Running Head: COLLEGE FOOTBALL 1

The Driving Force Behind Collegiate Football: Middle Managers

Luis Nevarez Jr.

Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism

University of Southern California

Paper submitted fulfillment of requirements for

CMGT 597: Uses of Communication Research

Spring 2015

2

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to identify leadership styles, motivational approaches, and

adaptation to culture change amongst middle management in a collegiate football

program. Transitioning through 4 head coaches in the span of 7 months, the University of

Southern California (USC) Football Program experienced a drastic culture adjustment.

To obtain insight into the program and retrieve rich data, ten face-to-face interviews

were conducted with middle managers in the football program (strength coaches, athletic

medicine, and academic advisors). Upon obtaining a 66% participation rate amongst

middle managers, data was collected and transcribed. Several common themes were

prominent within the findings: (a) The ability to recognize and evaluate the strength of

their current culture and the necessary procedure to improve their culture, (b) participants

adapting to a new leadership presented by the head coach, and (c) the importance of

applying the necessary leadership and motivational style for the success of the student

athlete. These themes are further discussed, and recommendations for middle

managers are presented.

The Landscape of Collegiate Football

The competitive nature of this country is contagious, American universities are in an

arms race to hire prominent college coaches, increase financial contributions, and expand athletic

facilities. According to journalist Laura Pappano’s (2012) examination of college football,

“Between 1985 and 2010, average salaries at public universities in the U.S. rose 32 percent for

professors, 90 percent for presidents and 650 percent for football coaches”(p.1). College football

is the lucrative workhorse behind a limitless multibillion-dollar industry. Brian Goff, economics

professor at Western Kentucky University, believes America has yet to witness the forthcoming

3

of collegiate football. “We thought college football was big time 30 years ago, in some ways it

was just getting going” (Lavigne, 2014).

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) states that 128 universities

compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), the highest competitive level of collegiate

football. The schools are divided into 12 conferences according to geographical location,

academic prestige, and competitive ranking. Capturing the conference championship allows a

program to compete for a post-season game or national championship. The result increases

university revenue. Football is the most sought after program in the athletic department regarding

revenue. At most schools, the success of the football team is an avenue to reach out to alumni,

donors, and fans. (Humphreys & Mondello, 2007)

Universities in the southern region of the United States are notorious for enhancing the

game day experience into a social event. Tailgate parties of alumni, students, and fans fill the

parking lots before and after games. The University of Texas, Alabama, Oklahoma, and

Louisiana State fill their stadiums to a capacity of 100,000 fans for seven Saturdays in the fall,

embracing the college football culture. Tim Brando, who broadcasted games in the Southeastern

Conference (SEC) for decades, still possesses vivid images of the loyalty to the university, “I

think they identify themselves as human beings by where they're from or what the state school

represents” (Kersey, 2013, p.1).

The person at the head of the athletic department is the athletic director. This position

oversees all sports within the department. It is a dynamic position that supervises athletic staff,

appoints and terminates head coaches, and maintains compliance. Every head coach within the

department reports team evaluations, violations, and whatever they believe is essential to

comprise a winning team to the athletic director. From 2000-2013, the University of Texas (UT)

4

attended two national championship games and several Bowl Championship Series (BCS)

games. Before the introduction of the college football playoff system, BCS games were awarded

to the top six schools with the best record at the end of the football season. In 2011, the

universities faced financial issues regarding academia and were forced to cut jobs of professors,

eliminate courses, and increase class size. Meanwhile, $600 million dollars were allotted into

stadium renovations to increase stadium capacity, newly constructed indoor practice facilities

including a 20,000 square foot extension to the previous weight room, and a player’s lounge

featuring tablets, video boards, and a nutrition station. Concluding the 2013 fiscal year, USA

Today released the total revenue numbers of 230 universities. Texas remained alone at the top,

producing $165,691,486 in revenue (Berkowitz, 2014). Former Head coach Mack Brown, who

held the reigns to the program during the university’s revenue downpour, believes the money

was allocated correctly, “I think, when we make it, we have a right to spend it, that's the way

America said it is” (Wieberg, 2012, p.1).

A consistent winning record and revenue stream requires the athletic director to appoint a

head coach they believe emulates the university and department’s culture. It is a result-oriented

business, and unfortunately many coaches struggle to remain above water. Failing to produce a

winning product leads to termination, decreased donations, and ticket sales. Disregarding the

academic standards or increase in classroom sizes, football reigns supreme on FBS college

campuses. Amidst a statewide budget crisis in 2012, the University of California, Berkeley

remained one of the last athletic programs in the conference to upgrade athletic facilities. Former

head coach, Jeff Tedford was the state of California’s highest paid employee, but had only

captured one conference championship and failed to reach a BCS game. The state supported the

university by obtaining a $321 million dollar price tag to upgrade their athletic facilities. Well

5

short of the intended $474 million dollar project, the university searched for alternative sources

and thus began tapping into student funds, increasing tuition and ticket fees. Former national

champion college football coach Phillip Fulmer has witnessed the commitments universities are

taking to football programs and has been quoted saying,” The stadiums have gotten bigger, and

you've got more really, really quality coaches in this league right now maybe more than ever”

(Kersey, 2013, p.1).

Perfection is a priority for Nick Saban, head coach at the University of Alabama. He has

captured four national championships and produced countless professional players. At the

beginning of the 2014 season, Saban renegotiated his contract. USA Today reported Saban will

earn “$6.9 million for the next 9 seasons” (Berkowitz, 2014). Dr. Robert Witt, Alabama's

chancellor believes the hire of a Nobel Prize winning professor and Coach Saban are

incomparable, “Nick Saban's the best financial investment this university has ever made. We

have made an investment that's been returned many-fold” (Berkowitz, 2014). Saban’s success

brought the athletic department $143 million dollars of revenue during the 2013 fiscal year.

Saban and Tedford are not alone when it comes to being recognized as the state’s highest paid

public employees. Deadspin Sports 2013 study regarding football coaches’ salaries, found “the

highest paid public employee in 27 of the 50 U.S. states belongs to the football coach” (Fischer-

Baum, 2013).

Television networks fight over the opportunity to gain viewing rights of multibillion-

dollar athletic departments. In 2012, Larry Scott, commissioner of the PAC 12 conference struck

a 12 year, $3 billion dollar contract with Fox, ESPN, and the creation of a conference television

network. (NY Times) The 12 universities that comprise the conference will be allocated 3 to 4

million dollars annually over the next 12 years. Scott viewed this opportunity to not only bring

6

exposure to the conference, but allow fans behind-the-scenes access "A very, very high priority

throughout this process was improving the exposure, if anything, from a competitive standpoint,"

Scott said. "That was always paramount. We're committed to utilizing the platforms that would

get us that full national distribution" (Henderson, p.1). College football programs are the central

supporters of non-revenue sports (i.e. swimming, lacrosse, golf). Team budgets, new athletic

facilities, and tickets sales are controlled by the success of the football program. According to

Michigan athletic director, Dave Brandon, “Of the $133 million dollars that support all 29 sports,

about 75 percent or roughly 90 million is comprised through football” (Keteyian, 2012, p.1).

Head coaches multibillion dollar contracts and athletic directors are responsible for producing a

lucrative athletic department.

While head coaches and athletic directors acquire the publicity and attention of the

athletic department, a critical component is still being overlooked. Middle management positions

are imperative to team success. Assistant coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, graduate

assistants, academic advisors, and medical staff are the true heartbeat behind this multibillion-

dollar corporation of college football. They dedicate more hours to the program yet receive

minimum recognition. While they may not hold a position of power, they still possess influence,

leadership, and motivation to student athletes. It is imperative to understand what leadership and

motivational styles middle management position practice to exhaust effort and talent from their

student athletes.

The subsequent literature review will begin with understanding organizational culture and

the importance of establishing a set of norms that are adhere from all middle management

positions. After discussing culture, the literature review will concentrate on extrinsic and

7

intrinsic motivation, followed by leadership theories and applying the appropriate style regarding

situations and followers. Finally, a review and questions will be proposed.

Literature Review

Culture

Organizational culture. A revolving door of new administrators and coaches is recurrent

throughout collegiate athletics. Failure to produce a winning program results in turnover,

followed by a new regime with the anticipated winning formula. However, successful coaches

are not the only ones being replaced. Athletic departments that breed success derive promotion,

vacancies, and expansion. Thus, new personnel bring altered attitudes, beliefs, and expectations.

Culture change within organizations leaves associates perplexed of the vision and expectations of

the company’s objective. Organizational culture crafts expectations and the progression of

company associates. Doctor Bruce Tharp (2009) has studied the importance and impact cultures

have among organizations and has emphasized how, “Organizational culture is commonly

increasingly understood as a company asset to increase business performance. Evaluating and

understanding organizational culture holds the best promise for corporate leadership” (p.2).

Before proceeding, it is imperative to define culture and the significance it holds within an

organization.

Culture as a concept. The term culture encompasses an array of definitions. Within an

organization, culture not only dictates attitudes and beliefs of the company but also demonstrates

how the organization handles adversity. Tharp states that culture is, “The “glue” that holds an

organization together and for others, the “compass” that provides directions” (2009, p.2).

Wallace and Weese (1995, p.183) believe culture is, “deep rooted beliefs, values, and

8

assumptions widely shared by organizational members that powerfully shape the identity and

behavioral norms for the group”. Culture is the driving force to uniting associates towards a

common goal and identity.

Establishing culture in the workplace. Leadership and hierarchy of any organization is

a mere reflection of their culture. The CEO, president, or individual leading the department

establishes expectations, standards, and behaviors that demonstrate the objective of the

organization. “An organization norms and values aren’t formed through speeches but through

actions and team learning” (Jain, 2012, p.43). Collegiate football programs are a reflection of the

philosophies and leadership styles of the athletic director and head coach. For example, a new

athletic director may acquire an athletic department deficient in discipline or production issues.

Recognizing the personnel within the organization and what motivates them to perform to their

best ability is imperative before making decisions regarding changes. “Effective organizations

empower and engage their people, build their organization around teams, and develop human

capabilities at all levels” (Jain, 2012, p.51). They establish a clear vision and goals that everyone

understands.

Dealing with change in the culture. A great leader knows how to unite other cultures

and personalities. They strive to improve the atmosphere. Unfortunately, not all associates

embrace the culture change. They resist change due to personal attachment to the previous staff.

Those who do not feel embraced or attached depart or speak negatively regarding the

organization. Changing a culture requires team contribution to receive the purposed outcome.

Jain (2012) recommends applying the TQM (total quality management) approach in effort of

culture change, “This approach allows company leaders to meet with middle managers regarding

their personal efforts and try to establish a sense of excitement about approach work in a new

9

way” (p.48). Team building activities, expressing empathy, and open communication to solve

issues, displays appreciation for contribution to the organization. Displaying a sense of

appreciation increases culture strength, goals are common and everyone feels a part of the same

objective. “Culture appreciation, in which employees are recognized for their efforts, helps

employees understand how their contribution helps the company. Revisiting the core of the

company and what we believe in” (Jain, 2013, p.45). Dealing with culture change also brings

forth the opportunity to identify the culture type that is appropriate for success.

Culture types. Understanding the importance of culture is imperative to the success of

any organization. Tharp believes, "The key to using culture to improve performance lies in

matching culture or attributes to organizational goals" (Tharp, 2009, p.3) before an organization

can set a goal or vision for their organization. They must recognize the strength and weaknesses

of their culture, and opportunities to succeed. Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999)

formulated culture into 4 types: control, compete, collaborate, and create. The ability to apply the

ideal type to compliment personalities and work ethic will help the culture function at a high

level.

Control (Hierarchy). Held together through rankings, protocols, and policies. This style

is prominent among militaries. Similar to a pyramid scheme in which, “Effective leaders are

those that can organize, coordinate, and monitor people" (Tharp, 2009, p.3) Effective managers

within this style impose an autocratic leadership style and suffer from understanding

personalities of their colleagues. While organization and following protocols is imperative to

middle managers success. Excessive control of a situation or student athletes life can create

animosity and a sense of unattached from the organizations vision.

10

Compete (Market). This style would be parallel to a collegiate football program. The

compete culture is characterized by organization’s that place emphasis on a competitive nature

seeking positive results. Employees within this style have resilient work ethic and demand

perfection. "Competitiveness through emphasis on partnerships and positioning" (Tharp,

2009,p.3). Competing and representing an organization breeds unity and comradery. They

compare their product to others and strategize to become unique. Success breads opportunity for

expansion. The ability for middle managers to shift this competitive nature breeds within their

roles, demonstrates the significance of actions they take forth. For example, academic advisors

demanding and rewarding student athletes to compete amongst their peers or themselves for

progression of grades every semester, challenging students to partake in spring and summer

internships. Competition is natural with student athletes. However, the ability to apply it in

different aspects of life depends on middle managers ability to promote its value off the field.

Although too much competition can divide an organization through individualism.

Collaborate (Clan). Contrasting the competitive nature of the competitive style.

Collaboration emphasizes a positive, family atmosphere in which employees show empathy for

one another. "The organization places a premium on teamwork, participation, and consensus"

(Tharp, 2009, p.5). Associates seek to avoid conflict and place a premium on growing as a group.

This style would most likely be incorporated by a new administrator in an effort to win over the

players and avoid hostility.

Create (adhocracy). Innovation, technology, and entrepreneurs fall underneath the

creative type. Organization thrive upon "Their ability to quickly develop new services and

capture market share" (Tharp, 2009, p.4) Companies value success in producing cutting edge

projects that lead in innovation.

11

Frequent administration and coaching transitions have the ability to create culture

disorder. Every individual has a role that impacts the organization, not recognizing the

importance of culture within an organization or what style fits the organization forbids the

opportunity to create a vision or progress. Middle managers must remain intact to what has

brought success in their role. Collectively, middle managers can motivate and lead student

athletes to personal and organizational success.

Motivation

Discovering the spark that initiates motivation in a student athlete to perform an

assignment at an optimal level. Former United States President Eisenhower (1954) believed

motivation is, “The art of getting people to do what you want them to do because they want to do

it”(p.1). For coaches this task is rather simple when collegiate football players are participating

in an activity they are passionate about. However, middle managements positions can struggle

when the assignment is not intriguing for the athlete. Athletes began to question the purpose or

benefit of the assigned task. Altering this disbelief and instilling confidence begins with

motivation from middle managers. The ability to find a correlation with the athlete is and why

they strive to excel in their sport is instrumental. For example, does an individual participate

because they have passion for the craft, or are they seeking a reward as a result of success? This

section of motivation will discuss Self-Determination Theory, as well as intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation.

Self-determination theory. According to the theory of Self-determination developed by

Psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, the human spirit at optimal level is “striving to

learn, master new skills, and apply their talents responsibly.” (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p.68) But

reaching this state of mind can become an issue for individuals seeking alternative rewards.

12

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are factors that derive from the individual to perform an

objective. Extrinsic motivation, relates to motivations outside the desired passion. Motivation to

receive an external award or avoid punishment are the motives for participation. The motivation

lacks authenticity and the individual is seeking attention for his or herself. For example, the

professional athlete that participates in a multitude of community service events, and continually

shares it on social media. The athlete is seeking self-promotion and searching for recognition and

rewards of others. This individual lacks authenticity of the contribution and would rather receive

recognition and acknowledgments. Intrinsic motivation, is inherent satisfaction or the desire to

succeed. “Engaging in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the activity

itself” (Deci & Ryan,1985, p.20) . For example, a student that is in a relentless pursuit to gain a

competitive edge. Finds endless ways to improve, and cannot envision themselves away from

what they enjoy. According to Verlland & Losier, “Intrinsically motivated individuals are more

likely to choose to participate and work when extrinsic rewards and reinforcements are not

available” (1999, p.21). They participate in what they are passionate about, regardless of the

outcome.

Self Determination Theory and intrinsic motivation affect one another, Ryan and Decci

believe the three methods that motivate human participation are: “competence, relatedness or

connection, and autonomy”. The need for competence represents the ability to practice and

master a skill. The need for autonomy demonstrates the freedom of choice and ability to control

their destiny. The need for relatedness or connection is having a sense of belonging and

contribution. An individual that leaves one of the three absent yet still participates, lacks self-

determination.

13

Behavior of middle management. The behavior and interaction of middle management

positions among athletes is instrumental to motivation. How well a student feels connected to the

strength coach, academic advisor, or graduate assistant will determine their ability to motivate

the individual. According Amrose and Horn’s study intrinsic motivation theory, “High levels of

intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes who perceived their coaches to exhibit a

leadership style that emphasized training and instruction, high in democratic behavior and low in

autocratic behavior, and also provided frequent positive and informational-based feedbacks.”

(2000, p.21) Collegiate athletes do not view middle management positions as figures of

authority. Therefore, the approach one must take differs from a head coach or athletic director.

The ability to incorporate the 3 methods of the SDT theory are imperative from a middle

management perspective. “The athlete’s perceptions of their coach’s leadership style will

indirectly associate with the athletes intrinsic motivation” (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p.21).

Relatedness, the ability to share similar experiences can motivate an individual to compete and

contribute. For example, if a counselor can elaborate on their experiences as a student athlete and

the adversity they overcame can become a motivating factor. Expressing Competence, remaining

positive with all situations. Inserting confidence in the student athlete, that they are willing and

have the potential to complete the task. Once the student athlete is confident and can connect

with the teacher, autonomy, giving the individual a selection on what they believe will increase

their ability and potential.

Middle Management positions allocate more time to collegiate football players than a

head coach or administrator. Therefore, their ability to find a connection and motivate students

plays dividends. The majority of collegiate football players want to play football and shy away

from academics or nutrition. The ability to instill motivation breads discipline, commitment, and

14

strong habits. It is imperative for athletic administrators and coaches to recognize the middle

managers that surround their athletes and if their vision aligns with theirs.

Leadership Theories

Contingency theory. Contingency Theory is a leader match theory, with the objective of

matching leaders to appropriate situations (Fielder & Chemes, 1974). Leaders are evaluated on

how effective they can become within their environment. The term contingency, proposes how

effective the leader can connect with followers and fit the context. Administrator’s ability to

communicate with middle management is imperative to reaching success as an organization.

Understanding the personnel of middle management and applying their strengths where they are

needed assured that these individuals fit the context of the organizations vision. Although

Fiedler never applied his theory with athletic administrators or middle management positions, his

primary targets were military organizations. After analyzing what leaders fit best in the different

contexts, Fielder had the ability to apply leaders in position to be successful.

Leadership styles are designated as task motivated or relationship motivated (Fielder &

Chemes, 1974). One who is Task-motivated strives to achieve a goal, whereas relationship

motivated leader’s priority is to develop an interpersonal relationship with their followers.

Unlike a head coach or athletic director that may be task motivated to win a championship and

retain their position. Middle managers are relationship motivated, finding endless opportunities

to assist athletes and build a rapport. They are not extrinsically motivated, in search of a reward.

To measure style of leaders, Fielder created the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale.

Leaders with high scores were defined as relationship motivated while those with low scores

were described as task motivated. Contingency theory categorizes the situation of leaders into

15

three factors: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. “Leader-member

relations comprises of the group atmosphere, confidence, responsive attitudes of followers, and

attraction that is drawn to the leader” (Fielder & Chemes, 1974, p.124). This is determined by

the comfort level of players approaching middle managers for support and guidance. The ability

to sense the demand and perfection, or do they despise meeting with middle managers and feel

disconnected? The second situational variable, task structure, elaborates on effective

communication regarding the assigned task. Middle managers ability to exert confidence with

concise instructions demonstrate control of the situation. For example, a strength coach that

explains the training structure for the team before winter workouts instructs attire to be worn,

lifting schedule, and expectations. It demonstrates discipline, attention to detail, and control of

the assignment.

The third factor, position power, is the amount of authority a leader has to reward or

punish followers (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974). According to Fielder, “Position power is strong if a

person has the authority to hire or fire; power is weak if a person does not have authority to do

these things” (125). Disciplinary actions may not be their priority, but they are still a position of

authority for student athletes. Middle managers must also remain intact to their leadership

philosophy and role. They may not have the ability to select what players throw, catch or run the

ball on game days. But they can dictate who is eligible to participate due to academic eligibility,

physical rehabilitation, strength and conditioning on the field. Middle managers involvement of

the student athlete is vital to the contribution of an organization.

In measuring the LPC score through the three variables, one is able to predict how

effective the leader is in a particular setting. Contingency Theory places a strong emphasis on

matching leaders that fit a specific situation. All middle managers exhibit different leadership

16

styles, hence this theory can assist middle managers to pair student athletes with the ideal leaders

to build a connection. Contingency theory can also be applied to expose a middle manager that is

ineffective in a selected position. Middle managers may display string work habits, but

misplaced within the organization that does not exhibit their leadership strengths. Applying and

understanding middle management strengths can determine where they can be repositioned to

impact an organization.

Situational approach. Widely used in the realms of leadership due to its effectiveness,

Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed the Situational Approach (1969). According to

Blanchard, effective leaders are those who can recognize what employees need and then adapt

their own style to meet those needs. When evaluating the situation, one must consider the

competence, skill set, and confidence of those the leader will be interacting with. This then

allows the leader to select an approach that is appropriate for the situation. The Situational

approach is split into four leadership styles: Delegating, Supportive, Coaching, and Directing.

Every style consists of the behavior pattern used in an attempt to influence another. It includes

Directive (task) behaviors and supportive (relationship) behaviors (Blanchard, 1985). Directive

(task) behavior, often one way communication, has the ability to establish goals and time lines.

Supportive (relationship) behaviors engage in two-way communication that seeks to address

issues and find a resolution together.

Directing style. This style is high directive and low in support. In this style, the leader

focuses on goal achievement by giving precise instructions and refraining from support during

the process, but maintains close supervision. Middle managers that have gained trust with their

student athletes apply this theory due to previous established trust or assignments. Applying this

type can assist with identification of student athletes who demand support to overcome adversity,

17

or others that lack trust in accomplishing an assignment. Structure demands more attention than

support with this style.

Coaching style. The second style, coaching, is high directive and high behavior support.

This style requires middle managers to focus on achieving personal goals as well as the goals of

their followers. Middle managers provide encouragement by involving him or herself as part of

the common vision. However, this style still requires the leader to make the final decision. For

example, graduate assistant coaches may have a loose coaching style with the players and allow

them to give input periodically, but if his team needs to convert on a fourth down to win the

game, his confidence in making the decision to make the call lies within his power.

Supporting style. The supporting style requires the leader to take a high supportive and

low directive behavior. This approach allows the leader to use supportive tactics such as praise,

request for input, or feedback to accomplish a task. This style is often seen with a head coach

that has confidence in his coaching staff. The head coach still has day-to-day control, but he does

not micromanage everything they do or sit in every meeting seeking to disrupt the coach. The

supporting style allows coaches to feel confident to perform to their best ability, but when an

executive decision is needed the head coach will not hesitate to handle the situation.

Delegating style. The last style is the low supportive-low directive style, or delegating

approach. This style positions middle managers to meet with student athletes to find a common

goal, thus allowing the athlete to complete the task and take full responsibility for their actions.

By this stage a middle manager has formed an influential relationship. He or she has enough

confidence for the student athlete to take full responsibility of their players make mistakes.

18

The situational approach can be applied at different levels in an organization. It can

apply to an athletic director meeting with administrators. A head coach discussing goals with

assistants of the staff, or perhaps middle managers overseeing a student athlete’s assignment.

Situational leadership allows middle managers to identify how well a student athlete can adapt

and develop to a specific style. The common correlations of leadership theories discussed in this

section deal with the ability to apply the appropriate leadership style regarding the situation.

Recognition of what motivates student athletes establishes a common connection, and increases

credibility for middle managers.

19

Reflection

The literature review revealed the importance and contribution middle management

positions within a collegiate football program. Almost always unseen from external sources (i.e.

media, public, fans) middle managers spend the more time throughout the year with college

football players then coaches or administrators. However, understanding the approach every

middle manager selects dictates the success or failure to connect with their athletes. This study

seeks to address middle managers leadership styles and contribution to the culture of an

organization. With limited research and literature in regards to middle managers in collegiate

football programs. My study will explore unanswered questions within this field. In particular,

the following questions will be addressed:

RQ1: What is the importance of establishing a culture that aligns with the vision of the

organization?

RQ2: Do leadership styles differ with middle managers positions? If, so how do they adapt to

different situations and personnel?

RQ3: Do middle managers adapt their leadership style off the philosophy of the head coach, or

do they incorporate their personal style?

By answering these questions, I aspire to inform and understand middle management leadership

styles that are most effective regarding the situation.

20

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to identify leadership and motivational styles of middle

management positions in Division 1 BCS (Bowl Championship Series) football programs.

Athletic directors and head coaches receive accolades for success and criticism for failure, but

infrequently appreciated are middle management positions within a football program. Strength

coaches, athletic trainers, equipment managers, academic advisors, graduate assistants, and

assistant coaches are several positions that contribute to the overall success of a football

program. But seldom taken into account when establishing a program is hanging the culture with

new administration. The ability to communicate and exert leadership is imperative for student

athlete’s feedback and contribution. This study will examine leadership styles and approaches of

middle management roles that position themselves for success.

Participants

Participants include 10 full time staff members of the University of Southern California

athletic department that contribute to the football program (1 female 9 male). Each participant is

required to have 3 or more years of experience in their current position or in the realm of

collegiate athletics.

Participant #1 Head Athletic Trainer (Russ Rumano) . 46 years old. Male. White. 23 years of

experience providing health care to USC student athletes.

Participant #2 Academic Learning Specialist. 53 years old. Female. White. 18 years of

experience assisting student athletes with learning disabilities.

Participant #3. Assistant Head coach. 40 years old. Male. Samoan. 15 years coaching at multiple

division one universities.

21

Participant #4 Football Equipment Coordinator. 49 years old. Male. Latino. 15 years of

experience.

Participant #5 Football Equipment Coordinator. 52 years old. Male. Black. 12 years of

experiences within football equipment.

Participant #6 Assistant Athletic Trainer. 38 years old. Male. Latino. 11 years of experience

providing health care to USC student athletes.

Participant #7 Head Strength and Conditioning coach. 38 years old. Male. White. 11 years of

experience in collegiate strength and conditioning working in collegiate athletics.

Participant #8 Assistant Strength and conditioning coach. 33 years old. Male. Samoan. 7 years of

experience in collegiate athletics, former division one athlete.

Participant #9 Academic Advisor. 35 years old. Male. Latino. 5 years of experience assisting

student athlete’s academic progress, time management, class schedule.

Participant #10 Graduate Assistant Coach. 29 years old. Black. Male. 5 years of experience

coaching at the collegiate level.

Procedure

All interviews will be conducted in the participants working space (John Mckay athletic

facility). A setting that the participant is comfortable in is imperative to comfort level and the

opportunity to disclose personal information. Participants will be interviewed in order of their

work experience with student athletes in collegiate athletics (most to least).

Measurements

22

Every interview will be conducted for 40-45 minutes based on the questions I have

created. Interviews have been pre-arranged in the office or work setting of the participant. The

interview will be audio recorded with the consent of the participant to remain confidential. A

manual transcript will precede the interview to further investigate similarities and differences of

leadership approaches, styles, and modifications to their approach regarding administration

changes. Sample question, Organizational culture is imperative to the success of middle

managers. Do you ever evaluate the strength of your culture in regards to communication and

holding a common vision with your colleagues? Measurements of similarities and differences

within leadership styles and positions will also be recorded to perceive what has been most

effective.

23

Discussion

The initial purpose of this study was to evaluate middle management positions

encountering executive (head coach) of strategies or theories they exercised or failed to exert to

improve the culture of the program. Upon concluding and transcribing the data, the findings were

evident. Every participant evaluated the culture of their organization on a daily or weekly basis,

and recognized that the executive of the program dictates the culture and objectives. 80% of the

participants were involved with the coaching transition within the past two years and recognized

the importance of maintaining a strong culture throughout the change. Participants with vast

middle management experience shared examples of colleagues that resisted change to new

executives due to ambiguity with the previous staff. These individuals were accustomed to their

personal beliefs and refrained from adapting to the new culture. Current middle managers

supported Jain’s theory that, “Effective organizations empower and engage their people, and

develop human capabilities at all levels” (Jain, 2012, p.51). Participants confirmed that the

current executive seeks to incorporate all levels of the organization in functions and activities.

The second purpose of this study was to discern middle manager’s approach in building

rapport and trust with student athletes. Initially the notion before the interview was that middle

managers lead with one style, demanding the student athlete follow suit. Resistance to follow

would present disciplinary action or removal from the program. After all, American football is an

alpha male sport and demonstrating empathy could present a glimpse of weakness. This notion

was debunked by every participant interviewed. Middle managers consistently explained that

every student athlete possesses a unique learning style and to remain effective, it is the duty of

the middle manager to find it and work steadily to assist the student athlete and build rapport.

Approaching every student athlete with a unique style further supports Blanchard and Hersey’s

24

(1969) situational approach. In this study, the directing and coaching styles were most effective

with middle managers and student athletes. However, participants did agree that if an executive

enforced policies such as missing athletic rehabilitation, arriving late to tutoring or weight lifting,

they intern would enforce the policy without hesitation.

Throughout this research project the findings became transparent after transcribing five

interviews. Experienced middle managers that have encountered multiple executive changes

learned to evaluate and adapt to the culture, and present a unique leadership style with student

athletes. Middle managers with limited experience consistently referenced their mentors or

colleagues as references that preached the exact message as advice to survive in the profession.

The three common finding are elaborated upon in the following section.

Findings and Conclusions

Recognizing Culture Strength

The first major finding among upon transcribing the data was astonishing. All

interviewees cited the importance of establishing and maintaining a strong culture in the

workplace for the program to achieve success. A recently hired academic advisor with the

football department, and a decade of experience in collegiate athletics, recognized how and

where to investigate the strength of the culture.

“I think it starts with the interview process, if you are going to take a new job you have to

ask questions about the culture.”

Three head football coaches in one season can bring destruction to middle managers.

Demands and different leadership styles can present confusion. However, even when presented

with change, 75% of interviewees stated that they evaluate their culture daily.

25

“I evaluate the culture every day. I am in a good position to see the executive level, while

also working with the lower echelon (graduate assistants, student assistants). In a middle

management position you are viewed from both perspectives”.

Interviewees are competent of culture strength and recognize they are in a strong culture.

One academic counselor with over twenty years of experience within the department stated,

“I wouldn’t be here if I didn’t feel that the communication was open I wouldn’t be

successful in my job. You can’t work in isolation in this job.”

Another academic counselor with more than five years in the department agrees to the

culture strength in the department.

“The culture here is strong. Everyone knows why they are here and what they are trying to

accomplish. You don’t always have to like each other, but you have to be able to

communicate and work together from eight to five.”

Displaying a sense of appreciation increases culture strength, goals are common and

everyone feels a part of the same objective. “Culture appreciation, in which employees are

recognized for their efforts, helps employees understand how their contribution helps the

company. Revisiting the core of the company and what we believe in” (Jain, 2013, p.45).

Dealing with culture change also brings forth the opportunity to identify the culture type that is

appropriate for success. For one interviewee that has been a part of four head coaching changes

recognizing the leadership style of the head coach is critical.

“When I first started working in academic services, Coach Carroll was here, and I just

remember him coming down and speaking with the counselors, learning specialists, and

trying to help the students. As a tutor, I was amused that the guy upstairs making all this

money, on tv, yet he is coming downstairs with us”.

26

Accepting and Adapting to new Executives

Within the second theme, every participant agreed that refraining to adapt to a newly

appointed executive would lead to destruction.

“You will lose in this business if you are not on the same page with the head coach.”

Responses supporting the head coach through a transition became redundant regardless of

experience.

“The football coach is going to reflect the identity of the head coach. It goes all the way to

how you treat people in athletic medicine, what the strength and conditioning focus will be,

what the expectations are for the video department. It is definitely a head coach centric

type of culture.”

An academic counselor with more than a decade of experience in the profession has been

a part of a demanding leadership style in the past and could see the difference with the current

head coach.

“Two coaches I worked for, it was a dictatorship. Whatever they said needed to get done.

From n the president all the way down they listened to the coach. As a middle manager you

can’t go against that or you are going to get your head cut off. You better have an answer

ready for that individual or you will be in trouble.”

Interviewees consistently stated that they recognize who the leader is and how their role

as a middle manager is to follow the direction of that individual.

“If you are not following the role of the leader. You are going to cause disruption within

your organization. Regardless if you agree or disagree.”

27

Middle managers within the academic department build a strong rapport with student’s

athletes, but when a new head coach presents a different discipline policy. Academic advisors are

hasty to inform the players,

“I explain to the players, there is a new sheriff in town and these are the rules. If I don’t

follow what the coach wants, I am sabotaging him, and if I sabotage him how can I expect

for him to support me?”

Interviewees were persistent to address that within the profession of college football,

remaining ambiguity to the previous staff will become exposed if you are unable to adapt to the

vision of the new head coach,

“You have to adjust. The head coach is always going to rule!”

One individual with over 20 years of athletic medicine experience and seven head

football coaching changes stated,

“The head coach drives the operation, so you need to have an understanding of his needs

and demands. There needs to be transparency with everything that you do because if not,

everyone has their own agenda”

Every athlete requires a unique approach

Discovering the spark that initiates motivation in a student athlete to perform an

assignment at an optimal level can present issues. For coaches this task is rather simple when

collegiate football players are participating in an activity they are passionate about. However,

middle managements positions can struggle when the assignment is not intriguing for the athlete.

Athletes began to question the purpose or benefit of the assigned task.

The last theme was the most intriguing of the interview process. Football is an alpha male

sport, yet all participants believe consistency with the student athlete and applying the correct

28

leadership with regards to the athlete is instrumental in building rapport and a relationship of

trust. Interviewees repeatedly stated that you have to take a different approach with every single

student athlete,

“You have to play the hat with whoever you are with, you have to play the hat. I put on the

hat of the ethnicity group I am with.”

As a minority strength and conditioning coach, the ability to relate to the different cultures

of the team was crucial to his leadership success. The assumption of strength coaches

maintaining a rugged, tough nose style was trumped when one strength coach stated,

“I try to be consistent. Some might see it as dull or rigid. It does take time to figure out

players coach ability and what they respond to. You can’t just be hard on every kid because

you will turn kids away but you can’t be too soft because then they take advantage of it and

they don’t get better. Some of it is trial and error or just asking guys like “What do you

respond to?” I can vividly remember asking one of our players, “What do you respond to?”

Do you like to be coached hard? This player said, “I like positive reinforcement. I had to

explain that at times you may be wrong and you just have to understand that it’s not a

personal attack but whatever it is and whoever is trying to get you better, it can’t just be,

good job buddy. So I will come back and say, “That was bad, you can do it better and this

is how you can do it better” If you just give players, “that sucked, that’s terrible, don’t do it

like that” They don’t know how t o fix it. If explain then they will get it.

The same philosophy transferred along the academic department as well, one counselor

stated,

“You can’t use the same template on everybody because everyone has a different learning

style and different mode of being.”

29

Widely used in the realms of leadership due to its effectiveness, Blanchard and Hersey

(1969) developed the Situational Approach. They state that effective leaders are those who can

recognize what employees need and then adapt their own style to meet those needs. When

evaluating the situation, one must consider the competence, skill set, and confidence of those the

leader will be interacting with. This then allows the leader to select an approach that is

appropriate for the situation.

Several of Blanchard and Hersey’ styles that were demonstrated for this situation are the

coaching, directing, and supporting style. The coaching style requires middle managers to focus

on achieving personal goals as well as the goals of their followers. Middle managers provide

encouragement by involving him or herself as part of the common vision. One strength coach

stated,

“You can’t scream and cuss at every kid all the time because then you are going to lose the

relationship, and relationships are huge for us.”

The directing style is high directive and low in support. In this style, the leader focuses on

goal achievement by giving precise instructions and refraining from support during the process,

but maintains close supervision. Middle managers that have gained trust with their student

athletes apply this theory due to previous established trust or assignments. Applying this type can

assist with identification of student athletes who demand support to overcome adversity, or

others that lack trust in accomplishing an assignment. Structure demands more attention than

support with this style.

“I’m supportive and empathetic. I recognize both sides. The physical and mental, but

sometimes people need to be pushed. Talk is cheap and you have to show them what they

are able to do because it builds confidence”

30

The supporting style requires the leader to take a high supportive and low directive

behavior. This approach allows the leader to use supportive tactics such as praise, request for

input, or feedback to accomplish a task.

“You can’t just read someone the playbook or the training card because to some guys it's a

foreign language. I have asked players, ‘How do you learn?’ People are visual learners,

athletes should be able to mimic you.”

Limitations

Although more than half of middle managers at this site (66%) contributed to the study,

the inability to interview all middle managers within the department presents the initial and

apparent limitation of the study. A larger sample, perhaps one that included 100% participation

may have yielded more diverse results. Interviewing all middle managers in the organization

could have skewed or further supported the study. With scarce academic research related to

middle managers in collegiate athletics, it is difficult to compare and contrast this research with

other organizations. Also, not testing individuals outside of collegiate athletics in other

professions presents a visible limitation.

Recommendations

The purpose of this study was for personal research with the opportunity to analyze a

position of immense influence within a collegiate athletic football department. The USC football

department demonstrated a strong culture in which middle managers applied leadership styles

that were applicable to gaining success. The first recommendation provides the opportunity for

middle managers to interact and discuss leadership styles they find successful with common

student athletes. By incorporating all middle managers through a monthly meeting. They can

31

discuss leadership and motivational issues or success examples with their student athletes. This

allows an academic advisor to compare their style with another middle manager to achieve

overall success with amongst all middle managers. The second recommendation involves middle

managers and senior leadership. Conducting a bi-weekly meeting with middle managers to

inform them of discussions involving senior and executive management. At times, middle

managers experience disengagement when an event occurs or when presented with a question

that was addressed in an executive meeting in which an invitation was not extended. For

example, the head strength coach could address issues the athletic director spoke upon in a

senior/executive meeting, therefore benefiting middle managers awareness if they are exposed or

encounter questions within the subject. The ability to flow communication down to middle

managers will keep them in the loop and remove a sense of disengagement.

Areas of Future Research

Looking forward, further research of middle managers not only in collegiate football, but

other collegiate sports could elevate this topic as importance for other athletic departments. For

example, within a prominent collegiate basketball or football team could examine culture and

leadership styles of middle managers and how effective they are to the organization.

Experiencing executive changes and how the new leadership style is spread presents a further

opportunity for research. Shying away from collegiate athletics. Corporate companies and

organizations that include a middle management workforce that is detrimental to their success

presents would also present an area for further research. Appling a similar study in a corporate

setting would examine the roles of middle managers, communication flow from executives, and

a basis to compare middle managers in a result oriented business.

32

References

Amorose, A. J., & Horn, T. S. (2000). Intrinsic motivation: Relationships with collegiate

athletes’ gender, scholarship status, and perceptions of their coaches behavior. Journal of

Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 63–84.

Berkowitz, S. (2014, June 3). Nick Saban to make $6.9 million as part of new contract. Retrieved

from http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2014/06/03/nick-saban-alabama-c

ontract-extension-assistant-coaches/9914115/

Blanchard, K.H., Zigarmi, P., and, Zigarami, D. (1985) Leadership and the One Minute

Manager: Increasing Effectiveness Through Situational Leadership. New York: William Morrow

Berkowitz, S. (2014, January 30). University of Texas athletics posts record revenue, expenses.

Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/college/2014/01/30/university-of-t

exas-longhorns-athletics-revenue-expenses/5062161/

Cameron, Kim S. and Quinn, Robert E. (1999), Diagnosing and Changing Organizational

Culture. New York: Addison-Wesley.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human

behavior.NewYork: Plenum.

Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1974). Leadership and effective management. Glenview, IL:

Scott, Foresman.

Eisenhower Presidential Library. (1954, May 12). Retrieved from

http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/ all_about_ike/quotes.htmldfd

33

Fischer-Baum, R. (2013, September 9). Is Your State's Highest-Paid Employee A Coach? (

Probably). Retrieved from http://deadspin.com/infographic-is-your-states-highest-paid-e

mployee-a-co-489635228

Henderson, J. (2011, May 5). $3 billion TV deal will increase Pac-12's profile - The Denver Post.

Retrieved from http://www.denverpost.com/ci_17995959

Humphreys, B. R., & Mondello, M. (2007). Intercollegiate athletic success and donations at

NCAA Division I institutions. Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), 265.

Jain, A. K., & Jain, S. (2013). Understanding Organizational Culture and Leadership -Enhance

Efficiency and Productivity. Pranjana, 16(2), 43-53. Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/1561080789?accountid=14749

Kersey, J. (2013, August 28). College football: What they're saying about the SEC's football c

ulture | News OK. Retrieved from http://newsok.com/college-football-what-theyre-s

aying-about-the-secs-football-culture/article/3875463?custom_click=rss

Keteyian, A. (2012, November 18). Has college football become a campus commodity? - CBS

News. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/has-college-football-become-a-

campus-commodity/

Lavigne, P. (2014, May 1). Sports programs at nation's top public colleges thrived during

economic downturn, earning record revenues - ESPN. Retrieved from

http://espn.go.com/espn/otl/story/_/id/10851446/sports-programs-nation-top-public-

colleges-thrived-economic-downturn-earning-record-revenues\

34

Pappano, L. (2012, May 20). How Big-Time Sports Ate College Life - NYTimes.com. Retrieved

from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/education/edlife/how-big-time-sports-ate-

college-life.html?pagewanted=all

Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Grolnick, W. S. (1995). Autonomy, relatedness, and the self: Their

relation to development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D, J. Cohen (Eds.),

Developmental psychopathology: Theoo' and methods (pp. 618-655). New York: Wiley.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-

dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.),Handbook of self-

determination research (pp. 3–33).Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.

Tharp, B. (2009). Defining “Culture” and “Organizational Culture”: From Anthropology to the

Office. e.g. Jet Powered Motors. e.g. 32 (e.g. 2), pp.2

Tharp, B. (2009),“Four Organizational Culture Types,” White Paper,

Haworth – Organizational Culture, April, www.haworth.com/en

us/Knowledge/Workplace-Library/Documents/Four-Organizational-Culture-Types_6.pdf,

1–6

Vallerand, R. J., & Losier, G. F. (1999). An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation in sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 142–169

Wallace, M., & Weese, W.J. (1995). Leadership, organizational culture, and job satisfaction

in Canadian YMCA organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 9,182-193.

Wieberg, S. (2012, May 5). Texas athletics overwhelm rivals in revenue and spending

USATODAY.com. Retrieved from

35

http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/college/story/2012-05-15/texas-athletics-

spending-revenue/54960210/1

36

Appendix A

Intro:

Thank you for taking the time to contribute to my research on middle managers in college

football. The data I collect from all 10 participants will allow me to discuss differences in

leadership styles among middle managers. The questions I have created will discuss

organizational culture, leadership, and middle management. At any time if you do not feel

comfortable with a question please inform me and we can proceed in the interview. I would like

to ask for your consent to record the following interview with the assurance that your study data

will remain confidential.

Short Bio and introduction on the study and myself. I will then allow the participant to speak on

their background, childhood, and participation in sports. (5 minutes)

- Introduction of your undergraduate background, what you studied, and best career advice

that was advised to you? (2 minutes)

- Did you ever envision yourself working in collegiate athletics? Do you enjoy this sector?

(1 minutes; 3minutes total)

- Who has been the most inspiring person or mentor in your profession and can you share

some of the advice they have shared with you to help you excel? Do you emulate this or

these individual(s) in any ways? (2 minutes; 5 minutes total)

- How familiar are you with middle management positions? - Define hierarchy of an Org

(2 minutes; 7 minutes total)

37

- Organizational culture is imperative to the success of middle managers. Culture is “The

“glue” that holds an organization together and for others, the “compass” that provides

directions” How often do you evaluate the strength of your culture – in regards to

common goals with colleagues, open communication with administrators, understanding

what the department is trying to accomplish. (3 minutes; 10 minutes total)

- Can you give me an example of a weak or strong culture you have been apart of in your

profession? (3 minutes; 13 minutes total)

Weak: Did these issues derive from not having a common vision from the top?

Strong: Was there a strong influence that started from the top that influenced the culture?

- Have you ever been a part of an administration change (New Job, New Head Coach, New

AD) Does an administration change alter your leadership style to emulate the culture

change?

FU – How do you deal with Ambiguity or Loyalties to the previous staff? Ambiguity?

(3 minutes; 16 minutes total)

- On a scale of 1-10 with 10 being very important. What would you rate your current

middle management position as a contribution to the football program and why?

(2 minutes: 18 minutes)

- Do you believe your work goes undervalued at times? After all, your position holds value

to player’s performance on the field. For example, when everything is well nobody seeks

the issue (2 minutes; 20 minutes)

38

- Every athlete is raised in a different household regarding morals and ethics. There are

countless leadership theories that apply leadership styles to the appropriate situation. Do

you take a different approach with every athlete or do you believe that there is only one

way to lead? (2 minutes; 25 minutes)

- How do you motivate the student athletes to give the same effort in the classroom,

training room, etc. that they apply on the football field? (2 minutes; 23 minutes)

- What progression in regards to leadership, organization, or structure would you want to

witness with middle managers in college football? Improvement in Communication,

Open communication? (3 minutes; 37 minutes)

- As a middle manager, what motivates you to succeed and how much does the culture you

are immersed assist your motivation?

- As a middle manager, what are your aspirations within your profession?

Conclude Interview

Participant name, this concludes my interview section of my research. Are there any questions

you have for me or the regarding the research? If not, I will thank the participant again and

conclude the interview.