379 5.301223 –27.22728 0.0000 C(2) –27.34619 10.30391 –2.653962 0.0080 C(3) –37.50913 10.63044 –3.528465 0.0004 C(4) 227.9849 5.285937 43.13047 0.0000 C(5) 118.2380 2.709804 43.63341 0.0000 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 –4.761962 0.0000 C(7) –69.79259 14.54861 –4.797200 0.0000 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145 0.616740 0.5374 C(9) –50.09329 26.77249 –1.871073 0.0613 C(10) 233.6748 4.048576 57.71779 0.0000 C(11) 190.1761 3.600690 52.81657 0.0000 C(12) 141.0534 3.672537 38.40761 0.0000 C(13) 54.49394 2.688259 20.27109 0.0000 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 1.587865 0.1123 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 5.799977 0.0000 C(16) –52.18229 26.77060 –1.949239 0.0513 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 0.578768 0.5627 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500 –3.465432 0.0005 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746 0.723650 0.4693 C(20) –78.18636 43.31213 –1.805184 0.0710 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017 –1.403349 0.1605 C(22) 13.93292 3.174035 4.389656 0.0000 C(23) –109.7462 4.640024 –23.65208 0.0000 C(24) –44.15038 15.21440 –2.901880 0.0037 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987 –2.506740 0.0122 C(26) –5.068003 17.43527 –0.290675 0.7713 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203 0.322655 0.7470 C(28) 101.0872 1.691762 59.75261 0.0000 C(29) 12.14061 0.242853 49.99162 0.0000 C(30) –0.102205 0.002511 –40.70081 0.0000 C(31) 6.715219 0.072685 92.38757 0.0000 C(32) 1.302733 0.471428 2.763379 0.0057
R-squared 0.485399 Mean dependent var 423.3301 Adjusted R -squared 0.485225 S.D. dependent var 341.5926 S.E. of regression 245.0852 Akaike info criterion 13.84144 Sum squared resid 5.51E+09 Schwarz criterion 13.84473
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
191
5.4.2.2 Interactions between Ethnicity and Qualifications
5.4.2.2.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Qualifications
The first group of interactions to consider is the eff ect on income with the combination
of variables for Chinese origin and qualifications. As the results indicate, the estimated
coefficient of the variable for postgraduate qualifications (C(4)) is 228 and that for the
cross product (CHN*QALLP1) (C(6)) is –127 when the effects of other variabl es are
held constant. Holding the effect of all other variables constant, the expected effect on
income of a Chinese who h as postgraduate qualifications is C(1) + C(2) + C(4) + C(6) =
(–144) + (–27) + 228 + (–127) = –$70; the expected effect on income of a non-Chinese
who has postgraduate qualifications is C(1) + C(4) = –144 + 228 = $84; and the
expected income of a non -Chinese with no such qualifications is C(1) = –$144. With the
same level of education, Chinese migrants suffer a reduction of $151 per wee k in
income. This result implies there are other weaknesses among Chinese postgraduates
which explain such a high income differential.
Possible reasons for the lower income of Chinese postgraduates relate to the recognition
of qualifications, relevant loca l work experience and level of English language
proficiency. Stringent processes exist to grant recognition of overseas qualifications,
especially those acquired in non -English-speaking countries. This problem may be
alleviated with the requirement of asse ssment of qualifications and occupation prior to
applying for migration. The increasing number of independent applications from
students who have completed studies in Australia will also reduce the problem of non -
recognition. Frequently, work experience ga ined overseas is discounted or overlooked as
irrelevant, resulting in new migrants having to re -accumulate experience after arrival.
Common examples are found in overseas trained doctors, lecturers and other
professions. A 2004 report from the New South Wales Government raised concerns that
some migrant professionals were not able to practise in their fields of expertise
(www.eeo.nsw.gov.au/reermg/recognising -skills.doc). As a result, they are required to
work in less senior positions for local experience o r in jobs that are not equivalent to
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
192
their educational achievements. The concept of having temporary workers to fill labour
shortages enable them to gain local work experience and will be vital for them to
increase their employability if they change to per manent residence status. Another
obstacle facing Chinese postgraduates is an apparent lack of proficiency in English
language. Although a functional standard of English language ability is expected from
Chinese migrants, they are still disadvantaged in not having mother tongue language
skills or in applying conversational and business English when competing with the
Australian-born. It may also mean that Chinese postgraduates have to compensate for
this deficiency in other ways, such as working longer hours or seeking positions where
the language factor is less critical.
In order to test whether post graduate qualifications have a different impact on income
for Chinese migrants compared with non -Chinese, a null h ypothesis is developed that
there is no d ifference in income between a Chinese postgraduate and a non -Chinese
postgraduate:
H0 : b2 – b4 + b6 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The results of the Wald Test show that the differential does not equal zero. With one
degree of freedom, the critical value is F0.05 = 3.84. The F-value computed from the test
shows a value of 184.91, which is greater than 3.84, and therefore the above null
hypothesis is rejected. It leads to the conclusion that the differential effect between the
Chinese postgraduates and other groups w ith the same level of qualifications is
significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 184.9141 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 184.9141 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(4) + C(6) –381.2955 28.03991
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
193
Comparing a Chinese postgraduate to a non -Chinese without such qualifications gives a
differential effect on income of $74 per week. With the time and effort spent on studying
for postgraduate qual ifications, the extra benefit for Chinese migrants of having such
qualifications is only $74. The following null hypothesis is that there is no difference in
income between a Chinese postgraduate and any other person:
H0 : b2 + b6 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
A Wald Test is performed to show that there is a difference in income. The F-value as
shown is 32.27 which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the above
null hypothesis is rejected and the conclus ion is that the extra income of a Chinese
postgraduate holder is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 32.27625 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 32.27625 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restri ction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(6) –150.8864 26.55880
The interaction of the variables for Chinese origin and bachelor degree qualifications
also shows that the effect on income of such qua lifications on Chinese migrants is
different from that on non-Chinese groups, holding other variables constant. The
estimated coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications (C(5)) is 118 and that of
the cross product (CHN*QALLP2) is –70. The expected income of a Chinese who has
bachelor qualifications i s –$123 (C(1) + C(2) + C(5) + C(7) = (–144) + (–27) + 118 +
(–70)). The expected income of a non -Chinese who has the same level of qualifications
is –$26 (C(1) + C(5) = (–144) + 118). Therefore, the differential effect between Chinese
migrants with bachel or qualifications and a non -Chinese person with the same level of
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
194
qualifications is –$96 on average per week. For the reasons explained above, a person of
Chinese origin who has a bachelor degree or advanced dip loma qualifications earns less
than the other groups who have the same level of education.
In order to test that the effect of having b achelor qualifications on income for a Chinese
person is different to that for a person of different origin, the following null hypothesis is
set up to assume that there is no significant difference between the income of a Chinese
and non-Chinese bachelor degree holder:
H0 : b2 – b5 + b7 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The Wald Test shows that the differential is not equal to zero. The F-value produces a
value of 216.42, wh ich is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84, leading to a
rejection of the above null h ypothesis and the conclusion that this differential effect is
significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 216.4249 (1, 91750 ) 0.0000 Chi-square 216.4249 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(5) + C(7) –219.6014 14.92730
After studying for a bachelor degree or an advanced diploma, Chinese migrants earn an
income of only $21 on average per week more than other persons who do not have these
qualifications. Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income between a
Chinese bachelor degree holder and any other person:
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
195
H0 : b2 + b7 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The results of the Wald Test show that the income between these two groups is not the
same. The F-value of 47.91 is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. The above null
hypothesis is therefore rejected and the conclusion is that the diff erential effect between
a Chinese and non -Chinese bachelor degree holder is significant in Equation 2.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 47.91305 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 47.91305 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(7) –98.60643 14.24552
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
196
5.4.2.2.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Qualifications
After considering the effect of the interaction between the variables of Chinese origin
and qualifications, the next pair to consider is between the variables of Vietnamese
origin and qualifications. The t-value of the coefficient of this cross product (C(8)) is
0.6167, when the effects of other variables are not considered. This value is lower than
the critical value of 1.96, suggesting that this interaction is not significant. By
calculation, there is a difference in income between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese
postgraduate of $9 per week. The next test is on the significance of this d ifferential. The
following null hypothesis assumes that there is no such difference:
H0 : b3 – b4 + b8 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
After performing a Wald Test, it shows that the F-value is 8.40 , which is greater than the
critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a resul t, the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although the
effect of Vietnamese postgraduat e on income is not significant, the differential effect
between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese postgraduate on income is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 8.408511 (1, 91750) 0.0037 Chi-square 8.408511 1 0.0037
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(4) + C(8) –219.4412 75.67607
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
197
Another interaction is between the variables of Vietnamese origin and b achelor
qualifications (C(9)). The p-value of this coefficient is 0.0613, which is below 0.05 and
its t-statistic o f –1.87 is less than –1.96. This interaction is also not significant. However,
there is a difference between the income of a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese bachelor
degree holder of –$87 per week. The following hypothesis tests if this difference is
significant by assuming firstly that there is no such difference:
H0 : b3 – b5 + b9 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The following Wald Test shows that the F-value is 55.20, which is greater than the
critical value F0.05 = 3.84 and the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although t he effect
of Vietnamese bachelor degree holders on in come is not significant, the differential is
significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 55.20138 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 55.20138 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(5) + C(9) –205.8404 27.70484
It follows that both levels of qualification have the same implications for Vietnamese as
the general population. As an assessment of the effect of qualifications, a null hypothesis
is stated that postgradu ate qualifications have no significant effect:
H0 : b4 = b6 = b8 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The Wald Test is performed and the results indicate that the three coefficients relating to
postgraduate qualifications are not equal to zero. With three degrees o f freedom, the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
198
critical value is 3.00. Since the F-value of 629.28 is greater than F0.05 = 3.00, the
conclusion is that the variable for postgraduate qualifications is significant in predicting
income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 629.2817 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1887.845 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) 227.9849 5.285937 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145
Similarly, another null hypoth esis is that bachelor qualifications have no significant
effect:
H0 : b5 = b7 = b9 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The Wald Test is performed and the results indicate that the three coefficients relating to
bachelor qualifications are not equal to zero. The F-value of 639.6 is greater than the
critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00 and the above null hypothesis is
rejected. The conclusion is that the variable for bachelor qualifications is significant in
this equation.
Wald Test: Test Statisti c Value df Probability F-statistic 639.6079 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1918.824 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(5) 118.2380 2.709804 C(7) –69.79259 14.54861 C(9) –50.09329 26.77249
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
199
In summary, the two levels of qualifications of postgraduate and bachelor degrees have a
significant impact on the income of Chinese migrants, but not for the Vietnamese.
Although the results of Equation 1 indicate the positive effect of both levels of h igher
qualifications on income, this does not hold true for Chinese migrants. Further, the
results of Equation 2 have shown that Chinese degree holders h ave some disadvantages
when their earnings are compared to those of their Australian counterparts. Diff iculties
may relate to their lack of local e xperience, proficiency in English language and non -
recognition of overseas academic standards. Several initiatives have been introduced in
DIMIA so as to tac kle the problem of non-recognition. One such initiative is the
mandatory assessment of occupation by Australian professional bodies starting from
2000 ensuring that the qualifications are acceptable in Australia (3.3.2.1). Also, by
allowing temporary workers to fill job shortages in Australia before granting p ermanent
residence, these settlers have been able to obt ain relevant work experience and increase
their employability. However, as the data used are based on the 1996 Census, the
effectiveness of those initiatives in overcoming the previous non -recognition problems
would be a topic for further research.
5.4.2.3 Interactions between Ethnicity and Occupations
As expected, the four leve ls of occupation show positive relationships with income in
Equation 2, but the interactions between ethnicity and occupati ons show some
inconsistencies.
5.4.2.3.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Occupations
The first interaction pair is between the variables for Chinese origin and managers and
the estimated coefficient for this interaction (C(14)) has a pos itive sign with value of
$56, but its t-ratio of 1.587 is below the c ritical value of 1.96. Therefore, the interaction
is not significant. In order to test for the significance of the differential effect between a
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
200
Chinese and non-Chinese manager, the following null hypothesis states that there is no
such difference:
H0 : b2 – b10 + b14 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-statistic of the following Wald Test indicates a value of 29.51, which is greater
than the critical v alue F0.05 = 3.84 and the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although
the effect of Chinese managers on income is not significant, the differential effect
between a Chinese and non -Chinese manager is significant.
Wald Test: Equation: Untitled Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 29.51964 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 29.51964 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(10) + C(14) –205.0384 37.73806
The second interaction is between the variables for Chinese origin and p rofessional
occupation. The coefficient (C(15)) shows a high level of significance when compared
with other interaction pairs. Holding other factors constant, the d ifferential effect
between a Chinese and non -Chinese professional is 98, meaning that within profess ional
occupations, a Chinese person would earn $98 per week on average more than a non -
Chinese. This result implies that there are some other attributes of Chinese professionals
that enable them to earn mo re than their peers. A Chinese professional is expe cted to
earn $260 per week more than a person who is neither of Chinese origin nor a
professional.
While it is reasonable to expect the same level of qualifications for professionals
irrespective of ethnicity and despite the possible shortfall in English language
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
201
proficiency as compared with Australians, one quality that enables Chinese professionals
to earn more income than other groups may relate to longer working hours. In order to
test for significance of the differential effect, a null hypothesis is e stablished to assume
that there is no difference in income between a Chinese and a non -Chinese professional:
H0 : b2 – b11 + b15 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the Wald Test, the income of a Chinese professional is different from that
of a non-Chinese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 13.04 and is greater than the
critical value of F0.05 = 3.84, which leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis. The
conclusion is that the differential effect is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 13.04546 (1, 91750) 0.0003 Chi-square 13.04546 1 0.0003
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(11) + C(15) –92.69793 25.66495
Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income between a Chinese
professional and other people:
H0 : b2 + b15 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The following Wald Test shows that the difference in income is not equal to zero. The
F-statistic of 15.319 is greater than the critical val ue F0.05 = 3.84 and it leads to a
rejection of the above null hypothesis with the conclusion that the differential is
significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
202
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 15.31976 (1, 91719) 0.0001 Chi-square 15.31976 1 0.0001
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(15) 97.47819 24.90471
Regarding the interaction between the variables for Chinese origin and the third group of
occupation (C(16)), the p-value of 0.0513 and the t-value of –1.949 are very close to the
critical value. Therefore, this interaction is not significant in this e arnings function. This
result means that the occupation of associate professionals has the same effect on
income for Chinese and the rest of the population. Considering the motivation to study
and educational achievements of Chinese migrants, as a generalisation, many Chinese
migrants have a tendency to work as p rofessionals or managers in preference to working
as para-professionals. Wi th respect to the difference in earnings between a Chinese and
non-Chinese associate professional, it is calculated to be –$79 per week and a null
hypothesis is established to assume that there is no such difference:
H0 : b2 – b12 + b16 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the Wald Test, the F-statistic indicating a value of 54.88 is greater than the
critical value of F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis and
the conclusion that the differential effect is s ignificant. Although the effe ct of Chinese
para-professionals may be insignificant, the differential effect is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 54.88855 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 54.88855 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(12) + C(16) –220.5819 29.77343
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
203
The last interaction is between the variables of Chinese origin and the occupation of
tradespeople and clerks. The coefficient (C(17) is positive but it has a t-value of 0.578
which is lower than the critical value of 1.96. This implies that the interaction is not
significant. The calculated differential is –$16, and a null hypothesis is established to
test whether there is no difference in income between a Chinese and a non-Chinese
tradesperson:
H0 : b2 – b13 + b17 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-statistic computed from the following Wald Test indicates a value of 9.20 which
is greater than the critical value of F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null
hypothesis and the conclusion is that the differential effect is signi ficant. Although the
effect of Chinese tradespeople on income is not significant, the di fferential effect is
significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 9.200652 (1, 91750) 0.0024 Chi-square 9.200652 1 0.0024
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(13) + C(17) –70.20005 23.14345
5.4.2.3.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Occupations
Turning to the interactions between the dummy variables for Vietnamese origin and the
four groups of occupations, only the pair for the occupation of manager shows
significance. The differential effect between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese manager
is –$236, meaning that a Vietnamese manager suffers a reduced income, compared with
non-Vietnamese counterparts, if other variables are held constant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
204
Given that the occupation of managers has different implications for Vietnamese
migrants than for the rest of the population, it is necessary to investigate why a
Vietnamese manager earns much less income than managers of a different ethnic
background. The traditional view of Vietnamese migrants is that most arrived via a
refugee status and many have a very low standa rd of English language ability (Equation
1). The only type of occupation to which they show positive contribution is manual
labouring jobs. The large differential may be due in part to the Vietnamese entrepreneurs
who consider themselves managers. In fact, there are not many Vietnamese managers in
the sample. Another reason to explain the large differential relates to the small group of
those manager employees whose parents are Vietnamese -born and these employees may
be second generation Vietnamese. These young managers would not have more work
experience or better English standards than others and , in the short term, it would be
difficult to compensate for these deficiencies by factors such as working longer hours. In
future years, it is possible that secon d generation Vietnamese managers will become
more competitive when their English standards and work experience improve.
In order to test for the significance o f the differential income between a Vietnamese and
a non-Vietnamese manager, a null hypothesis i s established to test whether there is no
such difference:
H0 : b3 – b10 + b18 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the Wald Test performed, the income of a Vietnamese manager is different
from that of a non -Vietnamese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 63.626, which is
greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84 . As a result, the above null hypothesis is
rejected with the conclusion that the di fferential effect is significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
205
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 63.62610 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 63.62610 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(10) + C(18) –470.3597 58.96746
Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income be tween a Vietnamese
manager and other people:
H0 : b3 + b10 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the Wald Test, the F-statistic is 299.408, which is greater than the critical
value F0.05 = 3.84. This le ads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis a nd the
conclusion is that the income of a Vietnamese m anager is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 299.4081 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 299.4081 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) + C(10) 196.1657 11.33682
The interaction between the variables for Vietnamese origin and professionals is positive
but not significant. The t-value of this coefficient (C(19)) is 0.723, which is lower than
the critical value of 1.96, suggesting that this interaction is no t significant. The
calculated differential is $98. The next null hypothesis tests if this d ifferential is
significant by assuming that there is no such difference:
H0 : b3 – b11 + b19 = 0
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
206
H1 : H0 is not true.
The Wald Test indicates that the value calcula ted from the F-statistic is 22.39, which is
greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the above null hypothesis is
rejected. Although the effect of Vietnamese professionals on income is not significant,
the differential effect is si gnificant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 22.39537 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 22.39537 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(11) + C(19) –199.1174 42.07557
When the variable for Vietnamese origin interacts with that of the third type of
occupation, the coefficient (C(20)) is negative, but its t-value of –1.805 is lower than the
critical value of 1.96. This suggests that the interaction is not significant. The differential
income between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese associate professional is calculated
to be –$79. The next null hypothesis states that there is no such d ifference:
H0 : b3 – b12 + b20 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-statistic from the Wald Test is 31.87, which is greater than the critical value F0.05
= 3.84, leading to a rejection of the above null hypothesis and the conclusion is that the
differential is significant. Alt hough the effect of being a Vietnamese para -professional
on income is not s ignificant, the differential effect is significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
207
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 31.87952 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 31.87952 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(12) + C(20) –256.7489 45.47290
The last inte raction is between the variables for Vietnamese origin and the occupation of
tradespeople and clerks. The coefficient C (21) is negative and has a t-value of –1.40,
which is lower than the critical value o f –1.96, implying that the interaction is not
significant. With the differential calculated as –$16, the following null hypothesis is set
up to state that there is no diff erence in income between a Vietnamese and a non -
Vietnamese tradesperson:
H0 : b3 – b13 + b21 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-statistic from the following Wald Test indicates a value of 18 .27, which is greater
than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis
and the conclusion is that the differential is significant. Although the effect of
Vietnamese tradespeople on income is not significant, the differential effect is
significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 18.27294 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 18.27294 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(13) + C(21) –132.0970 30.90215
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
208
In order to test for the significance of the four types of occupation, this is examined by
performing a Wald Test in turn. The first null hypothesis assumes that the occup ation of
managers has no effect on income:
H0 : b10 = b14 = b18 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
In the following Wald Test, the results show that there is an effect of the occupation of
managers. The F-statistic of 1130 is greater than the critical value with three degrees of
freedom F0.05 = 3.00 and therefore the above null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion
is that this occupation is significant in the equation.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 1130.345 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 3391.034 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) 233.6748 4.048576 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500
The next step is to test the significance of the occupation of professionals and the null
hypothesis is that this occupation has no effect on income:
H0 : b11 = b15 = b19 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
A Wald Test was performed and the following results show that the F-statistic is 1010,
which is greater than the critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion is that this occupation might
have a significant effect on income.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
209
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 1010.791 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 3032.374 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(11) 190.1761 3.600690 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746
When testing for the significance of the occupation of associ ate professionals, the null
hypothesis is that the occup ation of para-professionals has no effect on income:
H0 : b12 = b16 = b20 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
As indicated by the following Wald Test , the F-statistic of 495 is greater than the critical
value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. Therefore, the above null hypothesis is
rejected, with the conclusion that this occupation has a significant effect on income.
Wald Test: Test Statis tic Value df Probability F-statistic 495.0941 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1485.282 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(12) 141.0534 3.672537 C(16) –52.18229 26.77060 C(20) –78.18636 43.31213
The final null hypothesis concerns the occupation of tradesmen and clerical workers,
assuming that this occupation has no effect on income:
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
210
H0 : b13 = b17 = b21 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The results of the following Wald Test indicate that the F-statistic is 140, which is
greater than the critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. It leads to a
rejection of the above null hypothesis and the conclusion reached is that this occupation
is significant in explaining income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 140.2917 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 420.8751 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(13) 54.49394 2.688259 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017
In the interactions between ethnicity and occupations, there are some inconsistencies.
Firstly, while all four groups of occupation s show significance in Equation 1, only one
type has a s ignificant effect when interacting with the variables fo r Chinese and
Vietnamese origins, although all differentials in income are significant. Secondly,
different types of occupation have different implications for migrants. The occupation of
professional demonstrated a high level of significance for Chinese m igrants and this is
consistent with the belief that there is a high participation rate of Chinese migrants in
this occupation. For Vietnamese migrants, however, only the occupation of managers
has a significant effect. Thirdly, the results show some contra sts between the
occupational achievements of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. While Chinese
professionals outperform their Australian counterparts in earnings, the difference in
earnings between Vietnamese and Australian professionals is small. In addition ,
Vietnamese managers are disadvantaged in earnings when compared with those of
Australians; however, the d ifferential effect between Chinese and Australian managers is
not significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
211
5.4.2.4 Interactions between Ethnicity and Labour Force Status
When the variable for ethnicity is combined with labour force status, all coefficients for
these interactions are consistent with estimations.
5.4.2.4.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Labour Force Status
The cross product of the variables of Chinese ori gin and employee status (C(24)) shows
a coefficient of –$44 when other effects are not considered and the coefficient is
significant. By calculation, the effect for Chinese employees is a reduction in income of
$201 and for non-Chinese workers a reduction of $130. The differential is –$71,
meaning that in the pool of emplo yees, Chinese workers earn less than non -Chinese
workers. Reasons for this may include non -recognition of ove rseas qualifications and
work experience, a lower level of English language abi lity and possibly a mismatch
between jobs and qualifications.
In order to test for significance in the differential income between a Chinese and non -
Chinese employee, a null hypothesis is developed to assume that there is no such
difference:
H0 : b2 – b22 + b24 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the following Wald Test, the income of a Chinese employee is not the
same as that of a non -Chinese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 39.16, which is
greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. It therefore leads to a rejection of the above
null hypothesis and the conclusion is that the differential effect is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 39.16195 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 39.16195 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(22) + C(24) –85.42949 13.65135
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
212
The cross product of the variables for Chinese origin and self -employed status (C(25)) is
negative, as expected. The coefficient of –$78 means that a Chinese business operator
has a negative effect on income by $78 when other variables are held constant, and the t-
value of –2.50 suggests that this interaction is significant. The differential effect on
income between Chinese and non -Chinese entrepreneurs is –$105. In spite of the hard -
working nature of Chinese bus iness owners, they experience disadvantages earning
income compared to Australians. For business migrants, their background, skills and
capital have been assessed as suitable and sufficient to operate an enterprise prior to
arriving in Australia. Clearly, there are problems which restrict their success. Factors
which may be responsible for this restriction such as culture, sales strategy and
marketing concepts need to be analysed, particularly those relating to regional business
migrants. In order to test whether the differential income between a Chinese and non -
Chinese self-employed person is significant, a null hypothesis is developed to assume
that there is no such difference:
H0 : b2 – b23 + b25 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
In this case, the following Wald Test shows that the F-statistic is 0 .016, which is lower
than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
Although the t-value indicates that t he interaction is significant, the F-test results lead to
a conclusion that the differential income between a Chinese and a non -Chinese
entrepreneur is not significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 0.016744 (1, 91750) 0.8970 Chi-square 0.016744 1 0.8970
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(23) + C(25) 4.014609 31.02494
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
213
5.4.2.4.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Labour Force Status
From the perspective o f a Vietnamese employee, the coefficient of the interaction of the
variables for Vietnamese origin and employee status (C(26)) is negative, as expected.
However, the t-value of –0.29 is lower than the critical value of –1.96, suggesting that
this interaction is not significant. The next test is on the significance of the differential
income between Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese employees. A null hypothesis is
formed to assume that there is no such difference:
H0 : b3 – b22 + b26 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the following Wald Test, the difference in income between a Vietnamese
and non-Vietnamese employee is not zero. The F-statistic indicates a value of 12.928,
which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above
null hypothesis. Although the t-value indicates that the interaction is not significant, the
F-test confirms the conclusion that the differential effect is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 12.92862 (1, 91750) 0.0003 Chi-square 12.92862 1 0.0003
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(22) + C(26) –56.51005 15.71628
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
214
With the interaction between the variables for Vietnamese origin and self -employed
status, the coefficient (C(27)) is positive, but the t-value shows 0.3226, which is lower
than the critical value of 1.96. This suggests that the interaction is not significant. The
differential effect between a Vie tnamese and a non-Vietnamese business operator is
–$25. Based on the small difference, a test is performed to check whether this difference
is significant. The null hypothesis assumes that there is no such difference:
H0 : b3 – b23 + b27 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
According to the following Wald Test, the F-statistic is 4.879, which is still greater than
the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. Therefore, the above null hypothesis is rejected and it
leads to the conclusion that the d ifferential effect is significant.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 4.879398 (1, 91750) 0.0272 Chi-square 4.879398 1 0.0272
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(23) + C(27) 84.73743 38.36120
In assessing the effect of labour force status on income, a test is performed regarding the
significance of employee status, and the null hypothesis states that employee status has
no effect on income:
H0 : b22 = b24 = b26 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
From the following Wald Test, the effect of having employee status does not equal zero
and the F-statistic of 8.528 is greater than the critical value with three degrees of
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
215
freedom F0.05 = 3.00. Therefore, the test leads to a rejection of the null hypothesis and
the conclusion is that employee status is significant in explaining income variations.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 8.528731 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 25.58619 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(22) 13.93292 3.174035 C(24) –44.15038 15.21440 C(26) –5.068003 17.43527
Another test is performed on the significance of self -employed status. The null
hypothesis states that self-employed status has no effect on income:
H0 : b23 = b25 = b27 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
The F-statistic as indicated in the following Wald Test of 196.78 is greater than the
critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. The null hypothesis that self -
employed status has no significant effect in explaining income is rejected.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 196.7841 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 590.3522 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(23) –109.7462 4.640024 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
216
The overall interaction between ethnicity and labour force status has made clear the
significant contributions by the wor kforce irrespective of ethnicity ; however, those by
the self-employed sector need to be examined, as reflected in the relatively poor
performance of migrant entrepreneurs.
5.4.2.5 General Findings o f Equation 2
The coefficient of the other variables for s ex, age, hours worked and years of arrival in
Equation 2 have turned out to be consistent with e xpectations. The male sex correlates
positively with income and the calculated age effect of 59.468 is similar to that in
Equation 1. Hours worked also correlat es positively with income. A longer period spent
in Australia increases income.
In order to test if the variable for Chinese origin has a significant effect on income, the
following null hypothesis states that there is no such difference:
H0 : b2 = b6 = b7 = b14 = b15 = b16 = b17 = b24 = b25 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
From the results of the Wald Test, the effect of Chinese origin does not equal zero. The
F-statistic is 18.87. Under nine degrees of freedom, the critical value obtained is F0.05 =
1.98. Since the F-value is greater than 1.98, the nul l hypothesis is rejected and the
conclusion is that Chinese origin is significant in determining income.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
217
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 18.87138 (9, 91742) 0.0000 Chi-square 169.8425 9 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) –27.34619 10.30391 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 C(7) –69.79259 14.54861 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 C(16) –52.18229 26.77060 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 C(24) –44.15038 15.21440 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987
Regarding the significance of Vietnamese origin, the null hypothesis tests whether there
is a difference in having Vietnamese origin in the equation:
H0 : b3 = b8 = b9 = b18 = b19 = b20 = b21 = b26 = b27 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.
As indicated by the following Wald Test results, the eff ect of Vietnamese origin does
not equal zero. With an F-statistic of 7.04, which is greater than the critical value of
F0.05 = 1.98, it leads to a re jection of the above null hypothesis. The conclusion is that
Vietnamese origin is significant in determining income.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value Df Probability F-statistic 7.043275 (9, 91719) 0.0000 Chi-square 63.38948 9 0.0000
Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) –37.50913 10.63044 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145 C(9) –50.09329 26.77249 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746 C(20) –78.18636 43.31213 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017 C(26) –5.068003 17.43527 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
218
The overall strength of Equation 2 is measured by the value of R2. This means that
48.5% of the variations are explained by the model. This equation has some important
implications and demonstrates some d iverse attributes between Chinese and Vietnamese
migrants. Firstly, the two le vels of qualifications, the occupation of professionals and
employee status have significant effects on the co mparisons of earnings between
Chinese migrants and Australians. Although Chine se migrants generally have higher
qualifications, this factor alone does not enable them to outperform Australians in
earnings. There is a possibility of non -recognition of overseas qualifications and
discounting or overlooking o verseas work experience. Al so, regarding English language
ability, proficiency in conversational and business English could be another factor that
explains why Chinese holders of higher qualifications do not earn more than their
Australian counterparts. On the other hand, Chinese professionals are shown to gain
more than Australians. This may be because the qualifications of professionals are
locally obtained or these qualifications have to be recognised before migration.
However, in other sectors, such as assoc iate professionals and tradesmen, Chinese
migrants have not been able to demonstrate higher earnings than Australians. There are
some barriers facing the Chinese workforce overall and their participation as business
owners reported relatively less earnings than other groups . Apart from the possible
disadvantage of the lack of proficiency in English language, further research and
exploration need to be undertaken to analyse their d ifficulties and obstacles.
Unlike Chinese migran ts, the levels of qualifications, the occupation s of professionals,
associate professionals and tradespeople and self -employed status have not made
Vietnamese earnings significantly different from those of Australians. The only
significant difference in earnings occurs in the occupation of managers. The re appear to
be characteristics that are found in Chinese managers that Vietnamese managers lack,
resulting in the significant Vietnamese –Australian differential, but an insignificant
Chinese–Australian differential. On the other hand, the Vietnamese –Australian
employee differential is smaller than the Chinese –Australian employee differential. One
possible explanation for this may be related to the fact that Vietnamese migrants have
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
219
not shown a high rate of particip ation in studying for tertiary qualifications and their
opportunity cost (or the cost of forgoing the opportunity of further studies
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost )) might be less than that for Chinese
migrants. In addition, the Vietnamese –Australian self-employed differential ( –$25) is
smaller than the Chinese –Australian self-employed d ifferential (–$105).
5.4.3 Equation 3
Equation 3 breaks down into two sub-equations using probit analysis to test the
significance of factors that contribute to the two levels of qualifications. The se equations
examine the factors affecting the decision to acquire educational achievements using
probit analysis.
5.4.3.1 Results of Equation 3A (using a sample of 91,751) Dependent Variable: QALLP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 09:28 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –4.000249 0.077431 –51.66208 0.0000
CHN 0.160329 0.060125 2.666615 0.0077 VTNM –0.638983 0.116362 –5.491335 0.0000 AGEP 0.100754 0.003484 28.91653 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.001064 3.73E-05 –28.48289 0.0000 YARP 0.017721 0.004293 4.127670 0.0000 SEXP –0.025292 0.017303 –1.461731 0.1438
Mean dependent var 0.029177 S.D. dependent var 0.168303 S.E. of regression 0.167267 Akaike info criterion 0.250462 Sum squared resid 2566.842 Schwarz criterion 0.251181 Log likelihood –11483.07 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.250681 Restr. log likelihood –12099.10 Avg. log likelihood -0.125155 LR statistic (6 d f) 1232.055 McFadden R -squared 0.050915 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 89074 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 2677
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
220
With the dummy variable for p ostgraduate qualifications as the dependent variable,
Equation 3A aims at testing whether such f actors as ethnici ty, age, years of arrival and
sex will affect the choice of acqui ring qualifications at postgraduate level. The total
number of individuals who have this level of education in the sample is 2,677. The
results show that all variables are significant, exception that for sex.
Consistent with expectations, the results show a positive contribution by Chinese
migrants in acquiring the highest level of qualifications. With a positive slope of 0.16,
the variable for Chinese origin increases the p robability of having qualifications by
about 16%, holding other variables constant. However, there is a possibility that some
overseas students from China ha ve been included in the Census. Since the migration
policy awards more po ints for those having postgraduate qualificatio ns, it is p robable
that these students can make use of the completed qualifications to apply for permanent
residence. For this reason, there is a possibility that one of the purposes for Chinese
achieving for higher qualifications is to migrate. On the other hand, the coefficient of the
dummy variable for Vietnamese origin does not show a positive attitude towards
obtaining qualifications, as i ndicated by a negative slope. This is consistent to the 1991
Census findings of their qualifications factor that about 6.8 % among the Vietnam -born
have post-secondary qualifications (Bureau of Immigration 1994:18). About 9 % of the
second generation of the Vietnam-born have tertiary quali fications (Bureau of
Immigration and Population Research 1994:40).
As expected, the probit analysis shows a small impact of age on the probability of
gaining qualifications, but this factor is significant. By calculating t he linear and non -
linear age effect, at the age of 42 the probability of acquiring postgraduate qualifications
falls. In performing the test using the sample of 3,763 consisting of only Chinese and
Vietnamese migrants, the age e ffect calculated is 44.48. T his indicates that for these
migrants the age where the probability of having this level of qualifications falls is 44.
This result implies that these migrants spend more of their lifetime in studies.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
221
Consistent with the assumption that the longer a perso n stays in Australia, the higher the
probability of obtaining postgraduate qualifications, the coefficient of the variable for
years of arrival is 0.0177. A negative and insignificant coefficient is found for this
variable when the regression is estimated using the samples of Chinese and Vietnamese
migrants only. This indicates that the level of qualifications attained by migrants is not
affected by the length of stay.
Results of Equation 3A (using a sample of 3,763)
Dependent Variable: QALLP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 11:34 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 37 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 1.082415 12658.12 8.55E-05 0.9999
CHN –4.948961 12658.12 –0.000391 0.9997 VTNM –5.610679 12658.12 –0.000443 0.9996 AGEP 0.114664 0.021559 5.318598 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.001289 0.000243 –5.297658 0.0000 YARP –0.012187 0.008304 –1.467633 0.1422 SEXP 0.170899 0.079966 2.137140 0.0326
Mean dependent var 0.040925 S.D. dependent var 0.198142 S.E. of regression 0.194610 Akaike info criterion 0.310224 Sum squared resid 142.2508 Schwarz criterion 0.321818 Log likelihood –576.6861 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.314347 Restr. log likelihood –642.9919 Avg. log likelihood –0.153252 LR statistic (6 d f) 132.6115 McFadden R -squared 0.103121 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 3609 Total obs 3763 Obs with Dep=1 154
The coefficient of the variable for sex turns out differently in the two samples. In the
main sample, this coefficient is negative and insignificant with a t-value of –1.46,
meaning that Australian postgraduate holders are balanced in sex. In the case of
migrants, however, males are more educated than females.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
222
5.4.3.2 Results of Equation 3B (using a sample of 91,751)
Equation 3B examines the same variables as in Equation 3A with a view to test whether
these factors have a similar effect in affecting the decision to obtain bachelor
qualifications.
Dependent Variable: QALLP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 13:06 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –1.931367 0.035406 –54.54981 0.0000
CHN 0.317423 0.038301 8.287576 0.0000 VTNM –0.462643 0.055535 –8.330644 0.0000 AGEP 0.052361 0.001630 32.11652 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.000623 1.72E–05 –36.24094 0.0000 YARP 0.019020 0.002714 7.008771 0.0000 SEXP –0.092150 0.010314 –8.934581 0.0000
Mean dependent var 0.148532 S.D. dependent var 0.355629 S.E. of regression 0.351390 Akaike info criterion 0.815909 Sum squared resid 11328.07 Schwarz criterion 0.816628 Log likelihood –37423.24 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.816128 Restr. log likelihood -38549.64 Avg. log likelihood -0.407878 LR statistic (6 d f) 2252.807 McFadden R -squared 0.029220 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 78123 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 13628
As in Equation 3A, the variable for Chinese origin correlates positively with the
probability of acquiring a bachelor degree and that for Vietnamese orig in has a negative
coefficient. Among Chinese migrants, a relatively high percentage (32 %) has a bachelor
degree or higher diploma. Once again, it is possible that so me Chinese international
students who have completed a bachelor degree or higher diploma ar e included. This
level of qualification helps them to satisfy the educational criteria in skill migration
applications. This effect supports the hypothesis that Chinese origin will increase the
probability of achieving bachelor or higher diploma qualificat ions.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
223
The age effect is 42 .02, meaning that from the age of 42, the p robability of attaining this
educational level starts to fall. However, in the sample of Chinese and Vietnamese
migrants, the peak age is 32.79.
Results of Equation 3B (using a sample o f 3,763)
Dependent Variable: QALLP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 13:04 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance mat rix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –1.018775 0.245162 –4.155513 0.0000
CHN –0.154791 0.160204 –0.966215 0.3339 VTNM –0.971026 0.157291 –6.173435 0.0000 AGEP 0.046957 0.009291 5.054050 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.000716 0.000104 –6.851106 0.0000 YARP 0.008510 0.005016 1.696527 0.0898 SEXP 0.016822 0.048037 0.350196 0.7262
Mean dependent var 0.219240 S.D. dependent var 0.413787 S.E. of regression 0.394752 Akaike info criterion 0.958513 Sum squared re sid 585.2951 Schwarz criterion 0.970108 Log likelihood –1796.443 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.962636 Restr. log likelihood –1979.129 Avg. log likelihood –0.477396 LR statistic (6 d f) 365.3714 McFadden R -squared 0.092306 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 2938 Total obs 3763 Obs with Dep=1 825
The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is positive in both samples. Once
again, this factor is not important to migrants obtaining a bachelor level of
qualifications. Regarding the motiv ation to study, the results in the two samples indicate
that there are more female achievers with bachelor degrees in the main sample, whereas
for migrants, there is not a significant gender difference.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
224
5.4.3.3 General Findings o f Equations 3A and 3B
On the whole, the results of Equations 3A and 3B show that the ethnicity factor is of
significance in assessing the probability of having postgraduate and bachelor
qualifications. Both the variables of Chinese and Vietnamese are of significance, but the
attitude towards acquiring higher education is different among these two groups. The
results support the belief that being Ch inese increases the probability of higher
educational qualifications. Vietnamese migrants who attain tertiary education do not
have as high a proportion as Chinese migrants. For the mainstream population, females
are more likely to be education achievers. Among Chinese and Vietnamese migrants,
more males are postgraduate holders but the proportion at the bachelor level is more
balanced across males and females.
5.4.4 Equation 4
Equation 4 has five sub-equations, 4A to 4E, to look at the employability of Chinese and
Vietnamese migrants and the impact of other human capital variables in the five types of
occupation. The first three types of occupation lead to higher earnings than the other two
(5.4.1.4) and are commonly regarded as white -collar high status jobs . The last two
occupations are regarded as blue -collar lower income jobs.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
225
5.4.4.1 Results of Equation 4A (using a sample of 91,751 )
Dependent Variable: OCCP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 19:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix co mputed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –4.296554 0.065240 –65.85721 0.0000
CHN –0.317734 0.079204 –4.011613 0.0001 VTNM –0.278074 0.116960 –2.377524 0.0174
QALLP1 0.212558 0.034679 6.129348 0.0000 QALLP2 0.221387 0.018614 11.89379 0.0000
HRSP 0.031697 0.000552 57.41330 0.0000 ENGP 0.043284 0.038098 1.136127 0.2559 AGEP 0.058730 0.002912 20.16682 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.000456 3.11E–05 –14.65813 0.0000 YARP –0.011793 0.004934 –2.390277 0.0168 SEXP 0.218058 0.016595 13.13996 0.0000
Mean dependent var 0.058288 S.D. dependent var 0.234289 S.E. of regression 0.220166 Akaike info criterion 0.354023 Sum squared resid 4446.925 Schwarz criterion 0.355153 Log likelihood –16229.99 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.354367 Restr. log likelihood –20389.94 Avg. log likelihood –0.176892 LR statistic (10 df) 8319.901 McFadden R -squared 0.204020 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86403 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5348
In the sample , there are 5,348 managers and administrators, representing 5 .8% of the
total. This number is the smallest group among the professions. The number of managers
who are of either Chinese or Vie tnamese origin in the segregate d sample is only 90,
which represents 2.4 % of total migrants in the segregated sample. The results of the
probit analysis of Equation 4A indicate that the coefficients of the dummy variables for
Chinese and Vietnamese origin are negative, as expected. This is consistent with the
findings of DIMIA and the ABS 1 991 Census.
Consistent with the belief that higher qualifications are of value in the achievement of
high status jobs, the coefficients of the variables for postgraduate and bachelor
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
226
qualifications (QALLP1 and QALLP2) in Equation 4A are positive relative to the group
with basic education or no qualifications. Both regressors show signif icance towards
advancement to a manager. The positive coefficient of the variable for hours worked
confirms the hypothes is that managers are required to work long and non -standard
hours. As explained previously, it was expected that the variable for English language
proficiency is important to non -English-speaking migrants in participating in all types of
occupation, including managerial positions. However, the results show that this factor is
not significant. This is because the majority of sample members are Australian-born who
are proficient in English language, irrespective of occupation.
The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is negative . Although this fac tor is not
highly significant , it indicates that recent migrants are more likely to be managers. In
order words, new migrants might have a better chance of being managers than earlier
migrants. It also implies that skilled migration has been effective. Th e posi tive
coefficient of age suggests that work experience is essential in this profession. As
expected, age adds to the probability of being a manager and there is a reverse U -shaped
relationship. The calculated age when this probability falls is 64.39. Compared with the
age of 59 when income drops in Equation 1, a manager has a longer working lif e. The
positive coefficient of the variable for sex confirms the assumption of the domination of
this type of occupation by males.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
227
5.4.4.2 Results of Equation 4 B (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: OCCP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 19:20 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 itera tions Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –3.200407 0.059052 –54.19653 0.0000
CHN –0.233662 0.057064 –4.094722 0.0000 VTNM –0.279011 0.088567 –3.150279 0.0016
QALLP1 1.893040 0.027105 69.84131 0.0000 QALLP2 1.570461 0.014761 106.3956 0.0000
HRSP 0.017929 0.000425 42.18475 0.0000 ENGP –0.061676 0.032372 –1.905251 0.0567 AGEP 0.054784 0.002884 18.99474 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.000654 3.31E–05 –19.79958 0.0000 YARP 0.006411 0.003667 1.748427 0.0804 SEXP –0.231342 0.014692 –15.74662 0.0000
Mean dependent var 0.106833 S.D. dependent var 0.308902 S.E. of regression 0.252459 Akaike info criterion 0.434683 Sum squared resid 5847.100 Schwarz criterion 0.435813 Log likelihood –19930.31 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.435028 Restr. log likelihood –31180.80 Avg. log likelihood –0.217222 LR statistic (10 df) 22500.97 McFadden R -squared 0.360815 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 81949 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 9802
Equation 4B uses probit analysis to examine the factors affecting the occupation of
professionals. There are 9,802 professionals (10.68 % of total respondents) in the main
sample and 401 (10.65 %) in the segregated sample of only Chinese and Vietnamese
migrants. Once again, the coefficients of the variables for ethnicity are negative. Based
on the results of Equation 3, Chinese migrants generally have qualifications that enable
them to become professionals. However, Equation 4B does not support the assumption
of a high participation rate of Chinese migrants as pro fessionals. These results indicate
that being a Chinese migrant has a negative influence on the probability of being
employed as a professional. This is because the majority of those in the seg regated
samples are earlier migrants and it is believed th at more recent data should capture the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
228
effect of higher participation of Chinese migrants in professional occupations as a result
of the increase in skill -based migration.
The coefficients of the variables for p ostgraduate and bachelor qualifications are positive
and have a hi ghly significant impact on involvement in this occupation. This is
consistent with the assumption that specialisation as a professional in fields such as
information technology, engineering and accounting require academic credentials.
As for managers, the number of hours worked influences income of professionals. The
results show that this factor is positive and significant. English language proficiency is
significant in conside ration for this job, but the coefficient of this variable is negative.
Since most individuals speak English, the effect of the lan guage factor for non-English-
speaking migrants on this occupation is not measured. Up to a certain level, the
probability of being a profes sional increases with age, as estimated. The age effect is
calculated as 42, meaning that the probability of being a professional starts to fall at this
age. This drop -off age is low compared with that of a manager (64 in Equation 4A), but
this may indicat e advancement to the managerial category rather than retirement.
Since the coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is not significant, work
opportunities are balanced between mainstream Australians and recent migrants.
Although there are more mal e managers, the proportion of females working as
professionals has increased more than that for males, as shown by the negative
coefficient of the variable for sex in this model.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
229
5.4.4.3 Results of Equation 4C (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable : OCCP3 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 09:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second d erivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –3.476686 0.072843 –47.72845 0.0000
CHN –0.195058 0.062740 –3.108997 0.0019 VTNM –0.411009 0.089702 –4.581941 0.0000
QALLP2 0.351836 0.042157 8.345877 0.0000 QALLP3 0.328104 0.040217 8.158413 0.0000
AGEP 0.054817 0.002970 18.45682 0.0000 AGEP*AGEP –0.000653 3.52E–05 –18.56525 0.0000
SEXP –0.065082 0.014539 –4.476246 0.0000 HRSP 0.024071 0.000449 53.59573 0.0000 YARP 0.011460 0.003806 3.011372 0.0026 ENGP 0.008046 0.031866 0.252511 0.8006
Mean dependent var 0.069394 S.D. dependent var 0.254125 S.E. of regression 0.246488 Akaike info criterion 0.437719 Sum squared resid 5573.807 Schwarz criterion 0.438849 Log likelihood –20069.58 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.438063 Restr. log likelihoo d –23127.63 Avg. log likelihood –0.218740 LR statistic (10 df) 6116.093 McFadden R -squared 0.132225 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 85384 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 6367
Equation 4C examines the factors affecting those who work as associate professionals.
There are 6,367 such individuals (6.9 % of the total in the sample) and 196 (5.2 %) in the
segregated sample. The coefficients of the dummy variables for Chinese and Vietnamese
origin are negative.
The coefficients of the variabl es for bachelor and basic qualifications are positive and
significant , as expected. As for the other two white -collar jobs, hours worked is
important and contributes positively to the probability of being an associate professional.
The age effect in this t ype of occupation is similar to that of professional, as the age
when this probability reaches its highest value is c alculated to be 41.97. This probably
indicates advancement to occupations of professionals and managers after age 42. In this
equation, the coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is negative and significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
230
This implies that earlier migrants have a higher probability of working in this
occupation. Consistent with the belief that the nature of the work is more suitable for
females, the coefficient of the variable for sex is negative.
5.4.4.4 Results of Equation 4D (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: OCCP4 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 10:50 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –2.870434 0.061229 –46.88021 0.0000
CHN –0.101166 0.050152 –2.017214 0.0437 VTNM –0.479167 0.066711 –7.182726 0.0000
QALLP2 0.455061 0.047149 9.651625 0.0000 QALLP3 1.212538 0.045039 26.92190 0.0000
AGEP 0.028483 0.002071 13.75283 0.0000 AGEP*AGEP –0.000490 2.46E–05 –19.88426 0.0000
SEXP –0.183083 0.011456 –15.98141 0.0000 HRSP 0.024915 0.000327 76.17375 0.0000 YARP 0.000292 0.003227 0.090456 0.9279 ENGP 0.095778 0.024069 3.979232 0.0001
Mean dependent var 0.167399 S.D. dependent var 0.373334 S.E. of regression 0.348073 Akaike info criterion 0.754156 Sum squared resid 11114.74 Schwarz criterion 0.755286 Log likelihood –34586.27 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.754500 Restr. log likelihood –41447.37 Avg. log likelihood –0.376958 LR statistic (10 df) 13722.20 McFadden R -squared 0.165538 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 76392 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 15359
The last two occupational groups are identified as blue-collar jobs as these jobs
emphasise manual or physical ability or training rather than education. The fourth group
comprises tradespersons, technicians, mechanical and construction workers, clerks and
salesmen. The number of respondents in this group is 15,359, representing 16.7 % of the
total and 404 (10.7 %) in the segregated sample. This indicates a reduced rate of
participation of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants in this occupation.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
231
Contrary to reports of a high pa rticipation of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants in this
type of occupation, the coefficients are negative. If a person is of Vietnamese origin, the
probability of pursuing this career is reduced by 47.9 % whereas in the case of Chinese
migrants, the probability is reduced by 10 %. Contrary to the traditional belief of a high
rate of participation of Chinese migrants in this occupation, the results indicate a falling
participation or a possible movement to higher status jobs as a result of the increasing
emphasis on skilled migration.
With the inclusion of the regressors of bachelor and basic qualifications, the estimated
coefficients show positive signs with s ignificance, confirming that this occupation
requires less than a bachelor level of education. As with other occupations, hours
worked shows significance and increases the probability of being a tradesperson or
technician. English p roficiency is necessary for engagin g in this type of work and also
shows a positive effect in the development of a blue -collar career. The coefficient of the
variable for years after arrival is positive but not significant. Although age has a positive
effect on the participation in this typ e of occupation, it also has a non -linear effect. The
age when the probability d rops is calculated to be 29.06, however the age effect in this
equation is difficult to interpret. The range of work in this group of occupations is very
wide, covering tradesp eople and clerical workers across many industries. Workers in this
group may move to other types of occupation when better job opportunities arise in a
particular industry, not necessarily because of retirement. Also, the stability in the nature
of one job could be offset by another. Fo r example, a male technician is expected to
have a long working life, but this effect is offset by the instability of the clerical
workforce, largely occupied by females, for reasons such as childbirth or other family
responsibilities. Therefore, the age effect in this equation cannot be accurately estimated.
The coefficient of the variable for sex is neg ative, confirming the high participation by
females in intermediary jobs such as clerks and salespeople.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
232
5.4.4.5 Results of Equation 4E (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: OCCP5 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 15:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 5 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 1.266894 0.051945 24.38896 0.0000
CHN 0.470892 0.046482 10.13060 0.0000 VTNM 0.690549 0.062468 11.05438 0.0000 AGEP –0.060924 0.001796 –33.92286 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP 0.000732 2.03E–05 36.14362 0.0000 HRSP –0.043937 0.000304 –144.3327 0.0000
QALLP2 0.294419 0.037699 7.809682 0.0000 QALLP3 1.180854 0.035686 33.08999 0.0000
SEXP 0.167245 0.010969 15.24744 0.0000 ENGP –0.031057 0.023705 –1.310173 0.1901 YARP –0.005370 0.003075 –1.746476 0.0807
Mean dependent var 0.598086 S.D. dependent var 0.490287 S.E. of regression 0.367557 Akaike info criterion 0.827992 Sum squared resid 12393.91 Schwarz criterion 0.829122 Log likelihood –37973.53 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.828336 Restr. Log likelihood –61819.99 Avg. log likelihood –0.413876 LR statistic (10 df) 47692.92 McFadden R -squared 0.385740 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 36876 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 54875
The last group of occupations (OCCP5) includes labourers, junior clerical workers and
machine operators and those without an occupation. This is the largest group of all
occupational groups, amountin g to 54,875 of total records of 91,751 (59.8%). There are
2,672 Chinese and Vietnamese migran ts in this occupation (71% of the total in the
segregated sample). Equation 4E includes all human capital variables as in Equation 4D.
Consistent with the view that both the Chinese and Vietnamese migrants have remai ned
largely engaged in this category, the coefficients of these two variables are positive and
significant, showing that Chinese and Vietnamese migrants have a strong correlation
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
233
with working as labourers. Vietnamese migrants have a probability of 69 % of working
as labourers, higher than the 47 % probability for the Chinese.
Although the coefficient of the variable for hours worked is significant, it h as a negative
effect on the probability of working as a labourer. This is because the nature of the work
is often routine and standardised in nature and does not require extended working hours.
Like tradespeople, a basic qualification is relevant for a labourers’ job. With a positive
and significant coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications, this may indicate
that those holding these qualifications must work as labourers to earn income because of
non-recognition of overseas qualifications, over -qualification, discrimination on grounds
of age, lack of appropriate experience, or a low standard of Eng lish. The coefficient of
the variable for years after arrival has a negative impact on this job category and the
coefficient is not significant. The factor of English language facility is not as important
as in other types of occupation. As expected, the c oefficient of the variable for sex is
positive, confirming that males have a higher participation rate in labourers’ jobs.
Consistent with expectations, the age effect is different from that of other types of
occupation. Age has a negative impact on the p robability of working as a labourer but
has a positive composite effect. This confirms the assumption that this occupation has a
higher probability of being chosen by either young or old persons rather than the middle -
aged. As a young person becomes older, the probability reduces but rises again at the
calculated age of 41.6.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
234
5.4.4.6 General Findings o f Equations 4A to 4E
The results of Equations 4 A to 4E demonstrate some important features of skilled
migration reflected in the five types of occupation. Fir stly, they reflect that one of the
results of a change in migration policy towards skilled migration is the trend of
increasing participation of Chinese migrants working for higher status occupations such
as professionals (5.4.2.3.1). This also occurs as a result of the motivation of Chinese
migrants to acquire higher qualifications (5.4.3.1) and preparedness to work long hours
(4.3.1). The trend is less apparent in Vietnamese migrants, as their concentration in the
labourers’ sector has remained high, from 1991 to 1996 (5.4.4.5). The barriers to high
status jobs may be related to the fact that the motivation to study for higher
qualifications among the Vietnamese may not be as high as among other ethnic groups,
or a lack of very high standard of English lan guage proficiency. However, one alternate
route is by way of self -employed status. Secondly, a phenomenon has developed as a
result of migration policy where recent migrants participate at the two extreme ends of
occupations, that is, managers and labourer s. It is also possible th at the qualifications
and work experience of earlier migrants have later been accepted and enabled them to
take up managerial positions. Recent migrants who take up labourer jobs are more likely
to come to Australia via the family stream. With skilled mi gration targeting middle -aged
settlers, it is less likely that future migrants will continue to work as labourers. However,
some of the e arlier migrants with higher education qualifications may have to work as
labourers, tradespeople and clerks.
Another development is a possible balancing of males and females in high status jobs.
The traditional concept of males dominating the first two types of occupation has
changed. This is supported by the pattern of significant contributions by females in the
second, third and fourth types of occupation, as a result of the increase in higher
qualifications among females. Males continue to dominate participation at the two
extreme ends of managers and labourers.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
235
5.4.5 Equation 5
Equation 5 is broken down into four equations exploring the influence of human capital
variables on labour force status. Equation 5A compares the employability of Chinese
and Vietnamese migrants and analyses the contribution of human capital in the
employment sector. There are 52,275 employees in the main sample and 1,887 in the
segregated sample. The coefficients of all variables are significant except those of
Chinese origin, bachelor qualifications and years of arrival, and the coefficients of some
regressors are di fferent from expectations.
5.4.5.1 Results of Equation 5A (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: LFSP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:22 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adj usting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –0.133616 0.037129 –3.598694 0.0003
CHN –0.027750 0.047287 –0.586833 0.5573 VTNM –0.334044 0.056896 –5.871106 0.0000 AGEP –0.006181 0.001867 –3.311233 0.0009
AGEP*AGEP –0.000233 2.08E–05 –11.21461 0.0000 HRSP 0.048211 0.000369 130.6626 0.0000
QALLP1 0.150484 0.039804 3.780647 0.0002 QALLP2 0.025909 0.018911 1.370070 0.1707 OCCP1 –0.180180 0.024158 –7.458265 0.0000 OCCP2 0.803475 0.025525 31.47764 0.0000 OCCP3 0.351515 0.024541 14.32368 0.0000 OCCP4 0.764816 0.018551 41.22751 0.0000 SEXP –0.187511 0.012009 –15.61431 0.0000 YARP –0.001000 0.003258 –0.306762 0.7590
Mean dependent var 0.569749 S.D. dependent var 0.495114 S.E. of regression 0.304406 Akaike info criterion 0.660119 Sum squared resid 8500.617 Schwarz criterion 0.661558 Log likelihood –30269.30 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.660557 Restr. log likelihood –62701.32 Avg. log likel ihood –0.329907 LR statistic (13 df) 64864.03 McFadden R -squared 0.517246 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 39476 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 52275
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
236
Consistent with expectations, the coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin i s
negative. This is consistent with the results of Equation 2, which found that Chinese
migrants generally do not earn higher incomes than Australians. The t-value of –0.586
indicates that the influence of Chinese origin on the overall working sector is no t
significant. The coefficient of the variable for Vietnamese origin is also negative but it is
significant.
As expected, postgraduate and bachelor degree qualifications have a positive impact on
employment. The coefficient of the variable for postgraduat e qualifications is positive
and significant relative to the group with basic or no qualifications, suppo rting the Asian
belief that higher qualifications will increase the chance of employment. However, the
results are not significant at the bachelor degr ee level. The age effect in this equation is
different from that in other equations. Age is estimated to have a posit ive influence on
the working sector up to retirement, but the coefficient of this variable is negative and
the composite effect is also neg ative. In other words, the older a person becomes, the
less likely they are to be employees.
The coefficients of the v ariables for occupation are consistent with expectations, with
the exception of managers. The occupation of manager does not support a hi gher
opportunity of being employed than the category of labourers. As anticipated, business
migrants identify themselves as managers and administrators but they are not in the
employee secto r. The coefficient of the variable for the occupation of tradespeo ple is
greater than that for the occupation of associate professionals. Given that the person is a
tradesperson or a clerk, the probability of being an employee is 76 %. This probability is
very close to that for a p rofessional (80%). Hours worked is signif icant in the working
sector and it has a positive effect on the likelihood of being employed. The negative
coefficient of the variable for sex supports the growing importance of females in the
labour force despite the traditional role of women in family responsibilities. The variable
for years of arrival is not significant in this equation.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
237
5.4.5.2 Results of Equation 5B (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: LFSP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:24 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –3.781580 0.060807 –62.19022 0.0000
CHN –0.123263 0.066204 –1.861869 0.0626 VTNM 0.033926 0.082492 0.411259 0.6809 AGEP 0.064947 0.002684 24.19422 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP –0.000572 2.80E–05 –20.43160 0.0000 HRSP 0.009393 0.000498 18.85102 0.0000
QALLP1 –0.390795 0.043876 –8.906776 0.0000 QALLP2 –0.175206 0.022713 –7.713866 0.0000 OCCP1 0.930948 0.026161 35.58576 0.0000 OCCP2 0.471466 0.028603 16.48303 0.0000 OCCP3 0.545688 0.027099 20.13696 0.0000 OCCP4 0.432010 0.021562 20.03556 0.0000 SEXP 0.119225 0.015693 7.597371 0.0000 YARP 0.006396 0.004212 1.518469 0.1289
Mean dependent var 0.055302 S.D. dependent var 0.228570 S.E. of regression 0.220231 Akaike info criterion 0.370072 Sum squared resid 4449.403 Schwarz criterion 0.371510 Log likelihood –16963.22 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.370510 Restr. log likelihood –19620.01 Avg. log likelihood –0.184883 LR statistic (13 df) 5313.575 McFadden R-squared 0.135412 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86677 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5074
Equation 5B studies the influences which determine whether people adopt a self -
employed status. From the main sample, there are 5,074 entrepreneurs and , from the
segregated sample, 168 Chinese or Vietnamese business owners. Significant outcomes
can be detected by comparing the r esults of Equations 5A and 5B.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
238
The coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin is ne gative, whereas that for
Vietnamese origin is positive, and both coefficients are insignificant. Contrary to the
view that migrants generally have a hi gher tendency to be self-employed than
Australians, Chinese migrants do not positively and signi ficantly contribute to the sector
of business owners. Although business migration has been introduced requiring this
sector of migrants to establish and run businesses, the neg ative coefficient for the
variable for Chinese origin implies that the number of Chinese business migrants is not
substantial or that Chinese migrants do not have a high level of interest in self-
employment. Despite the potential for these migrants to make use of connections with
their home countries, the lack of interest to be entrepreneurs does not support
exploitation of further trade prospects.
For Vietnamese migrants, although the 1991 Census showed a low rate of participation
as business owners, the results in Equation 5B show a positive coefficient of the dummy
variable for Vietnamese origin. If a person is of Vietnamese o rigin, the probability of
being self-employed is 3.3%, although the coefficient is not significant. This may
indicate Vietnamese migrants have the potential to become entrepreneurs. Since
Vietnam is not listed as one of the top source countr ies of business migrants, it is likely
that there are few self -employed Vietnamese who are required to establish business es as
part of the manda tory policy. If business owners identify themselves as managers,
Vietnamese managers could in fact be ent repreneurs who have suffered disadvantages in
earning income when compared to Aus tralians (Equation 2). On the o ther hand, being
self-employed may be an alternative for work as self -employment does not necessarily
require qualifications and high level of English language ability. It might also be
expected that there is a concentration of labourers amongst earlier migrants, with the
possibility that their second generation becom e managers or business owners.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
239
The coefficients of the variables for postgraduate and bachelor qualifications show
negative signs with significance. This is consistent with the belief that running a
business does not necessarily r equire higher qualifications. Those who acquire higher
levels of qualifications are more likely to be employees than willing to bear business
risks. Those who have lower qualifications are more likely to become ent repreneurs.
Since the emphasis of skilled migration is on qualifications and occupational skills, it is
more likely that future independent migrants will mostly be employees. Current
legislation may have been based on the assumption that entrepreneurs do not have higher
qualifications as this attr ibute does not provide any point score for business migration
applicants.
Each type of occup ation contributes positively and significantly towards self -employed
status when the fifth occupational group is considered. For managers and administrators,
the coefficient in Equation 5A is insignificant whereas in Equation 5B it is 0.93. This is
consistent with the view that migrants who are self -employed identify themselves as
managers. If an indi vidual is a manager, it is more likely that they ar e a proprietor rather
than an employee when other variables are not considered. Although an employee
manager earns the highest income, as indicated in Equation 2, this employment
opportunity is so scarce that many managers may have to work as self -employed people.
This phenomenon does not apply to professionals. There is an 80 % chance that a person
is an employee professional whereas the probability for a self -employed professional is
47%. For the third type of occupation, there is more than a 54 % chance that an associate
professional is a self-employed person, compared with a 35 % chance of working for an
employer. The probability that a tradesperson or clerk owns their own business is 43 %,
which is much higher than the probability of being an employee, at 76 %. In summary,
professionals and tradespeople tend to be employees, and managers and associate
professionals have greater incentives to run businesses.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
240
Another attribute that has different effects among the two labour force groups is age.
The coefficient of this variab le in Equation 5B is positive and significant, supporting the
belief that age carries with it the experience and capital that are necessary to become
self-employed. Although age is signif icant for both the employee and self-employed
status, there does not appear to be a composite age effect for employee status. As age
increases, the probability of obtaining employment increases. For self -employed people,
the age ceiling is calculated to be 56.79, meaning that at the age of 57, the probability of
being self-employed falls. In 1998, men over 45 years of age made up 31 % of the male
labour force, compared with 27 % 10 years ago. For women, 28 % of the age group 15 to
64 were above 45 and this was accounted for 22% in 1988
(www.avetra.org.au/papers/%202000). A stud y comparing the working lives of migrants
with those of Australians would be useful to provide greater insight into their influence
on the economy. As the results in Equation 5B show, the older the individual, the more
likely that they are entrepreneurs ra ther than employees, when other factors are held
constant. A possible explanation is that the prospects of employability decrease along
with an increase in the risk of being retrenched with age, as well as the lack of ability to
keep up with modern technol ogy. While employability is driven by personal factors such
as age, occupation -specific skills and experience, the decision to run a business depends
more heavily on other factors such as the economy, trading opportunities and cultural
links, and age is of secondary relevance.
The coefficient of the variable for hours worked shows a positive influence, whether the
worker is an employee or self -employed. A positive coefficient of the sex variable
supports the view that males are more likely to be ent repreneurs. The coefficient of the
variable for years of arrival is positive, meaning that it is more likely for earlier migrants
to become self-employed than recent migrants. However, the t-value of th is coefficient
is 0.1289, suggesting that this factor is no t significant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
241
5.4.5.3 Results of Equation 5C (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: LFSP3 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/19/04 Time: 20:32 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –1.318835 0.046540 –28.33793 0.0000
CHN 0.219348 0.045392 4.832255 0.0000 VTNM 0.517003 0.044866 11.52321 0.0000 AGEP 0.001601 0.002424 0.660482 0.5089
AGEP*AGEP –0.000246 2.89E–05 –8.522757 0.0000 SEXP 0.215573 0.014251 15.12698 0.0000
QALLP1 –0.476972 0.056770 –8.401901 0.0000 QALLP2 –0.335150 0.022745 –14.73502 0.0000
Mean dependent var 0.055672 S.D. dependent var 0.229289 S.E. of regression 0.226298 Akaike info criterion 0.400457 Sum squared resid 4698.212 Schwarz criterion 0.401279 Log likelihood –18363.17 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.400708 Restr. log likelihood –19716.38 Avg. log likeliho od –0.200141 LR statistic (7 d f) 2706.427 McFadden R -squared 0.068634 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86643 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5108
Although unemployment rates relate to macroeconomic factors such as economic
growth, issues of employment may also occur which are usually associated with the
concentration of certain ethnic groups. Equation 5C explores the factors contributing to
unemployment and has 5,108 persons who are unemployed looking for f ull- or part-time
work. In the segregated sample there are 403 Chinese or Vietna mese unemployed
persons. The variable for English language proficiency has been omitted as its
coefficient is not signi ficant. Another insignificant variable that has been omitted is
years of arrival. Th is implies that the probability of being unemployed is not affected by
whether an individual is a recent migrant or an ea rlier migrant.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
242
The results for Equation 5C indicate that both the coefficients of the dummy variables
for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are positive and si gnificant. Although Chinese
migrants have higher educational attainment, they do not contribute significantly to the
employee and self-employed sector, with a 22 % chance of unemployment. A pe rson of
Vietnamese origin has a 52 % probability of being unemployed. This high rate is
consistent with the finding that many Vietnamese -born persons who came as refugees
and on humanitarian grounds are unskilled and have been either welfare recipients or
work in labour-intensive industries.
Contrary to the expectation that age is an important factor in influencing the
unemployment rate, the results show that there is a positive correlation between age and
unemployment but the linear effect is insignificant. This means that other factors such as
qualifications are more important in affecting unemployment rate than age. Considering
that the coefficient of the variable for male sex is positive and significant in the equation
for self-employed sta tus, this variable is also positive. Males are more inclined to be
unemployed than females. With postgraduate qualifications, there is a p robability of
48% that the person is not unemployed. The probability that a bachelor degree holder is
not unemployed is 33 %. This leads to the conclusion that those wit hout qualifications
have a highe r chance of being unemployed.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
243
5.4.5.4 Results of Equation 5D (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: LFSP4 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:30 Sample(adjusted): 1 9175 1 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 5 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 0.196999 0.036916 5.336372 0.0000
CHN 0.316252 0.041580 7.605786 0.0000 VTNM 0.584334 0.048242 12.11243 0.0000 AGEP –0.092448 0.001621 –57.02738 0.0000
AGEP*AGEP 0.001419 1.80E–05 78.72063 0.0000 QALLP3 0.572559 0.014936 38.33362 0.0000
SEXP –0.601217 0.010383 –57.90147 0.0000 YARP –0.009015 0.003001 –3.004509 0.0027
Mean dependent var 0.319277 S.D. dependent var 0.466199 S.E. of regression 0.367075 Akaike info criterion 0.854639 Sum squared resid 12361.85 Schwarz criterion 0.855461 Log likelihood –39198.99 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.854889 Restr. log likelihood –57465.80 Avg. log likelihood –0.427232 LR statistic (7 d f) 36533.62 McFadden R -squared 0.317873 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 62457 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 29294
Equation 5D uses the variable for those no t in the labour force as the dependent variable.
There are 29,294 persons in the main sample and 1,305 in the segregated sample. Both
coefficients of the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are positive and
significant.
The existence of the astrona ut phenomenon (4.4.5) is supported by the positive
coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin, the negative coefficient of the variable for
sex and the negative coefficient of the variable for years of arrival. The coefficient of the
variable for Vietn amese origin is positive and significant, confirming that a higher
percentage of Vietnamese migrants are not in the labour force.
The negative age effect implies that as age increases, the probability of not being in the
labour force decreases, but there is a composite effect so that this probabilit y increases
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
244
after the calculated age of 32.57. This may represent the age at which women raise
children and are occupied in home duties.
5.4.5.5 General Findings o f Equations 5A to 5D
Equations 5A to 5D explore the factors affecting labour force status and the results show
some inconsistencies. Firstly, Chinese migrants experience similar difficulties as do
Vietnamese settlers in employment. In contrast to the objective of migration policy to
achieve a high leve l of employability, neither group shows positive and s ignificant
coefficients in contributing to the employee sector. Reasons for this include problems in
recognition of overseas qualifications, lack of local work experience and proficiency in
English language. Secondly, some hidden problems exist for those operators with self -
employed status. Equation 2 shows that Chinese and Vietnamese self-employed persons
do not earn a higher income than Australian counterparts relative to the group not in
work (5.4.2.4.1 & 5.4.2.4.2) . Reasons might relate to the business culture and strategies
adopted. Contrary to the statistics which list Asian countries as top -sourced countries for
business migrants and the enterprising culture of Asians ,17 participation in businesses
does not appear to be a favoured selection by Chinese settlers. Equation 5B shows that
being a Chinese migrant does not increase the probability of being a business owner or a
family worker. Vietnamese migrants may have a greater interest in becoming sel f-
employed (5.4.5.2).
The findings confirm that the skill -based migration policy developed in recent years is
achieving its desired goals. It has produced migrants with different employment, income
and qualifications characteristics from the earlier year s of the 1970s and 1980s. There
has also been a sign ificant positive change in the acceptance of the qualifications of
migrants, so that fewer migrants with bachelor degrees work as labourers, who are no w
mainly confined to earlier migrants. 17 Asians as a general referenced group.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
245
However, there are two issues that the migration policy must take into account. Firstly,
the overall picture for operating businesses is not encouraging as can be seen by the
negative impact on income, the large differential in e arnings between Vietnamese an d
Australians, and the insignificant participation by Chinese settlers in the self -employed
sector. One reason for this may be the relatively small quota allocated for business
migrants in the annual migration program (3.3.2.5). The number of visas issued is within
the budgeted number assigned for business migrants . As the quota allowed for this
category is comparatively smaller than other categories in the skilled stream , the
migration policy would be held strict in granting the number of visas to business people
during the year.
Another possible reason is the int roduction of the policy to place business migrants in
regional areas . Although the government’s intention is to divert migrant skills, capital
and technology to low growth regions, a certain level of supp ort and facilities have to be
provided to assist entrepreneur s in their settlement and business research. Lack of
services such as language support and educational resources in regional areas could
reduce the incentive of intended entrepreneurs , especially non-English speaking
migrants. The alternative is to participate as employees and this could lead to an
increased disproportion between employees and the self -employed. This is reflected in
the imbalances between the numbers in the employee and self -employed sectors for the
two groups of migrants.
Thirdly, there is still a high proportion of migrants who are unemployed or not in the
labour market. In terms of employability, the migration policy has introduced temporary
residence (3.4) so as to encourage settlers to gain relevant work experience before
changing to permanent status. This channel , together with the emphasis on skilled
migration, has helped recent migrants to have more success in labour force participation
and to be less likely to require wel fare benefits.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
246
5.4.6 Equation 6
Results of Equation 6 (using a sample of 91,751)
Dependent Variable: HRSP Method: Least Squares Date: 02/07/04 Time: 12:54 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints HRSP=C(1)+C(2 )*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*AGEP+C(5)*AGEP* AGEP
+C(6)*QALLP1+C(7)*QALLP2+C(8)*OCCP1+C(9)*OCCP2+C(10) *OCCP3+C(11)*OCCP4+C(12)*LFSP1+C(13)*LFSP2+C(15) *SEXP
Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –8.298129 0.238916 –34.73234 0.0000 C(2) 0.357114 0.265198 1.346593 0.1781 C(3) 0.367533 0.326906 1.124276 0.2609 C(4) 0.313991 0.010981 28.59493 0.0000 C(5) –0.003190 0.000114 –28.09574 0.0000 C(6) 1.308269 0.234773 5.572477 0.0000 C(7) 0.592650 0.120400 4.922333 0.0000 C(8) 11.84813 0.177989 66.56680 0.0000 C(9) 6.131478 0.159391 38.46818 0.0000 C(10) 9.143738 0.162030 56.43225 0.0000 C(11) 5.647504 0.119134 47.40467 0.0000 C(12) 27.84834 0.109446 254.4475 0.0000 C(13) 26.69060 0.188869 141.3182 0.0000 C(15) 5.212147 0.074899 69.58916 0.0000
R-squared 0.699771 Mean dependent var 21.19602 Adjusted R -squared 0.699728 S.D. dependent var 20.32217 S.E. of regression 11.13595 Akaike info criterion 7.658387 Sum squared resid 11376252 Schwarz criterion 7.659826 Log likelihood –351318.3
Equation 6 examines the factors affecting hours worked. Both the variables of Chinese
and Vietnamese origin correlate directly with hours worked, supporting the perceived
hard-working culture of Asians , but the coefficients are not si gnificant. Contrary to
expectations, these results suggest that the number of hours worked is dependent not on
ethnicity, but on other factors.
As expected, higher qualifications enable advancement to more senior positions and
therefore increased working hours, although the effect of having bachelor qualifications
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
247
on hours worked is minimal. The null hypothesis being tested is that the variables for
postgraduate and bachelor qualifications have the same effect on hours worked:
H0 : b6 = b7 H1 : H0 is not true.
The critical value F0.05 is 3.84 with one degree of freedom. The Wald Test is performed
to show that the F-value is 9 .126, which is greater than 3.84 and , therefore, the null
hypothesis is rejected. The test also shows that a postgraduate degree holder works for
0.7 hours per week more than a person with bachelor qu alifications. The conclusion is
that the effect of the two le vels of qualifications is not the same.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 9.126159 (1, 91737) 0.0025 Chi-square 9.126159 1 0.0025
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(6) – C(7) 0.715619 0.236885
The four types of occupation have positive correlations with working hours relative to
labourers’ jobs. The coefficient of the varia ble for a managerial occupation (C(7)) is
positive and highly significant. If an individual is a manager, their working hours
increase by 11.8 hours per week over and above the effect of other variables. In other
words, managers have the longest working ho urs. Coefficients of the variables for the
other three occupations are also positive and significant relative to the omitted group. It
is surprising to find that the coefficients of the variable for para -professional status
(C(10)) of 9.14 is greater than that for the professionals (C(9)) of 6.13. The results also
suggest that professionals work fewer hours while earning more income than para -
professionals and tradespeople.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
248
The null hypothesis assumes that the effect of the four types of occupation on hour s
worked is the same:
H0 : b8 = b9 = b10 = b11
H1 : H0 is not true.
With three degrees of freedom, the critical value F0.05 is 2.60. By comparing the F-value
obtained from the Wald Test of 486, this value is greater than the critical value of 2.60.
The test also shows that managers work six hours per week more than tradespeople and
associate professionals work three hours more. There is only a small difference in
working hours for professionals and tradespeople. Therefore, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conclusion is that there is a differential effect of the four types of
occupation on hours worked.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 486.7081 (3, 91737) 0.0000 Chi-square 1460.124 3 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(8) – C(11) 6.200626 0.182225 C(9) – C(11) 0.483973 0.164225 C(10) – C(11) 3.496234 0.167338
With respect to the effect of labour force status on hours worked, the results show
positive coeffic ients for both the dummies for employees and entrepreneurs relative to
unemployed status. This indicates that employees and business owners contribute
positively towards working hours. The null hypothesis assumes that the variables for
employees and busine ss owners have no effect on the hours worked:
H0 : b12 = b13 H1 : H0 is not true.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
249
The Wald Test shows an F-value of 47.9, which is greater than the c ritical value F0.05 =
3.84. The test also shows that employees work 1.157 hours per week more than
entrepreneurs. The null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion is that there is a
difference in the effect of the two variables on the hours worked.
Wald Test: Test Statistic Value Df Probability F-statistic 47.90559 (1, 91737) 0.0000 Chi-square 47.90559 1 0.0000
Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(12) – C(13) 1.157737 0.167270
Age has a positive effect on hours worked, implying that when age increases, so do
working hours. There is also a non -linear relationship between age and the hours
worked, and the calculated age of 49.2 means that , after this age, working hours will
reduce. Finally, the coefficient of the variable for sex is positive, meaning that the males
work more hours than females and this is consistent with assumptions.
In general, the effect of place of origin on hours worked is not significant. Types of
occupation play a more vital role owing to work demands. Working as employees versus
entrepreneurs is a factor influencing working hour s. As indicated by the value of R2 of
0.699771, 70% of the variation in working hours is exp lained by the model.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
250
5.5 Conclusion
The regression models and probit analysis presented in Equations 1 to 6 are in line with
the objective of examining the econom ic impact of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants.
The models have been tes ted at a 95% significance level , indicating the respective
significance of different attributes including educational achievements, occupational
performance and labour force participation. Other factors which may be relevant for the
testing of wealth effects, such as the value of saving s and assets, cannot be obtained
from the 1996 Census. The research process has identified some important economic
implications arising from migration policy. A summary of findings is presented in the
next chapter.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
251
Part VI CONCLUSION
6.0 Conclusion
This research has explored the objectives and outcomes of migration . The literature has
revealed that , over the years, Australia has seen population growth in the Australian -
born and overseas born sectors and migration has played an important role . Migration is
also motivated by the requirement to slow down the process of ageing (2.2.5 and 2.2.6) ,
to maintain population growth against the increasing permanent departures of Australian
and migrants (2.2.6) and to compete for work force and skills with the rest of the world
(2.2.6).
While the objectives of migration have placed more emphasis on the development of
skilled migration rather than the previous family migration (2.3.2 & 3.2), the policy has
continued to be inspired by the aim of maintaining a young, growing and working
Australia (2.2.5 and 2.2.6). Skilled migration plays a significant role in regulating the
nature and quality of settlers and hence affects the future population of Australia.
Accounting for more than h alf of the annual quota of the migration program (3.2),
skilled migrants are admitted through recognition of their occupational expertise,
proficiency in the English language, through studying for higher qualifications in
Australian institutions, under spo nsorship by employers because of the demand for their
skills, or by in vesting in businesses or participating as business ow ners who have
established their ventures or business connections within Australia (3.3.2). It is as a
result of this policy that Aust ralia has reaped the benefits of achieving a culturally
diverse population that contributes positively towards labour force participation and
exposure to intern ational trade (2.3.5). In competition for human resources and
technology with the rest of the wo rld, Australia has continued to absorb skilled migrants
and settlers who contribute to the society in employment or other co mmitments (2.2.6).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
252
This thesis explores the economic impact of Asian migrants under migration policy.
Findings from this research show that the previous problems affecting the employability
of migrants could be alleviated by means of the skilled migration program (2.3.4). Prior
to 1981, these earl ier migrants demonstrated a high er employability in engaging as
professionals than those arriving between 1986 and 1991 (2.3.4). It was also found that
some early Chinese migrants who have high academic credentials had worked at less
senior or sub -professional levels (5.4.2.2.1). This may be due in part to the non -
recognition of overseas qua lifications, and also due to a lower level of English language
proficiency including working and business English for non-English speaking migrants
(5.4.2.4.1). One significant achievement under skilled migration is that migrants’
qualifications have to be accredited by Australian professional bodies or other assessing
authorities (3.3.2.1), so that migrants with higher qualifications working as labourers are
confined mainly to the earlier influx. Since skill-based migration policy was introduced,
it is a pre-requisite that applicants undergo assessment of their English ability and
overseas qualifications and experience prior to applying for entry to Australia (3.3.2.1).
Also, international students ac quire Australian qualifications, work experience and
training which are readily accepted by professional and technical bodies and are able to
apply for permanent residenc e after their studies (2.3.6). In addition, with the
introduction of the economic stream of temporary workers, they have the oppo rtunity to
gain local experience prior to application for permanent status, which will also lead to
greater recognition and acceptance in the job market (3.3.4).
As compared with early migrants of the 1980s and early 1990s, recent migrants have
different employment, income and qualification characteristics. Prestigious occupations
such as managers and professionals ha ve been dominated mostly by Australian -born
people and English speaking migrants, but there are signs to indicate that a similar
proportion of Asians arr iving 1986–91 were able to undertake these tasks (2.3.4). Firstly,
this may be the result of the trend of the declining number of migrants from the UK,
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
253
Ireland and European and that of increasing entries of Asians since the 1900s (Table 2A,
2.2.6 and 5.1). Secondly, 1990 was the period when migration policy changed its focus
and began to address the skills stream (2.2.6) and was also the period when several
Asian countries became Australia’s major trading partners (2.3.5); and the beginning of
Australia’s tertiary educational export.
Asian culture has lon g been renowned for its emphasis on higher education and
qualifications both for migrants and for second generation migrants, on interpersonal
relationships, and on conscientiousness and a hardworking work ethic (4.3). These
characteristics make Asians a unique group of migrants who continue to contribut e to
the Australian economy. Amongst Asian migrants in Australia, two of the largest
groups, namely those from China and Vietnam, have been shown to be of s ignificance
for the Australian economy (5.4.2.2). There are some similarities and differences
between the characteristics of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. A greater proportion of
Chinese migrants came following the 1990s when migration policy altered it s focus and
began to place greater emphasis on skilled migration (Table 2A & 4.4.5). Vietnamese
migrants came largely via the refugee and humanitarian stream in the 1970s prior to the
introduction of skill -based migration (2.2.4). Both groups have a high concentration in
engaging as labourers (5.4.4.5) and have a high probability of being unemployed
(5.4.5.3). The Chinese migrants in Australia have shown a strong motivation towards
studying for higher education (5.4.3.1) . There are se veral possibilities behind this
phenomenon. Since higher qualifications increase the point score during the migration
process and overseas students are able to apply for migration, it is possible that the
Chinese-born make use of this studying channel to obtain permanent resi dence (5.4.3.1).
Secondly, this strong desire for higher qualifications is consistent with the Asian norm
as they believe higher academic qualifications represent an important avenue for
Chinese migrants to gain access to professional occupations, such as I T executives,
engineers, accountants and solicitors ( 4.3.1 and 5.4.2.3.1) and to gain h igher income
(5.4.1.3). This philosophy is passed on to their second gene rations as well (4.3.1). This
strong incentive exists also in Chinese migrants in the US and Canada (4.4.2). However,
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
254
the results show that higher qualifications alone do not necessarily make Chinese or
Vietnamese richer (5.4.2.2.1 and 5.4.2.2.2).
Results have shown increasing participation of Chinese migrants working for higher
status jobs such as professionals (5.4.2.3.1) and Chinese professionals are shown to have
higher earnings than Australian counterparts ( 5.4.2.3.1). However, Chinese migrants
with postgraduate qualifications have not pe rformed better in earnings than those
Australians holding the same level of qualifications (5.4.2.2.1). If Chinese migrants are
able to have qualifications and work experience recogni sed, or have improved
proficiency in English, this should increase their employability in professional or
managerial occupations an d income levels. The fact that this sector of Chinese migrants
has a lower income shows that the factor of qualification alone would not enable them to
outperform their counterparts. There are other factors , such as working English (5.4.1.8).
Concomitantly, there has been a decline in the propo rtion of Chinese migrants in the
labour force employed as tradespeople and clerks (5.4.4.4) and a change to the
occupation of professionals.
In contrast, Vietnamese migrants have not had a strong motivation towards studying for
higher education as Chinese migrants (5.4.3.1), but have shown a higher level of interest
towards being self-employed (5.4.5.2) although the number of Vietnamese entrepreneurs
in the test was not substantial. There is a possibility is that Vi etnamese business owners
have also identified themselves as employee managers or second generation Vietnamese
migrants have improved their qualifications and experience to achieve positions as
employee managers (5.4.5.2). However, results have found that the only significant
difference in earnings between Vietnamese and Australians occurs in the occupation of
managers, and the differential is negative , meaning that a Vietnamese manager does not
earn more than a non-Vietnamese manager (5.4.2.5). Reasons may include proficiency
in English language, business culture or strategies adopted (5.4.5.5).
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
255
Research undertaken in this thesis has also shown that the influence of Chinese origin on
the overall working sector was not significant, and Chinese migrants have not shown a
high level of participation in becoming self-employed (5.4.5.2). Although there has been
an increasing trend in the Chinese population in Australia from 1983 to 2003 (2.3.1.5,
4.4.5 and 5.1) and China became the fifth largest source country of origin of the
overseas-born population (5.1), Chinese migrants do not favour being entrepreneurs .
Several issues could have arisen and could have significant implications on the
economy. Firstly, for many years, the e mphasis of skilled migration policy has been on
skilled-independent and skilled Australian sponsored categories. Relatively little weight
has been placed on business migra tion (3.3.2.4). This can be seen from the annual quota
allowed for business skill migrants o f about 6,000 out of a total m igration scheme of
100,00018 or of a total skilled component of 60,000 (3.2). This could lead to a
phenomenon of an increased disproportion between employees and self -employed sector
among migrants. Secondly, there is a trend of increasing two-way trade between China
and Australia with the potential that China will become Australia’s most important
trading partner (2.3.5) . However, the continuous fall in the number of new business
migrants together with a relatively small number of Chinese migrants particip ating as
self-employed might mean the trade potentials between Australia and China will not be
further exploited .
More recent data have shown that the number of applications for business migration has
continued to decline. It was reported that in 2003 Australia experienced the lowest
intake of business migrants over ten years 19 as the actual number of visas issued was
18 http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/04fifty.htm#today – DIMIA Fact Sheet No. 4, revised 24 November 2003. 19 http://www.mia.org.au/secure/download/miadimia04 1203.pdf – minutes of meeting between members of DIMIA and MIA held on 4 December 2003.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
256
6,740, as opposed to a planned level of 8,000 (3.3.2.4). In 2004, the number of business
migrants fell even further to 5,670 (3.3.2.4). One reason might relate to the small
number allocated for business migrants . Another reason might be attributable to the
falling interest in business migration might relate to the introduction of diverting
business resources to low growth areas. Although some state governments have
advertised their preparedness to advise business persons or exp lorers, there seems to be a
need to provide specific support and services that are educational oriented or catered for
new settlers and migrants especially non-English speaking entrants (5.4.5.5).
6.1 Qualifications to the Analysis
In using the 1996 Census data and regression models to compare the difference in
economic impact of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants and Australians, the results were
subject to the limitations of the tests as well as limitations of the Census data. At the
time of commencement of this research, the latest Census data available were those from
1996, and, as a resul t, many qualities or outcomes that would be expected from more
recent migrants were not able to be me asured. In addition, our discussion of Asian
attributes presented only a broad overview of Asians as a group. It is not possible to
maintain absolute consistency in identifying Chinese and Vietnamese migrants
throughout this thesis . There may be an overlap between the two ethnic groups and the
test in this study covers those groups that are in Australia. Therefore, the distinction
between Chinese and Vietnamese migrants is not absolutely clear in the testing. Also,
the Census questions did not ask respondents to specify residence status ; hence it is
possible that international students may have been included. On the other hand , there
was a large number of void answe rs or no answers from respondents, although answers
to other questions we re valid. This not only affects the validity of the results, but also the
validity of the testing undertaken by this research, whereupon the variables of English
language proficiency, years of arrival and hours worked were not validly tested. Further,
although the results have shown significance for the labour force participation of male
migrants, the contributions from the female sector have not been extracted owing to the
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
257
large number of females not in the labour force. Finally, the data included both full- and
part-time workers and it was not possible to dist inguish only full-time workers.
6.2 Further Areas for Research
Due to the limitations of the data , which were only available as at 1996, more realistic
and updated findings regarding the impact on th e Australian economy may be found by
analysing the 2001 Census data on migrants and settlers. B y accessing more recent data,
the contribution made by the second generations of earlier migrants could also be
explored as they play an increasing role in the l abour force. Although Vietnamese
migrants have not shown considerable interest in obtaining higher qualifications (5.4.3.1
and 5.4.3.2), second generations of Vietnamese migrants might have improved their
qualifications and employability as shown in their positive contribution towards the
occupation of managers (5.4.5.2). It will be a research topic to assess the impact of these
second generations of Vietnamese migrants. In addition, research regarding the
occupational profiles of Chinese migrants , particularly in the professional occupations ,
would provide greater insight into contributions made by skills -based Chinese migrants
as well as second generation Chinese migrants.
Today, in an increasingly multicultural Australian society, Asian migrants from
backgrounds other than Chinese or Vietnamese , such as Indian, may have also made
contributions and providing resources and capital, which may have different effects on
the Australian economy. Under skilled migration, other Asian groups may offer a
different perspective to the society, and although these areas are beyond the scope of this
research, further study into other groups would assist in providing a b roader perspective
regarding Asian migrants and their economic impacts.
The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
258
For many years, business migra tion has been included in the skilled migration program
(3.3.2.4). While this thesis has concentrated on skilled migrants, other area s of interest
are the performance of ethnic business migrants and their impact , the reasons for the
recent declining trend in the number of business migrants, and the effectiveness of
regional migration. This research found income differentials between Vietnamese
managers or business owners and Australian counterparts (5.4.2.3). Further study may
be undertaken to investigate whether ethnicity influences the success of business
owners. Asians are generally known to work long hours and possess enterprising
attitudes, and may have possible trading links with their home countries. Yet the falling
number of business migrants may mean these Asian attributes have not been further
utilised. Although the government has the vision to divert resources to remote areas ,
those migrants who do not have functional English language ability would be less
inclined to cope with both settlement and business developments . As business migrants
are expected to contribute to the Aust ralian economy, further research would be
desirable to identify what nature of support or measures should be implemented at
government level to support and hold regional migration.
Continuous research has helped the Australian Government to transform migration
policy in stages so as to regulate the quality of migrants, settlers and entrants. The
findings of this research highlight the importance of skilled migration as it br ings about
positive outcomes based on the contribution of human capital that Asian migrants offer
to the Australian economy. What is more important is the continuous research to
challenge policy makers of migration and state governments with practical approaches
and strategies to support areas such as business migration and regional migration.
Active support such as running educational courses on issues involving business
environment in regional areas, establishments, income tax concepts, employers
obligations and business finance could be practical incentives to those would -be and
existing entrepreneurs.
259
BIBLIOGRAPHY Access Economics 2001, Population Ageing and the Economy , Commonwealth of
Australia
Access Economics 2002, The Impact of Per manent Migrants on the Commonwealth Budget, Summary Report , 2001–2002, Enhancement , Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra
Alvarado, J. and Creedy, J. 1998, Population Ageing, Migration and Social Expenditure , Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, UK
Australian Bureau of Statistics 1981, 1981 Census , ABS, Canberra
Australian Bureau of Statistics 1996 , Census Diction ary, ABS, Canberra
Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998 , Standard Australian Classification of Countries (SACC) , ABS, Canberra
Australian Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975, Welfare of Migrants , AGPS, Canberra
Australian Department of Immigration, Loc al Government and Ethnic Affairs 1991, Western Sydney Regional Information and Research Service, South Asian Migration and Settlement in Western Sydney , Westir Ltd, Sydney
Australian Ethnic Affairs Council 1977, Australia as a Multicultural Society , Submission to the Australian Population and Immigration Council on the Green Paper, Immigration Policies and Australia ’s Population, AGPS, Canberra
Australian Labor Party Policy Document 1993 , Federal Election, Paul Keating Prime Minister of Australia , 24 February 1993, Paragon Printers, Barton
Backman, M. 1995, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia , Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, East Asia Analytical Unit, AGPS , Canberra
Beaton, L., Doughney, J.R. and Esposto, A. 1999, Temporary Business Entry to Australia, Views of Companies and Migration Agents , DIMA, Workplace Studies Centre, Victoria University of Technology and Committee for Economic Development of Australia, CEDA Information Paper No. 63
Berndt, E.R. 1991, The Practice of Econometrics: Classi c and Contemporary Reading , Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc ., Massachusetts
Binkowski, G.A. 1992, Guide for Migrants to Australia, New Zealand and Canada , Export and Commercial Research Services Pty Ltd, Canberra
Birrell, R. and Birrell, T. 1987, An Issue of People: Population and Australian Society , 2nd Edition, Longman Cheshire Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Birrell, R. and Hawthorne , L. 1996, Immigrants and the Professions in Australia , Centre for Population and Urban Research , Monash University, Melbourne
Black, K. 2001, Business Statistics: Contemporary Decision Making , 3rd Edition, South -Western College Publishing, Ohio
260
Boccabella, L. 2000, Applying for Business Skills Visa , Conference Proceeding o f Workshop for Migration Professional Education , 6–8 October 2000, Sydney
Bolaria, B.S. and Bolaria, R. 1997 , International Labour Migration , Oxford University Press, Oxford
Bosch, G., Dawkings, P. and Michon, F. 1994, Times are Changing: Working Time in 14 Industrialised Countries , International Institute for Labo ur Studies, Geneva
Boyd, A. 1998, An Atlas of World Affairs , 10th Edition, Routledge, London
Boyd, S. 1999, Australia’s Role and Interests in Hong Kong after the Handover , The Graduate School of Management, University of Wes tern Australia, ISSN 1320 -1980, Nedlands
Brawley, S. 1995, The White Peril : Foreign Relations and Asian Immigration to Australasia and North America , 1919–1978, UNSW Press Ltd, Sydney
Briggs, V.M. Jr. 1996, Mass Immigration and the National Interest , 2nd Edition, M .E. Sharpe Inc., New York
Broinowski, A. 2004, Double Vision : Asian Accounts of Australia, Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra
Brooks, C. 1994, The Role of Sk illed Temporary Residents in the Australian Labour Market, Department of Employment, Education and Training, AGPS, Canberra
Brown, R. 1986, Milestones in Australian History : 1788 to the Present, Collins, Sydney
Budd, B. and Madden, G. 199 9, Determinants of Australian Full -Time Earnings , Murdoch University, Th e Centre for Labour Market Resea rch, School of Economics and Finance, CLMR Discussion Paper Series 99/7, ISSN 1329 -2676, Murdoch
Bulbeck, C. 1998, Social Sciences in Australia , 2nd Edition, Harcourt Brace & Co, Sydney
Bureau of Immigration and Population R esearch (BIMPR) May 1994, Community Profiles 1991 Census, Vietnam Born , AGPS, Canberra
Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research (BIMPR) 1995, Business Migration to Australia, Key Features , Enriching Australia through the entry and settlement of people , AGPS, Publication 204/95, Canberra
Burnett, R. 1989, Australian Immigration Law , Volumes 1 and 2 , Butterworths, Sydney
Burnley, I. and Mu rphy, P. 1994, Immigration, Housing Costs and Population Dynamics in Sydney , Bureau of Immigration and Population Research, AGPS, Canbe rra
Burnley, I., Murphy, P. and Fagan, B. 1997, Immigration and Australian Cities , The Federation Press, Leich hardt
Burns, R. 1998, Doing Business in Asia : A Cultural Perspective , Addison Wesley Longman Australia, South Mel bourne
261
Callan, V.J. 1986, Australian Minority Groups , Harcourt Brace Jovanich Group, Sydney
Campbell, C.P. 1995, Race, Myth and the News , SAGE Publications, California
Caplan, N., Choy, M.H. and Whitmore, J.K. 1992, ‘Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement ’. In: Scientific American , February
Carino-Abello, A., Pederson, D. and King, A. 2001, Occasional Paper: Dynamics of Earned Income in Australia – An Application Using the Survey of Employment and Unemployment Patterns , 1994 to 1997, National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling, University of Canberra, AGPS Embargo 22 February 2001, Canberra
Carmichael, G.A. 1993, Trans-Tasman Migration: Trends, Causes and Consequences , Bureau of Immigration Research, AGPS Canberra
Castles, F.G. 1988, Australian Public Policy and Economic Vulnerability: A Comparative and Historical Perspective , Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Castles, F.G. 1991, Australia Compared : People, Policies and Politics , Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Castles, S., Alcoreo, C., Rando, G. and Vasta, E. (eds) 1992, Australia’s Italians : Culture and Community in a Changing Society, Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Castles, S., Foster, W., Iredale, R. and Withers, G. 1998, Immigration and Australia : Myths and Realities , Allen & Unwin , Sydney
Chai, J.C.H., Kueh, Y.Y. and Tisdell, C.A. 1997, China and the Asia Pac ific Economy , Nova Science Publishers Inc ., New York
Charlesworth, A., Gilbert, D., Randall, A., Southall, H. and Wrigley, C. 1996, An Atlas of Industrial Protest in Britain 1750 –1990, Macmillan, Basingstoke
Chen, M. 1995, Asian Management Systems – Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Management , International Thomson Publishing Inc ., New York
Chu, C. 1995, The Asian Mind Game : Unlocking the Hidden Agenda of the Asian Business Culture – A Westerner’s Survival Manual, Stealth Productions, Crows Nest
Clark, M. 1980, A Short History of Australia, 2nd Edition, Tudor Distributors, Sydney
Collins, J. 1992, Immigrant Families in Austra lia, University of Technology Sydney, School of Finance and Economics, Working Pape r Series No. 12, Sydney
Collins, J. and Henry, F. 1993, Racism, Ethnicity and Immig ration in Canada and Australia, University of Technology Sydney, School of Finance and Economics, Working Paper No. 25, Sydney
Collins, J. and Reid, C. 1995, Chinese in Aus tralia 1945–1994: Changing Patterns of Migration , Racialisation and Opportunity , University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Business, Sydney
Commonwealth Record 1978, Volume 3, No. 24, 19 –25 June, AGPS, Canberra
— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 26, 7–13 July
262
— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 32, 18–24 August
— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 42, 27 Oc tober – 2 November
Cope, A. 1998, Visas: Employment Grounds , Migration Institute of Australia, Deakin University, Geelong
Cornelius, W.A., Martin, P.L. and Hollifield, J.F. 1994, Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective , Stanford University Press, Stanford
Coughlan, J.E. and McNamara, D.J. 1997, Asians in Australia : Patterns of Migration and Settlement, Macmillan Education Australia, Melbourne
Crock, M. 1998, Immigration and Refugee Law in Australia , The Federation Press, Leichhardt
Daly, M.T. and Logan, M.I. 1998, Reconstructing Asia – The Economic Miracle That Never Was, The Future That Is, RMIT University Press, Melbourne
David, A. and Wheelwright, T. 1989, The Third Wave: Australian and Asian Capitalism , Left Book Club Co -operative Ltd, Sydney
Davis, J. 1994, ‘Education – A Reluctant Industry’. In Marsh, I. (ed.), Australian Business in the Asia Pacific Region : The Case for Strategic Industry Policy , Longman Professional Publishing, Me lbourne
De Mente, B.L. 1994, Chinese Etiquette and Ethics in Business , 2nd Edition, NTC Business Books, Lincolnwood
Denoon, D., Hudson, M., McCormack, G. and Morris-Suzuki, T. 1996, Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern , Cambridge University Pre ss, Melbourne
Department of Education, Science and Training 2001, Overseas Student Statistics 2000 , J.S. McMillan Printing Group, Australian Education International, Canberra
Department of Employment, Education and Training, Economic and Po licy Analysis Division, November 1995, Australia’s Workforce 2005 : Jobs in the Future , AGPS, Canberra
Department of Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business 2000, Nation Skilling: Migration, Labour and the Law, Conference Proceedings of An International Symposiu m conducted jointly by the Faculty of Law, Unive rsity of Sydney and the Law Council of Australia , 23–24 November 2000, Sydney
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1992, Australia and North -East Asia in the 1990s: Accelerating Change , East Asia Analytica l Unit, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995, Australia Through the Eyes of Asia : Adding Innovation , Marketing Australia Unit, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1998, Asia’s Infrastructure in the Cr isis: Harnessing Private Enterprise , East Asia Analytical Unit, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration 1988, Australia and Immigration 1788 to 1988 , Local Government and Ethnic Affairs, AGPS, Canberra
263
Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA) 1994, Business Skills Class Bulletin, Edition No. 5, November 1994
—1994, Business Skills Section, 17 November 1994
—1995, Business Skills Category Bulletin, Edition No. 6, August 1995
—1995, Breaking New Ground for Australian Business, Canberra, 9 May 1995
—1995, Fact Sheet No. 30 , Fifty Years of Post War Migration, Canberra, 13 April 1995
—2004, Fact Sheet No. 37, Processing Priorities, 29 September 2004
—2004, Fact Sheet No. 27, Business Skills Migration, 2 November 2004
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 20, Migration Program P lanning Levels, 21 January 2005
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 46, Temporary Entry: An Overview, 20 April 2005
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 3, The Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Canberra, 5 July 2005
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 34, Assurance of Support, 12 July 2005
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 24, Overview of Skilled Migration, 24 August 2005
—2005, Fact Sheet No. 47, Temporary Residence in Australia, 1 November 2005
—FORM 958I S
—FORM 147
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, A New Agenda for Multicultural Australia , AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance , Border Control and Compliance Division, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra , December
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, General Skilled Migration Booklet, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, Population Flows : Immigration Aspects , Commonwealth of Australia, December, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2000, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects , Statistics Section, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 200 4, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects , Statistics Sectio n, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2001, Immigration: Federation to Century’s End 1901 –2000, Statistics Section, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2001, Immigration Update 2002 , Statistics Section, Commonwealth of Australia, November, AGPS, Canberra
264
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2002, Migration: Benefiting Australia , Conference Proceedings , Sydney 7 –8 May 2002, AGPS, Canberra
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2003a, The People of Australia 2003, Statistics from 2001 Census , Statistics Section, Commonwealth of Australia
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigeno us Affairs 2003b, Report of the Review of Settlement Services for Migrants and Humanitarian Entrants , Settlement Services Review, Settlement Branch, May 2003, Belconnen ACT
Department of Premier and Cabinet 2004, State Government of Victoria, Commonwealth–Victoria Working Party on Migration , Commonwealth of Australia
Dique, J.C.A. 1985, Immigration: The Quie t Invasion, Veritas Publishing Co Pty Ltd, Bullsbrook
Dobell, G. 2000, Australia Finds Home : The Choices and Chances of an Asia Pacific Journey , Australia Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney
Doran, H.E. 1989, Applied Regression Analysis in Econometrics , Marcel Dekkerr Inc ., New York
Douglas, D. 1982, The Economics of Australian Immig ration, Proceedings of the Conference on the Economics of Immigration, Febr uary 8–9 1982, Dep artment of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs and Department of Adult Educa tion, University of Sydney, Sydney
Drury, S. 1976, A Nation of Migrants Making Australian Society , Thomas Nelson (Australia) Ltd, West Melbourne
Easson, M. 1990, Australia and Immigration: Able to Grow, Pluto Press Australia Ltd, Melbourne
Faulkner, G. 1995, Business Indonesia , Business and Professional Publishing Ltd, Chatswood
FitzGerald, S . 1988, Immigration: A Commitment to Australia, The Report of the Committee to Advise on Australia’s Immigration Policies, AGPS, Canberra
FitzGerald, S. 1997, Is Australia an Asian Country? Can Australia Survive in an East Asian Future? Allen & Unwin, St Leonards
FitzGerald, V. 1991, ‘The Vision o f the Garnaut Report: Australia a s a Bridge to Asia ’. In: Public Policy Forum on the Garnaut and A.M.C . Reports at the Australian Graduate School of Management July 20 –21 1990, Internationalising Australia’s Economy, Australian Graduate School of Management, Sydney
Foster, J. 1994, ‘The E conomy’. In: Furze, B. and Stafford, C. (eds), Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne
Foster, L. and Stockley, D. 1984, Multiculturalism: The Changing Australian Par adigm, Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon
265
Foster, L. and Stockley, D. 1988, Australian Multiculturalism : A Documentary History and Critique , Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon
Foster, L. 1997, ‘Introduction: Globalisation – Implications for Australia and Canada’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa
Foster, W. 1996, Immigration and the Australian Economy , Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Research and Statistics Branch, AGPS, Canberra
Freeman, G.P. and Jupp, J . (eds) 1992, Nations of Immigrants: Australia, the US and International Migration , Oxford University Press, Melbourne
Furze, B. and Stafford, C. 1994, Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia , Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne
Fynmore, R. and Hill, H. 1992, Australia’s Business Challenge: South -East Asia in the 1990s, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Austrade, AGPS, Canberra
Garnaut, R. 1989, Australia and the Northeast Asian Ascendancy , Report to the Prime Minister and the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade , AGPS, Canberra
Garnaut, R., Ganguly, R. and Kang, J. Ma y 2003, Migration to Australia and Comparisons with the United States: Who Benefits? , Report prepared for DIMIA, Australian National University, Commonwealth of Australia, Belconnen
Garnaut, R. 2004, Australia and China: Risks in a Good Story, Paper presented to CEDA (Committee for Economic Development of Australia), 27 August 2004, Perth
Giblett, H. 1998, Visa: Business Skills , Migration Institute of Australia, Deakin Australia, Geelong
Goddard, J. 1995, The Immigration Kit: A practical Guide to Australia’s Immigration Law, 4th Edition, The Federation Press, Annandale
Godement, F. 1999, The Downsizing of Asia , Routledge, London
Goldberg, M.A. and Fullerton, H.R. 1994, ‘World Cities and Loc al Property Markets: Producers and Products of the New Global Eco nomy’. In: Joint Conference presented by the OECD and the Australian Government , Volume 1, Cities and the New Global Economy , 20–23 November 1994, Melbourne
Gray, A.H. 1994, Aotearoa and New Zealand: A Historical Geography , Canterbury University Press, Ch ristchurch
Gujarati, D. 2003, Basic Econometrics , 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston
Hage, G., Couch, R. and Martin, J. 1999, The Future of Australian Multiculturalism : Reflections on the Twentieth Anniversary of Jean Martin’s The Migrant Presence , University of Sydney, Research Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, Sydney
Haley, G.T., Chin, T.T. and Haley, U.C.V. 1998, New Asian Emperors : The Overseas Chinese, Their Strategies and Competitive Advantages , Butterworth -Heinemann, Oxford
266
Hamilton, P. 1978, The Irish , Thomas Nelson (Australia), West Melbourne
Hawkins, F. 1989, Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared , McGill–Queen’s University Press, Kingston
Hitchcock, N.E. 1990, Migration to Australia : An Authoritative Guide to Seeking Migrant and Other Visas for Australia , Neil E. Hitchcock & Associ ates Pty Ltd, Sydney
Huttman, E.D. 1994, ‘Immigration from the Pacific Rim: US Policy on Economic Activities, Housing and Location’. In: Jong, S.J. (ed.), Development in the Asia Pacific, A Public Policy Perpsective, Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin
Immigration Advice and Rights Centre (IARC) 1999, Publication Issue No. 59/60 June ISSN 08196745
Immigration Law 1998, Legal Professional Development, Leo Cussen Institute, Melbourne, October
Immigration, Population and Citizenship Digest 2003, Migration Branch, DIMIA, Commonwealth of Australia , May
Inglis, C. 1997, ‘Globalisation and the Impact of Asian Migration on Australia and Canada’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa
Iredale, R.R. 1997, Skills Transfer , International Migration and Accreditation Issues , University of Wollongong Press, Wollongong
Ito, T. and Krueger, A.O. 1995, Growth Theories in Light of the East Asian Experience , The University of Chicago Press, London
Jayasuriya, L. 1987, ‘Immigration Policies and Ethnic Relations in Australia ’, Paper for the Conference Canada 2000 – Race Re lations, Carleton University, Ottawa, University of Western Australia, Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Perth
Joel, A.P. 1984, A Practical Guide to Obtaining Permanent Residence in Aus tralia, Legal Books Pty Ltd, Sydney
Jones Lang Wootton 1997, Asian Pacific Property
Jong, S.J. 1994, Development in the Asia Pacific : A Public Policy Perspective , Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin
Junankar, P.N., Pope, D., Kapuscinski, C., Ma, G. and Mudd, W. 1993, Recent Immigrants and Housing , The Australian National University, Bureau of Immigration and Population Research, AGPS, Canberra
Junankar, P.N., Paul , S. and Yasmeen , W. 2002, Are Asian Migrants Discriminated against in the Labour Market? A Case Study of Australia , School of Economics and Finance, University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown
Kershen, A. 1998, A Question of Identity , Ashgate Publishing Ltd, Aldershot
267
Keysar, A., Kosmin, B.A. and Scheckner, J. 2000, The Next Generation – Jewish Children and Adolescents , State University o f New York Press, Albany
Kirk, D. 2000, Korean Dynasty Hyundai and Chung Ju Yung , Asia 2000 Limited, Hong Kong and M.E. Sharpe Inc ., Armonk
Klintworth, G. 1994, Taiwan in the Asia–Pacific in the 1990s , Allen & Unwin in association with the Department of International Relations, Australian National University, St Leonards
Knight Frank 1998, ‘Asia Pacific Market Overview’ in Asia Pacific Property Review , Quarter 1, MITA(P) No. 202/01/98
Koutsoukis, A.J. 1975, Topics from Australian History , Whitcombe & To mbs Pty Ltd, Marrickville
Krooss, H.E. and Gilbert, C. 1972, American Business History , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Lall, S.1996, Learning from the Asian Tigers : Studies in Technology and Industrial Policy, Macmillan, Houndmills
LBC Immigration Lawbo ok 2003, Procedures Advice Manual (CD-ROM), Department of Immigration, Multicultural & Indigenous Affairs, A Thompson Company, Lawbook Co Immigration Service
Leipziger, D.M. and Thomas, V. 1993, ‘Common Foundations of East Asian Succe ss’. In: Lessons of East Asia: An Overview of Country Experience , The World Bank, Washington DC
Lever-Tracy, C., Ip, D., Kitay, J., Phillips, I. and Tracy, N. 1991, ‘ Asian Entrepreneurs in Australia’. In: Ethnic Small Business in the Chinese and Indian Communities of Brisbane and Sydney , A Report to the Office of Mult icultural Affairs, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, AGPS, Canberra
Lewins, F. and Ly, J. 1985, The First Wave: The Settlement of Australia’s First Vietnamese Refugees , George Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Lim, L.Y.C. and Gosling, L.A.P. 1983, The Chinese in South East Asia, Maruzen Asia, Singapore
Lincoln, J.R. and Kalleberg, A.L. 1990, Culture, Control and Commitment : A Study of Work Organization and Work Attitudes in the United States and Japan , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lloyd, P.J. and Williams, L.S. 1996, International Trade and Migration in the APEC Region, Oxford University Press, Melbourne
Loundes, J. 1999, Household Saving Behaviour in Australia , The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Ins titute of Applied Economic and Social Research, Working Paper No. 17/99, Parkville V ic.
Lowe, I. 1992, ‘Social Impact Analysis of Information Technology’. In: Stevenson, T. and Lennie, J. (eds), Australia’s Communication Futures , Queensland University o f Technology, The Communications Centre, Brisbane
268
Mackerras, C. 1996, Australia and China – Partners in Asia , Key Centre for Asian Languages and Studies, Griffith University, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne
Maddala, G.S. 2001, Introduction to Econometrics , 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester
Maden, A.F. and Morris -Jones, W.H. 1980, Australia and Britain : Studies in a Changing Relationship , Sydney University Press, Sydney
Maher, C. 1999, Houses and Jobs in Cities and Regions, O’Connor, K.B. (ed.), The University of Queensland Press for The Australian Housing and Research Institute, Brisbane
Marginson, S. 1993, Education and Public Policy in Australia , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Marsh, I. (ed.) 1994, Australian Business in the Asia Pacific Region: The Case for Strategic Industry Policy , Longman Professional Publishing, Melbourne
Mason, R.D., Lind, D.A. and Marchal, W.G. 2000, Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics, 10 th Edition, Irwin/McGraw -Hill, Singapore
McDonald, P. and Kippen, R. 1999, The Impact of Immigration on the Ageing of Australia’s Population , Commonwealth of Australia
McTaggart, D., Findlay, C., and Parkin, M. 2003, Economics, 4th Edition, Pearson Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbo urne
Meredith, D. and Dyster , B. 1990, Australia in the International Economy in the Twentieth Century , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Meredith, D. and Dyster , B. 1999, Australia in the Global Economy : Continuity and Change , Cambridge University P ress, Cambridge
Migration Institute of Australia 1999, Student and Other V isas, 18 November
Migration Institute of Australia 1999, Business Visas: Temporary and Permanent, Conference Proceedings of NSW Twilight Seminar, 23 September
Milne, F. and Sherg old, P. 1984, The Great Immigration Debate , Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia, Sydney
Morris, G., Cook, C., Creyke, R., Geddes, R. and Holloway, I. 1996, Laying Down the Law: The Foundations of Legal Reasoning, Research and Writing in Australia and New Zealand , 4th Edition, Butterworths, Sydney
Murphy, B. 1993, The Other Australia: Experiences of M igration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Neter, J., Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C.J. and Wasserman, W. 1996, Applied Linear Statistical Models , 4th Edition, W.C.B. McGraw-Hill Companies Inc ., Homewood
Nieuwenhuysen, J.P. and Drake, P.J. 1977, Australian Economic Policy , Melbourne University Press, Melbourne
269
Nish, I., Redding, G. and Ng, S.H. 1996, Work and Society : Labour and Human Resources in East Asia , Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong
OECD Proceedings 1998, ‘Migration, Free Trade and Regional Integration in North America’. In: Migration Policy in North America: P olicies and Sectoral Economic Impact, Part II
O’Farrell, P. 198 8, The Irish in Australia , NSW University Press, Sydney
Perlmann, J. and Waldinger, R. 2000, ‘Are the Children of Today’s Immigrants Making It?’ In: Steinberg, S. (ed.), Race and Ethnicity in the US: Issues and Debates , Blackwell Publishers Inc .
Philips, D.J. and Houston, J. 1984, Australian Multicultural Society : Identity, Communication, Decision Making, Dove Communications , Blackburn Vic.
Pinkstone, B. 1997, A Case for Ideological Determinism: Nation Building, Migration and Australian Economic Developme nt, University of Western Sydney, Faculty of Commerce Working Papers in Economics No. WP97/03, May 1997, Nepean
Pinkstone, B. and Meredith, D. 1992, Global Connections : A History of Exports and the Australian Economy , AGPS, Canberra
Poole, D. 1999, Managing International Entrepreneurialism in Australian Universities: A Case Study , University of Technology, Sydney, Working Paper Series 18/99
Poole, M.E., de Lacey, P.R. and Randhawa, B.S. 1985, Australia in Transition : Culture and Life Possibilities , Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group (Australia) Pty Ltd, North Ryde
PRD Realty Newsletter 1989, Investing in Australian Real Estate 1989
Price, C.A. and Martin, J.I. 1976, Australian Immigration : The Education of Migrant Children in Australia , Parts 1 and 2, The Australian Nationa l University, Department of Demography, Institute of Advanced Studies, AGPS, Canberra
Productivity Commission 1999, Policy Implications of the Ageing of Australia’s Population , Conference Proceedings , Melbourne, 18–19 March 1998, Commonwealth of Australia
Reisinger, Y. and Lindsay, T. 2000, Cultural Differences between Mandarin Speaking Tourists and Australian Hosts and their Impact on Cross -Cultural Tourist–Host Interaction , Monash University, Faculty of Business and Economics, Working Paper 30/00, May 2000
Reitz, J.G. 1997, ‘Institutional Restructuring and the Impact of Non -European Immigration on the Urban Areas of the US, Canada and Australia’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Cent ury of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa
Richardson, A. 1974, British Immigrants and Australia : A Psychosocial Inquiry , Australian National University Press, Canberra
270
Robinson, R., Hewison, K. and Higgott, R. 1987, South East Asia in the 1980s: The Politics of Economic Crisis , Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J. and Tranter, P.J. 2000, Australia and New Zealand : Economy, Society and Environment , Arnold, Hodder Headline, London
Rod, T. and Webster, E. 1995, Immigration and Trade with East Asia in the Food Industry: The Contribution of Immigrants , Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research, AGPS Canbe rra
Romaine, S. 1991, Language in Australia , Cambridge University Press, Ca mbridge
Sassen, S. 1994, Immigration in Global Cities , Volume 3 in An International Conference presented by the OECD and the Australian Government, 20 –23 November, Melbourne
Scotton, R.B. and Ferber, H. 1980, Public Expenditures and Social Policy in Australia , Volumes 1 and 2, Longman Cheshire Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Sexton, J. 2001, The Australian Immigration Book, Made-To-Measure Publications Pty Ltd, Sydney
Sherington, G. 1990, Australia’s Immigrants 1788 –1988, Allen & Unwin, Sydney
Singer, R. 1984, The Immigration Deba te in the Press, Sunday Observer 27/5/84, The Clearing House on Migration Issues, Richmond
Skeldon, R. 1994, Reluctant Exciles ? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese , An East Gate Book, M .E. Sharpe Inc ., Armonk
Sloman, J. and Norris, K. 1999, Economics , 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, London
Soesastro, H. and Pangestu, M. 1990, Technological Challenge in the Asia –Pacific Economy, Allen & Unwin in association with Pacific Trade and Development Conference Secretariat, Sydney
Stockley, D. 1997, ‘Globalisation: Internationalising Education in the 1990s’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa
Studenmund, A.H. 2001, Using Econometrics: A Prac tical Guide, 4th Edition, Addison Wesley Longman Inc ., Boston
Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers , 2002, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, revised by Snooks & Co, Milton
Sullivan, L., Maley, B., Buckingham, J. and Hughes, H. 1999, State of the Nation: Indicators of a Changing Australia , The Centre for Independence Studies Limited, St Leonards
Szalay, L.B., Strohl, J.B., Fu, L. and Lao, P.S. 1994, American and Chinese Percepti ons and Belief Systems : A People’s Republic of China – Taiwanese Comparison , Plenum Press, New York
271
Tacq, J. 1997, Multivariate Analysis Techniques in Social Science Research from Problems to Analysis , Sage Publications, London
Tan, G. 1995, The Newly Industrializing Countries of Asia , Times Academic Press, Singapore
Tavan, G. 2005, The Long, Slow Death of White Australia , Scribe Publications Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Terpstra, V. and David, K. 1991, The Cultural Environment of International Business , 3rd Edition, College Division, South-Western Publishing Co, Ohio
The Age Education Unit Vic . 1984, Reprint Booklet No. 39
The Economist 2001, March
Trood, R. and McNamara, D. 1994, The Asia–Australia Survey 1994 , Centre for the Study of Australia–Asia Relations, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne
Turner, B. 1999, The Statesman’s Yearbook : The Politics, Cultures and Economics of the World 2000 , Macmillan Reference Ltd, UK
Victoria University of Technology and Committee for Economic Development of Australia 1999, Temporary Business Entry to Australia, Views of Companies and Migration Agents , DIMA, Workplace Studies Centre, CEDA Information Paper No. 63, July 1999
Vicziany, M. 1993, Australia–India, the Economic Links: Past, Present and Future , Indian Ocean Centre for Peace Studies, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands
Ward, R. 1969, Australia: A Short History, URE Smith, Sydney
Ward, R. 1982, Australia Since the Coming of Men , Mead and Beckett Publishing, Sydney
Weller, S. 2004, Non-Regulatory Impediments to the Labour Market Participation of Mature Workers , Strategic Policy Research Project, School of Ant hropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Melbourne
West, P.M.J. and Dwight, A. 1980, Australia – From Empire to Asia , Science Press, Sydney
Western Sydney’s Regional Information and Research Service 1991, South Asian Migration and Settlement in Western Sydney , Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs, Westir Ltd, Sy dney
Wooden, M. 1998, Gender Pay Equity and Comparable Worth in Australia: A Reassessment , Working Paper Series May 1998 , No. 148, National Institute of Labour Studies Inc., Flinders University, South Australia
Yarwood, A.T. and Knowling, M.J. 1982, Race Relations in Australia: A History , Methuen Australia, North Ryde
272
York, B. 1996, ‘Studies in Australian Ethnic History No. 13 and Ethno -Historical Studies in a Multicultural Australia’ , No. 14. In: From Assimilation to Mu lticulturalism: Australian Experience 1945 –1989, Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, Research School of Soc ial Science, Australian National University, Canberra
Yu, O. 1998, Representations of Australia and Australians in China and Hong Kong 1985–1995, Asian Representations Monograph No. 2, Centre for the Study of Australia–Asia Relations, Faculty of International Business and Politics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland
Zelinka, S. 1996, Understanding Racism in Australia , AGPS, Canberra
APPENDICES
I Components of Population Growth 1977-1999
2 Components of Net Overseas Migration 1983-2000
3 Median Age of Selected Birthplace Groups
4 Arrival of Migrants from ltaly, Greece and Yugoslavia, 1949-1971
5 Resolutions Passed by Trade Unions Against the Importation of Chinese
6 lJrban Concentration of Ethnic Migrants
7 Comparisons of Migration Programs for 1999 and 2003
8 Classes of Visas under Migration Regulations, lgg4
9 Extract from Procedures Advice Manual of Criteria for Parents Applications,2003
l0 Basic Requirements, Points Test and Skil led Migration Update,2003
I I Basic Requirements for Employer Sponsored Application, 2003
12 General Information and Points Test for Business Skills Application, 2003
l3 Business Skil ls Applications Lodged by Top Ten Countries
14 Def ini t ion of Asia
l 5 Provinces of China
l6 Proportion of population with univ6rsity qualif ications by birthplace, 1991
17 Immigration and Emigration to Asia by Regions, 1984-85 to 1993-94
i l).pa.lnNrl ol- lonni.rration Der :irrlrl,\p|cnilirei,{!\1r1 imnri !o\ auislarisrispuhli.alnDslx)t0ors app pdl)
t
5 0 :
5 a i
iS It za 1!ia
rir)ll rJ,lli ..n {1 : {rrnqr On: t({nrqrowrh 'n cr(ir sjJr:trd utr: sum ot In...mt{!nmr..r rh'r.lr.vnrr.nK.rroni rirr(\t'{r'u-.rlt45lrEc,:!let'rt ,n m.dr: iirr!J L'41l: r.mu\ l..liq,n1t. iny rntrrrin\rt dryniDarrt
06n!166Jr1o1o)
r 5 6 a
Pk:nv rrr: tn,n InlJx:\ I'n{ tr{:n ..d(trt Jl,..] rhar dF k, tuladnl l.rr.ts n'rv jor !r ltF (:rfll !ff .J rrnrp3x.nt!
rnr cdlrrrfy ,umr)'na '( rh(.n.! dl{j.l or p.rv,ns who\. lrJvrj! fi{flnrD\ {hnn.r trom !h.n ry
h lnrni.rnl or jons r{:ri
i ' j i i ] . g { l . j n t t q . l . n t nDu l i o ' \ . t l ' Jm lm fan . j knq l . . ' , : ' ; . , ' " . . ' . ' ' t ' ' L ' ] {Y j l i r | h ' ' r r |m 'q i I ' | n ' t . l ) : 1D . j { f | : J . | J \ t ] { : I:.r .rt.crrY :rrtBr.!
tilr h':e liguri\ nlr p4:!!4'!rn!y Nrr tv.'{4 qqrafton .'1d Ghlldf nlmpq\ dn '!or'rrl .vailrbh !ry 2nna
{Dcpartme, ! f I tnnr i : fa l ion I )e. : ( jn( r : \pp(ndi .c ! }a**{ itrnni so\ au,slalislirsrpubli.arionijpop o\}\ app pdi)
=,::.:-:ir :!:==,-ii;i:;:r,... .
I t r l
{ Dcparlrnenl ol-lmnrigration. l)cc 1000 ApF)ndiccs)(\!\l$ immi. gov au. slatistics'publ icalionsrpopfl o\vs.app. pdf i
. r-€i'E lir'�{:+#i.' *f?Ei rE€iIE-.r-: .
I hut in rhe ,ptnnn oi this ( irlgrvrs, tht t nc hus off^&lBltn innklret( st(ps should he krJian Lfi,nr tlla I' uluholtnn ol l hnc:e tnd ( (xtlia nntigrutkn h.:.ut^(: lirrl.th( (tnpctitrrn o/ .lst.ttic rtgaintt l.ur(tpctrn luhour ri urntltltiuir; su!"tut. it is u(11 knorn thut the prcscncc tl ( hrnasain dflr c.rnnuoitv lt ts hud u vart funl nutrul t,,ruIcnt.t'
Carricd unanimouslv-
Rcsolution ol'thc 4u'Intemational Tradc Urion Congerssl8L6- Adclaidc
J hul lh/\ ( \ tnt(t:s.\ r(Lltnls ils sol isldd t(tn .tt llt.I'urliun(nl in !lt.' r'itri(nt\.trl()niar h rastriLli4arnrnriqruin)n arkllurthcr tl il ir nd:$jl)rr tllulth, 'u lJ fu 1l* Jup'utul l ( | \JR IDI ' t ' t t t t th ' tL
Carricd unanimoush.
Resolutron ofthc (iL lntemational Tr.rde ljnion Congcrss1889. Hoban
r le l inka l9q6 l i )
Indexes of djssimilarily of birlhplace groups in Sydney. Adelaid. Canberra and Perth 1991
Birthplace
UK and kelandGermanyGreece
ItalyNelherlandsNewZealand
PolandFormer Yugoslavia
LebanonMaltaSpain
TurkeyFormer USSR
USASouth Africa
ChileEsvpt
Vietnamlndia
MalaysiaChina
PhilpprnesHong KongSingapore
Metropolitan areaSydney Adelaide Canberra
1 1 9 2 0 11 2 9 1 94 9 7 3 3 43 5 6 3 7 31 5 8 1 6 52 0 9 1 1 73 1 2 5 2
37 3 2695 2 2 1 9 73 9 8 2 4 13 6 9 1 6 543.9 33.835 3 24.3
3 6 1 2 4 7241 234 2 5 23 1 2 1 9 5
67 1 5323.2 13.929 5 33.243.6 2643 5 4 2 0 4404 344362 289
6 4 1 3 31 4 4 . 1
3 0 4 4 4 32 1 A 3 2 51 7 7 1 2 61 3 4 8 82 4 5 2 3 72 1 5 3 74 1 4 2 5 23 1 3 2 1 23 7 6 1 9 959.2 36.4293 265
2 3 t 1 7 71 2 5 9 1 0 SN/A 2965 5 2 1 4
3 3 1 4 A 12 0 1 2 0 5213 3023 1 1 3 1 7264 16230.5 31.2N/A 27 7
(Bumle) cr al 1997 15)
Comparisons of Mrgratr()n l \ogrdms ft 'r lggq and ltx).t
( l t Migration Prolram for l9g8,9q
'1998/99
Prqection1999/2000Planning
oa %Family StreamlndependenlSkilled Australian Sponsored,Business Skills:ENS/Labourlspecial Eligibrlity
:Others
31.400 . 32.00013.3008.4006.OO0
; 5.2O0
i 3.000
13.500I.OOO6.O005.0001.600I 500
$20
973
4 5 51 91 28 57 54 5
!tottnL
{ l l
6a,ooo
3 i 2 1 0 0 3
1OO | 70 O0O 10O
2U)2J20o3:Planning
(lnln)isration & Rishts Ccntre \o 59,'60.lune l9'rg)
lUigralion I'rogram for 2002r'01
:2U)1r2N2Estimaled
'TOTAL
37.90029.6006.8007.9009.OO01.6002o�0
93,000
%41
32
7, . 8
1 02
1 m
Famrly StreamlndependentSkilled Australian SponsoredBusiness SkillsENS/LabourSpecial EhgibilityOthers
%43,200 4132.200 3110.500 108.000 I9.800 91 .100 1
1o4.SO0 100
;
(l)epanme ollmmigration Ltisration BenefiringAusrralia :0O2)
MICRAI]ON RE(;IJI-A'fIONS I 99.1
t\t) l : \ ( ' t ASsES ot: \rtsr\s
Pl:Rtt.\\Ij\'t \jts{s
\Scd Parcrrr iResidencel {( hss BP)llu$nei\ skill\ [itahlished Business (Residcnce) (( lass BHillusiness Stills ltusirrcss lalent {Uig.anlt ((-la\\ l:11Ihtsiness Slilli {Rcsidence) (Class I)Fl( h ih l {v iqranr) { ( - las i . \ l l i(-hild {l(esidcnco {Clais u l,(-onlirnraro^ lRc\idc'rrcl tCldsr AK)(irrrribuhn I'are {\fiqra ) ((-lass (-.\)(-rnrrihul(tr! P!! cnr (Residenc.) {Class D(;tI)siqnared Parcit {\jiqran0 (Clas\ BYIDcsisnared I'arem (Residcncc) (Claj: ul)Distin,rui\bed lalenl {\I;S.a ) aclais {l )Disrinsuishcd laletrl (ltesidcncc) (Class Bx)Ilmplo"-cr \oninarion (\tigrami lClars ]\NlFntpl(iv$ \omination {Rc\idcncc} (Cl8s lllV)Indcpcndcnl iVig.anl) (('lass i]\TiI abou. .\{r cclDcnt {Visranr) {('lrs\ ttj)Lrh,'ur \.xcenr(nl t R$iJen((r {( lll\\ B\''\nrti,lk liland l,c.rnancnr Rcsident tResidence) t('liss ^tlt(Iher ral|)ih i\liqra ) i('lass Rolorher ranrih (Rcsid.nce) {(-lass Bt )I'arenr a\J;qranti rClais iXll,anner (\tiq.a i)i('lars llclPanner (Reiid.'n(c) {('lil!s llslR.{,lulion o,SraLui t Residence) t( lass BI-)Renr.n aRc\idc ce) {Class BBI5kill Urrch;rq (\i!r.ant) tClass llRlslilled {uslralian I inl.-d {\jisra i {CIaii A-l}SlilL{ \ustrulian SpoDsorcd (\.lisrant) (( lass l}Q)Sliilled Au\l.alian stbnsored Ovenea! Sludc {Rcsidcncc) (( lass l)l,lSlilldl !adependcnl t\lisranrr {Cla\s ll\)Slillcd lndependent Otcrscas srudcnr (Re\iden.e)Jclass I)DlSltillc{ \cq lcaland ( irizcn aRcsidcncc) {Cl.ss l)R)sprrial t:lisibih! {Residence) i( las\ i\O)\p(ial l:liqibilitv { Nl iqra ri t('lass 1R)| ('nit(rial .\\!ldn { Rcddencct (('la\s RII)
TI\ {PORNR\ ' \ ' IS{ \
llrtrder (Tcmp.rarlt (Cla\s lAiBtrsi.cs\ Slills it'ror'snnBl) {(-lass LR!(iinlirtnar,r^ { lenrpora\.n) i('lass lDi( cnlribur(n {sed I'a'eil i te'ruran) tclars t t )(irltrihut()N Parcnt ( lempo.ar!) (( lass t T)(-uh uralrSoiial {-l empora\) {Class TI])I)ipl()nralic tT.nrP(M^ I (Cla\\'l FlI)omc\lic \\ orkcr ( I emiora,\ ) { Clas\ IG il :ducarrnHl iTcnjF raN) (Cla is IHjl lectroric Tftrrl j\urho.ir\ i( lass t,D)I:mc.:enc! { lcmpora^i {('las\ Tl)Ii\frtriar. i Iem|bra*, (('lass TJr| \r.nded rl;uibilir\ ITcmporn^ ) (Class IKIli$th llcl.tionslup (T.nrporar]) i( las! II )(iraduarc Skilled ( l.yrporaNi iclasi t Q)I on:r Sla! {\'iiirort {( la\r T\lvcdical Pracrrioner ( I-enrporar\) (('lass I t:l\l.di{al lredrmenr t\jisiknl{('las\ | l}t\c\r Zeland C i/€n !Fa'nih Rrhn,nship) a IemporanI !(-las( I PtPa'urLr ll'i)\ iiioia') {('!ass t Iiil)a'lnc'r iTemporary) (Clari\ L KiItospGrne \la,ia8c i lcm|oran l {( la\\ l()il(csidenl Reltm i l-enrpora^) {Class Tl,!Reioluri( ol-Srarus i leDrpo.a,vl i('lass t II)Rerrrement i lc.rporan ) iclass lQiShon Slav Spo vrcd i\iiritor) iclass L't-)Shorr Sra! {Visitor) {('la\\ TRIS|E(ixl( a!c.ro'\ { Icmpra'-' i (( la\s tY)Sponiored I rainins (T.n)poraN ) (Cla\\ t \ir\tudcnr iTcn,pord^i icldss ll )\upporlcd l)epeidant { Ic'nB'ran ) i( la\r l\rlI(:arporar {ru\inecs l:nlN l('las\ I ( lTuiporafr Sale Halo lcla\s I lrlcn lP(naNi lLnrani lar iarConccrnl ic la \s I ' ( ) !I ransit {Tcmlx)raft) (Class T\)\ \ ' i I an ' l l l , , lJ r \ | tcnrFrr ! \ ' r t ( lass I S '
'
Wortin3 Holida\ (Tcmporan t {Clas\-IZi
BR )Ct \ ( ; \ tS lS
llridlin.r i\ {Class \\'1rllriJlrins R (( las\ $tJ)ll.id:in_q C {('la\\ lV{ )Bndsine l) {Clas\ \tD)Bridqinlr F l( lass Wtr)
PR() t I : ( -T|O\ Rl i t ; t ( iLF -1\DI I r \1 . \ \ t t . . \Rt{ \ \ i ts , \s
l'roleclion a(-lass \]\)Rclirsee and Ilumanirarian r(-la\s \B)Prctcction t(-lass \C)
PR( )CI:l)tJRLS AI)VICt: MANtIAL -
I:\tract ol-(;uidclincs lbr oflicers adrninistcring Milration l-cgislation
Schcdulc 1
Ir.rrr I l:io Comriburo! llar.nt (I,ligrant) LCIajsClt
lai ll lhc atplicafi ij thc holdcr ol a Subclass |7l {(b,rtriburon l,are iienpora^))\ila l7l}Iibr ln aN othcr case :l?PA
{l} \'isa applicalion charsc(a! Irirsl instelm€nr iparablc al thc rimcapplic ion is nradel
{i) hr an applicam Nho is rhe holder ofa Subclass |?'l (Conrrihuroh- I'are iIenrpo.ah'))lisa at lhc time ofapplication: $ 161
Iiir Fo. an applica \rho:I{) .radc a talid application lbr a Parcnt INligranl| (Class .1X) \isn t ctiirc lhc dav on \*hich
lh( ilem commcnc.\: andi A ) sil hdre$ rllat appli.rri()n al r hc samc linr ar making I he applical ion tir ll|c (ir|lribukrN
Parcnr (vigram){Clasi C\) !.isa \il( i i i ) In an! orhercase:Sl 210
(bl Srrond instrlmetrt ipaFble beforc srant ofr'sa):lrl lior an applicanl who is the holder ol a Sutrlaa\ l7i {Cool.ihulo^ Parenl ll-enrpora'!t)
\ i \a ar lhc r imc ( ' 'appl icat ion SI00O0{iii Fo. a applicanl sho is lhc holdLT of a Subclass |? j {(onl'ibuld"- Par$l tlempordq,|
\iia at rhc rime oiapplicatnn. and:ii\) ij rhc natural or adopt.rl child. or slep-child ol an applient tbr a Conlribmon Pn.enl
!14ig.anl) i('lass (-{l \ isa- andI B ) had not rurned | 8 al lhc limc ol_ applical i()n lbr a Conribut(ls Parc.r { I emfx,ras ) ialass
t I ) \ i \ a \ i liiii) For an applicam ehoi1, isadepende chitd ol an applicant lbra ('omriburorv ParcDr i\l'!rra ){Cla\s(:\)\isa_( I|, has nor rumcd 1li ar lhe timc ol-applicali(D: S 1 08{i{n i In an! orh..r case S25 O0O
(l ! Olhd!al Ifthe aDpli(ant is in {u$.al;a d i5llE holder ol_a Subclass t7i r(i,mribu$N Parcnl{TcmporaN)) visa al rhc timc ofapplicarion. appli.alion !nu$ bc made in ̂ usrralia L.ul not in inmiqralion
!b) Il rhe appli(ant is nor nrcnr;,'nca in paragriph tat. appli..arion musr bc made br.:ai) posringlhe application ilvirh the corefl prc-paid posragc) r() the posr otnce bo\ addrcss speciicdi,r a Gazdrc \otice for this subparagraph: or(iit haling rhe applicarid dcli\ered by a courier scnicc io rhc address specitied in a ca7€ne \oricelbr rbis subpamlrrrphic) ll'lhc appliranl har prelioush ade a valid application tir anorhe. parc.t visa(i) a decision to.{a,u or to rctuse ro grafi rhar \isa has bccr madc: or(iit thc application lbr that lishas been $ithdrasn{d} Applicationby a pq$tr clainingto bc a mcmbcr olthe familr unjt oia person $h(} is anapplica aora (-onrr;burorv l,arenr rluigram) i(-lass Cr\) visa mar be made ar the sanE rime and placc asaid.omhind wift lhe aptlicalion h\ thar perion{c, Applicarioo b,- a pcR,n:i i I holdins fl Sub.lass I l r iQlntributo} llarcm (TcmporaN) ) viv at rhe rime of applicfion. .nda ii ) claimins k' b( a memb€r ofthe liamil_,.� unn of a pervrn *.ho is an applicanl for a (-onrriburor r.�I'arcnt {Vi:lranl) (( lass CAi visma\ bc madc at the sanrc limc. aDd conbined rvith. lhc applicario b\ rhar perv,n(]ri Subclasscs l+l {Conrrihutor} Paerr)
PART 1
Basic requirements
tuglish language
Qualifications!\, !,.r ,r... posl.acondart '..!.!. -!! L r ..r-: lt .' lr.,:l!.' q@lifi@tioN ' :-r ':
r' .:.it.' 'il ,,(.r:rjl:.r\ subctantlal reldart yo* erp€.leoce n:r i)r. .,,, 'n.iirl{.' r.{l. : . i . - i t , : . . , . . r : : i j 1 r . . ie r :J .5 r .s - i .a r . . r : r i ree t r r t r . ! c ! f i : : j r : r .1 i ! i . . su l tabbnr. . , ! i , - r , : : r . t l .n , : r , r :dhr :
l{ominated occupation
Age
l : ' : ( i . f e - j : j l l r r l l ) . i : a : r l l i ] : r l r ! j . . : r : i : : , j r r ! : i . - j t : ! , r : - , '
f r i : , , a i r l t i ' : - . i , i I n r t r . . r .
1 . ' ' , r . ' - l n d e r 4 5 1 ' , r \ , r , . , . . i l a ' . , , . ' { . l
! r : : r : : r i r r , : . : . q f , | l . . : ! r r l i i r : r i r r i rE :9 .F , ! i r : ! : : ns f i . r * i r k - : a : . i ; 1 i . . r - ; : ! - : : . r
l:.,a : i: Itetioml E.glish r<\'riagf r{!
n :: ! r' ..c rl Lrqri.:r ij r.q.j:r',l n:i.c;rJ! , ij..Jrrr::i\ *r{ 1 Lr:( :,r: i.!: lt i irii
: : . , - ! . l r : . . : l i i . , , . e . - r e f l
il i. '*ci {r{ l {rf Li! s!: s rcqi!.cd !1
. r r ' sL i ! ' r ! l ) p \ ' € rn l pd i t i q r t r : r ( t h l , r l , e t r i ! \ r \ , \ ' : ne r . l ) €xcep t i om to bas i c
rcqdremerts for appli@nts ttr tlre Dcslgnated AE SpoMrcd @tegorlGl i:irl
.li:e]il \idtri r!,1\d rntFe.\ r:p t*lge lt) E(epdo.s to basic eqllEn.nts fo.
appli@rG h the Sldll Mat tirg vlsa @tegoiy,
\ : , : , r 1 . r - . 1 ' ' ! : - J ren r J . J r . I j o r . t rE r . : r ne r . rEa ; r ' . : : \ i i ' \ n . d l r . r i y . : : . r : i , r : 1 r l
r t ! ! . . : t . . , j ) i : . t : . : r ' j \ r . ' t i n i r r r , . : , - k i ! i . d , r . , . ! i i l i r ! . , . : t ! l . i t , n j - . i r r i r , , l
I !i ! I .i ti.$ r'rr. r\r1 :::rle.l .,:cr.rjtit. T L:t be c: t.r Slilled Occ{padons Listi s in ' !1 , ; - ro : . ( l t r ; . . ; i r J r ! r ; r rSOl r i { r rse r .nd hr . r l l l l ! . ! . ; i r : i J .e ra ' . | - i , r , r !a .l;lvrA *el.il. wysjmmi4o(au (-'. iri.rCed *iti B.Ilier6 C,.n.dlskii,,r trdrrnr
i,j.laec a.J:,:,Li f l.r ni-10 '.trm l)llillri olr..s ,l r-!ujrr!ri,r ar:jr o ]! Note lfyo!tromlrbted oc.lpador ls rot or tte sol Fu @nnot applt
Recent work ex9erience::::: -.rit- :er:erl : se|;j1le ;-. rre r.ai r. ::r.x. 1cr' ..k : .r.nr.-rIl ,+, ,,j{;;r) r: 1.. 1.'r r' . . ' i ' r l . . l i ( r . . : r . r 'n : : , . l ' n i ! , rL r - . ! r !' r . : , r : ' r .T : . : k 'd o r ( r ra r i l r \ ? , r rx 60 D. r r r ! : \e r r: :,ir. !rtrl e4 tr!:.r: r.I :tr r. l:{J: | | I I r r. .r.r :::ril D..ride .!i.ier.e r.ie employm..tre feen.c i , ; : [ . ] : r ln r l i l r : : j r .e Lepr i rn i l r . . ' rn . . ' i i r : r i l i i .d i r r . r : r . l , ' : !ri r:i ir.i:ti.r!:,'r: ' !it\l :-n: I:':ar I l:l l|l ror at l€st 12 ofthe la nonths Inmediately
l l i , ' J r r : ' rn : rd : id { . r . t2 l : ( '1 r i * (n l i 40 , r tO ro i ' .1 : ! , r j r ' r ' t ! r r . . i Je e , Je : ! : i i . i rerployhent [email protected] i),rq. jri l:rJt ji:tr i:tr!.- .eer |r F l .-)l.rrc|r : r l:,irl. ( : ; !a l io r r t r . t : c rcur3 l i r ' : : \ r ( io r t l .n l l l l i i i o ra t lds t2 o ' f rne l t ca6hmcdlately bef.1.Lor ;4rj v
i,'.if.l.:-r.ii:rir;l::r::s a r'::ger.-:t ct 1:re.iiic *.-k cr:trr.n:i.. i. tq:,1'd t:r,t.; r. . ' ; . r rh l \ . . : i ! l : i \ i e !14 ie . : t t . ! : N l . ! rag l r l
l. the Sllll Matchirg d Sldlled--Oesigrat€d Au Sponsorcd @t€gori6 yor my beelielble slth 16 woil erp€ne.e rsee Reent sork dperl.n.e .equlendt uii: -r,i
nee.t wo.t €rp€rien@ erenplton
. .:,,:: dc rct il'ed ta T(rt lr. \lrl q;!.acrac .<):i::i. eri :i ..r:: i-4et : re 2 tea6 stldyir Asstralia rc\lr. !.:r(r! rs(e J.s. r ie5liajf a! n o'1:r! Lrtt)re i..iEr::E:;orr r.:!r
. i !:rl r! ft'l tre l:r:ljiticr. arrjlq.n c:rt: is..;!.!!r ir.n:!: rl.::il Isi nr rr€t r:n.+irri !:r,!::cr.r: E.itr:ren;nl iJoL ;ret il. I y€r study h AGtElla 1\1,'i1{r. rr i-,'Drec i: le:: l::ri 6 ra)rll: isr,-.r ldig':€ t.ui,:.3 r..l:.:rn'l
Note l !!:\ e\em.tiLrf @nnot 5!: ':v{l L: ! sa:!.e if i !:{:. 1!. \i ':l .\rer,.-!.e ?Lttr iie:.sr tr ' : , i ! !51 i r \ n . , ! ; .<< : re l r , ( l r : , r i1 , , la ,k i l , i : : . - , r ,e r t
i' .;i!:- rl.:rlr;k:r:q rrlr.iritrEe i-'r rn'. ...1ccs-<.rr \.r: sh.: tl .dL. t!:al r|1.. rii::n ;, rc i : i \ lL r t ! r ! l : r r ' l i x . da te o , @id€dd ts . : r ree : t . l t : r qL t r . l i . r t i i l . r . . lno tl::!rr I i< d.Ii l::e ,ti,a i:tit:{{: sr\ ((,1lerr<l
!l .:.ru r-e Lc:':; +r: i er.'. 'crc.,Dr;t.red rr Au<r6!i. t. i e.: li!: 1.qr..'er..r :h.n.!i'l rr\l ::i.re :x pr rilqrile,: *ri!r lixi (rri: tri: r!.!.ld i!f i s!.Lr.ti:!:r:vc vil:; , : r l r : , r : ! : r :e t . r , t , ; { . t rk
Skills assessment
Iote:
Dr l , r : e . . r : . j ; i ' . . 1 j r L f l 6 t ! r : r r . . l zd l , i , r r k : : i : . ! ! e j \ e l I r r I e : e r . : : r : t nL j i i J i i J :
t r ! se ! . r e , r ' r I i r ' : l : , r r \ n ' , r , i r € i l . a l : i r r i ! : l ! ! r h r . ! . t r - r . n : . . r t ed€ iu i r i t . :
:::! :r. gr;;::led a sii;. !(-r'sL:.s r:}r !:Jve.@r ii::*!ji.ed trs sultable ror \.t;:
Note:\.:!e n::5ei: rC iutir.nr c! Jrc _L.rtx)::siLrle hri ndeil.li:.! slii.j ji i.!:T..:: h..
r - e r i j | : : ) : : r r :D ! .< r . anda : cNOT.n 'Do \ t r ( r r i : ae r {n : ! : 1e ; j : : ! ess i r e i i r r r l a l i e ! * i :
r , , ! a , : I r , i . e q r j c ! 1 ; f i i : c a p : n r r r e r l \ , ' . ; : : r ! n : . : r : r . . : r ' ( j v i : . r ! : ' i : e . r l a ; ! i i : . j l
lf tou are not able to satisfy these basic requi.ements, t/ou shouldOT co inue with a General Skilled igration application.
s l i l l . l H ) \ l l i , l { \ | I ( ) \ l ' ( ) l \ l S l \ l t l l :
I i ' i n 1 .
l i { } \ ! \ l t r } t \ . | \
Skilleci \ligration t,pdatc - \.larch l00l Pagc I ol'2
L
I Gen€!al S(lled Cate,oories I Skill t\rlatchrng Cateqcry I OverseasSiudeFt Categories I Graduate Skilled Temporar!, Vrsa I OnshoreN/ CitTen Caicgcfics I Frequent QJesticns | tulig:ation Costs IAd.iresses I
Skilled Migration Update
On 31 lvlarch 2003, the Minister for lmmigration and lvlulticulhrraland Indigenous Affairs, Philip Ruddock, announced changes totake effect on 'l July 2003 within thegeneral skilled rnigrationcategory
Mr Ruddock also announced on 14 May 2003 that overseasstudents undertaking studies in Auslralia on 31 March 2003 whoare able to apply for general skilled migration before 1 Apnl 2004.must meet the exisiing 1 yearAustralian study requirement ratherthan the 2 year study requirement being inkoduced fiom 1 July2003
Tlrese changes are subject to arnendrnents to the MigrationRegulations.
The changes in summary are:
(i) overseas students willbe requrred to havecompleted ai least 2 years study while physically inAusiralia be{ore they qualiry for additional points orthe work experience exemption (overseas studentsstudying towards a degree, d ploma or tradequalification in Australia on 31 March 2003 whoapply for'general skilled migration before 1 Aprit2004 wall be required to meetthe current provisionthat requires 1 year offull time study in Australia).
(ii) the award of 5 additional points for overseasstudents who study and reside in regional Australiaor a low population groMh metropolitan area toi arleast 2 years:
iiiii an increase in the points frorn 5 to '10 awardedfor a skilled occupation on the Migration Occupatonin Demand List (IMODL) and ftom 10 to 15 for havinga job offer in relation to an occupation on the MODL,
(iv) an increase in the points from 5 to 10 awardedfor completion ofan Australian upper second classHonours (crhigher degree) or Maste,s qualificaionfollowing completjon of an Australian bachelordegree. both obtained while studying in Australia.and
iv) an increase in the points awarded from 10 to 15for completion ofan Australian Doctorate with aminrmum of 2 consecutive years of fulltime stldy
D . A R C | | r o f l . . .
PANT 1
General information
Basic requirements
Categodes'ih.:. rre.1(3teE.rae5 i.- crpl.!r jBnrso?d mis.rt:or tc Atrstrii !.r
tmploy€r Xominalion 5.hem. (Et{S)
R€gional Sponso.ed Migration Schem€ (RSMS)
tabour Agrceme.ts (r-A)
hvest Australia Supponed Skills (rA55)
: rc re t i r i \C ! ! r :a r .e rDbyerdr iver ' ! \e l i s t - rc r . . le , i J l t ia , id remp:o ! . ' c r i to rG: rL i t!! qn l.' tki'led t{arldr drlxr l-or. ov€Fns cr iror pop,e tcirpoE:ili :. r\L sraiiil*:er ar cap:iYcr irr: :Fr Jr.ble l. tillthen rccnltrrcrt n.eds frorr thcArsl!.iiix:lrL\rdr rrr iket ,rr ti:ctch thc:rovn r.a,nias elkfl5 :he to rrtl! pi)a:nr ilASSr evblescn,Dioilr6 rlio l3le;n a prov.d L{ss 3rrcemsl|i lc rBrste. lev rarreeri .ri\ r . , " i ' I Hrn t . i , , rcc \ o l rhe . r .umpdnr tc AL | l r , ,n
V)re lrlorm.tiof ;.{,Lt t:rq."rreEories is ir! P<rrt :2 Categori4
l,abour maaket testingfJrt* I-:f,irn,ler N(:Tiratior s.hemc lE.\iSi r\e.lpl.ter rJ:,i:!'o* rirrr t:r}'la!ebccr rr;d,e to lin.l sr Atrslralirr cil:af or elidcrt $ro is suitabie fcr the rpNiatmert
,v1r r i rL rn !dL io l r i x ,J t l Jbour 1 ra lkd rc \ t i r : { ! in r : rp re l . rv rn t ( r te€ ! r : - , : r ! } r1 l
llomin.tion,1 : :p rosr .dvc3pp l i ( ; r rs ) t r5 t i :F t iEncr ina ted l ) ! ' ' t5 .cn .p ;J \c : i r : , l . J jna :d :he
r.T:rati(-\!: J:,:i,i be Eceiled bi 3 Deqartment of lmm!€?tica inil llrlr'.rlr;:Jl nril!:d ge('us Al{iti: iDlN,tli\r 8r:inei Ce1l.e :r ALst.riir iu!i.r.iee t!.. ..r {,r ijJ:,,\-,5Cer:l=-: cn re. :lni lt thc tr{) innricr is.plroued. tne er?ioie. $i:r jdrr,e tl.
lr !(r!- rralr.r ii,cs.is, rirer xrijt'udee tneir v:sr.pFlior:dr *ilr':. 6 \'tirli: tri$tlre daic txr: funirrL.or '{as appr$ed ir AJsLzlii lt ii ijnDo:r.nl r:r;r ri. r:.ilix;r.:n: i:r-'dAcd b€f@ oratthc snE dbe as trc ri!. r)F!:.ntlor
it r.ir;r rL,i .rE :\ i:i:Frr ! ir: Atr!tra i.:;rd irtend5 t.r;tlEit r{r em.io:... iD,,!::,r.edr:ci;ri.n *rti:rr ]\L;rl:Jl!:r r,!e n,n.ixrtir t\rL d LE i.{i€ed befoe or.ttne enet iMe;> l i r r i s . ; i t . ; (aan, r YoLr rcn rner 'TLr t cJee rne i r . r tJ i i . r l :o : : . r i ! : r 6 r r , : J r ii, I ir. :iir!:t:r.ii .l l!t.cn lrt:Llr
i i e . : r re r j rn r ra r o1r : t r i r L re ;Dt j i , ) r .e ( l l x l r r :e Fe ! i s r r i j , r i r in i r ! r , ; i ! ' : " ; r j l r . r *C
l::ri!n :r!:Lr; .,r.,,! nr 'r;t c|i ilje.:i.lrr ejch ..riqo:! 4ir |c L,j..l 1 Prl :,
visa applicationTl . r r ( i r : : : . r ' . i :n r . i l t : r : r \ r ! r ra l ia . : t ' . r r \ r l . .1 . r : l :a . . i
tmpodart ll tne _.m lre !. rl-rili ::4 1 lrrrr li6 t xe! n-r.sl r(:id .! .;:jj .r:r'r :x.r:r isi.: l
' : \ ' a i ( :n r r { : ra r in ld t ie i {cN l . :de5.n tem| ] , r i t r l r : ! r : d i ! . i rn l r : r l , t req l : (
*{:rkeri citElri.,ra. :rrii 1r'('r(::ni ol: r . i ( l r *o 'k i rs ro i ( l t ry ! r r ' : o r-i,iitl r it!C'11 .r,sr srrrtql ir: rlrt'd to r,r a*i.C i!:-\e r! .!!r) uc:i eler i,rjln;'L: odpL.ted Jr tr(: nDp|llrl: Jr
i , ' l i ! .1 ! e l x i d . r ' r l rn l :e . t f t ! , ! ( ! : r . re ; .u t r ' r - , ! ! r l i :A r r , : : { : , : i JH: J , l ) r : i , r }c , {,i tt.;i Ic: 5r:clt 5l;\ r.iri
hglish language requircmedsh x.<I crrei r!:e ro.::n.e 1!-rr l::c r vqirir:rr'or i:rniJ:r.: c!. .i I rt iiilr'to.T.rtii,: .r t:re irtcnrat (rna: L':q;:!l' Lrnetae. la.r .i 5\<r.rr tlEL:1ii,;f ire ti.. r!l
-l y*Lldp.<om.au
Qualifi cation assessmentI : . r .T i \ :a q t i f . ; , r i . l r x r : i r rx : ; r \e ' i i ! r l I
. 'i -.: \nrlnr lrr.r! -:st r'r TemllJ.!- I ol a :F:le!a!.'t.l :,,\i! '1 n tr"(!rl.r:: " :l',.J:1,ri 'idl I €:d i,ie rn)!me-,t
l f l . i r ra \n : . : . , :e i r a n ; rn : * : re l l :e r l l :e n ,n i . r r led r { . r , t ! t . ) r : r . r i i . , : i . r , r , . ,1 ! r .s { ..tr.a.i:F l!:.:, \i::::r.{l.l-r(k sl: rleire'rpl,;}er !i{: Dl11lA lrr::rrx.! Cc'n'a ^. l-rlNilr\irr:.r {i:er. ri.- ro1rir.. .1)'\r\.. ro .rlA. ti(:! r .rJ.l!.rt io. car: rro.dc i o'e'rlar .rrr l i ! : rL r e . l i r : c : r { l ' rg dc t ; i l \ , r r r rc , \5 i : \1 : re bo l \ . f { i :n . ! to . .n ,D:ere r id : fL ' . x r r , i :i t :: t:x' c.:; l l ::1..l.J.(|
PART 1
1i: rl i: :i ld .-iart.l.| er?cr.F. !a !('F:vd€.* dc ri:ge.n t!:r!l:r-:!.;i :l;;'ressi::Jie.l .e.!!.cs tr;ss ir Br;\rrss Sl: s entrlats . 5elt:re L:D tireir rek Liurrnejii i:irsl ra::j acrtr.t drtdi,\ l.n Sa.rrp..l.aitor! ltrjlrrj\:r; rl ljl,:qmnr::!:.r.::tr,.:r:e\\l.1:Lr. :)arr:ded !] 5talc e.rl l.rrr....:: . i;:: i,.: roird .jr Fd:1 5 a1d tlrrririlr iir:ls,r.nl::€ l)i)-1lA *r!!it. rwjnni4d3r
l r : r : : i : le r : ! f : i j s . ' : \ r kn c ' r€ r i ) : l : r ! : r . ! : ! t , l r , re ax \ i ,FssS l i l l : e r tG.n tpeor :e ! Dcr re.cte: r. tle r.:!! dcE,i.d :rrt)rlr
.r r P;rr. 2 nn.l l
General information
Australia welcomes skitled business people_: re
t I . r t r r r . & . j r . ss 5kr i r t a rk ! . r i : : ln a r tE . r rx r ' t : r : x i l r j de i :n r : l : r l r '11 a . : r r l. , r : rJs : :e i ! r r ,eL t . ,c r : r aLr i . i l ! * r . '& r t ( r r r r i r l . r l rL ' . r . r :q r : r r r i r .F i j t s - d rn l . . r ' .' ! ( ! r ! ' r : ! :L ! r r \u . , l r r l rJ
l:r'i !r:rrk:cr :):.rvrils debilrd :rb.r.Jl-:.:: !he !ira;r.r-reerer:ls ror ll:!!r.-s sl:; !
Who is eligible?
ir!.6n--i
Vsa parllw'ays' l : L r x r i i , , r i l j n t : l i i s i : :e : i ! k ;c : t . . r : t . ; * : . : c r l c : : \ r i t r : r i : : : i i i : : ! . i : , ; : ) r \ .o f - l
ri! re!r (v :r.J.il1mlrt,ri:tlv !.;. rrii,r)D t lrr tF!n;r'!€r1?:nl4r.e ll:t:ldl:.s:i! l:!) . -T ; re rJ t r : ! : ' n : ! r " i \ d , :s .s red lu a : !e t i ; j . l r ; rd ,€ r r ; i : ! l r l t : f : r i ! ; ( : r r i ! t : i , : ! c j .r!!-jjn. .rNl !i:inr-. rrD! r!:. est;LJir|JEr:l ,:rj rd;*er:.:rt ri €e-Lirc !rii:iir-.::
r . t ! : t i : r \L : ! r3 i : i
: l c1 : : i i i i o e : .v i . : . i l r : r : r ie l . ; l i L rE br { i r !4 \ a - iCzr : t : t i r t ru r : r : j t J In i i t d re : rp! !-j:n:n::r :.! (l.r'.a. ir! r'i. U:rs: rer. -Lre:r!
titl:4o!:tr ..i:J.atrer.i :i t1.t rar. f ai:ieel LrJsiaes" aftrit-.{el a rd a? sr.r.ir:(l i)r . 5rJle :r k-n ( qr V' rrr : rlr-r;n : r:i,ilrLx rh!: .dte!-o.t .r'r ie t6ri-rd jt Prr' l
SDonsolship
Srrkr':? r'r,!r, e{rF-rrxerr \q: r<or:iriD i! 3r.r: i5i. fc'4;.r fila .rk e.iy. ao rirr:..:r:i r
rr:!l rt-: r,r:ies.:i ! rlr-.r.t t re tr!rC. tJf .u5i*:5: !:{:r!:rt ir..i a:a 5..c1::r! ti.:-. st :r l:nl. : : , i : c1 i r4era i ;p :ne i l , r f :De iJ i . r re r ! l : r ra1 , ( r r l ; i ! : \ : i ! tL : l i , i i ;n t ra : r . ' r iL ) : ,n i ! : f ! :E : - ! : r : i ! - 5k : i : s e - { r ; ! Jc rD:e ! rp b r i r . c : : r r i :g i } r r i . , r ; : r . .n l i - . * i : i ! . , r1 i r . r } : . lr..:;)l.ri i li:LatJrr : cor.'r+ix..:. -ri: :iilr.r,)r rla'sc :tir..rvni (ar,:eo.:ar a! :r:lil!:e irJv:sior:i rn(l lcrma! err lec:dcrr€ {iiees lsee r};1! I r:rl li F-(}. Fr.:rDi'.. r,r"5la!{tli:1r..i 5:xrso:ed [li:s:re3 Or.er c;tcCor! pr.e d.:q lo: r.op.: + ro m.y:.!l: ' ' veoura l l :p : r .s r ' J i j r imers l ju l r \o hdven a€ . l r . r . r jd J ! j l , : : . resscn:d{ \e , . , "T i : . jqer 'a . r : , ) i . :nar . ; : : . i i e : r i t c r . !gorer r ren5nr€ i r . t : cs . r . i i te - i J lo .de<, j r ! :r i i :T l l .e r * : l : ! ,$ . i ] . . i ! l i aC or l J ln ) r t s : r r ' : sos : ! :J rd t ! ! r . npr r i . . , : r r i r l i aSl;r!r'..!4-Jr::1 tr).',rni:.:l :)r.,r."! (l$.c!,.r-rtsIl;!fl r:e,: .rsl.r!;;t !);tn $ ,
Srsiness services
o g
E d
E;E Eo =
€EEE : :
F:A
:!
t 9 ; 9 :r; i; ; i.i
E o E 6 :
; g ; e a* g u c t . =
i 3 # i 3 ; ;
= 6 >
5 E 5; - td = ne i 9! P 2i 5 # i
i , n E
o - : o
I < 9
is,*H
d x d :
,Fsi,F
t
E
t
9 -
ev
! !
EeE
a'i
' t t
9 < 9
i s l i
_9 .4
- : =
9 = 9q - 6 4d 6 o d
!c)
c
i 9E 6a.E
g €
E E
: €6 E
E . E
g
I
9
o
z=c.
o
E A ed 9 d: 5 ; io X =E t i - S^ - e -a * E
3 € E6 t a6 E ;+ . s =; ! . ;9 E . ( !
E U Pe = ;g d o_ q q o
E } Pq E Y5 4 6o
z
oUTaooJat,zo
()JILo-l!oEuro=lz
rtooooo
a oq
c,\s
a?$
c@
qto
(')d +
a?gt
ol(\I
q (r).rt
qoo
g=ocoo-
d)o(.)
ov
(t)tf
@o
(v,q)
oro ols
(t)(\l
F. (, (Dt
oo)o)
roortoo
!too6o
@F.
@(Y)
ao(r) CU (\l
(.) o @ F (r) r.()AI
aoctooF
a \(ool
qq)
a(t)
oq oci
\ol c'j
olot
ot<'i
olol
rJto
goo
o,gocoo-
s@(\l
rt€ool
c{()
(t)q)s
o(t)(')
oo
(()o
FT@
ro@
(r)rr,
()(oF-
(to)<.i
q,o66
()
oo(\I
N(r) ro(\l CO
F* (\l OJ(')AI
r')(\l
F. \tf*
ocoF.
G'E(\lo6
a olN
ocri
roo;
oq o?ro
oq(.)
oqo
a@
a?s
aq o?ro
oc;o
dtroooo-
oq)ol
\io)
\tl.-
(r)olol
oAIet
()1r)
g)o
F.rf)
(\ solol
(oF.q
ooooo
oFT
F- F.(r)
(o$
ol(0 rf) (t) ro(\I
F- f- (v(o CD
EFzloo
oY
c
I
(5
.iot-
(!o
_cl
a
(g
oco
T'c
.qaD(!(5
oo(Eo.ca
(!
oY
oo
Y
f
a
Eooo�
vEo=cl
al
c)E Fo
F
oUIE Gt- o)= 9o i 5o 96 EF ( L
C Ev .F >> =. o 5f f r8 B9 ee 2= <i- <tt - ( D
v O D--i ctd FO. t'i< Q; ct)Y_a o)
DEFINITION OF ASIA
Asiathe largest ofthe contincrts- bordcring on the Arctic Ocean- the Pacilic Occan. the lndian (kean. and thcIledilrranan and Red Scas in the wesl lt includes Ih€ l.rge p.rin$las ofAsia \'linor. India Arabia. andIndoch;na and the isldd gtuups ofllpan. tndoftsia. rhc Philippines. and C!'vlotr (Sri Lanla):conrains thcmounlain ranges ofthe I lindu Kush tlimalalas Pamirs Tian Shan. tlrals. dd Caucasus- t he Srq plaleausof lndia. lran. and T;bd. \asl plains and desens. and the valle! s of ronv largc rivc.s including thc Vclons.hawaddy- lndu\ Ganaes- Ti-sns. and Euphraics Pop lation: 158921i000 (1998 c$ ) Area::t4ir)l 162 sqknr ( l7 l l9+r5 s{ l nr }
I htrpriN$ wordrefereqqe qellliclslilEdqfu iriotr-asp"en -isi4)
tinited \ations Population Division defincd Asia comprising thc follorrring regions:
l:asrem ̂ sia \lesrcrn A5ia(-hina. llory Kong SAR AmflraChina i\tacao S'\R .l,erbaljanDcnocratic Peoplc s Republic ofKorea aahrainJapan C!_prus:\,lonsolia C'eorliaRcpublic ol-Korca lraq
lsraclJordan
Sourh-Central Asia Ku\ranAtghanis;tan txba onaan:rlad.\h Occupied I'alesiinian Temtorvllhutan OnranInd;a Qatarlran llslam Rcpublc ot) Saldi ArahiaKaakhstan Slnan Arab RepublicKlrgl,zsan Tu.ke!valdiles Unit.d .,\rab F-mirares\cpal Yrrren
S.i l-ankaTajikisian
iqq!h:[4l!q!.ljaBrurci Daruselam
Democrar;c Republic oaTinlor I csle
I ao Pctple s Donocraric Rcpublic
Philippine\Singapore-Ihailand
(hrlp:,.'esa utr org{npp/delinition hrmld^sia)
Provrnoal Ofigrns ol Former Chrnese Sludents (from a sample of 1018)
ShangharGuangdongFujranBetingLraonrngShandongZhetiangHubeiSichuanShanxiJEngsu
JiangxiHebeiGuangxlHeilongjiang
Ji l inGansuNrngxlaShaanxiGuizhouNingxaXrang (Tibet)Olhers
Number Per Cent
4M279
77751 9'18'15
1 41 1I877655433210o000
16
3 9 72 7 4
7 67 41 91 a1 5
1 10 9o 8o 7o 70 60 5o 50 4o 3o 3o 20 1
00000
'1 6
(Bactnun 1995)
: l l TFr . l r [ ] lA l : l i 1 l l : iT l r j \ r \ . l l \1u ;F l1TI ! ) . i : L ! i f : ! ; , l t f . \ l L . \ ] \L r - . t \ r L .
..j
r ' _ _ - =
- - + + ' , + j
:
I r R . - \ l \ l r i t r . l \ . . \ \ i j s l l - . 1 ) E \ l \ 1 ( \ \ I i \ 1 E \ T :
Tab le 12 .2 Ar rs t r l t l i u : r |nn t rg ra tL ( ) r r t i ( ) t -n i l l td u l l l l g r . r t i ( ) l l t i r, {s ian counr r ics , 19 f i4 - i i i ro 1991 r )4
t t I
Count rv o {
or ig in /
d e s t i n a t i o n
Ove rscas -
Immigrants born
to emigran ts
A u s t r a l i a ( N u m h e r ) .
A s . , 1 , , o f
I n tn l lg ran ts
R a t i o o f
Ar rs t ra l ia - over \ea \
born to
rnr ig ran ts Ar rs t ra l ia -
b(l rrl
cmigran t s
K, , r . . :
) . 1
l . ( .1 : +t h . ;
a _ il a: ,
t +i ;
l t _ i
1 t
: e_ i . l
t 11 . 1a. (.i . t .t r q
9 ; ,
i . r : ;
I sa9
+ l ;h f
I i,.)t t 9 a
1 ; ai4+ l( , 1 ;l 1 ;1 - i 1I 9
+h l I
l l ;+(l
+_i+e
I t ,J
1 1 i
1 t +j n -
. ' r lI l . {i 9 l
. . ' : ;I : . '
I n-l
l t lI r t .: q l
- l - i r: r ;1 + ;
: i1 . . - iI 0t .
a. : -1: t i
r 1-+
-+16.t l
T , , r , r l . + : ' r l , l i 1 n.\: t ' la asa t . l i
l 1 t ] . l fo : : rh lc e r tc l t s l r ) l t s ( ) t r t t c l t t ] t ( ) i l c t l l t i r - \ l l ) ) i l i l r \ \ i l v t ( ) 1997 t r t r H , ,ngKL,ng: rs i l l i l r cc r l t i ' e t i r r th t n r ) r ) -B .nr in . tc ra n ( ) f . la tL ( ) ' t ( ) seek , t i r r . r . t' i l l \ r l r i . tncc .
P" rhap. thc re i : l r l . , , . , . , t rc L lnccr ta in rv in Ta i r ran a l .ou t i t l . c r r rgrcL ln r tcJ rv r rh Chrna;
a t l l t l t t r t ta r i vc v tc \ \ , r : th l t t i . r i . t t rcss In ig r i ln ts rake a consr . l c ra [ r le anror . rn t r , lr i t t rc to t rans ic r t l ' r c i r l .L rs rne : : i r c t i v ine ) t r , rm A. i . to . {us t r i r l ia . T r : rns ic r r rngo i t l l t o l ien c ( ) l t ) l i e \ rve l r o l f L r rc l ' ras ing . n l rnu tnc tL l r i l l g anJ -se l l ing ac t iv r t r r \rrs:ociateel u i th busrness l- \ ln()re Jit trcLrl t than trensierr irrg people. Tl-rr: isf; tr t lcularl \ ' tr l le during tt |rn()\ l t t i econrtntrc . lour-rtut.r-r in Au-.tralr:r cont-parcJ t,r thel 'crv r: t l iJ ec() lr()nric grouth ()ccurr ir lg ir-r lv4alavsia, Hong Ki,rrg
F R { I \ I T R , { I \ , { \ I ) S T L ' I ' ! \ T \ 1 ! ] \ E \ 1 E \ T :
Tab le 12 .1 Ar . rs t ra i ia : pcnrancr l t a l ld l ( )ng- rc rn l a r r i va ls t rom an. i
. lcparturc, ' to Asia l .r ' l rccufl l tronal caregor\. , 1981-E2 ro 1989-9i i
C)ccupat ion Categ t r r l A r r i va ls Depar tu rcs Net N c t
mo\ 'emcnts t t t in ,
zl t
movement
m 0 \ ' e m e n l
I ' r , , t . ' ' .1 , ,11 ,1 l . 111s .1 , ; . ' 1
r l r l t c l J r r , , t < . . r r , ' 1 , t i
T c r i r r r . . r l( . i r r r e r l l r . r l . ' .
f k r i l r J t r , ' r k t r r
: e n r t - . k r l l e J r r , , r k c r .
l r r . k r l i . J r , , r k c r .
l c t ' , t t c .
R t t r r . , l
l l , , u r r , l i r r r r .
\ , , n - t , . , r k ; r . . e f , r l . l r c l
\ L ) f I ' r c \ r ( ) u . l \ c i l r l ' i , , r . , 1
I n e r n l ' 1 , , r c . l
. \ \ r l . l . r : c r l
t _ i ; 1r , ' .11 l
I i "
; ; I I
I q ;+
l 5 l hI l s t rl t t r l+ ) , l
l J f 6q
+ ( . l t 1I r,l,5 1 t ' l; 5 ; l
t 9 [ lf 3 s
l l l t 9
;6, ; ll i 6 l 5l s 1 9 ;
6765I 1 - { t i
+ 1 a l r l
9l +caI 966
l t ; ; s1 6 ; t 1
I / . ( \ {
5 r . ; ;l .r. - i6
r 1 1 l
i l . l r .
9 i . s 5
; l 5 l
i + . ) +6q .6 i( ,6.9J
1 ) . 1 0
r l 1 9
5 l . l t
T , , r . r l .1 i . : , ' l 9 l : s r 9 a i t s 1 + 9 ; I i e
Tab le 12 .4 - {L r r t ra l ia : l cml lnc l r t , rnJ l r rn l - tcnn ar r r \ -a l5 t ro rn and . lepar tu rc .
to . {s ra b l occr rpe t io r )a l c r r f rg ( ) r \ , l99a 9 l to 1992-91
Occupat ion Categor r Ar r iva ls f )epar tu re . Net
mqvcnrents o { in - movement
as o mo\ 'emen[
- \ . -ct
\ l r t t , rgc r : , - {J t t t r t l . t r . r i ( ) r \
f r , , t e " L ' , n , r L .
I ' , r r , r ' p r , , i . . ' r , , n . r l '
T r . rJ t .
( i l c r k .
5 ,1 lg r ' I i1 r , rp , . r l sc r \ rac \ \ ' ( r rkc rs
I ' i , r r r r \1 , i .h rnc ( , f c r . r t t i r j rn t l J r r r c r
L , r1 . , ,111115 \ re l r rcJ r r , r rkc rs
l 0 r l - i
I I o l !
i l l ( .
: + ; i.).,).r 5
5.) t I
l t i q
l 9 ; ;
1 l ) ' i
l t r b l - i
1 + r +
l i i l 9
l a r ;j 5 :
; ; 1
I s l 9
l 1 s a l
t i 5 4 t
l65 l
59+4
6 S l b
I ?a-i
17r lb
: i 1 5
O - r . 51
; 1 e ;
; a t :r--.5.s lt t . + r; ; ; 9
5 i . ; l
T , , 1 11 5 l 5b6 : 7 1 b ; 5r 699 b ; l l
I
ABBREVIATIONS
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
AGEP Age of persons
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation
ASCO Australian Standard Classification of Occupations
ASEAN The Association of South-East Asian Nations
BIMPR Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural & Population Research
BLUE Best Linear Unbiased Estimators
BPLP Birth place of an individual
BPMP Birth place of the individual's mother
BPFP Birth place of the individual's father
CHN Chinese Origin
DIMEA Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs
DIMA Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs
DIMIA Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs
DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
ENGP Very Good English Language Ability
HRSP Hours Worked
HSF Household Sample File
INCP Income
LPM Linear Probability Model
LSFP 1 Employees
LSFP2 Self-E,mployed
LSFP3 Unemployed looking for work
MDAA Multicultural Disability Advocacy association of New South Wales
MIA Migration Institute of Australia
ML Maximum Likelihood
OCCPI Managers and Administrators
OCCP2 Professionals
OCCP3 Associate Professionals
OCCP4 Tradespeople and Clerical Workers
QALLP I Postgraduate or Graduate qualifications
QALLP2 Bachelor degree or tertiary education
RSE Relative Standard Error
SE Standard Error
SEXP Sex of Persons
SIR Skil led-lndependent Regional
UNHCR The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
VTNM Vietnamese origin
YARP Years of Arrival
ABS CATEGORY NUMBERS
1301.0 Year Book Australia 2005, 2003,2002,2001, 2000, 1986
1370.0 Measuring Australia's Progress 2002
1996 Census of Population and Housing: Household Sample File -
Technical Documentation
2017 .0 Census of Population and Housing: Selected Education and Labour ForceCharacteristics 2003
2037.0 Census of Population and Housing: Household Sample File Technical Paper
3105.65.01 Australian Historical Population Statistics 2000
3201.0 Population by Age and Sex, Australian States and Territories
3222.0 Australia's Population reaches l9 million, 2 September 2003
331 I . l Demography, New South Wales
3401 .0 Overseas Arrivals and Departures
3412.0 Migration, Australia
4102.0 Australian Social Trends 2003,2002,2001 ,2000, 1998, 1996, 1995
4224.0 Education and Training in Australia, 1996
6250.0 Labour Force Status and Other Characteristics of Migrants
6305.0 Employee Earnings and Hours, Australia, Preliminary, l0 December 2002
6530.0 Household Expenditure Survey 1998-99
6537 .0 Government Benefits. Taxes and Household Income, Australia
8 149.0 Human Resources by Selected Qualifications and Occupations, Australial6 May 2003