The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism · The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism Pinit Ratanakul, Ph.D (Yale) Theravada Buddhism, also known

The Dynamics of Tradition andChange in Theravada Buddhism

Pinit Ratanakul, Ph.D (Yale)

T heravada Buddhism, also known asHinayana tradition, has been considered to be the coreof Thai national identity since the establishmentof the Kingdom of Sukhodhaya in the 13th century.Both Buddhism and monarchy perform the rolesas rudders for the Thai nation as it braved the windsof change in its historical process.

Though one may notice the elements ofBrahmanism in the beliefs and customs of Thaipeople, Buddhism remains the basis in the mouldingand development of Thai cultural values. One cannotunderstand or appreciate Thai culture without havingsome basic comprehension of Buddhist thought.With emphasis on the spirit of tolerance and thecardinal virtues of dhana (charity), sila (morality),and bhavana (meditation) Buddhism is seen asmoulding Thai society to be tolerant, courteousand ethically conscious.

Since early times the Thai sangha, the orderof Buddhist monks, has been intergrated into the statestructure to provide legitimation for the monarch and/or political rulers. The institution of kingship, sanghaand nation are considered as the basic triad of socialsolidarity and identity. They have been so intermingledin the course of history and are so deeply meaningfulto the hearts of the people as to form the core ofwhat may be called the civic Thai culture.

Philosophical aspects of Theravada Buddhism

The teaching of Theravada Buddhism centerprimarily on human existence consisting of life,suffering, death and the way out of it. The Buddhists’views on life, suffering and death are closelyintermingled with the Buddhist laws of causalityand mutation. These two laws are understood asnatural laws universally operative in all physicaland mental phenomenon. The law of cause and effectis thus expressed: “when this exists, that exists; whenthis arises, that arises; when this is not, that is not;when this ceases, that ceases.”1 This is interpreted

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1The Book of the Kindred Sayings. Vol.II, trans. Rays Davids(London: Luzac and Co., Ltd., 1952), p.23.

to mean, all that is, is the results of antecedentcourses. Each “event” or “happening” acts as thecause or the necessary condition for the arising ofthe following event, which then provokes or causesanother event. Thus, as used in Buddhism, therelationship between cause and effect is only thatof the earlier to the later phrase of a single process.Therefore, in the context of this natural law, lifeconsists of many psycho-physical factors.2 It is afabric of causes and effects: arising, existing andcontinuing by the concatenation of these factorsmutually conditioning one another. This process isspecifically referred to as the kamma process.We are both deeds and consequences of deeds.Kamma (or karma in Sanskrit) means volitional activitywhether it is mental, verbal or physical. The conceptis used to emphasize that life consists of interwovenactivities of causes and effects, deeds andconsequences of deeds. In this sense, the precedingcause transmits its potential force to and is received

The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism .....3

2These factors are ignorance (avijja), volitions or kammaformations (sanskaras), consciousness (vin�ana), the six faculties-the five senses plus mind-(ayatana)-, contact (phassa), feeling(vedana), craving (tanha), clinging (upadana), becoming (bhava),again-becoming (juti), decay (jara), disease (phayadhi), death(morana), grief (domanassa), lamentation (parideva), suffering(dukkha).


by the following effect. Life is made possiblebecause each of these factors is both conditioningand conditioned with no beginning and no endingpoint; the process is an endless cycle. Death isconsidered an integral part of existence and is onephrase of this endless cycle and in no sense is deathseen as terminating the cycle. This conditionedexistence is called in the Buddhist textssamsara and represented in the Buddhist art by theWheel of Life (bhavacakra).3

In addition to this cause-and-effect nature oflife, there is also an emphasis placed on itsimpermanence (anicca) and insubstantiality (anatta)through another law of mutation also referred to asthe law of change. This law is expressed in thefollowing formula: “all compound things areimpermanent.”4 By definition, a compound objectcannot be static or stable. Thus everything physicalor mental is by nature transitory and in a constant

3The term samsara refers to the round of life and death in whichthe whole range of sentient beings, from the tiniest insect to man,is believed to exist.Only the human being, however, has the potentialto terminate this endless cycle. For discussion of the Wheel ofLife, see The three Jewels by Sangharakshita (London : Ryder &Company. 1967), pp.68-82.

4Buddhism in Translations (N.Y.: Atheneum, 1968), p.150.

stage of change. Whatever rises must fall. This stateof change must thereby result in decline and decay.In this sense existence is an unending cycle ofgrowth and decay, integration and disintegration. Thatchange is the very essence of existence that which isimplied by the law of mutation and this is applied tothe life process. In this process, the apparent unityof existence is divided into five aggregates, knownas the khandhas. These five aggregates are materialform (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (san�a),disposition (sankhara) and consciousness (vin�ana)and include three traits: arising, remaining and passingaway.5 Due to its ephemeral nature, life is like adream, quite brief and fleeting. However, Buddhismencourages us to work with this fleeting nature of life.In fact Buddhism teaches that life, however brief,should be lived fruitfully, so that there are no regrets.By emphasizing that the present moment is ofparamount importance, Buddhism defines this momentas both cause and effect. As an effect, the present is


5These five aggregates are sometimes given in a three-foldscheme: (i) physical (rupa): (ii) sense-perception and reaction(vedana, san�a and sankhara): (iii) consciousness (vin�ana). Inthis case the three groups are called rupa, cetasika (conditioningfactors of consciousness) and citta (state of consciousness). Thefive aggregates are also arranged in two groups: (i) rupa and (ii)nama (the other four aggregates).

the product of the past, and as a cause, it is thebuilding block of the future. It is the only moment oflife that one could free oneself from the effects ofthe past, and at the same time, can project oneselfinto the future.

Along with the frailty and insecurity of life,it is believed thatat the center of existence there isa void. This void is the resultof the insubstantialnature of life. The aggregates, although formingrecognizable and perceivable object, do not producea substance: all of them are insubstantial, a part ofthe endless movement of life. Even consciousness,considered the most important of the fiveaggregates,is in state of constant flux. It has no stable quality andthus cannot remain constant for even a single second.In the thinking process as thoughts enter and exit,there is no substantial ego.The apparent samenessseen in life is actually the continuity of precedingcauses and subsequent effects. An analogy wouldbe a process of filming in which projections are madeof a series of running movement by many people togive the appearance of the action of onerunning person.The unity arises from continuity. It isthe spectator who perceives this series as a singleperson. In the same way, there is no identity in theprocess of change. What exists is the rapid change


and unbroken line of causes and effects. This givesrise to the concept of a substantial self in the sameway that one ray of light is produced by a successionof flames.

Despite this plain fact of experience, peoplestill believe in ego-consciousness, clinging to thefallacy that there is a permanent, abiding substanceor Soul in and behind consciousness. Life for them istherefore a reality and an illusion. The five aggregatesare real, but the enduring ego is illusion. The term“self” is a name for the linkage of all five aggregates,just as the term “human being” refers to an aggregateof body and mind. For Buddhism, this term “self”is the societal invention for the purpose ofcommunication. Therefore, the “self” is an idea, notreal. Devoid of a substantial ego, life is like a bubblewith the center being a void. This non-egocentric viewof life is a belief and an explanation of humanexistence unique to Buddhism. It encourages us tolook at life objectively and to refrain from viewing itin terms of self-centerness. By negating the self inlife, Buddhism tries to eliminate the vanity, caused byself-absorption.

If may be concluded then that in Buddhistperspective life is characterized by three importanttraits: conditionality (cause and effect), impermanence,


and insubstantiality. There is one additional trait whichmust be mentioned. That is suffering (dukkha)6.Suffering is used in Buddhism in a broaderconceptto include not only pain, grief, misery orunsatisfactionness, which would normally be seen bymost people as suffering, as opposed to happiness,but also to refer a unique phenomenon of theuniverse.In general, there are impermanence andimperfection of life which both cause suffering.Some elements of suffering such as grief, pain miseryare inherent in the experience of living and cannot beavoided. Should a person be fortunate enough to avoid


6Suffering constitutes an essential part of Buddhism. All itsteaching is primarily focused on this unpleasant fact of experience.“This I do teach,”declared the Buddha,“suffering and the cessationof suffering”(The Book of the Kindred Sayings,Vol.III,trans.F.L.Woodward. London: Luzac and Col, Ltd. 1954, p.157). Thispreoccupation with suffering has made many outside observersfrequently regard Buddhism as a pessimistic religion. Suchmisunderstanding arises from their looking at suffering apart fromthe context of the Four Noble Truths (i.e.the fact of suffering, thecauses of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the Eight-foldNoble Path which leads to the cessation of suffering). The Buddhistapproach to suffering emphasizes a sense of realism and certainlydiscourages any attempt to brood over suffering and be agonized byit. It would be more appropriate to describe Buddhism not as“pessimistic”but as “realistic”for it begins with the fact of ourdaily experience. However, the Buddha’s teaching went far beyondthis simple observation of the facts of life. The Buddha penetratedthe causes of suffering and showed the way to end it.

most forms of suffering there is a question thatdeath as the final form of suffering is inevitable.And one’s own death or the death of one whom isdeeply loved causes suffering. Due to this reality ofdeath, Buddhism concludes that human existenceis insecure, fragile and filled with suffering.

The very transitory nature of life is a causeof suffering because even happiness is seen to betemporary. While experiencing happiness which bydefinition is the absence of pain one has expectationsof the continuation of the state of joy. But theseexpectations can never be met.

Certainly, this is no rosy-spectacled view oflife. Yet Buddhism does not absurdly deny thepresence of happiness (sukkha) in human existence.In the Buddhist texts, one finds a list of various kindsof pleasures including sensual pleasure and thejoy of family life that one is able to enjoy comparableto the list of the common experience of suffering.7

However, Buddhism does not want us to accepthappiness uncritically. Subject to the law of mutationour feelings and attitudes are liable to change. Similarly,these objects of pleasures (such as a new motor-car,a glass of beer, a girl friend) cannot last long for they


7Lama Angarika Govinda, The Psychological Attitude of EarlyBuddhist Philosophy. (London: Ryder & Co., 1966). p.63.

contain within themselves the potential for changeand decay. Having undergone through those stages,they tend not to give us happiness in their new forms.One should always remember that life contains anumber of undeniable unpleasant experiences, whichnobody could ever pretend are enjoyable, such asold age, disease, death, being separated from whatwe like and associated with what we dislike. All thesemake up the painful side of existence whichhumanity tends to ignore.

Buddhism accepts the fact that like happinesssuffering is subject to change. But at the same timeBuddhism points out that there is no balance ofhappiness and suffering.The painful side of experienceusually outweighs happiness. However, pessimistic asit mayseem, Buddhism tries to address the reality ofsuffering, without any pretense or deception, so as tofocus on this painful side of life. At the same time,it tries to probe beneath the fact of suffering in searchof its causes and a way to end its suffering.The Buddha’s insight in its concentrated form, is foundin the Four Noble Truths (ariyasacca). They are thetruth of suffering (dukkha), the cause of suffering(samudhaya), the method to end suffering (nirodh),and the Noble Eight-fold Path (magga) that leadsto the cessation of suffering.



In order to cease suffering, one should notproject suffering on to others. Nor should one becomea masochist or a martyr and enjoy suffering. Nor shouldone find attachment or substitute whether thereis in the world of art or other pleasure-giving areaslike sex, drug and liquor. Substitutes are to be avoidedbecause they feed ego-gratification (tanha). InBuddhist thought fulfilling ego’s desires is itself a causeof suffering.The nature of ego-desire is suchthat it is unsatisfiable. The flame ofthis desire usuallysprouts out again as soon as it is put out.

As mentioned earlier, lacking a permanentego at the center of our being and transitory in ournature, we long to find and to cling to somethingsubstantial in the ceaseless flow of change. Wetherefore project reality into an illusory ego for thepurpose of gratification.Possession is used as a meansof ego-gratification to fill this void. The use of peopleas objects to be manipulated for our needs is anotherway in which we attempt to solidify ourselves. But itis like building a house on sand. There is nothingsubstantial there.The grains fall apart and dissolve,and the house crumbles into dust. We still feelinadequate or unsatisfied, no matter what we get,because our ego-desires (tanha) are by natureinsatisfiable.


It is seen in Buddhism that much of themiseries in life is caused by self-centerness and theconstant desire to satisfy one’s own needs. These ego-desires are the original root of all evil includinggreed, lust, hatred, lying, deceit, and crime. It is thedelusion of the permanenceof the ego that begetsall forms of these ego-desires. Because ego-desiresare the cause of most human suffering, it is theelimination of the ego that is necessary to end ourunhappiness. And because the ego has no reality ofits own it is possible for us to abolish it through ourefforts. This is not seen as an easy process.

Buddhism discourages ego-focus because itwants us to realize our non-personal potentialities.Besides, self-concentration does not allow the pursuitof truth and righteousness. The value of life does notdepend on quantity but quality. Any life lived solelyfor the self is a life not worth living as there is noroom for the highest goal of attaining nibbana, theliberation from the endless life cycle, samsaraexistence. It is this ultimate goal that makes life worthliving. Thus to be absorbed and engrossed in thetemporal and impermanent part of life matters little.

Since life is so worthwhile, the first preceptin Buddhism prohibits the taking of life. Within thisprecept all killing for whatever reason is not allowed.But there is room for taking life for just cause.


A story in the Jartika tales concerns the bodhisatta,the future Buddha, killing a bandit in order to savefive hundred merchants.8 The exception also includesself-defense and suicide in some circumstances. Self-defense is acceptable only when all alternatives havebeen exhausted. The precept upholds the sanctity oflife of all human beings regardless of the conditionsof their lives. As a rule suicide is prohibited. If onedestroys his life in such a way, the great object ofone’s existence is lost. It is difficult to be born as ahuman being. In Buddhism, only human beings canliberate themselves from samsara existence. Thuseven when one is suffering from a painful and incurabledisease, or when one’s life is unsatisfactory, one shouldbear quietly and patiently while simultaneously triesto rid oneself of the pain and suffering in all possibleways. Suicide in this circumstance is not allowed. Yetin some cases, according to Buddhist scriptures, taking

8Bodhisattava is a term that refers to the one who is a Buddha-to-be. It is believed that prior to becoming a Buddha, Gotama theBuddha was bodhisattava in 550 previous lives practicing all kindsof perfection (e.g. Perfection of Wisdom, Perfection ofCompassion, Perfection of Vigor). The stories of the Buddha’sprevious lives are collected in Jatakas Stories.Buddha wasbodhisattava in 550 previous lives practicing all kinds of perfection(e.g. Perfection of Wisdom, Perfection of Compassion, Perfectionof Vigor). The stories of the Buddha’s previous lives are collectedin Jatakas Stories.


one’s own life is sometimes allowed for noble ends.The giving of one’s own life to save the lives of theothers as a bodhisatta gave himself to a hungry lionessto save herself from eating her own cubs isone example of this exception.9 Another example isthe committing of suicide to escape incurable illnessthat is an obstacle to attain Nibbana. Aside from theserare cases, killing cannot be justified. Killing ofenemies and terrorists and even mercy killing(euthanasia) are not morally acceptable.To the growingdebate on the justification of killing Buddhism remindsthat as society grows more complex, and as methodsof causing death increase day by day life taking isbecoming as easy as the means and thus strictobservation of the first precept is necessary.Thoughthere may be some grey areas where ethical questionsare not satisfactorily answered, it is worth toremember during such talk of justified killing that

9From a story in the Jatakas Stories, this event has been used byMahayana Buddhism to justify suicide. The Buddha was said to giveapproval to suicide of a monk named Godhika who, after attainingthe state of spiritual release through meditation six times insuccession and then falling away from it, committed suicide theseventh time he attained it, in order not to fall way from it again(Semuvutta-Nikaya I, p.120). On 11 June 1963, a Vietnamesemonk, Thic Quang-Duc, burned himself to death to oppose theDiem regime. Whether his suicide was morally justified or not hasbeen an open question since his death.

real human lives, not labels, not statistics, are atstake. Killing is killing whether it is done for mercyor not. It is better to call a spade. If we kill someone,we must be frank to,admit it and regard it as somethingunwholesome.

The precept against the taking of life is notlimited to human life but includes animal’s life as wellas irrespective of size. Animal’s life is valued becauseanimals share with human beings many of the samequality of suffering, pain, pleasure and conception.Other living beings which do not share human qualitysuch as plants are not included in the precept.Buddhists are urged to have compassion and toconsiderit as their duty to care for the well-being ofall animals and at the same time are against the killingof animals as a sport or for luxury or for ritualsacrifice. Those who develop the habit of being cruelto animalsare quite capable of ill treatingpeople as well when the opportunity occurs. When acruel though gradually develops into an obsession, itmay well lead to sadism.

In fact, there is no rule or in junction in theteaching of Buddhism that a Buddhist should livewholly or even principally on vegetables. Whetheror not meat is eaten is purely an individual concern,but those who consume fertilized eggs, however,break the first precept. The most noteworthy result


of the strict observance of the precept is the spiritof tolerance or characteristic of Buddhism. It is thereligion which has never sought to extend itself by thesword or by might. The Buddhist hold his religionto be the truth, but he lets others hold their beliefalso. The twelfth edict of King Asoka reveals to usthis Buddhist spirit of tolerance.

Another question may be also raised about thefirst precept. At present, it seems that man cannotlive in health and comfort without taking life in oneway or another. Apart from killing animals for food,we have to kill vermin and pests, so that we canraise crops for food. In cases of certain illnesses,we have to use antibiotics to kill the organisms thatcause the disease. This problem can be addressed byputting it in a more general context of Buddhistethics. In this ethics, there is a scale of valuesaccorded to the moral culpability involved in thetaking of life. The kammic results of killing humanbeings and animalsvary in proportion to their physicaland mental development. Patricide, matricide and thekilling of innocent people and people of considerablemental development (e.g. holy men) are thereforeparticularly productive of evil results to the killer. Inthe case of the doctor who treats the patient withantibiotics or other bacteria-destroying drugs, his solepurpose is to cure the patient-to alleviate suffering



as much as he can. Although the treatment results inthedeath of the bacteria, it is not done primarilywith that intention with the repugnance that usuallyaccompanies all acts of killing, but rather for thewelfare of a higher organism such as man. Buddhistethics is an ethics of intention in which the criterionof right and wrong is based on the intention (cetana)of the doer. All actions that are rooted in greed, hatredand delusion, that spring from selfishness andtherefore foster the harmful delusion of selfhood,which are unwholesome (akusala). Conversely, allactions that are based on disinterestedness andwisdom (vijja) are wholesome (kusala). Consideredfrom this standpoint, the doctor’s act should not beculpable.

Concerning death, as mentioned earlier,Buddhism views death as an essential part of thehuman predicament. It is one of the conditioned andconditioning factors of the cycle of causes and effects(samsara) in which human beings exist. It is alsoshown that death is one of the central causescontributing to the suffering of human existence.

Buddhism defines death in terms ofthe concepts of impermanence (anicca) andinsubstantiality (anatta). The standard definition ofdeath in Buddhist texts describes death as “the fallingaway, the passing away, the separation, the


disappearance, the mortality or dying, the action oftime, the breaking up of the aggregates, the layingdown of the body.”10 In this definition death is seen asthe dissolution of the five aggregates, the factorsconstituting the individual. As the manifestation of theimpermanence of life, death is not a one-timeevent but occurs at every moment of life. Since theaggregates are in a state of constant flux, birth (seenas arising) and death (seen as passing away) arealways present in juxtaposition to each other. Thesemomentary life and death are one phase of the cycle.From another perspective death is nothing but thearising of the new state in place of the preceding one.This may be explained by means of a house-gateanalogy. To one who is outside the house, the gate isan entrance, whereas to the one inside the house,the same gate is an exit. But the state in the cause-and-effect process is called birth, whereas itsfollowing state is viewed as death, although both ofthem belong to the same single process.

Hence in its analysis of the nature of existence,Buddhism alsoplaces an emphasis on the realityof death. It is through an understanding of deaththat we gain an understanding of life. The Buddhists

10Henry clark Warren, Buddhism in Translation, p.206.

thus see the attempt made by people to find themeaning of life as an attempt to define themeaning of death. A man who defines death asmerely one event in the unbroken cause-and-effectcontinuum should be able to rid himself of anxietyand then could live life to the fullest conquering thevicissitudes of life. But this is impossible without thefull realization that life and death are two inseparableaspects of one entity.

Buddhism agrees with the generally negativeview that death is the fearful and disastrousculmination of an existence already marred by sorrowand suffering. This tragedy of death is magnified bythe certainty of rebirth (again-arising) and the repetitionof suffering and death (passing away) in samsaraexistence. That we are locked in the wheel of life anddeath is an indication of the fundamental emptinessof existence. The continuity and duration of life anddeath for each individual are incalculable, as thecollection of the bones of one person’s repeated rebirthcould be amassed. They would form a mountain ofskeletons. This imprisonment in the round of existence,however, is neither arbitrary nor mandated by atremendous power. It is rather the result of one’s owndeeds (kamma), good or bad. Through one’s deeds,each person weaves his own web of fate. It istherefore this power within each individual person to



either remain in the endless cycle or to escape fromit. For in this cycle he is both the cause and effect,the entire act or deed on the one hand, and on theother hand the consequence of the act. As an effectof his past deeds, he is the product of the past but asa cause he is a field of possibilities: he possesses hisown ability to gradually free himself form the past andto become whatever he wants to be.

Buddhism places death at heart of humanpredicament while also recognizing it as the primarysolution to this predicament. This religion hasmaintained that one cannot find liberation from thehuman predicament by denying death but only byconfronting it. Therefore, Buddhism does not condonea melancholia reaction to the death of those dear tous. What is necessary when death occurs is that weunderstand its meaning and to cope with it in arealistic and intelligent manner.

The teaching of nibbana as the practicallyattainable goal of man’s struggle to escape fro life,suffering and death prevents Buddhism from being“religion of despair”. The meaning of nibbana asemployed in Theravada Buddhism corresponds tothe state of a flame that has been blown out. It is onthe one side the total extinction of the three firesof greed (lobba), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha);and on the other side it isthe perfection of all


humanexcellences. When all delusions about thepermanence of the self and other beings are put awaytogether with greed and hatred, the heart is filled withuniversal love and benevolence for all beings. Sincegreed, hatred and delusion are the bonds that tie eachperson to the endless cycle of life (samsara), nibbanais also viewed in its final attainment after death as thequenching of the liberation from samsara existence.In Theravada, Buddhist perspective nibbana is notself annihilation nor a hereafter as many people think.It is the purity of the mind unbound from greed, hatredand delusion. It can be attained here and now insamsara existence. The Buddha himself attainednibbana at the age of thirty-five, and he, in the stateof nibbana i.e. the full extinction of defilements,spent the remaining forty-five years of his life in activepreaching and doing good. The same is trueof arahants, nibbanic enlightened disciples, who, withthe total absence of greed, hatred and delusion, livedand worked for others until death. Nibbana therefore,cannot be the annihilation of all activities.11 It becomesso only after the death of the nibbanic person like

11The full extinction of defilement (i.e. greed, hatred and delusion)is called sa-upadisesanibbana (nibbana with the remaining body-mind groups or khandhas that compose human beings) while thedissolution of the khandhas is anupadisesanibbana.


the Buddha and the arahant. The nibbanic, personis a living process of freedom and an embodiment ofall perfect virtues, and after death there will be nomore rebirth for him, like a fire that is taken upno more oil, and that burns towards extinction, andafter the extinction it can never be lighted again.

In Theravada Buddhist formulation of the wayto nibbana, three stages are recognized: morality(sila), concentration of mind (samadhi) and liberatingknowledge (pa �a).The practice of morality consistsof the observance of all moral precepts with purityof intention and feeling of fear, shame and remorseat the smallest violation of any of them. The Buddhistprecepts are perceived as a means to develop moralcharacter and practice through the control of mind,sense-organs and bodily conduct. There are fiveprecepts incumbent on all Buddhist lay people, eighton those who are more severe, ten on novices andtwo hundred and twenty-seven on monks. The fiveprecepts which forbid to kill, steal, commit adultery,lie and take intoxicating beverages are moral precepts,whereas the eight and ten are more religious vows,and the rest are rules and regulations for monks tofollow. The Buddha was aware of the burdens borneby a layman with a wife and children, hence he didnot expect from him the same ethical conduct as hedid from the monks. But he emphatically stressed that

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the layman should strive hard to observe atl eastthe five precepts, the minimum moral obligation ofthe ordinary person, to ensure peace and harmonyin society. The observance of the three additionalprecepts (abstaining from sex, taking meals after thenoon time, wearing bodily ornaments, using perfumesor ointment, dancing, singing, playing music, orseeing shows, and from using large high bed or seat)make the layman more religious. Though the Buddhistmoral precepts are expressed in the negative form ofabstinence from evil actions, they also involve apositive aspect. Killing is bad, and therefore abstinencefrom it and compassion are good; stealing is a vice,and therefore abstinence from it and generosity arevirtues; lying is bad, and therefore abstinence form itand truthfulness are virtuous, and so forth. Buddhismnot only teaches avoidance of evil or demeritoriousacts it also teaches the performance of good orvirtuous actions together with such avoidance.

Buddhism does not teach that man is by natureevil. In its perspective the evil in man is not inborn,and its moral precepts do not refer to any externalsource of authority. The various moral precepts arenot commandments given by the Buddha, though theywere taught by him. The Buddha was a teacher andnot a law-giver. The moral precepts are the wayspointed out to us what was right and what was wrong


and the consequences. It is left to the individual tomake necessary effort to translate into action theprecepts he has undertaken voluntarily. Though theseprecepts are neither rewards nor punishments in afuture world, yet the law of kamma, stressing theinterweave of actions and their consequences, isoperating powerfully as a cosmic force that determinesthe appropriate sanction for one’s action. Good actionsproduce good kamma with rewarding consequences,and vice versa. Everyone has to reap the result of hisown sowing. Even the undetected criminal does notescape the effects of his deeds.

There is no coercion or compulsion inBuddhism. The practice of sila is self-imposedobligation. Belief in future rewards and punishmentsmay influence man’s conduct, but it cannot be a realmoral force. The ordinary Buddhist may use thedoctrine of kamma to serve as the all important motiveforce for the moral life, and practice the moralprecepts as a means to accumulate merit through goodkamma. But the main stay of morality, as perceivedinBuddhism, is the realization of the selflessness ofall beings and the consequent equality of all beingswith one another. It is this realization that forms thespring of compassion and benevolence, which are thebasis of all good deeds.



The primary goal of Buddhist concentration(samadhi) is the attainment of enlightenment andnibbana. By placing the goal of life in the attainmentof nibbana through enlightenment, TheravadaBuddhism does not make the cultivation of intellectualpower of greater importance than the practice ofmorality (sila). The practice of morality is emphasizedas the primary condition that must be fulfilled beforethe mind can fit to be a receptacle of truth. Moralityis a means to attain enlightenment, but it alone doesnot constitute enlightenment. Without a perfectunderstanding of the real nature of the self and otherthings, no one can attain nibbana, however moralhe may be. To lead the higher life, enlightenedunderstanding is absolutely necessary, but it cannotbe obtained except by the practice of morality suchas benevolence and forbearance. In this way moralityand knowledge are intertwined-like heat and light in aflame-so much that they cannot be separated fromone another. Noone can even be said to be truly moral,if he does not possess the necessary insight andknowledge. The abstract understanding of the anatta(the substratelessness of things) cannot destroy theillusion which makes one believe in the reality of ego,unless the practice of charity teaches him to sacrificehis goods, his body, and even his life. But true altruism,genuine benevolence, and sincere charity imply also


liberality of intelligence and enlightened understanding.The achievement of enlightenment necessarilypresupposes the presence of compassion, devotion,and morality. In short, it may be said that while moralityfrom the basis of the higher life knowledge completesit. Mere change in external life and conduct cannotyield much benefit unless coupled with a throughcleansing of the mind from all defilements. Thissubjective purification is to be affected by liberatingknowledge that annihilates all thought of an attachmentto self. Only those who have achieved such knowledgecan be said to be able to internalize morality in theirevery thought, word and deed, i.e., perfectly fulfillingthe moral precepts.

In Theravada Buddhism liberating knowledgecan be achieved only through the practice of Samadhior meditation. To this way end, different techniques areintroduced as a means for the development of themindfrom mere concentration and ignorance toinsight meditation (vipassana-kammathan) andtransformation and the real nature of the self and allother things in the universe. This knowledge has theliberating power because it can purify the mind fromgreed, lust, and delusion, the germs of defilement.The liberating power of knowledge is greatlyemphasized in Buddhism. If knowledge cannotdeliver a man from the power which leads to


destruction, what benefit can all his learning be?Through knowledge all mental and physicalphenomena, within and outside, are apprehended interms of substratelessness (anatta), impermanence(anicca) and unsatisfactoriness (dukha). The self orthe “I” is thus cognized as the “not-I”, a transientphenomenon. As a result it loses its importanceautomatically and naturally. In such apprehensionthe “I” is also dissolved, like the light going outsimply for want of fuel. And this lack of fuel isbrought about solely through the transition fromignorance to knowledge. Ignorance acts on the “I” asan identical and unchanging being; knowledge actson the “I” as “not-I”, subject to decline and decay.The former creates greed and delusion in all forms,whereas the latter leads to the ceasing of thesepassions and finally to nibbana.

Forest monks, Town monks and Development monksThe present Thai sangha comprises of

two sects (nikaya), i.e. the older majority group,Mahanikaya, and the reform order, Dhammayuttika-nikaya, founded in the 19th century by King Mongkut.Within these two groups there are monks who arelabeled forest monks and village/town monks inaccordance with the specific vocation, each is pursuing.i.e. (meditation) “practice” (patipatti) or “learning”


(pariyatti). This traditional division was dated backto the 13th century during the Sukhodhaya period whenthe non-sectarian sangha consisted of monks whowere forest dwellers (arannavasi) consecrated tomeditation practice and those who were village/towndwellers (gamavasi) devoted to the vocationof books (gantha-dhura) or learning. Since theestablishment of the sangha in the SukhodhayaKingdom the Thai laity has accepted “learning” and“practice” as the basis of the regular sangha’s life.Ideally, Thai monks should combine the two vocationstogether, but in practice such achievement is so rare.Buddhadasa of Wat Suan Moksa in the South is oneof the very few monks who are both meditation masterand forest scholars. Though every monk is requiredto practice meditation since the day of his ordinationnot many of them are willing to practice insightmeditation (vipassana-kammathana) leading towardliberating knowledge (pa �a) and the resultingnibbana. Majority of Thai monks prefer “learning’anda lessstricter mode of life to “practice”and austerities.

Most of the forest monks are affiliated withDhammayuttikanikaya,known for its strictness ofadherence to the monastic discipline prescribed inthe pali canon. They usually are wandering monks(phra dhudong) who go into deep forests inseclusion, some alone and some are accompanied

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by few selected companions, dwelling in caves, onmountains, under tress, meditating and practicingausterities, moving from place to place. Their austerepractices consist of observance of 13 vows suchas eating one meal a day in one uninterruptedsession, mixing the food together in one bowl, wearingthe triple-role.12 All theseaustere practices are notto be understood as a form of asceticism (e.g. fastsand penances) could advance people in their searchfor deliverance from misery. Only the Middle Pathis the true means of attaining salvation. Buddhismthere fore considers asceticismunhealthy notconductive to enlightenment, and urges a healthysimplification in living, discerning that the higher lifemust be rooted in simplicity and purity. In this viewmeditation and dhudong practice are means to cleansethe mind from passion and pride, lust and greed, or in other words, for all egoism.

These wandering monks usually dwell in theforests for years.Their supra-normal powers (iddhi),the by-product of the long and arduous meditationpractice, and the moral virtues they possess enablethe monks to survive in the wilderness with tranquility.Through loving-kindness (metta) which they extend

12For detailed account of the 13 dhudong practices, seeVisuddhimagga


to all beings everyday they could subdue wild andferocious beasts such as poisonous snakes, tigers andelephants. Many of the forest monks are successfulin their struggle for self-perfection and some are onthe path to nibbana and some even become arahant(perfected saints). After such spiritual conquest, theyemerge from theforests in possession of knowledgeand loving-kindness criss-crossing the country, andsome have founded forest heritages (wat pa), makingthemselves freely accessible to men and women towhom they teach meditation in order to help them tobe on the Right Path. The enlightened forest monksare highly admired and respected by lay people fortheir supra-normal powers and moral perfection. Theylive and work, not for themselves, but for others. Apartfrom teaching meditation, these forest monks alsoserve as “field of merit” (nabun) in which lay peoplemay cultivate merit. Since it is believed that “giving”to the enlightened and/or strict monks gains the highestmerit, lay people tend to pursue the forest monks astheir “field of merit”. Lay people also pursue themfor the supra-normal powers which, they believe, couldbe used for curing, protection and prosperity. Someof these forest monks such as Luang Phoo Waen havetransferred their psychic powers to amulets and charmsand distribute them to their adherents.

The most revered forest monk is Luang PhooMun of Wat Pa Sutdhavas, Skolnakorn Province,who lived from 1870 to 1949 and is regarded bynumerous pious Buddhists as modern arahant(perfected saint). He is a great meditator master anda great teacher who trained a number of illustriousdisciples. His life and spiritual experiencein the struggle for self-perfection are accounted ingreat detail by one of his disciples, Phra Acharn MahaBoowa, himself a meditation master and teacher atWat Pa Ban Taat, Udondhani Province. Perhaps, themost important contribution of Luang Phoo Mun toThai Buddhism is his dedication to the revival of theforest monk tradition in contemporary Thai society.His life is an example for those who want to pursuethe vocation of “practice”. After his death this disciplesand associates and their own disciples have beenpropagating this tradition around the country throughthe establishment of forest heritages and meditationcenters (samnak songa). Among his illustriousdisciples are Phra Acharn Fun of Wat Udomsomporn,Sakol Nakorn; Luang Phoo Khao of Wat ThamKlong Pein, Udondhani, Phra Acharn Chaa of Nong PaaPhong, Ubonrajdhani, Luang Phoo Chob of Wat PaSummanusorn, Loei; and Luang Phoo Waen ofWat Doi Mae Pang, Chiengmai. The teachings and



charismatic character of these forest monks haveconverted numberous monks to the vocation ofpractice and helped spreading meditation throughoutthe country. They also inspire lay people to be moreconcerned with the attainment of nibbana, the totalrelease from samsara existence, than a good rebirth.

Meditation as practiced by the forestmonks is a continuity of the meditation tradition inBuddhism over centuries. Meditation techniques usedand taught by the forest monks are contained withinthe scope of the Theravada texts such asthe Satipatthana Sutta and Buddhaghosa’sVisuddhimagga. Despite the periodic decline andreform of the monastic order in the country, thistradition has persistedmore or less intact. Many forestmonks particularly the elderly areresiding at urbanwats and ennobling them to be meditation centers formonks and lay people. The number of wats specializedin meditationor teaching has been increasing inBangkok and other urban areas. Even the famous WatBovornniwet and Wat Mahathat, the traditional sitesof “learning” and which house the two Buddhistuniversities are propagating meditation for lay peopleas one of their main activities.Other well-known urbanwats that have specialized in meditation areWat Paknam and Wat Pleng in Thonburi, WatBoromniwas in Bangkok, Wat Dhammakaya in

Pathumdhani, Wat Asokaram in Samutprakarn, andWat Tha Sung in Ayudhaya Province.

While the forest monks are carrying on theage-old traditionof meditation and reinvigoratingitfor the laity, the village/town monks aredevotedto the traditional vocation of “learning”,studying the Dhamma and Pali at the wats’ schoolspreparing themselves for the naktham and prayok(ecclesiastical) examination in three levels ofDhamma studies-Third, Second, and First Grades;and seven levels of Pali studies-Third through NinthGrades.Completion of both courses takes fromseven to ten years. The two wat institutes in Bangkok,now known as Mahamakuta Rajawidyalaya andMahachulalongkorn Rajawidhyalaya, were raised tothe status of Universities in 1945 and 1947,respectively. In addition to basic Dhamma and Paliinstruction, they are now offering a Bachelor of Artsand a Master degree in Buddhist Studies and othersecular subjects. Many of the monks who passed thenaktham and prayok examination and/or weregraduated from the two universities used to disrobeand take up secular jobs, usually going intoteaching, ecclesiastical administrations, and civilservice. Yet those who remain are repositories ofDhamma and have made significant contributionsto Buddhist scholarship.


The most prominent scholar-monk in present-day Thailand is Buddhadasa of Southern Thailandwho, after passing the prayok examination, has beena prolific writer since the last four decades. Heproduced a large number of books concerning thedoctrines and practicesof Buddhism. Many of whichare used as reference books by monks and laypeople. His lectures, commentaries and sermons havestrongappeal to academics and educated public.In all his work, he has demonstrated by scientificmethods that Buddhism can be used effectively tosolve the problems of human life and society,irrespective of the age. His invaluable contributionto Buddhist scholarship has been recognized by manyThai universities, which recently have given himhonorary doctorate degree as a praise of hiscontribution. Another famous scholar-monk is PhraPrayudh Payutta whose expoundation of theDhamma in his monumental work, Buddha Dhamma,has won him wide acclaim.

While Bhuddhadasa and Phra Prayudh areusing their intellectual competence to advanceBuddhist scholarship, many of the learned monksare popularizing the Dhamma through modern media.Foremost among them are Phra Pannananda ofWat Cholapratan and Phra Phayom Kalayano ofWat Suan Kaew. Both of them are gifted speakers


and leaders in the popularization of Buddhism makingit more appealing and relevant to everyday life. Theirsermons always find ready publication and distributionthrough the press. The teaching of Phra Pannanandaappeals most to general public, whereas that of PhraPhayom find more enthusiastic acceptance amongyouth and children.

The urban wat is usually located in thecommunity. The monks and lay people are thereforeclosely related. Their relationship is characterizedby reciprocity. The monks depend on the laity for foodand material support. Walking with alms-bowl andmaking himself available to receive food offeringfrom the laity may be viewed as begging. Actuallysuch is a part of the discipline that trains his mindto humility. Besides, the monks give the laity theopportunity to earn merit through giving. Theacquisition of merit is the primary motivation in thelife of Thai Buddhists who are much concerned withthe nature of merit-making acts, their occasions,content, grading, and effects. Generous giving to themonks and the wat are actions that rank very high interms of merit.

Apart from serving as the “field of merit” forthe laity, the town monk teaches the Dhamma to thelaity and performs various rites including those oflife-cycle (concerning birth, marriage, death, house-



building, etc.) and festival rituals for the laity. The monkalso acts as its moral mentor, psychological councilor,personal and social adviser. Yet despite such socialservice role accompanying the vocation of learning, anumber of village/town monks still feel dissatisfiedwith the vocation. In contrast to forest monks andconservative town monks, these monks are sociallyactive monks who want to make a more activecontribution to the material and spiritual welfare ofthe people. They have no intention to trodden thesolitary, meditative path to liberation. Neither do theywant to devote their energy to learning and teachingabstract doctrines. They want to break away fromtradition by engaging in “labour” and by emphasizingon the importance of working to assist people inpoverty-striken areas. These progressive monks arenow labeled “development monks” (Phra Pattana).

The movement was started some 30 yearsago by a small number of rural monks in the Northeastand some other poverty-striken regions. Drought, waterscarcity, salty soil, low level of health and lack ofcommunication have aggravated under-developmentof the Northeast. Almost every year, peasants awaitin vain the arrival of the monsoon to start theagricultural season. Policy makers are expressingthe need for action now before time runs out foreffective remedial measures if the future of the

region is not to be lost beyond recovery. This year, itis estimated that about 1.6 million rai of farmland arealready damaged and some 49,958 families in 3,557villages are in distress. In spite of the government’srecent decision to allocate a sum of 139 million bahtas Disaster Relief Fund to assist the victims in nearly40 of the country’s 73 provinces and the Army’s planto under-take the Royal Compassion Project, there isskepticism among the region’s population aboutrealizing the set and declared goals. Some even fearedthat there may be more of rhetoric and politicalsale-talk than substance to the declarations. Withinthis atmosphere of doubt more people are turning tothe monks at the wat in their villages for assistanceas they did in the past.

Moved by the miseries of the community,some rural monks had taken upon themselves toprovide leadership to development activities torelieve the villagers of their wretched lot. One of thepioneering monks in the Northeast is Phra KamKhien, the former about of Wat Bhukhao Thong inChaiyabhume Province. Fifteen years ago nearlyeveryone in the Village Ta Mafai, where the wat islocated, was involved in violence (a result of strifes andconflicts), gambling and alcoholism. These vices hadthe negative effects on the life of the community.They caused social disharmony in the village. The


increasing indulgence of the villagers in such vicesprompted the monk, originally trained in the forestmonk tradition under Phra Acharn Thien, a famousmeditation master, to interrupt the pursuit of thevocation of meditation to devote his energy insteadin leading the villagers from such vices. His realconcern for their welfare, his dedication tocommunity service work, and his model behaviourgradually won the hearts of numberous villagers.Consequently, violence, gambling and alcoholismwere decreased. Aside from teaching the Dhammathe monk undertook social work such as theconstruction of roads, the digging of wells, and thesetting up of a cooperative and a day-care center.When the villagers were able to carry on these monk-initiated activities by themselves, Phra KamKhienretired to his forest hermitage, Wat Sukata, tocontinuehis vocation of meditation.

In his secular work, Phra Kam Khien usuallyworked with his close associate, Phra Buntham, adisciple of the same meditation master, Phra AcharnThien. While the former tried to solve the problem of thepoverty of the villagers by leading them out of vices-gambling and alcoholism, Phra Buntham devotedhis energy to improve the natural environment forthem. People in the Village Na Khae living nearthe monastery are poor and a part of their poverty


arises in connection with the natural conditions of thearea. The soils are not suitable for cultivation-theyare characterized by shallow depth, coarse sandytexture and a deficiency of humus. The situation hasbeen aggravated by drought and occasional flood,caused by deforestation made by squatter farmersand logging companies. When Phra Buntham arrivedin that village some 15 years ago, the villagers wereso overwhelmed with this problem that they had noheart to find solutions. Many migrated to other areasand those who stayed were depressed and feltpowerless. The monk tried first to awaken them toregain strength and confidence, and then gave thelead and example to them by working on the denudedland of the wat by himself with the purpose of showingto the villagers that the ecological damage in thevillage and outside could be ameliorated withoutwaiting for help form the government. He consideredthe reclamation of draught-stricken and salty soil inthe arid areas of prime importance. If no solution wassought, villagers would never be able to escapefrom poverty engendered by a lack of crops. In hisrehabitation of the barren land, he first grew localcoarse grass and scrub which such soils could supportand used this natural vegetation as fertilizer.When the soils were improved, he replaced them byfast growing trees, which were later gradually


substituted by timber and other indigenous trees suchas teng (shoreaobtusa) and rang (pentacme suavis).

As a result of the long and arduous effort ofPhra Buntham, the vast barren land of 1000 raibelonging to Wat Phon Thong, where he is nowresiding, has been completely reforested. He hasbrought back trees and hundred of birds andsquirrels to the wat. Seeing his success, villagers beganto have confidence in coping with their unfavorablegeographical condition. However, once the whole areais completely reforested, it will be difficult forthe monk to change the attitude of the whole villagetowards nature from that of exploitation to theBuddhist one which tends to foster conservatism. Tobe successful in such endeavour, the monk may haveto undertaken another ambitious project e.g. theintroduction of the new agricultural techniques, whichcould result in better use of existing farmland and thuslessen forest destruction. But this work needs a lot ofresources and cooperation from government agencies.If villagers are poor, indebt and unable to earnsufficiently for their living, they will do nearly anythingfor their survival, including deforestation.

Phra Nan of Wat Samakkhi in Surin Provinceis another pioneering monk in the Northeast. Beinga meditation practitioner himself, the monk tackledthe problem of poverty among the villagers in Village


Ta Sawang, by initially urging them to practicemeditation. On the spur of the moment, his approachmight sound irrelevant and even escapist. But thepractice of meditation he urged on them was not usedas a way of escaping from the problems andfrustrations of real life. It was rather employed asa means to lead their minds from being too engrossedin material things and above all to train them to develop,ability to concentrate on the very problems theyencountered and to face them in depth. Oncethis ability developed they could begin to analyze theproblems objectively and were able to find a clear-headed, unemotional solution to the problems. Throughsuch analysis, the villagers began to realize that theproblem of poverty was not a problem for each one,but that of the community as a whole and thus neededto be worked out collectively. The practice ofmeditation was also used to make the villagers curbtheir egoistic desires as well as to be aware ofthe interdependence of the self and the others/community. Besides, insteading of making themdepressed, an escapist meditation, as taught by PhraNan, helped the villagers to build up such awarenessand to face the hard facts of life realistically withcourage and confidence. The villagers, accordingly,were encouraged to face the problem of povertyearnestly and to make concerted efforts to solve it.


Having regained self-confidence, which they had lostbecause of the overwhelming problems they had gonethrough, they could work together on the finding ofsolutions. When they were ready, the monk mobilizedthem along with other residing at his wat to undertakecollective work such as road construction and farming.The participation of the monks in such workencouraged the villagers to work harder and moreenergetically. They set an example to show that a lotof the community could be improved when monks andlay people worked side by side.

One of the prevailing problems in theNortheast is the problem of indebtedness on partof the peasants. This problem is a consequenceof their indulgence in gambling and alcoholism. It isalso a result of exploitation by those insensitivemerchants who instead of engaging a fair deal withthe peasants beat down the prices of their productsas these peasants search to sell the hard-earnedfruits of their labour.

To relieve the villagers of debt the monkencouraged the villagers to give up gambling andalcoholism and, at the same time, to undertakecollective work. The monk then established a villagecenter for distribution of fertilizer to peasants.Formerly the peasants had to spend unreasonableamount of money to buy imported fertilizer. Many


got into a large sum of debt and the money lendersexpropriated their farm products. With theestablishment of a fertilizer center, the villagers wereencouraged to produce their own compost fromorganic materials and cattle manure. They could also buychemical fertilizer there at a more reasonable price.The monk also inspired the villagers to set up avillage cooperative for the purchase and sale of riceby themselves without the middlemen. It helped thepeasants to get a better price for their rice and thusreduced their debt burden. At the same time, thecooperative enabled the villagers to learn to trust andwork with one another. Barns were built to stockrice to be sold only when the price was favorable.Villagers therefore were not under compulsion to selloff the harvest at available prices as they formerlyhad no stocking space.

The concept of “cooperative” is new to thecommunity where individualism was highly valued. Atfirst, the monk found it difficult to ask the villagersto stock their harvest at the community’s barn and totreat it as the property of the cooperative. Most ofthem wanted to maintain their own stock and to sellaccording to their own sense of timing. Through hisuntiring teaching, they came to see the value ofcooperative, which organized on reciprocal expectations,and thus joined in the cooperative effort plan. The


teaching of charity concomitant with the establishmentof the village cooperative was to moralize the poorand to socialize the rich. Each member joining thecooperative had to buy a share not by giving moneybut by depositing rice according to the economicability of the villagers concerned. Borrowers couldget rice for their own consumption and had to payinterest in the from of rice at the time of harvest andthe stock remained available for the benefit of all.The rich had to contribute more rice to make it possibleto lend to the poor, and were asked not to borrowfor purposes of profiteering.

The monk’s initiated cooperative has provedto be a success. There were only 80 member householdsto begin with. But after four years, all the householdsin the area joined in and the cooperative, had toexpand to open seven branches in other villageswhere again most villagers joined. The cooperativesdealt not only with rice as they became alsobargaining agencies for villagers. The city merchantshad to go to the cooperatives to buy rice and otherfarm products while the cooperatives secured itemssuch as fish sauce, oil, salt and other householdneeds from wholesalers and sold them cheaply. Thecooperative later, at the suggestion of the monk,expanded its service by buying land for the poorvillagers to work on and consequently helped to


reduce their debt burden. Luang Phor Nan alsoinitiated the establishment of credit unions toencourage saving among villagers particularly youthand school children. The credit unions also served asa lending agency for villagers who turned to creditunions for loans and no more to the money-lenders intown, as they saw that credit unions were operatedfor mutual benefits and not for profiteering.

Another important work of Phra Nan was theredirection of the traditional Buddhist ceremony(thod phaa paa). This ceremony is a highly popularceremony for making donations to wats. It has beenused as a means of fund raising to donate money tothe wat of one’s choice. Phra Nan used the thodphaa paa ceremony towards the support of villagecooperative’s projects (such as the revolving fund)and for the purchase of land to rent to the poor. Thus,the tradition of merit making was re-oriented fromdonation to the wat to efforts for mutual helpespecially to help the community to stand on its ownfeet.

Another pioneering development monk isPra Banyat of Wat Pa Dhummada in NakornRatchsima Province. His work to alleviate the plightof the poor peasants includes the establishment of awater buffalo bank and a rice bank within the largecompound of his wat. Water buffaloes have been used


in the Northeast as draught animals in wet-ricecultivation. The buffalo bank is set up to enablepeasants who do not have the resources to raisebuffaloes to work in the field to hire these draughtanimals for the cropping season, at minimum rates, tobe paid by in rice grains. Should calves be bornduring the rental period, the peasant concerned getscredit and he is entitled to keep the second calf ashis own. Since its inception in 1979, the bank hasproved to be an asset to poor peasants, living nearthe wat and in neighboring villages. It now has 400buffaloes available to those who need them. Similarly,the rice-bank is set up to enable the needy peasantsto secure seedlings at the beginning of eachagricultural season, without having to turn to theloan-sharks at exorbitant rates of interest. The bankis used as a means to decrease the indebtedness ofthe peasants and to serve as community store whererice-grains, collected from the renting of buffaloes,are kept for charity-i.e. for needy villagers. Aside fromthis innovative work, the energetic monk establisheda model village settlement to advance the image of a“Buddhist village”. Prospective settlers were poorlandless peasants and selected according to theircommitment to observe the five Buddhist preceptsparticularly those concerning avoidance of gamblingand alcoholic drinking. Members of this village were



urged to apply the Buddhist principles to their lifeand work. Among these principles charity (dana) andpleasant speech (piyavaca), are stressed. Charity isextended from its traditional meaning of givingofferings to the monks and the wat to include thesharing of labour, food and energy with one anotherfor community development. Pleasant speech, anotherBuddhist concept, is emphasized and place in thecommunity. It involves the use of kinship terms ofaddress (e.g. “elder brother”, “younger sister”), whichis a traditional Thai manner, and gentleness ofbehaviour. Such practice also reflects the BuddhistRight Speech, one of the Noble Eightfold Path, whichconsiders lying slandering, gossiping as evil actswith bad results in future life. The economy of thisvillage was based on organic agriculture with the useof plant repellants instead of insecticides, and non-chemical fertilizer in place of the chemical typewhich is usually more expensive. The monk is alsogoing to revive the traditional integrated farming torestore the eco-system and to decrease the debtburden of peasants in neighboring villages. Instead ofgrowing only one single cash crop, such as rice, tapiocaor sugar cane, as advised by the government peasants,will be encouraged to use their age-old integratedfarming technique of growing a variety of crops ontheir farmland together with raising fishes, cattles, pigs

and chickens around the farm. Previously such farmingtechnique put nature in balance. There was no need tobuy fertilizer for the dungs of the animals raisedaround the farm were the best natural fertilizerfreely available. No pesticides were needed. A certainkind of insect would eat a certain kind of plant. Andsince the crops were grown in rotation, chances werethat the number of insects were naturally controlled.By replacing this self-sufficient agriculturaltechnique by the modern one with great emphasison the cultivation of a single cash crop, export villagershave to work harder and suffer from more tensionleading to mental and other problems. They have tobuy food, fertilizer, pesticides, and so on. As a resultnearly all of them are in debt. What they earn is lessthan their expenditure. Their debt has increased yearby year. Though this age-old integrated farmingalternative will not make villagers rich people, it willmake their economy more self-reliant and thus reduce/eradicate their indebtedness. The fluctuating priceof rice, for example, has no effect on their livelihood.With integrated farming, they do not need to selltheir rice at a too-low price. They can rely on otherproduct.

All these pioneering monks are concentratedin the Northeast, because the people of this region arevery poor and need more help. Further, the region has


been plagued by drought and occasionally by floods.While there might be looked upon as problems arisingin connection with the natural environment, the moreimportant and pressing problem is the problem ofpoverty resulting from these geographical conditions.Moreover, there is the problem of landlessness as wellas indebtedness on part of the peasants, and there areprevailing vices among them in form of gambling,and alcoholism. These monks were engaged indevelopment work because they had special sense ofobligation to the poor villagers on whom they dependfor offerings and basic facilities. These villagersin spite of their poverty provided them withsustenance. The monks felt compassionate of themand wanted to make themselves service available tothem, so that their poverty could be alleviated and thequality of life is raised.

Besides these Northern monks, there are anumber of pioneering development monks in theNorthern and the Central working to alleviatepoverty among villagers. The most revered monk inthe North is Phra Dhepkavi of Wat Daraphirom inChiengmai. His development work is undertaken ona wider scale for it covers many villages. The work iscarried out through the Foundation for Education andDevelopment of Rural Area, established 15 yearsago to serve as a NGO (Non-Government Organtizon).


Through this foundation, Phra Dhepkavi couldmobilize monks and layman to put concerted effort inworking for the spiritual and material welfare ofpeople living in a cluster of villages around the wat.The Foundation usually works in cooperation witheach village council. Previous work, undertaken bythe Foundation under the leadership of Phra Dhepkavi,included the teaching of the Dhamma and theimplementation of development project in variousfields. The project involved the establishment ofrevolving fund and rice/buffalo banks to benefit thepoor, daycare centers for pre-school children,cooperative, village libraries, medical units; andthe operation of training programs in vocation andleadership. These programs were steered towardshuman resource development in the village.Housewives were trained in food preservation, clothweaving, knitting and embroidery, dress-making, andartificial flower making, while youth and men wereinstructed in handicrafts, ceramics, refrigeration, air-conditioning, auto mechanism, and photography.All these skills led to self-employment and thusgenerated higher income for villagers enabling themto live more decent lives. Social activities of thefoundation planned to expand include the adequatesupply of water for irrigation and drinking, theimprovement of sanitation, and the provision of


electricity to poor areas. While we have no objectionto this ambitious project, we hope that the Foundationwill also expand its work to those villages in Phra Yaoand Chieng Rai provinces, where many people areliving off the wages of sin. The whole villages arebeing supported by the money earned by their youngwomen working as prostitutes in the cities such asBangkok, Hat Yai, Pattaya, and even in other countriessuch as Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. It is notpoverty alone that is the main cause of prostitution.The cultural value of gratitude also plays an importantrole in this phenomenon. Men can show the gratitudeto their parents by being ordained as monks butwomen are unable to follow this tradition. Usually,parents in these villages would expect their daughtersto work hard for the family as a way of showingt heirgratitude. Prostitution has become a new way forwomen to bring money into the family and therebyto fulfill their obligation to their parents. The existenceof these villages and their cultural values are greatchallenges to the development monks and particularlyto Phra Dhepkavi’s Foundation.

One of the most well-known developmentmonk in the Central is Phrakhruu Sakornsangvorakij,the abbot of Wat Yokrabat in Samutsakorn Province.Twenty years ago, the people in the Yokrabat Villagewere very poor, indebt and unable to earn sufficient



living. Tension and violence prevailed throughout thevillage. The monk studied the land and decided thatit was suitable for coconut plantation. He then studiedcoconut cultivation and became an expert in it.Following his plan, the monks grew coconutsaround the wat and the people followed the example.The abbot gave them good coconut bred which yieldsover two liters of sugar a night. Eventually, everyvillager earned 200-400 baht per day. The abbot alsoencouraged them to grow other fruit trees to supplyneeded fruits to the market. With income raisedpeople were happy and joined the monk’s effort tofurther develop the community i.e. constructingbridges, roads, digging canals and building an earthdam to prevent flooding. When villagers had enoughfor their subsistence and were economically secured,crime and violence were eradicated.Today, the peoplein the Yokrabat Community are relatively well-off.To prevent them from being engrossed in materialismthe monk is now teaching them meditation concurrentlywith the cultivation of new cash crops to raised theirincome.13

All these monks represent only a small portionof rural monks whose community development

13All data about the work of these development monks werecollected in the field

pioneering work has established a new vocation forThai monks. Their engagement in secular work wassolely motivated by their compassion. The villagerswho gave them material support were very poor andthey needed help. One of the negative effects ofdevelopment in Thailand nowadays is the absenceof equilibrium between urban and rural growth. Thereare prosperous urban sectors and poor rural areasplagued by draught, poverty, disease and the graveshortage of needed health services. The monks usedthe skills they had developed in their secular lives,and limited available resources to help thecommunity solve various problems faced. These monksusually started with only one project in accordancewith a specific local need, but had to end up with manyfaceted work. This was because the problems thevillagers confronted were interrelated so much thatthese problems could not be separated from oneanother. Poverty has many causes-cultural, nature andsocial.Only an integrated approach could solve it.

The problem of draught in the Northeastcannot be solved overnight. Nor can it be eradicatedsimply by individual effort. While the governmentwas contemplating on the long-term plan to affectchange in the ecosystem of the region, these monksinitiated some measures to remedy the situation, aslife cannot wait for perfect solution. Such activities


ranged from simple well-digging to the difficult workof reforestation. The success of their work helpedrestoring self-confidence to the poor villagers and thusoriented them towards the belief that they could dosomething to improve their wretched lot. No matterwhat this confidence may lead to, the monks weresuccessful in creating such confidence in them by theteaching of the Dhamma and above all by engagingin labour as concrete examples.

In such teaching, great emphasis was put oncorrect understanding of the law of kamma. Villagerswere encouraged to disassociate fatalism and quietismwith this moral law. The law of kamma was not ironnecessity. The villagers were not condemned or fatedto live in wretched conditions. Just as our presentlives are conditioned by past deeds, so can they beremade by our present acts. The accompanyingactivities initiated by the monks to alleviate povertyconsisted of the eradication of gambling andalcoholism, the promotion of collective work suchas farming, cooperatives, rice/buffalo banks, creditunions, revolving funds; and the operation of incomegenerated training programs. Some of these activitieswere carried out so successfully that the monks wererequested to extend them to other areas. Amongthese successful projects is Phra Nan’s initiatedcooperative project in Village Ban Tha Sawang in


Surin Province, which, by popular demand, was laterexpanded to other villages in Surin and otherneighboring provinces.

The use of indigenous resources was stressedin many monk-initiated development work particularlyin the field of agriculture and medicine. The traditionalintegrated farming technique and the use of non-chemical fertilizer and plant repellants were encouragedas a means to eradicate indebtedness of the villagersresulted from buying expensive chemical fertilizerand insecticide. At the same time, village leveltechnology was emphasized. Organic agriculturewithin the compound of the wats was quite a success.But to make it work on larger scale, a lot of groundwork needs to be done. While in case of health, peopleaccept indigenous system (i.e. using medical herbs)without any reserve, the introduction of indigenoustechnology has not been enthusiastically received.This is simply because, for most Thai people, moderntechnology, though much more expensive, has more“prestige” value. Modern technology is generallyassociated with persons of high status and isprestigious;indigenous technology, on the other hand, is consortedwith backwar dness and inferiority. This culturalattitude is reinforced by government developingagencies which tend to consider imported technologyfrom Western countries superior to technology of other


origin. Extension services are oriented towards theintroduction of modern technology and its input. Thus,it will take quite a long time for the monks to convincethe villagers to change their attitude and to appreciateindigenous technology.

As mentioned earlier, it was compassion thatmotivated the pioneering development monks toengage in secular community work. Since Thai monkshave no clerical salary and depend on the laity fortheir subsistence, these monks had to make use oftheir wats’ limited donated money as seeding moneyfor development activities. Sometimes they had to usethe money out of their pockets, gaming from theirrelatives. Once the project got started and fullparticipation from the villagers was secured the projectwas sustained mainly by the voluntary work of thevillagers and by pulling resources. The cooperationthat the monks usually received from the villagerswas mainly due to the veneration given to them byvillagers.The latter were also attracted by their selflessdedication to development work to benefit thecommunity and by their exemplary and/or charismaticcharacter.

The monks’ involvement in the materialwelfare of the villagers is not diametrically oppositeto the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha himselfsympathizing with the frailties and shortcomings of


lay people and being awarded of the social andeconomic condition of the masses devised some ofhis teachings to alleviate the misery of the peoplecaused by poverty; but it is obvious that without acertain degree of material and economic security nomoral and spiritual progress can be achieved. Thereare innumerable examples where the Buddha showedspecial mercy to children and fallen women, nursedthe sick and saw to it that the hungry were nourishedand the naked were clothed before he taught theDhamma. Though the quality of spiritual life rarelyrises in constant proportion with material prosperity,at the level of starvation no spiritual progress ispossible. The Buddha demonstrated this when he gaveup self-mortification and asceticism and laterdenounced it as a worthless endeavour. Following theBuddha, the pioneering monks, before any preaching,put their efforts in the material uplifting of the ruralareas first, so that poor villagers could have sufficientmeans, acquired lawfully by their own efforts, for theirsubsistence and thus would be able to listen to theDhamma.

Their poverty is the basic social injustice inThai society. By giving such help, the monks areresponding compassionately to their cries for justice.When looking at the limited resources these pioneeringmonks always have and their lack of modern secular


education, one has to commend the monks for theamount of achievement they have made in solvingproblems of poverty in the community concerned. Onemust also commend them for the creation ofself-confidence and self-reliance ability in thecommunity. The raining of necessary skills andtrades which the monks organized for poor villagersand the wise involvement of the monks to getdevelopment projects started and to let the villagerstake over later helped to foster the concept andpractice of self-reliance, understood without theexclusion of contact with others. The emphasis onthe liberal use of indigenous resources that arefound in a given area contributes further to thedevelopment of this self-reliance ability. This buildingof such ability and self-confidence is perhaps themost important contribution that these pioneeringmonks have made to development process in Thailand.It was the reason why the monks couldmobilize villagers not only to participate but also totake over the direction of village development.Through their work, the monks teach us thatdevelopment has not been a global model. Eachcommunity has to define its own goal and processof development with consideration of its material andcultural resources as well as the removal of constraintsthat prevent its members from the realization oftheir full potentials.


Too much abstinence from material goodsincreases the burning craving for them. Yet whenthe mind is engrossed in material things, itsinclination for spiritual development is less. Thusconcurrently with their economic activities, thepioneering monks devoted their energy and time tothe teaching of the Dhamma to stimulate spiritualdevelopment among villagers using it also as a meansto put reign on materialism which these villagers mightcling to once they are well-off. Villagers were askedto practice morality and meditation. The practiceof morality includes the observance of the fiveprecepts particularly the avoidance of gambling andalcoholism; and the adherence to the Buddhistother-regarding virtues such as love, charity, andhonesty. Thrift and self-restraint in consumptionwas also emphasized in the teaching of the Dhamma.At the same time villagers were asked to practicemeditation for 15-20 minutes before plunging intoconcrete action so that the usual egoistic motivationmay be avoided in the undertaking of developmentwork. This cultivation of spiritual development inthe individual is considered of great importance inBuddhism. Though the teaching emphasizes on theself and the community, it puts more stress on theimportance of moral development of the self as it isa key factor for the progress of the community.


Withoutthe moral fiber of its members, the communitycannot make any real progress.

Collective work and village cooperatives wereused to implement the concepts of social equityand justice in villages. The former emphasized equalsharing of time and energy, while the latter eradicatedexploitation of poor farmers by rich town merchants.The monks’ untiring efforts in raising the quality oflife of poor villagers are in a way a means of bringingjustice to these people who have done nothing to earnneglect from society. It is unjust to let them live insuch a wretched condition.

Nowadays, it is common to see numerousmonks and novices working in villages in the Central,the North and the Northeast. Some are working withgovernment officials, and some are working on theirown initiatives to alleviate the unhappy lot of ruralpeople. Even in the urban areas, one still finds monksengaging in various social welfare work for the urbanpoor ranging from the giving of free lunches to schoolchildren to the establishment of day care centersfor pre-school children. Community development isnow accepted as a vocation worthy of pursuing bymonks. But in the earlier years, the social effortsof the pioneering monks did not receive muchenthusiasm. Phra Nan and Phra Kham Khien, forexample, were even suspected by authorities of being



communist sympathizers. With the passage of time,their work was appreciated and considered to be amodel for socially active monks to follow. Theauthorities even praised them because they helped tofulfill the main purposes of the governmentdevelopment project i.e. the material uplifting ofthe rural areas. The two Buddhist universities,Mahachulalongkorn and Mahamakutta, well-knownfor their dedication to traditional “learning”, reformedtheir curriculum to include modern secular subjectssuch as psychology, sociology, education, healthscience, and agriculture in addition to Buddhiststudies. They also started to produce graduate monksin community development (phra pattana). Most ofthe graduates were sent to rural areas to put theirnew knowledge to work. Others set up trainingcenters for rural monks in different provinces of theNortheast. The recent establishment of a branch ofMahachulalongkorn University in this poverty-strickenregion is a proof of the sangha’s commitment to ruraldevelopment. Monk-students are required, as a partof their practicum, to use the branch as the base fortheir involvement in community development work.The modernization of clerical education and thesupport of high-level monks have made possiblelarge scale sangha’s social service programs inThailand. There is no doubt that in the present

crisisof transition to modernity when there is stilla shortage of competent government officials andthe large majority of villagers still have the negativefeelings towards the latter, the sangha is playingan important leadership role in the modernizingThai society.

While the social efforts of the developmentmonks are to be commended and there are undoubtedbenefits for the poor people served, a word of cautionis necessary. Though their work is appreciated,monks are not expected to be occupied in developmentwork all the time. They should play only a catalyticand marginal role in any development work whetherin rural areas or in the poor urban sectors. It must notbe forgotten that the main vocation of the monks hasto do with following the Buddha’s way to the totalrelease from samsara existence and all miseries.That is also the ultimate goal of development inBuddhism. Helping people through developmentwork is only a part of their activities and concern. Above all, village development is the responsibility ofthe people and government agencies concerned. Oncethe villagers could help themselves and/or governmentagencies could secure cooperation from them toundertake development work, the monks shouldretreat to devote their time for the vocation they havetaken upon themselves. As monks, Buddhism



demands from them not only the consecration ofthemselves to the others, but also the full developmentof their own power for the realization of its ultimategoal, nibbana.

ConclusionThai Buddhism contains both continuity and

change. The Buddhist traditional emphasis onwithdrawal from society and indifference from theebb and flow of life is continued by the wanderingforest monks dedicated to meditation. The longvocation of learning is being pursued by town/villagemonks in the study of Pali and Dhamma at differentlevels. The work of the development monks representsa new thrust of Thai Buddhism giving validationto compassionate action in society. In fact, asmentioned earlier, the Thai sangha and the laity havebeen in interdependent and mutual relationship sincethe time of the inception of Buddhism in Thailandsome 700 years ago. Monks depend on lay peoplefor food and other material support, and, in return,the monks serve as “field of merit” for the latter tosow the seeds of good kamma. Monks also performvarious religious rites for people of all societalsectors. They also devote their time and energy tothe teaching the Dhamma to stimulate spiritualdevelopment in Thai society. Even the forest monks,

after their moral conquest,make themselves accessibleto people teaching them the Right Path to the totalrelease from miseries and samsara existence. Asidefrom such teaching, Thai monks usually serve theiradherents as the latter’s moral mentors, social andpersonal advisers, and psychological councilors. Eachof these service work is done in accordance witheach individual request. The development monksexpand such service role of the Thai sangha toinclude the kind of work that primarily benefitsthe whole community and accentuate it. The story ofthe pioneering development monks is the story ofthose monks who sympathizing with the miseries ofrural people selflessly dedicated themselves to thealleviation of poverty in rural areas through activeengagement in community development work.Instead of just “receiving”, they contributed to thesocio-economic development of the communitywith their time and energy. By doing so, they re-interpreted Buddhism and its role in society, evenat the expense of being misunderstood by the moretraditionalist sangha. Their story is also the story ofThai Buddhism in its endeavor to meet the materialneed of local communities and concomitantly tonurture and promote the quality of being trulyhuman and leading really fulfilling lives of moralityand responsibility, even if their material condition may



not be as comfortable as in other places.The demand for social action from Buddhistmonks is not limited to rural areas. Everywhere thepoor and the disadvantaged groups are expectingthe monks to respond to their cries for justice byproviding them not with mere consolation but withmaterial things and actions to alleviate their presentsuffering. The increased involvement of Thai monksin various social welfare work such as the drugre-habitation program of Wat Tham Krabok, theorphanage of Wat Srakeo, and the care of AIDSsufferers at Wat Phabad Nampu is an example of thehealthy response made by Thai Buddhism to newsocial needs.

The reform in the curriculum of the two otherBuddhist universities making secular subjectsaccessible to monk-students is another example ofThai Buddhism’s effort to be related to the modernworld. As pressures from the modern world andmodern needs will be increased in the near future, thesangha may have to allow talented monks to participatein secular education at secular institutes anduniversities. This may eventually lead to the formationof an elite grop of scholar-monks for teaching andresearch in different branches of human sciences.

Other attempt of Thai Buddhism to relate itselfto the modern world involves the rational and


social re-interpretation of its teachings. The traditionalconcepts of Buddhist cosmology such as heavens,hells, ghosts, angels, evil spirits, and rebirth areinterpreted as subjective states of mind and not asevent, or places having objective existence. Similarlythose teachings concerning the origin of life, the law ofcausality (paticcasamuppada) and substratelessness(anatta) of the universe and all beings are explainedin the lines of modern science. The re-interpretationinvolves also the bringing into bold relief the socialcontent of an implication of the Dhamma. As reflectedin the work of Buddha as, the foremost Buddhistscholar and teacher, key-Buddhist concepts such as“detachment”, “nibbana”, and “merit-making” arerecasted in social terms. “Detachment” is translatedinto “disinterested” i.e. unselfish, public concern andservice. “Nibbana”, which has long been understoodas total cessation of all activities, attainable afterdeath, is interpreted in terms of the eradication ofegoism and whereby the generation of altruistic actionsfor the others. “Merit-making”, the mostinfluential Buddhist concept in Thai society, whichhas been confined to deeds for purely religiouspurposes (e.g. giving gifts to monks and the wat) isre-interpreted to include actions for “secular” causessuch as building a road for linkage with other villages.There is also a tendency to consider the secular

contribution of modern occupations such as businessand industry to Thai society a meritorious activity. Theachievement of wealth haslong been considereda result of good kamma. But in the past theaccumulation of merit for future improvement ofkamma was made by giving some portions of thatwealth to narrowly conceived religious purposes.As the country is striving to actualize its economicpotentialities, business and industry are necessaryoccupations for the attainment of the status of NICs(New Industrial Countries). In principle one cannotsee why such secular activity which brings thebenefit to Thai society could not be consideredgood kamma.

While fostering change in different aspects,Thai Buddhism still retains its own traditionalcomponents. It continues to provide its conservativeadherents with peace and tranquility of mind, fortitudeand consolation in adversity, and the total release frommiseries. At the same time for the sociallyactive people, it gives them the moral/religious basefor their social actions. The practice of meditation isstill believed to be the necessary path to the totalrelease from suffering. Yet it is also reinvigoratedfor lay people, with frailties and shortcomings, as apractical means for them both to gain temporary relieffrom the strain and stress of modern life and


to purify their action from all egoistic taint therebymaking it conductive to social benefits. This creativerelationship between meditation and new needsexemplifies the dynamic interaction between theBuddhist tradition and new forces. In this interaction,both change and empower another. The potentialnegative aspect of the new forces is curtained, whilethe relevance of tradition to modernity andmodern needs is stimulated and enhanced. By virtueof such enhancement, the Buddhist tradition itselfchanges, which is true of all traditions that are alive.Such ability for creative change, and for makinghealthy and flexible responses to new needs accountsfor the survival of Buddhism in present-day Thai societyas its powerful social/cultural force. Pressuresfrom the demands of new conditions and a changingworld will arise in the future. But we can be optimisticthat Thai Buddhism will be able to cope with all thesepressures. Our optimism arises from the fact that inThai Buddhism, or Buddhism in general, there isabsence of strong dogmatism and detailed specificnorms of moral and social behaviour; and this willallow for tolerance and flexibility in meeting newideas and values.



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The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism · The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism Pinit Ratanakul, Ph.D (Yale) Theravada Buddhism, also known