The Early Modern World - Mr. Washington's Webpagemrwashingtonswebpage.weebly.com/uploads/2/.../chapter_5-renaissance...The Early Modern World ... northern Europe c. 1455 Gutenberg

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eriod in Perspective

The Early Modern World

1400–1800

Beginning in the late fifteenth century, Europeans engagedin a vigorous period of state building. The result was the

creation of independent monarchies in western and cen-tral Europe that formed the basis of a new European state

system. These European states then began to expand intothe rest of the world.

Also during this period, two great new Islamic empires,the Ottomans in Turkey and the Safavids in Persia, arose

in Southwest Asia. A third Islamic empire—the MogulEmpire—unified the subcontinent of India. Least affected

by the European expansion were the societies of East Asia:China and Japan.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 774–775 for primary source readings to

accompany Unit 2.

Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional

primary sources about The Early Modern World.

The

� A model of theCopernican system

� A European navigatoruses an astrolabe.

“Dare to Know.”

—Immanuel Kant

1633Galileo is tried by theCatholic Church for heresy

1642The English Revolutionbegins

1775The American Revolutionbegins

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➊ The United States

Revolutionary IdeasThe spark that sent the spirit of revolution flashing across Europe and the

Americas began in the minds of sixteenth-century European scientists. Galileoand others challenged established scientific ideassupported by the Catholic Church. Politicalauthority began to be questioned.

In 1776, American colonists took steps to win their freedom from Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the Declarationof Independence, clearly stated the reasons forproclaiming independence:We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men arecreated equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these areLife, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.

RevolutionIn the 1600s and 1700s, revolution traveled back and forth acrossthe Atlantic Ocean. The pattern started with the arrival of the firstEnglish colonists in North America. The colonists carried with themideals born of the English Revolution. They believed that govern-ments existed to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Signing of the Declaration of Independence

➊➌ ➋

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➌ Haiti

Exporting RevolutionIn 1791, the ideals of the American and French Revolutions traveled

across the Atlantic and the Caribbean to the French-held colony of SaintDomingue on the island of Hispaniola. Inspired by talk of freedom,enslaved Africans took up arms. Led by a formerly enslaved man,Toussaint-Louverture, and other island leaders, the rebels fought for thirteen years against the French. On January 1, 1804, SaintDomingue, present-day Haiti, became the second nation in theAmericas to achieve independence from colonial rule. “We haveasserted our rights,” declared the revolutionaries. “We swearnever to yield them to any power on earth.”

➋ France

The Expanding RevolutionThe revolutionary ideas contained within the Declaration of Inde-

pendence traveled back across the Atlantic to influence the FrenchRevolution. French rebels fought in defense of Liberté, Egalité, and Fraternité. In 1789, French revolutionaries drafted the Declaration ofthe Rights of Man and the Citizen. Echoing the principles of the Dec-laration of Independence, the French declaration proclaimed that,“Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.”

Political and intellectual revolutions changed the way people thought aboutestablished ideas and institutions. How did this change in perception eventu-ally lead to the American view of government today?

Why It Matters

French Revolution

1804Saint Domingue achievesindependence

1776The Declaration of Independence is signed

1789The French Revolutionbegins

Toussaint-Louverture

UNIT 3 The Early Modern World

154

Renaissance and Reformation

1350–1600

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of the Renaissance and the

Reformation in Europe.• Between 1350 and 1550, Italian intellectuals began to reexamine the culture of the

Greeks and Romans. Historians later referred to this period of European history as theRenaissance.

• Martin Luther’s break with the Catholic Church led to the emergence of the Protestant Reformation.

• During the period known as the Catholic Reformation, the Catholic Church enacted a series of reforms that were successful in strengthening the Church.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Western art is founded on classical styles developed by the Greeks and Romans.• Machiavelli’s views on politics had a profound influence on later political leaders in

the Western world and are still studied in universities today.• The Jesuits have founded many Catholic colleges and universities in the United States.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 5 video, “Da Vinci: A Renaissance Man,” chronicles Leonardo da Vinci’s numerous artisticand scientific innovations.

1350 1400

c. 1350The ItalianRenaissance begins

1434The Medicifamily takescontrol ofFlorence

Cosimo de’ Medici

1450

c. 1450Christian humanism spreads in northern Europe

c. 1455Gutenberg printsBible usingmovable type

Page from the Gutenberg Bible

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Renaissance art and architecture flourished in Florence. The Duomo, a Renaissance church, contains artwork by many important Renaissance artists.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 5–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com1500 16001550

1508Michelangelobeginspainting theSistine Chapel

1517Martin Lutherinitiates theProtestantReformation

1519Charles I of Spain is electedHoly RomanEmperor

1534Henry VIIIcreates theChurch of England

1545The Council ofTrent is formed

Michelangelo

http://wh.mt.glencoe.com

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Painting the Sistine Chapelround 1500, Pope Julius II wanted the great Italianartist Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine

Chapel in Rome. “This is not my trade,” Michelangeloprotested; he was a sculptor, not a painter. He recommendedother painters to the pope, but the pope persisted.

Michelangelo needed the money and undertook the project.He worked, on and off, for four years, from May 1508 toOctober 1512. For a long time he refused to allow anyone,including the pope, to see his work.

Julius grew anxious and pestered Michelangelo on a regu-lar basis about when the ceiling would be finished. Tired ofthe pope’s requests, Michelangelo once replied that the ceil-ing would be completed “when it satisfies me as an artist.”The pope responded, “We want you to finish it soon.” Hethen threatened that if Michelangelo did not “finish the ceiling quickly he would have him thrown down from the scaffolding.”

Fearing the pope’s anger, Michelangelo quickly completedhis work. When he climbed down from the scaffold for thelast time, he was tired and worn out. Because he had been onhis back so long while painting the ceiling, it was said that henow found it easier to read by holding a book up rather thandown. The Sistine Chapel ceiling, however, is one of the greatmasterpieces in the history of Western art.

A

This detail from the Sistine Chapel is titled The Creation of Adam.

Why It MattersIn the fifteenth century, intellectualsin Italy were convinced that theyhad made a decisive break with theMiddle Ages and had entered a newage of human achievement. Today,we call this period of European his-tory the Renaissance. Michelangelowas but one of the great figures ofthis time. Another was MartinLuther of Germany, whose breakwith the Roman Catholic Church atthe beginning of the sixteenth cen-tury led to the Protestant Reforma-tion and a new era in the history ofChristianity.

History And You Identify twopieces of public art in your commu-nity. Research what commendationsor criticism the city received follow-ing the unveiling of these pieces.Create a multimedia presentationwith your findings.

The RenaissanceGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• Between 1350 and 1550, Italian intellec-

tuals believed they had entered a newage of human achievement.

• City-states were the centers of political,economic, and social life in RenaissanceItaly.

Key Termsurban society, secular, mercenary, dowry

People to IdentifyLeonardo da Vinci, Francesco Sforza,Cosimo de’ Medici, Lorenzo de’ Medici,Niccolò Machiavelli

Places to LocateMilan, Venice, Florence, Rome

Preview Questions1. What was the Renaissance? 2. Describe the political world that

existed in the Italian states.

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a webdiagram like the one below to identify themajor principles of Machiavelli’s work,The Prince.

✦1425 ✦1450 ✦1475 ✦1500 ✦1525

1494Charles VIII of Franceinvades Naples

1447Last Visconti rulerof Milan dies

1513Machiavelli writesThe Prince

1527Invading armiessack Rome

1528Castiglione writes TheBook of the Courtier

Preview of Events

CHAPTER 5 Renaissance and Reformation 157

Inspired by Cesare Borgia, who conquered central Italy and set up a state, NiccolòMachiavelli wrote The Prince, a short work on political power. He said:

“Everyone realizes how praiseworthy it is for a prince to honor his word and to bestraightforward rather than crafty in his dealings; nonetheless experience shows thatprinces who have achieved great things have been those who have given their wordlightly, who have known how to trick men with their cunning, and who, in the end,have overcome those abiding by honest principles. . . . A prince, therefore, need notnecessarily have all the good qualities I mentioned above, but he should certainlyappear to have them. . . . He should not deviate from what is good, if that is possible,but he should know how to do evil, if that is necessary.”

—The Prince, George Bull, trans., 1981

The Prince reflected the practice of politics in Renaissance Italy.

The Italian RenaissanceThe word renaissance means rebirth. A number of people who lived in Italy

between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had witnessed a rebirth of the ancientGreek and Roman worlds. To them, this rebirth marked a new age. Historianslater called this period the Renaissance, or Italian Renaissance—a period of Euro-pean history that began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. What, then, arethe most important characteristics of the Italian Renaissance?

First, Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society. As the Middle Ages pro-gressed, powerful city-states became the centers of Italian political, economic, andsocial life. Within this growing urban society, a secular, or worldly, viewpoint

Voices from the Past

The Prince

Cesare Borgia

emerged as increasing wealth created new possibili-ties for the enjoyment of material things.

Second, the Renaissance was an age of recoveryfrom the disasters of the fourteenth century such asthe plague, political instability, and a decline ofChurch power. Recovery went hand in hand with arebirth of interest in ancient culture. Italian thinkersbecame aware of their own Roman past—the remainsof which were to be seen all around them. They alsobecame intensely interested in the culture that haddominated the ancient Mediterranean world. Thisrevival affected both politics and art.

Third, a new view of human beings emerged aspeople in the Italian Renaissance began to emphasizeindividual ability. As Leon Battista Alberti, afifteenth-century Italian, said, “Men can do all thingsif they will.” A high regard for human worth and arealization of what individuals could achieve createda new social ideal. The well-rounded, universal per-son was capable of achievements in many areas of life. Leonardo da Vinci (VIHN•chee), for exam-ple, was a painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, andmathematician.

158 CHAPTER 5 Renaissance and Reformation

This painting by Luca Carlevaris, titled The Pier and the Ducal Palace, shows the wealth associated with Venice.

Of course, not all parts of Italian society weredirectly affected by these three general characteristicsof the Italian Renaissance. The wealthy upper classes,who made up a small percentage of the total popula-tion, more actively embraced the new ideas andactivities. Indirectly, however, the Italian Renaissancedid have some impact on ordinary people. Especiallyin the cities, many of the intellectual and artisticachievements of the period were highly visible anddifficult to ignore. The churches, wealthy homes, andpublic buildings were decorated with art that cele-brated religious and secular themes, the human body,and an appreciation of classical antiquity.

Summarizing What were the char-acteristics of the Italian Renaissance?

The Italian StatesDuring the Middle Ages, Italy had failed to

develop a centralized monarchical state. The lack of asingle strong ruler made it possible for a number ofcity-states in northern and central Italy to remainindependent. Three of them—Milan, Venice, and

Reading Check

Florence—expanded and played crucial roles in Ital-ian politics.

The Italian city-states prospered from a flourish-ing trade that had expanded in the Middle Ages. Ital-ian cities traded with both the Byzantine and Islamiccivilizations to the east. Italian trading ships had alsomoved into the western Mediterranean and thennorth along the Atlantic seaboard. These shipsexchanged goods with merchants in both Englandand the Netherlands. Italian merchants had profitedfrom the Crusades as well and were able to set upnew trading centers in eastern ports. There, the Ital-ian merchants obtained silks, sugar, and spices,which they carried back to Italy and the West.

Milan Milan, located in northern Italy at the cross-roads of the main trade routes from Italian coastalcities to the Alpine passes, was one of the richest city-states in Italy. In the fourteenth century, members ofthe Visconti family established themselves as dukes

of Milan and extended their powerover all of Lombardy.

The last Visconti ruler of Milandied in 1447. Francesco Sforza thenconquered the city and became itsnew duke. Sforza was the leader ofa band of mercenaries—soldierswho sold their services to the high-est bidder.

Both the Visconti and Sforzarulers worked to build a strong

Under the Visconti familyand later the Sforza dukes,Milan prospered from tradeand an efficient tax system.

Venice was a rich tradeempire ruled by a smallgroup of self-servingmerchant-aristocrats.

The cultural center ofRenaissance Italy, Florencewas governed by the wealthyand powerful Medici family.

N

SEW

Chamberlin Trimetric projection200 kilometers0

200 miles0

25°E20°E15°E

10°E5°E

40°N

45°N

Mediterranean Sea

Tyrrhenian Sea

Adriat ic

SeaCorsica

Sicily

Sardinia

MilanVenice

GenoaMantua

Pisa Florence

Rome

Naples

Ferrara

Florence

Genoa

Mantua

Milan

Papal States

Urbino

Venice

Renaissance Italy, 1500

centralized state. By creating an efficient tax sys-tem, they generated enormous revenues for thegovernment.

Venice Another major northern Italian city-state wasthe republic of Venice. As a link between Asia andwestern Europe the city drew traders from all overthe world. Officially Venice was a republic with anelected leader called a Doge. In reality a small group of merchant-aristocrats, who had become wealthythrough their trading activities, ran the governmentof Venice on behalf of their own interests. Venice’strade empire was tremendously profitable and madeVenice an international power.

Florence The republic of Florence dominated theregion of Tuscany. In the course of the fourteenth cen-tury, a small but wealthy group of merchants estab-lished control of the Florentine government. They ledthe Florentines in a series of successful wars againsttheir neighbors and estab-lished Florence as a major city-state in northern Italy.

In 1434, Cosimo de’ Medici(MEH•duh•chee) took controlof the city. The wealthy Medicifamily controlled the govern-ment from behind the scenes.Using their wealth and per-sonal influence, Cosimo andlater, Lorenzo de’ Medici, his


Francesco Sforza,Duke of Milan Lorenzo de’ Medici

Italian city-states prosperedduring the Renaissance.

1. Interpreting MapsUsing your text, identifythe three most powerfulcity-states. What geo-graphic features did theyhave in common?

2. Applying GeographySkills Which city-statewas in the best locationto trade by land and seawith the ByzantineEmpire to the east?

grandson, dominated the city at a time when Florencewas the cultural center of Italy.

During the late 1400s, Florence experienced an eco-nomic decline. Most of its economy was based on themanufacturing of cloth. Increased competition fromEnglish and Flemish cloth makers drove down profits.

During this time a Dominican preacher namedGirolamo Savonarola began condemning the corrup-tion and excesses of the Medici family. Citizens, tiredof Medici rule, and frustrated by economic events,turned to Savonarola. So many people followed himthat the Medici family turned Florence over to hisfollowers.

Eventually people tired of Savonarola’s strict regu-lations on gambling, horseracing, swearing, painting,music, and books. Savonarola also attacked the cor-ruption of the Church, which angered the pope. In1498, Savonarola was accused of heresy and sen-tenced to death. The Medici family returned to power.

The Italian Wars The growth of powerful monar-chical states in the rest of Europe eventually led totrouble for the Italian states. Attracted by the richesof Italy, the French king Charles VIII led an army ofthirty thousand men into Italy in 1494 and occupiedthe kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. NorthernItalian states turned for help to the Spanish, whogladly agreed to send soldiers to Italy. For the next 30years, the French and Spanish made Italy their bat-tleground as they fought to dominate the country.

A decisive turning point in their war came in 1527.On May 5, thousands of troops belonging to theSpanish king Charles I arrived at the city of Romealong with mercenaries from different countries.They had not been paid for months. When theyyelled, “Money! Money!” their leader responded, “Ifyou have ever dreamed of pillaging a town and lay-ing hold of its treasures, here now is one, the richestof them all, queen of the world.” The next day theinvading forces smashed down the gates and pushedtheir way into the city. The troops went berserk in afrenzy of bloodshed and looting. Church officialswere sold as slaves, and churches and palaces weresacked while drunken soldiers fought over the spoils.The destruction did not end until the authoritieswere finally forced to establish some order. The terri-ble sack of Rome in 1527 by the armies of the Spanishking Charles I ended the Italian wars and left theSpanish a dominant force in Italy.

Describing How did the Visconti andSforza rulers become powerful in Milan?

Machiavelli and the New StatecraftNo one gave better expression to the Italians’ love

affair with political power than Niccolò Machiavelli(MA•kee•uh•VEH•lee). His book The Prince is one ofthe most influential works on political power in theWestern world.

Reading Check


History through Art

Entry of Charles VIII into Naples by EloiFirmin Feron, 1837 Some scholars believethat the Italian wars helped spread Renaissanceideals and practices. How could the wars havehad that effect?

Machiavelli’s central thesis in The Prince concernshow to acquire—and keep—political power. In theMiddle Ages, many writers on political power hadstressed the ethical side of a prince’s activity—how aruler ought to behave based on Christian principles.Machiavelli rejected this approach.

From Machiavelli’s point of view, a prince’s atti-tude toward power must be based on an under-standing of human nature, which he believed wasbasically self-centered. He wrote, “One can make thisgeneralization about men: they are ungrateful, fickle,liars, and deceivers, they shun danger and are greedyfor profit.” Political activity, therefore, should not berestricted by moral principles. A prince acts on behalfof the state. For the sake of the state, he must be will-ing to let his conscience sleep.

Machiavelli was among the first to abandonmorality as the basis for analyzing political activity.His views on politics have had a profound influenceon political leaders who followed.

Explaining Why was The Prince animportant work on political power?

Renaissance SocietyIn the Middle Ages, society was divided into three

estates, or social classes. Although this social ordercontinued into the Renaissance, some changesbecame evident. We examine the nobility and thepeasants and townspeople here. The clergy are dis-cussed later in the chapter.

The Nobility Throughout much of Europe, land-holding nobles were faced with declining incomes

Reading Check

during the greater part of the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies. Many members of the old nobility, how-ever, retained their lands and titles; new blood alsocame into their ranks.

By 1500, nobles, old and new, again dominatedsociety. Although they made up only about 2 to 3 per-cent of the population in most countries, the noblesheld important political posts and served as advisersto the king.

By this time, the noble, or aristocrat, was expectedto fulfill certain ideals. These ideals were clearlyexpressed in The Book of the Courtier, written by the Italian Baldassare Castiglione (KAHS•teel•YOH•NAY) in 1528.

In his work, Castiglione described the characteris-tics of a perfect Renaissance noble. First, a noble wasborn, not made. He was expected to have character,grace, and talent. Second, the perfect noble had todevelop two basic skills. Because the chief aim of anoble was to be a warrior, he had to perform militaryand physical exercises. Unlike the medieval knight,however, who was primarily concerned with acquir-ing military skill, the Renaissance noble was alsoexpected to gain a classical education and enrich hislife with the arts. Third, the noble needed to follow acertain standard of conduct. Nobles were not sup-posed to hide their achievements but to show themwith grace.

161CHAPTER 5 Renaissance and Reformation

Machiavelli, as portrayed by Santi di Tito

A portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael, c. 1516

What was the purpose of these standards?

“I think that the aim of the perfect Courtier is so towin for himself the favor and mind of the princewhom he serves that he may be able to tell him, andalways will tell him, the truth about everything heneeds to know, without fear or risk of displeasinghim; and that when he sees the mind of his princeinclined to a wrong action, he may dare to opposehim . . . so as to dissuade him of every evil intent andbring him to the path of virtue.”

The aim, then, of the perfect noble was to serve hisprince in an effective and honest way. Nobles wouldadhere to Castiglione’s principles for hundreds ofyears while they continued to dominate Europeanlife socially and politically.

Peasants and Townspeople In the Middle Ages,peasants had made up the overwhelming mass of the

third estate. In the Renaissance, they still constituted85 to 90 percent of the total European population,except in the highly urban areas of northern Italy andFlanders.

Serfdom continued to decrease with the decline ofthe manorial system. Increasingly, throughout thelate Middle Ages, the labor owed by a peasant to alord was converted into rent on land paid in money.By 1500, especially in western Europe, more andmore peasants became legally free.

Townspeople made up the rest of the third estate.In the Middle Ages, townspeople were mostly mer-chants and artisans. The Renaissance town or city ofthe fifteenth century, however, was more diverse.

At the top of urban society were the patricians.Their wealth from trade, industry, and bankingenabled them to dominate their communities eco-nomically, socially, and politically. Below them werethe burghers—the shopkeepers, artisans, guild


The Impact of Printing

T he Renaissance saw the development of printing inEurope. In the fifteenth century, Europeans gradually

learned how to print with movable metal type. JohannesGutenberg of Germany played a crucial role in theprocess. Gutenberg’s Bible, printed about 1455, was thefirst European book produced from movable type.

By 1500, there were over a thousand printers in Europe.Almost forty thousand titles had been published. More than half of these were religious books, includingBibles in English, French, and German; prayer books;and sermons. Most others were Latin and Greekclassics, legal and philosophical works, and romances.

The printing of books encouraged scholarly research andincreased the public’s desire to gain knowledge, which would eventually have an enormous impact on European society. The new religious ideas of the Reformation would not have spread as rapidly as they did in the sixteenth century without the printing press.

Printing allowed European civilization to compete for the first time withthe civilization of China. The Chinese had invented printing much earlier, aswell as printing with movable type.

Analyzing Why do you think the printing of books encouraged people’s desire to gain knowledge?

Fifteenth-centurytype design

JohannesGutenberg Printing

press, c. 1450

masters, and guild members who pro-vided the goods and services for theirfellow townspeople.

Below the patricians and the burgherswere the workers, who earned pitifulwages, and the unemployed. Bothgroups lived miserable lives. These peo-ple made up perhaps 30 or 40 percent ofthe urban population.

During the late 1300s and the 1400s,urban poverty increased dramaticallythroughout Europe. One rich merchantof Florence, who had little sympathy forthe poor, wrote:

“Those that are lazy in a way that doesharm to the city, and who can offer no just reason fortheir condition, should either be forced to work orexpelled from the city. The city would thus rid itself ofthat most harmful part of the poorest class.”

Family and Marriage The family bond was asource of great security in the dangerous urbanworld of Renaissance Italy. To maintain the family,parents carefully arranged marriages, often tostrengthen business or family ties. Details wereworked out well in advance, sometimes when chil-dren were only two or three years old. The mostimportant aspect of the marriage contract was thesize of the dowry, a sum of money given by the wife’sfamily to the husband upon marriage.

The father-husband was the center of the Italianfamily. He gave it his name, managed all finances (hiswife had no share in his wealth), and made the deci-


9. Expository Writing Read a few pas-sages from The Prince. Write a briefessay explaining whether or not youagree with Machiavelli’s theory ofpolitics.

Checking for Understanding1. Define urban society, secular, merce-

nary, dowry.

2. Identify Leonardo da Vinci, FrancescoSforza, Cosimo de’ Medici, Lorenzo de’Medici, Niccolò Machiavelli.

3. Locate Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome.

4. Explain how the Spanish becameinvolved in the Italian wars.

5. Summarize the characteristics of Cas-tiglione’s perfect noble.

Critical Thinking6. Explain Why was a strong family bond

so important in Renaissance Italy?

7. Contrasting Information Use a tablelike the one below to describe the dif-ferences between the social structure ofthe Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Analyzing Visuals8. Identify details in the painting of

Venice on page 158 that show it is amajor city-state with a profitable tradeempire. Find other images of Venice inyour school library and compare themto this painting.

Middle Ages Renaissance

Nobility

Peasants

Townspeople

History through Art

Celebration of a Marriage by GhirlandaioDomenico During the Renaissance, a marriagewas more of a business arrangement than amatter of love. How does this painting sup-port or contradict that statement?

sions that determined his children’s lives. Themother’s chief role was to supervise the household.

A father’s authority over his children was absoluteuntil he died or formally freed his children. InRenaissance Italy, children did not become adults onreaching a certain age. Instead, adulthood came tochildren when their fathers went before a judge andformally freed them. The age of adulthood variedfrom the early teens to the late twenties.

Contrasting How was the Renais-sance noble different from the medieval knight?

Reading Check

c. 1310Dante writes theDivine Comedy

c. 1390Chaucer writes TheCanterbury Tales

c. 1415Donatello creates hisstatue of St. George

Guide to Reading

The Intellectual andArtistic Renaissance

Preview of Events

c. 1434Jan van Eyck paintsthe Arnolfini portrait

c. 1505Leonardo da Vincipaints the Mona Lisa

✦1300 ✦1350 ✦1400 ✦1450 ✦1500

Pico della Mirandola, a Renaissance philosopher, said in his Oration on the Dignity of Man:

“You, constrained by no limits in accordance with your own free will, shall ordainfor yourself the limits of your nature. We have set you at the world’s center that youmay from there more easily observe whatever is in the world. We have made you neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, so that with freedom ofchoice and with honor, as though the maker and molder of yourself, you may fashionyourself in whatever shape you shall prefer.”

—The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, Ernst Cassirer, Paul Kristeller, and John Randall, Jr., eds., 1948

There is no better expression of the Renaissance’s exalted view of the importance ofthe individual.

Italian Renaissance HumanismSecularism and an emphasis on the individual characterized the Renaissance.

These characteristics are most noticeable in the intellectual and artistic accom-plishments of the period. A key intellectual movement of the Renaissance washumanism.


Main Ideas• The most important intellectual move-

ment associated with the Renaissancewas humanism.

• The Renaissance produced many greatartists and sculptors such as Michelan-gelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci.

Key Termshumanism, fresco

People to IdentifyPetrarch, Dante, Michelangelo, Jan vanEyck, Albrecht Dürer

Places to LocateCanterbury, Flanders

Preview Questions1. What were the characteristics of Italian

Renaissance humanism? 2. What were the chief achievements of

European Renaissance painters?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to describe the threepieces of literature written by Dante,Chaucer, and de Pizan. What was the pri-mary importance of each of these works?


Divine The Canterbury The Book of

Comedy Tales the City of Ladies

Pico della Mirandola

Humanism was based on the study of the classics,the literary works of ancient Greece and Rome.Humanists studied such things as grammar, rheto-ric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history—all ofwhich was based on the works of ancient Greek andRoman authors. Today these subjects are called thehumanities.

Petrarch (PEE•TRAHRK), who has often beencalled the father of Italian Renaissance humanism,did more than any other individual in the fourteenthcentury to foster the development of humanism.Petrarch looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts andset in motion a search for similar manuscripts inmonastic libraries throughout Europe.

He also began the humanist emphasis on usingpure classical Latin (Latin as used by the ancientRomans as opposed to medieval Latin). Humanistsused the works of Cicero as a model for prose andthose of Virgil for poetry.

In Florence, the humanist movement took a newdirection at the beginning of the fifteenth century.Fourteenth-century humanists such as Petrarch haddescribed the intellectual life as one of solitude. Theyrejected family and a life of action in the community.In contrast, humanists in the early 1400s took a newinterest in civic life. They believed that it was theduty of an intellectual to live an active life for one’sstate, and that their study of the humanities shouldbe put to the service of the state. It is no accident thatthey served as secretaries in the Italian city-states andto princes or popes.

Examining Why is Petrarch calledthe father of Italian Renaissance humanism?

Vernacular LiteratureThe humanist emphasis on classical Latin led to its

widespread use in the writings of scholars, lawyers,and theologians. However, some writers wrote in the

vernacular (the languagespoken in their ownregions, such as Italian,French, or German). In the fourteenth century,the literary works of theItalian author Dante(DAHN•tay) and theEnglish author GeoffreyChaucer helped makevernacular literaturemore popular.

Reading Check


Dante’s masterpiece in the Italian vernacular is theDivine Comedy. It is the story of the soul’s journey tosalvation. The lengthy poem is divided into threemajor sections: Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, or Par-adise. Dante is led on an imaginary journey throughthese three realms until he reaches Paradise, wherehe beholds God, or “the love that moves the sun andthe other stars.”

Chaucer used the English vernacular in his famouswork The Canterbury Tales. His beauty of expressionand clear, forceful language were important in making his dialect the chief ancestor of the modernEnglish language.

The Canterbury Tales consists of a collection of sto-ries told by a group of 29 pilgrims journeying to thetomb of Saint Thomas à Becket at Canterbury, Eng-land. This format gave Chaucer the chance to portrayan entire range of English society, from the high tothe low born.

Another writer whoused the vernacular wasChristine de Pizan, aFrenchwoman who isbest known for her workswritten in defense ofwomen. In The Book of theCity of Ladies, written in1404, she denounced themany male writers whohad argued that women,by their very nature, areunable to learn and areeasily swayed.

Women, de Pizan argued, could learn as well asmen if they could attend the same schools:

“Should I also tell you whether a woman’s natureis clever and quick enough to learn speculative sci-ences as well as to discover them, and likewise themanual arts. I assure you that women are equallywell-suited and skilled to carry them out and to putthem to sophisticated use once they have learnedthem.”

Explaining What literary format doesChaucer use to portray English society?

Education in the RenaissanceThe humanist movement had a profound effect on

education. Renaissance humanists believed that edu-cation could dramatically change human beings.

Reading Check

Christine de Pizan

Dante

They wrote books on education and opened schoolsbased on their ideas.

At the core of humanist schools were the liberalstudies. Humanists believed that the liberal studies(what we call today the liberal arts) enabled individ-uals to reach their full potential. One humanist wrote,“We call those studies liberal by which we attain andpractice virtue and wisdom; which calls forth anddevelops those highest gifts of body and mind whichennoble men.”

What, then, were the liberal studies? According tothe humanists, students should study history, moralphilosophy, eloquence (or rhetoric), letters (grammarand logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, andmusic. In short, the purpose of a liberal education(and thus the reason for studying the liberal arts) wasto produce individuals who follow a path of virtueand wisdom. These individuals should also possessrhetorical skills so they can persuade others to takethis same path.

Following the Greek ideal of a sound mind in asound body, humanist educators also stressed physi-cal education. Pupils were taught the skills of javelinthrowing, archery, and dancing, and they wereencouraged to run, wrestle, hunt, and swim.

Humanist educators thought that a humanist edu-cation was a practical preparation for life. Its aim wasnot to create great scholars but complete citizens.Humanist schools provided the model for the basiceducation of the European ruling classes until thetwentieth century.

Females were largely absent from these schools.The few female students who did attend humanistschools studied the classics and were encouraged to know some history as well as how to ride, dance, sing, play the lute (a stringed instrument), and

appreciate poetry. They were told not to learn math-ematics or rhetoric. It was thought that religion andmorals should be foremost in the education of“Christian ladies” so that they could become goodmothers and wives.

Explaining How did a humanist edu-cation prepare a student for life?

The Artistic Renaissance in ItalyRenaissance artists sought to imitate nature in

their works. They wanted onlookers to see the realityof the objects or events they were portraying. At thesame time, these artists were developing a newworld perspective. In this new view, human beingsbecame the focus of attention—the “center and meas-ure of all things,” as one artist proclaimed.

New Techniques in Painting The frescoes paintedby Masaccio (muh•ZAH•chee•oh) in Florence at thebeginning of the fifteenth century have long beenregarded as the first masterpieces of early Renais-sance (1400–1490) art. A fresco is a painting done onfresh, wet plaster with water-based paints. Whereashuman figures in medieval paintings look flat,Masaccio’s have depth and come alive. By masteringthe laws of perspective, which enabled him to createthe illusion of three dimensions, Masaccio developeda new, realistic style of painting.

Reading Check


History through Art

The Tribute Money by Masaccio, c. 1426In this church fresco, Masaccio creates a realisticrelationship between the Biblical figures and thebackground. Identify the Renaissance artisticelements used by Masaccio in this work.

Giovanni Bellini(c. 1430–1516)

painter

Hieronymus Bosch(c. 1450–1516)

painter

Sandro Botticelli(c. 1445–1510)

painter

Pieter Brueghelthe Elder

(c. 1525–1569)painter

Filippo Brunelleschi(1377–1446)

architect, sculptor

Leonardo da Vinci(1452–1519)

painter, sculptor,architect, engineer

Donatello(1386–1466)

sculptor

Albrecht Dürer(1471–1528)

painter

Hans Holbeinthe Younger(1497–1543)

painter

Masaccio(1401–1428)

painter

Raphael(1483–1520)

painter

MichelangeloBuonarroti

(1475–1564)sculptor, painter,

architect

Titian(1485–1576)

painter

Jan van Eyck(c. 1395–1441)

painter

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Chamberlin Trimetric projection200 kilometers0

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NETHERLANDS

FLANDERS

BAVARIA

London

Bruges

Hertogenbosch

Rome

Venice

Milan

Florence

Augsburg

Nuremberg

This new, or Renaissance, style was used andmodified by other Florentine painters in the fifteenthcentury. Especially important were two major devel-opments. One stressed the technical side of paint-ing—understanding the laws of perspective and theorganization of outdoor space and light throughgeometry. The second development was the investi-gation of movement and human anatomy. The realis-tic portrayal of the individual person, especially thehuman nude, became one of the chief aims of ItalianRenaissance art.

Sculpture and Architecture The revolutionaryachievements of Florentine painters in the fifteenth

century were matched by equallystunning advances in sculpture

and architecture. The sculptorDonatello spent time in

Rome studying and copy-

ing the statues of the Greeks and Romans. Among hisnumerous works was a statue of Saint George, a real-istic, freestanding figure.

The architect Filippo Brunelleschi (BROO•nuhl•EHS•kee) was inspired by the buildings of classicalRome to create a new architecture in Florence. TheMedici, the wealthy ruling family of Florence, hiredBrunelleschi to design the church of San Lorenzo.The classical columns and rounded arches thatBrunelleschi used in the church’s design create anenvironment that does not overwhelm the worshiper,as Gothic cathedrals might. Instead, the church pro-vides comfort as a space created to fit human, andnot divine, needs. Like painters and sculptors,Renaissance architects sought to reflect a human-centered world.

By the end of the fifteenth century, Italian painters,sculptors, and architects had created a new artisticworld. Many artists had mastered the new techniques

Artists of the Renaissance

Renaissance art was influ-enced by the artistic princi-ples of ancient Greece andRome.

1. Interpreting MapsIn which Italian city didthe most Renaissanceartists work?

2. Applying GeographySkills Create a chart listing the artists of theRenaissance. For eachartist include the artist’sdate of birth, the city inwhich he worked, andthe name and descriptionof one of his creations.

David by Michelangelo


Artistic center

for realistically portraying the world around themand were now ready to move into new forms of cre-ative expression.

Explaining How did Renaissancepaintings differ from medieval paintings?

Masters of the High Renaissance The final stageof Italian Renaissance painting, which flourishedbetween 1490 and 1520, is called the High Renais-sance. The High Renaissance in Italy is associatedwith three artistic giants, Leonardo da Vinci,Raphael, and Michelangelo.

Leonardo mastered the art of realistic painting andeven dissected human bodies to better see hownature worked. However, he also stressed the need toadvance beyond such realism. It was Leonardo’s goalto create idealized forms that would capture the per-fection of nature and the individual—perfection thatcould not be expressed fully by a realistic style.

At age 25, Raphael was already regarded as one ofItaly’s best painters. He was especially admired forhis numerous madonnas (paintings of the VirginMary). In these, he tried to achieve an ideal of beautyfar surpassing human standards.

Reading Check

Raphael is also well known for his frescoes in theVatican Palace. His School of Athens reveals a world ofbalance, harmony, and order—the underlying princi-ples of the art of the classical world of Greece andRome.

Michelangelo, an accomplished painter, sculptor,and architect, was another artistic master of the HighRenaissance. Fiercely driven by his desire to create,he worked with great passion and energy on aremarkable number of projects.

Michelangelo’s figures on the ceiling of the SistineChapel in Rome reveal an ideal type of human beingwith perfect proportions. The beauty of this idealizedhuman being is meant to be a reflection of divinebeauty. The more beautiful the body, the more god-like the figure.

Identifying Name the three Italianartists most closely associated with the High Renaissance.

The Northern Artistic RenaissanceLike the artists of Italy, the artists of northern

Europe became interested in portraying their worldrealistically. However, their approach was differentfrom the Italians’. This was particularly true of theartists of the Low Countries (present-day Belgium,Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).

Reading Check


Raphael

History through Art

School of Athens by Raphael Raphael created this paint-ing for the pope to show the unity of Christian and classicalworks. Research the painting to discover the identities ofthe historical figures that Raphael depicted.

Circumstance played a role in the dif-ferences. The large wall spaces of Italianchurches had given rise to the art offresco painting. Italian artists usedthese spaces to master the technicalskills that allowed them to portrayhumans in realistic settings. In the north,the Gothic cathedrals with their stainedglass windows did not allow for frescoes.Thus, northern artists painted illustrations forbooks and wooden panels for altarpieces. Great carewas needed to depict each object on a small scale.

The most important northern school of art in thefifteenth century was found in Flanders, one of theLow Countries. The Flemish painter Jan van Eyck(EYEK) was among the first to use oil paint, whichenabled the artist to use a wide variety of colors andcreate fine details as in his painting Giovanni Arnolfiniand His Bride. Like other Northern Renaissance artists,however, van Eyck imitated nature not by using per-spective, as the Italians did, but by simply observingreality and portraying details as best he could.

By 1500, artists from the north had begun to studyin Italy and to be influenced by what artists weredoing there. One German artist who was greatlyaffected by the Italians was Albrecht Dürer. He madetwo trips to Italy and absorbed most of what the Ital-ians could teach on the laws of perspective.

As can be seen in his famous Adoration of the Magi,Dürer did not reject the use of minute details charac-teristic of northern artists. He did try, however, to fit

those details more harmoniously into his works inaccordance with Italian artistic theories. Like the Ital-ian artists of the High Renaissance, Dürer tried toachieve a standard of ideal beauty that was based ona careful examination of the human form.

Examining Why was Jan van Eyck’suse of oil paint significant?

Reading Check


9. Expository Writing Assume therole of an art docent (a person whoguides people through museums).Prepare a lecture to be given to agroup of students on the works ofJan van Eyck and how they differfrom Italian Renaissance paintings.

Checking for Understanding1. Define humanism, fresco.

2. Identify Petrarch, Dante, Michelan-gelo, Jan van Eyck, Albrecht Dürer.

3. Locate Canterbury, Flanders.

4. Summarize Christine de Pizan’s mainargument in The Book of the City ofLadies. Why did her ideas receive somuch attention?

5. Compare the underlying principles ofboth classical Greek and Roman artwith Italian Renaissance art. How arethe principles similar? How are theydifferent?

Critical Thinking6. Compare and Contrast How do the

humanist goals and philosophy of education developed during the Renaissance compare with the goals of your high school education?

7. Summarizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to describe thegreatest accomplishments of Leonardoda Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo.

Analyzing Visuals8. Compare the paintings of Raphael and

Dürer, shown on page 168 and above.What themes does each artist explore?How does each painting reflect the history of the culture in which it wasproduced?

Leonardo Raphael Michelangeloda Vinci

In the Adoration of the Magi, Albrecht Dürer retains the minutedetails associated with northern European painting, but he alsomakes use of perspective and proportion.

Dürer

170

and as he intended to be a painter by profession hecarefully studied drawing from life. . . . Altogether,his genius was so wonderfully inspired by the graceof God, his powers of expression were so powerfullyfed by a willing memory and intellect, and his writ-ing conveyed his ideas so precisely, that his argu-ments and reasonings confounded the mostformidable critics. In addition, he used to makemodels and plans showing how to excavate andtunnel through mountains without difficulty, so as to pass from one level to another; and he demon-strated how to lift and draw great weights by meansof levers and hoists and ways of cleaning harborsand using pumps to suck up water from greatdepths.”

—Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists

A detail from da Vinci’s Last Supper, shown as thepainting was being restored in the late 1990s

DURING THE RENAISSANCE,artists came to be viewed as creative geniuses withalmost divine qualities. The painter Giorgio Vasarihelped create this image by

writing a series of brief biog-raphies of Italy’s great artists,

including Leonardo da Vinci.

“In the normal course ofevents many men and women

are born with various remarkable qualities and tal-ents; but occasionally, in a way that transcendsnature, a single person is marvelously endowed byheaven with beauty, grace, and talent in such abun-dance that he leaves other men far behind, all hisactions seem inspired, and indeed everything hedoes clearly comes from God rather than fromhuman art.

Everyone acknowledged that this was true ofLeonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding physicalbeauty who displayed infinite grace in everything hedid and who cultivated his genius so brilliantly thatall problems he studied he solved with ease. Hepossessed great strength and dexterity; he was aman of regal spirit and tremendous breadth ofmind; and his name became so famous that notonly was he esteemed during his lifetime but hisreputation endured and became even greater afterhis death. . . .

He was marvelously gifted, and he proved him-self to be a first-class geometrician in his work as asculptor and architect. In his youth, Leonardo madein clay several heads of women with smiling faces,of which plaster casts are still being made, as wellas some children’s heads executed as if by a matureartist. He also did many architectural drawings bothof ground plans and of other elevations, and, whilestill young, he was the first to propose reducing theArno River to a navigable canal between Pisa andFlorence. He made designs for mills, . . . andengines that could be driven by water-power;

The Genius of Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Name the qualities that Vasari admiresin Leonardo da Vinci.

2. How does Vasari’s description of da Vinci reflect the ideals of Italian Renaissance humanism?

1509Erasmus writes his satire The Praise of Folly

1517Martin Luther presents theNinety-five Theses

1521The Church excommu-nicates Luther

Guide to Reading

The Protestant Reformation

Preview of Events

1555The Peace of Augsburgdivides Germany

✦1500 ✦1510 ✦1520 ✦1530 ✦1540 ✦1550

On April 18, 1521, Martin Luther stood before the emperor and princes of Germanyin the city of Worms and declared:

“Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple reply, I will answerwithout horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain rea-son—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradictedeach other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will notrecant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”

—Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, Roland Bainton, 1950

With these words Martin Luther refused to renounce his new religious ideas.Luther’s words became the battle cry of the Protestant Reformation.

Erasmus and Christian HumanismThe Protestant Reformation is the name given to the religious reform move-

ment that divided the western Church into Catholic and Protestant groups.Although Martin Luther began the Reformation in the early sixteenth century,several earlier developments had set the stage for religious change.

One such development grew from widespread changes in intellectual thought.During the second half of the fifteenth century, the new classical learning that was


Main Ideas• The major goal of humanism in north-

ern Europe was to reform Christendom.• Martin Luther’s religious reforms led to

the emergence of Protestantism.

Key TermsChristian humanism, salvation, indulgence

People to IdentifyMartin Luther, Desiderius Erasmus,Charles V

Places to LocateWittenberg, Bohemia, Hungary

Preview Questions1. What were the beliefs of Christian

humanists?2. Explain what is meant by justification

by grace through faith alone.

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Use a diagram like theone below to identify steps that led to theReformation.


Steps Leading tothe Reformation

Martin Luther addressing the emperor in Worms

part of Italian Renaissance humanism spread tonorthern Europe. From that came a movement calledChristian humanism, or Northern Renaissancehumanism. The major goal of this movement was thereform of the Catholic Church.

The Christian humanists believed in the ability ofhuman beings to reason and improve themselves.They thought that if people read the classics, andespecially the basic works of Christianity, they wouldbecome more pious. This inner piety, or inward reli-gious feeling, would bring about a reform of theChurch and society. Christian humanists believedthat in order to change society, they must first changethe human beings who make it up.

The best known of all the Christian humanists wasDesiderius Erasmus (ih•RAZ•muhs). He called hisview of religion “the philosophy of Christ.” By this,he meant that Christianity should show people howto live good lives on a daily basis rather than providea system of beliefs that people have to practice to besaved. Erasmus stressed the inwardness of religiousfeeling. To him, the external forms of medieval reli-gion (such as pilgrimages, fasts, and relics) were notall that important.

To reform the Church, Erasmus wanted to spreadthe philosophy of Christ, provide education in the

works of Christianity, and criticize the abuses in theChurch. In his work The Praise of Folly, written in1509, Erasmus humorously criticized aspects of hissociety that he believed were most in need of reform.He singled out the monks for special treatment.Monks, he said, “insist that everything be done inprecise detail. . . . Just so many knots must be on each shoe and the shoelace must be of only one color.”

Erasmus sought reform within the CatholicChurch. He did not wish to break away from theChurch, as later reformers would. His ideas, how-ever, did prepare the way for the Reformation. Aspeople of his day said, “Erasmus laid the egg thatLuther hatched.”

Examining How did Erasmus pavethe way for the Reformation?

Religion on the Eve of the Reformation

Why were Erasmus and others calling for reform?Corruption in the Catholic Church was one reason.Between 1450 and 1520, a series of popes—known asthe Renaissance popes—failed to meet the Church’sspiritual needs. The popes were supposed to be thespiritual leaders of the Catholic Church. As leaders ofthe Papal States, however, they were all too oftenmore concerned with Italian politics and worldlyinterests than with spiritual matters.

Julius II, the fiery “warrior-pope,” personally ledarmies against his enemies. This disgusted Christianswho viewed the pope as a spiritual, not a military,leader. One critic wrote, “How, O bishop standing inthe room of the Apostles, dare you teach the peoplethe things that pertain to war?”

Many church officials were also concerned withmoney and used their church offices to advance theircareers and their wealth. At the same time, manyordinary parish priests seemed ignorant of their spir-itual duties. People wanted to know how to savetheir souls, and many parish priests were unable tooffer them advice or instruction.

While the leaders of the Church were failing tomeet their responsibilities, ordinary people desiredmeaningful religious expression and assurance oftheir salvation, or acceptance into Heaven. As aresult, for some, the process of obtaining salvationbecame almost mechanical. Collections of relics grewmore popular as a means to salvation. According tochurch practice at that time, through veneration of a

Reading Check


Raphael’s depiction of Pope Julius II

relic, a person could gain an indulgence—releasefrom all or part of the punishment for sin. Frederickthe Wise, Luther’s prince, had amassed over fivethousand relics. Indulgences attached to them couldreduce time in purgatory by 1,443 years. The Churchalso sold indulgences, in the form of certificates.

Other people sought certainty of salvation in thepopular mystical movement known as the ModernDevotion. The Modern Devotion downplayed reli-gious dogma and stressed the need to follow theteachings of Jesus. This deepening of religious lifewas done within the Catholic Church. However,many people soon found that the worldly-wiseclergy had little interest in the spiritual needs of theirpeople. It is this environment that helps to explainthe tremendous impact of Luther’s ideas.

Explaining What was the ModernDevotion?

Martin LutherIn this section, you will learn how,

on October 31, 1517, Martin Luther presented a list ofNinety-five Theses that objected to the Church practiceof indulgences. The publication of Luther’s theses beganthe Protestant Reformation.Martin Luther was a monk and a professor at the

University of Wittenberg, in Germany, where he lectured on the Bible. Through his study of the Bible,Luther arrived at an answer to a problem—the cer-tainty of salvation—that had bothered him since hehad become a monk.

Catholic teaching had stressed that both faith andgood works were needed to gain personal salvation.In Luther’s eyes, human beings were powerless inthe sight of an almighty God and could never doenough good works to earn salvation.

Through his study of the Bible, Luther came tobelieve that humans are not saved through their goodworks but through their faith in God. If an individual

has faith in God, then God makesthat person just, or

worthy of salva-tion. God willgrant salvationbecause God ismerciful. God’sgrace cannot beearned by per-

forming good works.This idea, called justification

Reading Check

(being made right before God) by faith alone, becamethe chief teaching of the Protestant Reformation.Because Luther had arrived at his understanding ofsalvation by studying the Bible, the Bible became forLuther, as for all other Protestants, the only source ofreligious truth.

The Ninety-five Theses Luther did not see himselfas a rebel, but he was greatly upset by the wide-spread selling of indulgences. Especially offensive inhis eyes was the monk Johann Tetzel, who soldindulgences with the slogan: “As soon as the coin inthe coffer [money box] rings, the soul from purgatorysprings.” People, Luther believed, were simplyharming their chances for salvation by buying thesepieces of paper.

On October 31, 1517, Luther, who was greatlyangered by the Church’s practices, sent a list ofNinety-five Theses to his church superiors, especiallythe local bishop. The theses were a stunning attack onabuses in the sale of indulgences. Thousands ofcopies of the Ninety-five Theses were printed andspread to all parts of Germany. Pope Leo X did nottake the issue seriously, however. He said that Lutherwas simply “some drunken German who will amendhis ways when he sobers up.”


The advent of the printing press allowed Luther’s views to spreadbeyond Wittenberg.

Indulgence box

the spread of the gospel. It was the duty of princes tostop revolt. By the following spring, the Germanprinces had crushed the peasants. Luther found him-self even more dependent on state authorities for thegrowth of his church.

Contrasting How did Luther’s theoryof salvation differ from what the Catholic Church believed wasnecessary for salvation?

Politics in the German Reformation

From its very beginning, the fate of Luther’smovement was closely tied to political affairs.Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor (who was alsoCharles I, the king of Spain), ruled an immenseempire consisting of Spain and its colonies, the Aus-trian lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries,the duchy of Milan in northern Italy, and the king-dom of Naples in southern Italy.

Politically, Charles wanted to keep this enormousempire under the control of his dynasty—the Haps-burgs. Religiously, he hoped to preserve the unity ofhis empire by keeping it Catholic. However, a num-ber of problems kept him busy and cost him both hisdream and his health. These same problems helpedLutheranism survive by giving Lutherans time toorganize before having to face the Catholic forces.

The chief political concern of Charles V was hisrivalry with the king of France, Francis I. Their con-flict over disputed territories in a number of areas ledto a series of wars that lasted more than 20 years. Atthe same time, Charles faced opposition from Pope

Reading Check

Clement VII. Guided by political considerations, thepope had joined the side of the French king. Theadvance of the Ottoman Turks into the eastern part ofCharles’s empire forced the emperor to send forcesthere as well.

Finally, the internal political situation in the HolyRoman Empire was not in Charles’s favor. Germanywas a land of several hundred territorial states.Although all owed loyalty to the emperor, Ger-many’s development in the Middle Ages hadenabled these states to free themselves from theemperor’s authority. Many individual rulers of theGerman states supported Luther as a way to asserttheir own local authority over the authority of theempire and Charles V.

By the time Charles V was able to bring militaryforces to Germany, the Lutheran princes were wellorganized. Unable to defeat them, Charles wasforced to seek peace.

An end to religious warfare in Germany came in1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. This agreementformally accepted the division of Christianity in Ger-many. The German states were now free to choosebetween Catholicism and Lutheranism. Lutheranstates were to have the same legal rights as Catholicstates. The peace settlement did not recognize theprinciple of religious toleration for individuals, how-ever. The right of each German ruler to determine thereligion of his subjects was accepted, but not the rightof the subjects to choose their own religion.

Evaluating How did the Peace ofAugsburg influence the political and religious development ofGermany?

Reading Check


9. Persuasive Writing Martin Luther’sfather wanted him to become alawyer. Write a letter in which Martin Luther tries to convince hisfather that the path he chose wasbetter than the law.

Checking for Understanding1. Define Christian humanism, salvation,

indulgence.

2. Identify Martin Luther, DesideriusErasmus, Edict of Worms, Charles V,The Peace of Augsburg.

3. Locate Wittenberg, Bohemia, Hungary.

4. Explain the impact of the Edict ofWorms.

5. List the ways Erasmus wanted toreform the Catholic Church.

Critical Thinking6. Discuss What were the consequences

of Luther’s Ninety-five Theses?

7. Sequencing Information Use a diagram like the one below to showLuther’s actions leading to the emer-gence of Protestantism.

Analyzing Visuals8. Identify the event illustrated in the

painting on page 173. Why was thisevent significant? How has the painterportrayed Martin Luther?

Protestantism

Luther’s Actions

176

Summarizing InformationWhy Learn This Skill?

Imagine you have been assigned a chapter on theRenaissance for a midterm. After taking a shortbreak, you discover that you cannot recall impor-tant information. What can you do to avoid thisproblem?

When you read a long selection, it is helpful totake notes. Summarizing information—reducinglarge amounts of information to a few keyphrases—can help you remember the main ideas and important facts.

Learning the SkillTo summarize information, follow these guide-

lines when you read:

• Distinguish the main ideas from the supportingdetails. Use the main ideas in the summary.

• Use your own words to describe the main ideas.Do not copy the selection word for word.

• Summarize the author’s opinion if you think it isimportant.

• If the summary is almost as long as the readingselection, you are including too much informa-tion. The summary should be very short.

Practicing the SkillRead the selection below, and then answer the

questions that follow.

For the next 30 years, the French and Spanish madeItaly their battleground as they fought to dominatethe country. A decisive turning point in their warcame in 1527. On May 5, thousands of troopsbelonging to the Spanish king Charles I arrived at thecity of Rome along with mercenaries from differentcountries. They had not been paid for months. Whenthey yelled, “Money! Money!” their leaderresponded, “If you have ever dreamed of pillaging atown and laying hold of its treasures, here now isone, the richest of them all, queen of the world.”

The next day the invading forces smashed down thegates and pushed their way into the city. The terriblesack of Rome in 1527 by the armies of the Spanishking Charles I ended the Italian wars and left theSpanish a dominant force in Italy.

1 What are the main ideas of this paragraph?2 What are the supporting details of the main

ideas?3 Write a brief summary of two or three sentences

that will help you remember what the paragraph is about.

Applying the Skill

Read and summarize two articles from the front page ofa newspaper. Have a classmate ask you questionsabout them. How much were you able to rememberafter summarizing the information?

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

St. Peter’s Square, sixteenth-century Rome

1531War between the Protestant andCatholic states in Switzerland

1534The Act of Supremacyis passed in England

1540The Society of Jesusbecomes a religious order

1545The Council ofTrent is formed

Guide to Reading

The Spread of Protestantismand the Catholic Response

Preview of Events

1553Mary Tudor, “Bloody Mary,”becomes Queen of England

✦1530 ✦1535 ✦1540 ✦1545 ✦1550 ✦1555

In order to fight Protestantism, the Catholic Ignatius Loyola founded a new religiousorder. He insisted on certain principles:

“We must put aside all judgment of our own, and keep the mind ever ready andprompt to obey in all things the true Spouse of Jesus Christ, our holy Mother, theRoman Catholic Church. . . . If we wish to proceed securely in all things, we must holdfast to the following principle: What seems to me white, I will believe black if theCatholic Church so defines. For I must be convinced that in Christ our Lord, the bride-groom, and in His spouse the Catholic Church, only one Spirit holds sway, which gov-erns and rules for the salvation of souls.”

—Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius Loyola, Louis J. Puhl, trans., 1951

Loyola’s ideal of complete obedience to the church was the cornerstone of his fightagainst the spread of Protestant groups.

The Zwinglian ReformationWith the Peace of Augsburg, what had at first been merely feared was now cer-

tain: the ideal of Christian unity was forever lost. Even before the Peace of Augs-burg, however, division had appeared in Protestantism. One of these new groupsappeared in Switzerland.


Main Ideas• Different forms of Protestantism

emerged in Europe as the Reformationspread.

• The Catholic Church underwent a reli-gious rebirth.

Key Termspredestination, annul

People to IdentifyUlrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Henry VIII,Ignatius of Loyola

Places to LocateZürich, Geneva, Trent

Preview Questions1. What different forms of Protestantism

emerged in Europe?2. What were the contributions of the

Jesuits, the papacy, and the Council ofTrent to the revival of Catholicism?

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Use a diagram like theone below to list some of the reformsproposed by the Council of Trent. Besideeach, give the Protestant viewpoint towhich it responded.


Council of Trent Protestant Viewpoint

Ignatius Loyola


Calvin and CalvinismJohn Calvin was educated in his native France.

After his conversion to Protestantism, however, hewas forced to flee Catholic France for the safety ofSwitzerland. In 1536, he published the Institutes of theChristian Religion, a summary of Protestant thought.This work immediately gave Calvin a reputation asone of the new leaders of Protestantism.

On most important doctrines, Calvin stood veryclose to Luther. He, too, believed in the doctrine ofjustification by faith alone to explain how humansachieved salvation. However, Calvin also placedmuch emphasis on the all-powerful nature of God—what Calvin called the “power, grace, and glory of God.”

Calvin’s emphasis on the all-powerful nature ofGod led him to other ideas. One of these ideas waspredestination. This “eternal decree,” as Calvincalled it, meant that God had determined in advancewho would be saved (the elect) and who would bedamned (the reprobate). According to Calvin, “Hehas once for all determined, both whom he wouldadmit to salvation, and whom he would condemn todestruction.”

The belief in predestination gave later Calviniststhe firm conviction that they were doing God’s work

Ulrich Zwingli was a priest in Zürich. The citycouncil of Zürich, strongly influenced by Zwingli,began to introduce religious reforms. Relics andimages were abolished. All paintings and decora-tions were removed from the churches and replacedby whitewashed walls. A new church service consist-ing of scripture reading, prayer, and sermonsreplaced the Catholic Mass.

As his movement began to spread to other cities inSwitzerland, Zwingli sought an alliance with MartinLuther and the German reformers. Both the Germanand Swiss reformers realized the need for unity todefend themselves against Catholic authorities, butthey were unable to agree on the meaning of thesacrament of Communion. ; (See page 774 to readexcerpts from Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli’s A ReformationDebate in the Primary Sources Library.)

In October 1531, war broke out between theProtestant and Catholic states in Switzerland.Zürich’s army was routed, and Zwingli was foundwounded on the battlefield. His enemies killed him,cut up his body, and burned the pieces, scattering theashes. The leadership of Protestantism in Switzer-land now passed to John Calvin.

Describing What religious reformswere introduced in Zürich?

Reading Check

John Calvin is shown speaking before lead-ers in Geneva. What attitudes aboutCalvin and the Protestant movementdoes the artist convey in this painting?

History

on Earth. This conviction, in turn, made them deter-mined to spread their faith to other people. Calvin-ism became a dynamic and activist faith.

In 1536, Calvin began working to reform the cityof Geneva. He created a church government thatused both clergy andlaity in the service ofthe church. The Con-sistory, a special bodyfor enforcing moraldiscipline, was set upas a court to overseethe moral life anddoctrinal purity of Genevans. The Consistory had theright to punish people who deviated from thechurch’s teachings and moral principles. Citizens inGeneva were punished for such varied “crimes” asdancing, singing obscene songs, drunkenness, swear-ing, and playing cards.

Calvin’s success in Geneva made the city a power-ful center of Protestantism. Following Calvin’s lead,missionaries trained in Geneva were sent to all partsof Europe. Calvinism became established in France,the Netherlands, Scotland, and central and easternEurope.

By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism hadreplaced Lutheranism as the most important anddynamic form of Protestantism. Calvin’s Genevastood as the fortress of the Protestant Reformation.John Knox, the Calvinist reformer of Scotland, calledit “the most perfect school of Christ on earth.”

Explaining How did the Consistoryenforce moral discipline in Geneva?

The Reformation in EnglandThe English Reformation was rooted in politics,

not religion. King Henry VIII wanted to divorce hisfirst wife, Catherine of Aragon, with whom he had adaughter, Mary, but no son. Since he needed a maleheir, Henry wanted to marry Anne Boleyn. Impatientwith the pope’s unwillingness to annul (declareinvalid) his marriage to Catherine, Henry turned toEngland’s own church courts.

As the archbishop of Canterbury, head of the high-est church court in England, Thomas Cranmer ruledin May 1533 that the king’s marriage to Catherinewas “null and absolutely void.” At the beginning ofJune, Anne was crowned queen. Three months later achild was born. Much to the king’s disappointment,the baby was a girl. She would later become QueenElizabeth I.

Reading Check

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In 1534, at Henry’s request, Parliament moved tofinalize the break of the Catholic Church in Englandwith the pope in Rome. The Act of Supremacy of 1534declared that the king was “taken, accepted, andreputed the only supreme head on earth of the [new]Church of England.” This position gave the king con-trol over religious doctrine, clerical appointments,and discipline. Thomas More, a Christian humanistand devout Catholic, opposed the king’s action andwas beheaded.

Henry used his new powers to dissolve themonasteries and sell their land and possessions towealthy landowners and merchants. The kingreceived a great boost to his treasury and a group ofsupporters who now had a stake in the new order. Inmatters of doctrine, however, Henry remained closeto Catholic teachings.

When Henry died in 1547, he was succeeded byEdward VI, a sickly nine-year-old, the son of his thirdwife. During Edward’s reign, church officials whofavored Protestant doctrines moved the Church ofEngland, also called the Anglican Church, in aProtestant direction. New acts of Parliament gave theclergy the right to marry and created a new Protes-tant church service. These rapid changes arousedmuch opposition. When Mary, Henry’s daughter byCatherine of Aragon, came to the throne in 1553, Eng-land was ready for a reaction.


Henry VIII disagreed with Luther’s theology but found itpolitically convenient to break with the Catholic Church.

Today, many people living in the United States, suchas the Amish, live without modern conveniences.Which appliances and conveniences would you bewilling to give up? What cause or belief today mightencourage people to give up a modern lifestyle?

The Descendants of the AnabaptistsDespite being persecuted for their belief in the com-

plete separation of church and state, Anabaptists man-aged to survive.

Menno Simons was a popular leader of Anabaptismin the Netherlands. He dedicated his life to the spread ofa peaceful Anabaptism that stressed separation from theworld as the means for living a truly Christ-like life.Because of persecution, Menno Simons’s followers,known as Mennonites, spread from the Netherlands intoGermany and Russia. In the nineteenth century, manymoved to Canada and the United States, where Men-nonite communities continue to flourish.

In the 1690s, Jacob Ammann took the lead in encour-aging a group of Swiss Mennonites to form their ownchurch. They came to be known as the Amish (after thename Ammann). By the end of the seventeenth century,many of the Amish had come to North America in searchof a land where they could practice their religion freely.

Today, Amish communities exist throughout Canadaand the United States. One of the largest groups ofAmish can be found in Pennsylvania, where they areknown as the Pennsylvania Dutch. The Amish continue

to maintain the Anabaptist way of life as it first devel-oped in the sixteenth century. They live simple lives andrefuse to use any modern devices, including cars andelectricity.

180

There was no doubt that Mary was a Catholic whowanted to restore England to Roman Catholicism.However, the way she went about it had the oppositeeffect. Among other actions, she had more than threehundred Protestants burned as heretics, earning herthe nickname “Bloody Mary.” As a result of her poli-cies, England was even more Protestant by the end ofMary’s reign than it had been at the beginning.

Examining Why did Henry VIII formthe Church of England?

The AnabaptistsReformers such as Luther had allowed the state to

play an important, if not dominant, role in churchaffairs. However, some people strongly dislikedgiving such power to the state. These were radicalsknown as the Anabaptists.

To Anabaptists, the true Christian church was avoluntary community of adult believers who hadundergone spiritual rebirth and had then beenbaptized. This belief in adult baptism separated

Reading Check

Anabaptists from Catholics and Protestants who bap-tized infants.

Anabaptists also believed in following the prac-tices and the spirit of early Christianity. They consid-ered all believers to be equal, a belief they based onthe accounts of early Christian communities in theNew Testament. Each Anabaptist church chose itsown minister, or spiritual leader. Because all Chris-tians were considered priests, any member of thecommunity was eligible to be a minister (thoughwomen were often excluded).

Finally, most Anabaptists believed in the completeseparation of church and state. Not only was govern-ment to be kept out of the realm of religion, it was noteven supposed to have any political authority overreal Christians. Anabaptists refused to hold politicaloffice or bear arms, because many took literally thebiblical commandment “Thou shall not kill.”

Their political beliefs, as much as their religiousbeliefs, caused the Anabaptists to be regarded as dan-gerous radicals who threatened the very fabric ofsixteenth-century society. Indeed, the chief thing

� The Amish are religious descendants of the Anabaptists.

other Protestants and Catholics could agree on wasthe need to persecute Anabaptists.

Describing Why were the Anabap-tists considered to be dangerous political radicals?

Effects on the Role of WomenThe Protestants were important in developing a

new view of the family. Protestantism had eliminatedthe idea that special holiness was associated with

Reading Check

celibacy and had abolished both monasticism and therequirement of celibacy for the clergy. The familycould now be placed at the center of human life. The“mutual love between man and wife” could beextolled.

Were idea and reality the same, however? Moreoften, reality reflected the traditional roles of hus-band as the ruler and wife as the obedient servantwhose chief duty was to please her husband. Lutherstated it clearly:

“The rule remains with the husband, and the wifeis compelled to obey him by God’s command. Herules the home and the state, wages war, defends hispossessions, tills the soil, builds, plants, etc. Thewoman on the other hand is like a nail driven intothe wall . . . so the wife should stay at home and lookafter the affairs of the household, as one who hasbeen deprived of the ability of administering those


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Major European Religions, 1600

Less than 100 years after Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses, the religious affiliations of Europeans were greatlyaltered.

1. Interpreting Maps What religions would not havebeen on this map prior to 1517?

2. Applying Geography Skills Summarize why Protes-tant religions spread as shown on the map.

affairs that are outside and that concern the state.She does not go beyond her most personalduties.”

Obedience to her husband was not a woman’sonly role. Her other important duty was to bear chil-dren. To Calvin and Luther, this function of womenwas part of the divine plan. Family life was the onlydestiny for most Protestant women. Overall, then,the Protestant Reformation did not change women’ssubordinate place in society.

Evaluating What impact did theProtestant Reformation have on women?

The Catholic ReformationBy the mid-sixteenth century, Lutheranism had

become rooted in Germany and Scandinavia, andCalvinism had taken hold in Switzerland, France, theNetherlands, and eastern Europe. In England, thesplit from Rome had resulted in the creation of anational church. The situation in Europe did not lookparticularly good for the Catholic Church.

Reading Check

However, the CatholicChurch also had a revital-ization in the sixteenthcentury, giving it newstrength and enabling it toregain much that it hadlost. This Catholic Refor-mation was supported bythree chief pillars: theJesuits, reform of thepapacy, and the Council ofTrent.

The Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, wasfounded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola.Loyola gathered together a small group of followers,which was recognized as a religious order by thepope in 1540. All Jesuits took a special vow ofabsolute obedience to the pope, making them animportant instrument for papal policy. Jesuits usededucation to spread their message. Jesuit missionar-ies were very successful in restoring Catholicism toparts of Germany and eastern Europe and in spread-ing it to other parts of the world.

History through Art

Council of Trent by Titian The Council ofTrent is thought to be the foundation of theCatholic Reformation. How does Titian’s painting convey this idea?

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 5–Student Web Activity to learn more about theReformation.

wh.mt.glencoe.com


Reform of the papacy was another impor-tant factor in the Catholic Reformation. Theparticipation of Renaissance popes in dubiousfinancial transactions and Italian political andmilitary affairs had created many sources ofcorruption. It took the jolt of the ProtestantReformation to bring about serious reform.

Pope Paul III perceived the need for changeand took the bold step of appointing a ReformCommission in 1537 to determine the Church’sills. The commission blamed the Church’s prob-lems on the corrupt policies of the popes. PaulIII (who recognized the Jesuits as a new reli-gious order) also began the Council of Trent,another pillar of the Catholic Reformation.

In March 1545, a group of cardinals, arch-bishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians metin the city of Trent, on the border between Ger-many and Italy. There, they began the Councilof Trent, which met off and on for 18 years.

The final decrees of the Council of Trentreaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposi-tion to Protestant beliefs. Both faith and good workswere declared necessary for salvation. The sevensacraments, the Catholic view of the Eucharist, andclerical celibacy were all upheld. Belief in purgatoryand in the use of indulgences was strengthened,although the selling of indulgences was forbidden.

After the Council of Trent, the Roman CatholicChurch possessed a clear body of doctrine and wasunified under the supreme leadership of the pope.

With a renewed spirit of confidence, Catholicsentered a new phase, as well prepared as Calviniststo do battle for their faith.

Describing What was the relation-ship between the Jesuits and the pope?

Reading Check


9. Expository Writing Compose anunbiased account of the Council ofTrent. Include who was involved,why it was convened, when ithappened, and its final results.

Checking for Understanding1. Define predestination, annul.

2. Identify Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin,Henry VIII, Ignatius of Loyola.

3. Locate Zürich, Geneva, Trent.

4. Describe the results of “Bloody Mary’s”religious policies. How might Mary’sactions have indirectly affected the history of the United States?

5. List which countries had adoptedCalvinism and which had adoptedLutheranism by the mid-sixteenth century.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze How were the religious

reforms in Zürich consistent with theaims of the Reformation?

7. Contrasting Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to describehow the Calvinists and the Anabaptistsdiffered in their attitudes toward churchmembers participating in governmentactivities.

Analyzing Visuals8. Identify the details shown in the por-

trait of Henry VIII on page 179 thatillustrate his power and authority. Howdid the king use his position as “theonly supreme head on earth of theChurch of England”? Based on whatyou have read in your text, do youthink that Henry was a religious man?Explain your answer.

Church Participation in

Government

Calvinists Anabaptists

Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Jesuits,is shown kneeling before Pope Paul III.What role did the Jesuits play in theCatholic Reformation?

History

184

Using Key Terms1. Soldiers who sell their services to the highest bidder are

called .

2. The study of grammar, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and his-tory was the basis of the intellectual movement called .

3. A movement whose major goal was the reform of Christen-dom was called .

4. John Calvin emphasized , the belief that God chosewho would be saved and who would be damned.

5. A society places less emphasis on religion and moreemphasis on a worldly spirit.

6. An is one in which a great many people live in cities.

7. The money and goods given by the wife’s family at the timeof marriage is called a .

8. A remission, after death, from all or part of the punishmentdue to sin is called an .

9. An image painted on fresh, wet plaster is called a .

Reviewing Key Facts10. History Which family dominated Florence during the

Renaissance?

11. Culture Who wrote The Canterbury Tales?

12. Culture The Renaissance was a rebirth of the ideas of whichancient civilizations?

13. History According to Erasmus, what should be the chiefconcerns of the Christian church?

14. Culture How did Renaissance artists portray the humanbody?

15. Government How were the city-states of Renaissance Italygoverned? What social classes were present in the typicalcity-state?

16. History How did Ignatius of Loyola help to reform Catholi-cism?

17. History Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?

18. Culture Name the title and the author of one of the mostinfluential works on political power.

19. Culture When were children considered adults in Renais-sance Italy?

Critical Thinking20. Analyzing Why did Martin Luther split with the Catholic

Church? Identify the causes that led to the ProtestantReformation.

21. Explaining List one masterpiece of Renaissance literature orart and explain how it reflects Renaissance ideals.

Writing About History22. Expository Writing Analyze how the Reformation shaped

the political and religious life of Europe. Be sure to identifythe historical effects of the Reformation.

GERMANY: Martin Luther begins the Protestant Reformation. The Peace of Augsburg divides Germany into Catholic and Protestant states.

SWITZERLAND: John Calvin promotes the concept of predestination.

1.

FLORENCE: The Medici family improves city life and sponsors humanists and artists.

VENICE: The city becomes an international trading power.

3.

4. The Catholic Church enacts reforms.

ITALY: The Council of Trent defines Catholic Church doctrine and tries to end Church abuses. The Jesuits, who take special vows of obedience to the pope, help spread Catholicism.

ENGLAND: King Henry VIII breaks with the pope to create the Church of England. Catholic Queen Mary executes Protestants.

Reformers begin to challenge both secular and religious rules and practices.

2. Ideas quickly spread from Italy to northern Europe.

FRANCE: Architects create elegant castles that combine Gothic and classical styles.

FLANDERS: Artists use oil paints to depict fine detail in their paintings.

ENGLAND: King Henry VIII invites humanists to court.

Italy experiences an artistic, intellectual, and commercial awakening.

The Renaissance was a period of great intellectual and artisticachievement. Religious rebirth followed in the 1500s.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Website at and click on Chapter 5–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY


Analyzing SourcesRead the following description by Luther of a woman’s role inmarriage.

“The rule remains with the husband, and the wife iscompelled to obey him by God’s command. He rulesthe home and the state, wages war, defends his posses-sions, tills the soil, builds, plants, etc. The woman onthe other hand is like a nail driven into the wall . . . sothe wife should stay at home and look after the affairsof the household, as one who has been deprived of theability of administering those affairs that are outsideand that concern the state. She does not go beyond hermost personal duties.”

23. What does this quote reveal about the woman’s role inProtestant society?

24. What do you think Luther meant by the statement “Thewoman on the other hand is like a nail driven into the wall”?

Applying Technology Skills25. Using the Internet Use the Internet to research a Renais-

sance artist. Find information about the person’s life andachievements. Using your research, take on the role of thatperson and create an autobiography about your life andyour contributions to the Renaissance.

Making Decisions26. Select two of the following types of Renaissance people: a

noble, merchant, shopkeeper, or peasant. Research what lifewas like for these individuals. How did their lives vary? Whohad the more comfortable lifestyle? Take into account eco-nomic and social factors.

Analyzing Maps and Charts27. Study the map at the top of the page. What are two of the

bodies of water that border the Holy Roman Empire?

28. Using a contemporary atlas, name the modern countriesthat are within the boundaries of what was the Holy RomanEmpire.

29. According to this map, was Rome a part of the Holy RomanEmpire in 1400?

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Boundary of theHoly Roman Empire

Directions: Use the passage below and yourknowledge of world history to answer thefollowing question.

from the Ninety-five Theses (1517)

Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory.

Martin Luther’s famous document attacked the CatholicChurch for which practice?

F The Catholic Church had allowed humanism to spreadthrough Europe.

G Luther disagreed with the doctrine of predestination.

H Many religious leaders sold indulgences.

J The Catholic popes were too concerned with worldlyaffairs.

Test-Taking Tip: If the question asks you to read a quote,look for clues that reveal its historical context. Such cluescan be found in the title and date of the text as well as inthe quote itself. Determining the historical context will helpyou to determine the quote’s historical significance or theimportance it has gained over time.

StandardizedTest Practice

0154-0185 C05SE-860705 11/3/03 3:51 PM Page 185


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