The current state and challenges of Vocational Education and …nord-vet.dk/indhold/uploads/report1b_fi.pdf · 2015-01-28 · The current state and challenges of Vocational Education

Nord-VET – The future of VET in the Nordic Countries

The current state and challenges of Vocational Education and Training in Finland

Marja-Leena Stenström and Maarit VirolainenFinnish Institute for Educational ResearchUniversity of Jyväskylä

Research report published 2014 by Nord-VET – The future of Vocational Education in the Nordic countries

A research project supported by the NordForsk programme “Education for Tomorrow”

Department of Psychology & Educational StudiesRoskilde University, Postbox 260, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark

Homepage: http://nord-vet.dk /© Copyright: the author and Nord-VET

ISBN: 978-87-7349-882-8

Nord-VET – The future of Vocational Education in the Nordic countries

The purpose of the Nordic research project, Nord-VET, is to generate new knowledge on the strengths and weaknesses of the different models of vocational education and training (VET) at upper secondary level in the four Nordic countries. This research is expected to strengthen the knowledge base required for developing VET for the future.

The main purpose of this project is to shed light on the different Nordic ways of handling the key dilemma of providing double access to the labour market and to higher education in voca-tional education. More specifically it seeks to determine how the different ways of handling this dilemma have an impact on social equality, inclusion and the esteem of vocational education.

The project is publishing three sets of country studies on Finland, Denmark, Norway and Swe-den. The first set of reports is on the historical emergence of vocational education (VET) in the four countries. The second set of reports is on the current challenges for VET in the four Nordic countries. This is the Danish report. The third report to be published February 2015 is on innovations in VET.

For more information visit the homepage: www.nord-vet.dk

Content

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 7

1. Current institutional architecture and forms of governance of vocational education and training in Finland .......................................................................................................... 8

1.1 Education system ................................................................................................................ 8 1.2 The legal framework: Central institutions, stakeholders and governance of VET ............. 9 1.3 Financing of Finnish VET ................................................................................................ 13

2. The main structure of the VET programmes ..................................................................... 16 2.1 VET programmes .............................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Types of VET .................................................................................................................... 18 2.3 Apprenticeship training .................................................................................................... 22

3. Transition into VET and completion of VET programmes .............................................. 28

4. Enhancing links between VET and working life ............................................................... 32

5. Transition from VET to the labour market ....................................................................... 36

6. Access to higher education ................................................................................................... 41

7. The esteem and position of VET ......................................................................................... 47

8. Socially inclusive VET and dropouts .................................................................................. 51

9. Challenges of Finnish VET .................................................................................................. 57

References ................................................................................................................................... 59

Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................. 70

Appendix 2 .................................................................................................................................. 72

Appendix 3 .................................................................................................................................. 76

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List of figuresFigure 1. Formal education in Finland ........................................................................................... 9Figure 2. Organisation of the educational programme ................................................................ 10Figure 3. Example of the structure of VQ in social and health care, 120 cr ................................ 17Figure 4. The number of apprentices in Finland 1997-2013........................................................ 26Figure 5. Direct transition to further studies of graduates of the 9th grade of comprehensive

school 2005-2012 .................................................................................................................... 28Figure 6. New students in vocational education (curriculum-based) by field of education and

gender in 2013 ........................................................................................................................ 30Figure 7. VET graduates’ socio-economic status in the labour market five years after starting

their studies (3-years programme) in 2009 by gender ............................................................ 40Figure 8. VET graduates’ socio-economic status five years after starting their studies with

respect to previous educational background ........................................................................... 40Figure 9. VET graduates’ continuation to UAS by previous education ....................................... 44Figure 10. VET graduates’ continuation to UAS by parents’ educational background ............... 44Figure 11. Immediate continuation of studies in upper secondary education in 2000-2012 in

Finland .................................................................................................................................... 48Figure 12. New students in education leading to a qualification or degree by sector of

education and gender in 2012 ................................................................................................. 50Figure 13. Progress of studies by field in VET ............................................................................ 54Figure 14. VET students’ careers by gender ................................................................................ 55Figure 15. VET students’ employment status five years after they started their studies ............. 56

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List of tablesTable 1. Current Expenditure on Regular Education System by Type of

Expenditure 1995–2012 .......................................................................................................... 13Table 2. Real Development of Educational Institutions’ Operational Costs/Students by Sector

in 1995-2012 ........................................................................................................................... 15Table 3. Number of VET Students by Type of Education in 2007 and 2010 ............................... 19Table 4. VET Students by Type of Education in 2013 ................................................................. 19Table 5. Types of IVET Programmes ........................................................................................... 21Table 6. Apprenticeship Training in Finland 2005-2012 ............................................................. 24Table 7. The Number of Graduates from Apprenticeship Training Compared to the Number of

All Graduates from VET in Finland in 2000-2012 ................................................................. 25Table 8. Age of the New Students in the Curriculum-Based VET Programmes in 2013 ............ 30Table 9. Pass Rates by Sector of Education in 2012 .................................................................... 31Table 10. Main Differences Between On-the-job Learning and Practical Training in

Initial VET .............................................................................................................................. 33Table 11. Employment of Graduates One Year After Graduation by Level of Education

in 2007-2012 ........................................................................................................................... 36Table 12. Employment of VET Graduates One Year After Graduation in 2007-2012 ................ 37Table 13. Employment of Graduates One Year After Graduation by Field of VET in 2012 ....... 38Table 14. VET Graduates’ Socio-Economic Status by Graduate Field Five Years After Starting

Their Studies by Study Field .................................................................................................. 39Table 15. VET Graduates’ Continuation to UAS by Field of Education .................................... 45Table 16. Attraction of the Upper Secondary Education (Primary Applicants/Study Places) in

2008-2013 ............................................................................................................................... 49Table 17. New VET Students by Study Fields in 2013................................................................ 50Table 18. Discontinuation of Education in Upper Secondary General, Vocational, Polytechnic

and University Education in Academic Years 2000/2001-2011/2012 .................................... 52Table 19. Discontinuation of VET Students by Year and Study Field ......................................... 52Table 20. Progress of VET Studies by the Different Finnish Regions ......................................... 53

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Introduction

In the Finnish educational system, there has been a long tradition that has underlined equal oppor-tunities for participation in education. The establishment of a common nine-year basic education system started nation-wide at the end of the 1960s and this comprehensive education stabilised in the 1970s (Antikainen, 2007; Laukia, 2013). It created a firm basis for further expansion of education at both the upper secondary and tertiary level. Today, Finnish education and science policy stresses quality, efficiency, equity and internationalism. The priorities in educational devel-opment are to raise the level of education among the population and the labour force; to improve the efficiency of the education system; to prevent children’s and young people’s exclusion; and to enlarge adults’ opportunities in education and training (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012a).

The focus of this research report is the development of Finnish initial vocational education and training (VET) during the last two decades. The goal of initial vocational education and training is to provide solid vocational knowledge and skills, which enable students to move into working life. In addition, the aim of VET is to support lifelong learning and to improve the skills of the work force (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014b). Lifelong learning has become increasingly important and its promotion is seen as instrumental in improving and maintaining people’s employability (Hake, 1999). Accordingly, vocational education and training is expected to prepare students for an unknown future based on current knowledge. At present, being employ-able is associated with being a generally knowledgeable and educated person (Bowden & Marton, 2004; Nilsson & Nyström, 2013).

The aim of this research report is several-fold. First, it describes developments in Finnish initial vocational education and training (VET) during the last twenty years, from the 1990s to the present day. Second, it aims to analyse and reflect on the challenges that have emerged in relation to the described developments in vocational education in Finland. Furthermore, the aim of the descriptions and discussion is to create a basis for Nordic comparison within the Nord-VET project, and also to foster international comparison more generally.1 The development of the educational system in general and the changes in the societal environment have both effected vocational education and its outcomes in a way that demands attention and would benefit from Nordic comparison.

1 This research report continues the analysis and description of Finnish VET completed in the previous, more his-torically oriented report prepared for the Nord-VET project. The report, The history of Finnish vocational ed-ucation and training, by the same authors, is available at: http://nord-vet.dk/indhold/uploads/History-of-Finn-ish-VET-29062014final.pdf.

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1. Current institutional architecture and forms of governance of vocational education and training in Finland

The aim of this section is to provide a compact introduction to the institutional architecture of Finnish VET as a part of the education system. First, the present education system is described in general in order to put Finnish VET in context. Second, the central institutions, stakeholders and governance of VET are presented. Third, the financing of Finnish VET is described and recent changes in it are discussed.

1.1 Education system

The structure of the Finnish education system is built upon basic education (Figure 1). Basic education, which is compulsory education for all Finnish citizens, is a free nine-year education provided in comprehensive schools. Completing the basic education syllabus leads to eligibility for all upper secondary level (post compulsory level) education. Upper secondary education is divided into general education and vocational education and training, as shown in Figure 1. Gen-eral upper secondary schools provide a three-year general education programme, which leads to the national matriculation examination.2 Vocational upper secondary schools (initial vocational education) also provide three-year study programmes, and these lead to vocational qualifications. Altogether, there are 119 vocational study programmes leading to 53 different vocational qualifi-cations confirmed by the Ministry of Education and Culture. Vocational education and training is intended both for young people and for adults already active in working life. A vocational qual-ification gives general eligibility for polytechnic (university of applied sciences) and university studies. Accordingly, vocational qualifications in Finland give access to both the labour market and tertiary education. The opportunity to conclude vocational education that affords eligibility to higher education is a specific characteristic that differentiates Finnish VET from that of other Nordic countries, except for Sweden.

Students in general upper secondary schools also have the option of studying for both a voca-tional qualification and the matriculation examination (a double qualification) at the same time. Both forms provide eligibility for further studies at polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) and universities. Adult education and training is available at all levels (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012a).

2 The general upper secondary curriculum builds on the basic education syllabus. The scope of the general upper secondary school syllabus is 3 years, and it should be completed within a maximum of 4 years, unless a student is granted a continuation of the completion period for a legitimate reason. At the end of general upper secondary education, students usually participate in the national matriculation examination. It provides general eligibility for higher education, but does not qualify students for any occupation (see Finnish National Board of Education, 2003).

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Figure 1. Formal education in Finland (adapted from http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Koulutus/koulutusjaerjestelmae/?lang=en)

1.2 The legal framework: Central institutions, stakeholders and governance of VETIn Finland, education policy is defined by Parliament and the Government (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011) (Figure 2). In addition to legislation, the aims of educational policy are specified and defined in various development plans, documents and in the state budget. A central, regular document in the educational sector is the Development Plan for Education within the Administrative Field of the Ministry of Education and University Research (KESU). The Government approves it every four years, the first year being the year of its approval and the next covering the following five calendar years. Accordingly, the current plan for the years 2011-2016 was adopted at the end of 2011. In this plan for the period 2011–2016, specific attention has been given to the alleviation of poverty, ine-quality and exclusion, stabilising the public economy and fostering sustainable economic growth, employment and competitiveness (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012a).

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Figure 2. Organisation of the educational programme (adapted from Cedefop ReferNet, 2011)

The Ministry of Education and Culture is the highest administrative authority governing the field of education. It is responsible for the strategic and normative steering of vocational education and training and leads its national development. It determines the details of the qualifications and the extent of training and also grants authorisation for educational institutions to provide VET. In turn, the government determines the national objectives of VET, the structure of the qualifica-tions and the core subjects. The core curricula are designed by the National Board of Education, which also sets the requirements of competence-based qualifications (adult education) (Ministry of Education, 2009). Key legislation consists of the Vocational Education and Training Act (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta 630/1998), the Vocational Adult Education Act (Laki ammatillisesta aikuiskoulutuksesta 631/1998) and the Act on the Financing of the Provision of Education and Culture (Laki opetus – ja kulttuuritoimen rahoituksesta 1705/2009).

The Ministry of Education and Culture supervises education and training provision, which is subsidised by public funding (from primary and secondary general education and vocational

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training to polytechnic, university, and adult education). It is responsible for implementing na-tional education policies together with the Finnish National Board of Education (FNBE) (Minis-try of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014a). National qualification requirements are drawn up by the Finnish National Board of Education in cooperation with employers’ organisations, trade unions, the Trade Union of Education, and student unions (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014c). They are dealt with by the National Education and Training Committees, which are tripar-tite bodies established for each occupational field by the Ministry of Education and Culture for a term of 3 years at a time to plan and develop vocational education and training. Qualification re-quirements for upper secondary vocational qualifications and requirements for competence-based qualifications are the same for both young and adult students (Stenström, Väisänen, Rossinen, Tuominen & Laakkonen, 2013).

For the purpose of organising education and training, the Ministry of Education and Culture grants permission to education providers, determining the sectors of education in which they are allowed to organise education and their total student numbers. The education providers determine which vocational qualifications and which study programmes within the sectors of education will be organised at their vocational institutions (Cedefop Refernet Finland, 2011). VET providers are responsible, in particular, for organising training in their areas, for matching provision with local labour market needs, and for devising local curricula based on the core curricula (Cedefop Refernet Finland, 2011).

Many types of institutions can serve as VET providers: “A VET provider may be a local au-thority, a municipal training consortium, a foundation or other registered association, or a state company” (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014b). Furthermore, there are five spe-cialised institutes and a training centre in the Saami area run by the government. Swedish-lan-guage and bilingual institutions provide Swedish-language training (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014b).

In 2013, there were 120 vocational institutions in Finland. The number of VET providers has decreased considerably since 2005, when it stood at 182 in total (see Appendix 1, Table 1). The change in the number of institutions providing VET is the combined outcome of adjusting the network of educational institutions to the diminishing age cohorts and increasing its effectiveness. Accordingly, the change in the number of institutions is partly an outcome of administrative re-organisation (merging of institutions) and partly a result of cancelling individual institutions (see Appendix 1, Tables 2-3). At the same time, the number of general upper secondary institutions has decreased from 428 (in 2005) to 374 (in 2013, according to Statistics Finland’s database PX-Web Statfin). The majority of vocational institutions (usually VET institutions) are maintained by local authorities (i.e. municipalities, federations of municipalities and the state). Approximately 25% of the total number is maintained by private organisations if specialist vocational education and adult education institutions are not included (Appendix 1, Table 1). Therefore, the majority of vocational institutions are maintained by local authorities and joint municipal boards.

Private vocational institutions operating under the Vocational Education and Training Act are steered by the Ministry of Education and Culture, and they “receive government subsidies and have the right to award official qualification certificates” (Cedefop Refernet, 2011, p. 11). Other private educational institutions do not have the right to award qualification certificates. However,

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in Finland there are a number of private educational institutions, for example in the service sector educating hairdressers. They do not receive public funding even if they fall under the supervision of the consumer authorities.

The Vocational Education and Training Act (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta 630/1998) pro-vides that the needs of working life have to be given special attention. Also, it demands that educa-tion must be organised in cooperation with representatives from business, industry and the world of work in general. The most important channels through which the social partners participate in the planning of VET are the national training committees set up by the Ministry of Education and Culture and the governing bodies and advisory councils of educational institutions. Usually, vo-cational institutions have established local networks to become involved in regional business life.

The education providers are the so-called competent bodies when it comes to curriculum-based vocational qualifications. Accordingly, certificates are awarded by the education provider. Stu-dents are awarded a qualification certificate (tutkintotodistus/examensbetyg) upon completion of all the studies required for the qualification.

In Finland, the centrally organised inspection of educational institutions by state authorities has been compensated by evaluation aiming to support the development of education. In the 1990s, the national norm-oriented school-inspection system was abolished and the decision-mak-ing power of local authorities was increased (Räisänen & Räkköläinen, 2014). Since 1999, the meaning of evaluation as a method for steering development in education has been enhanced by law to cover all educational sectors (Rådet för utbildningsutvärdering, 2004). The aim of such evaluation is to guarantee the fulfilling of the aims for VET defined by law, as well as to sup-port development and circumstances for learning. Providers of education are obliged to organise self-evaluation and to participate in external evaluations of their actions (Vocational Education and Training Act 630/1998).

The construction of national evaluating bodies has taken place step by step. Until recently, there were three different bodies completing evaluations: Finnish Education Evaluation Council, Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council and National Board of Education. In May 2014, these separate evaluative bodies were merged into a single Finnish Education Evaluation Centre (FINEEC, in Finnish KARVI), which operates in Helsinki and Jyväskylä (The Finnish Educa-tion Evaluation Council, 2014; Laki Kansallisesta koulutuksen arviointikeskuksesta 1295/2013). In its evaluations concerning VET, FINEEC focusses on three approaches. First, evaluations of learning outcomes and related analyses are completed in order to find out whether the aims of the curriculum are fulfilled and the demands of working life are met. Second, thematic evaluations address specific thematic contents or models of organising VET. Third, system evaluations are completed to evaluate the education system, its parts, or educational policy, its implementation or developing of education system (KARVI, 2014).

In addition, the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Finnish National Board of Educa-tion or an external audit firm, as decided by the Ministry, perform inspections to verify the va-lidity of the criteria for allocation of funds. Furthermore, regional administration (e.g. Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment) plays an important role in promoting the relevance and demand-driven approach of vocational adult education and training. Regional authorities implement government-funded continuous training for teaching staff in their respec-

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tive regions and allocate grants for the purposes of vocational institutions’ mission to develop and serve the world of work. They also manage regional ESF funding, which is allocated for purposes such as the development of work-based learning (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011).

1.3 Financing of Finnish VET

The Ministry of Education and Culture has the overall responsibility for funding education and training except for labour market training, which is the responsibility of the Ministry of Employ-ment and the Economy (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011). The funding criteria for VET providers are uniform irrespective of ownership. VET providers are financed by the State and local authorities and, in this sense, most private institutions do not differ from publicly maintained institutions. The allocation of funding is based on the number of students that the education providers report and on the unit prices that the Ministry of Education and Culture sets. The unit prices are differ-ent for different educational fields (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014e; Cedefop ReferNet, 2011). Since performance-based funding for VET was established in 2002, a minor part of the total financing (3%) has become dependent on the efficiency of the VET provider (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011; 2012). The models for this kind of steering are developed further.

Since 1995, the level of total expenditure on education as a percentage of Gross Domestic Pro-duction (GDP) has remained at almost the same level in Finland. It has decreased slightly, from 6.4% in 1995 to 6.3% in 2012 (see Table 1; Statistics Finland, 2014b).

Table 1. Current Expenditure on Regular Education System by Type of Expenditure 1995–2012

Type of Expenditure Year1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012EUR million

EUR million

EUR million

EUR million

EUR million

EUR million

Pre-primary education 1) .. 94 269 312 323 342Comprehensive school education 2) 2 379 2 734 3 413 4 120 4 231 4 363Upper secondary general education 2) 429 503 600 695 713 727Vocational education 3) 1 161 925 1 183 1 614 1 695 1 736Apprenticeship training 32 96 132 177 170 171Polytechnic education 3) 145 525 704 896 921 928University education and research 4) 945 1 364 1 671 2 162 2 330 2 340Other education 5) 265 298 361 442 462 478Administration 143 161 190 242 238 227Financial aid for students 614 648 732 871 847 837

Total 6 113 7 348 9 253 11 532 11 930 12 149

Current expenditure as a percentage of GDP, %

6.4 5.6 5.9 6.5 6.3 6.3

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Note: 1) Free of charge pre-primary education for 6-year-old children (pre-school education) in day-care centres and

comprehensive schools started in August 2000. Prior to August 2000, expenditure on pre-primary education in

comprehensive schools is included in expenditure on comprehensive school education. 2) Calculatory employers’

contribution fees for pension funds on municipal teaching personnel have been added to the figures for the years

1995–2000. The period 2000–2012 also includes comprehensive school and upper secondary general education

arranged in folk high schools. 3) Expenditure on vocational and polytechnic education does not include small

outlays. 4) Includes universities’ external financing for research. Due to changes caused by the amended Universi-

ties Act, the data from 2010 onwards is not fully comparable with that of earlier years. Includes rents of the State

Real Estate Board for only part of 1995. The figures for 2010 exclude transferable appropriations for universities’

operating expenditure and for universities’ joint expenditure. 5) Not including education leading to a qualification

or degree in folk high schools in 2000–2012.

While expenditure on comprehensive school education has constituted the biggest proportion of expenditure on the regular education system, the next biggest proportions have been university ed-ucation and research, and vocational education. It is notable that the relative amount of expenditure on different educational sectors has changed considerably over the years. While expenditure on comprehensive education has increased to be about 1.83 times as big as it was in 1995, expenditure on university education and research has increased to be 2.48 times as big as in 1995. The sector of school-based vocational education has been in a less favourable position. The total expenditure on vocational education has increased by only 1.5 times compared to expenditure in 1995.

At the same time, expenditure on apprenticeship training has increased by 5.34 with respect to the level it was at in 1995. Also, expenditure on polytechnic education has increased to be 6.4 times as big as it used to be in 1995. Since upper secondary general education has increased its share by only 1.7 times, it seems that upper secondary education has increased its financing less than other educational sectors since 1995 (Table 1, Statistics Finland 2014b). Naturally, these comparisons have to be treated with caution because the expansion of expenditure on the poly-technic sector is very much an outcome of the fact that the whole sector was established in 1990s. Also, the apprenticeship system has been expanding strongly since the 1990s (see Table 1).

Still, recent figures on the development of education providers’ operational costs/student/year for the years 1995–2012 confirm the less favourable economic development in the VET sector (Table 2, Statistics Finland, 2014g). Vocational education (including apprenticeship training) and polytechnics’ education are the only sectors of education in Finland where costs/students have decreased. In VET, as a whole, including all its forms, the costs have decreased by 700€ during the period 1995–2012 (Table 2, Statistics Finland, 2014g).

These findings may partially explain the changes in the completion rate of upper secondary education. Comparative data on education has shown that the completion of upper secondary ed-ucation in Finland has decreased slightly, by 3.5 percentage points, from what it was in 2000 to be 84.2% in 2010, and this trend is not typical to all countries (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, 2012, p. 171). The relatively low expenditure on VET and the merging of VET institutions (see previous section) may explain this development to some extent. On one hand, the level of expenditure on education will eventually affect the quality of education. On the other hand, a network of upper secondary educational institutions has an effect on the accessibility of

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education, which is meaningful to those young people who do not want to move away from home. Still, earlier research findings on the regional variation of completion rates in upper secondary education suggest that transition patterns can be very complicated. For example, the completion rates of VET not only depend on provision but also employment and regional transition opportu-nities. So, completion rates may be higher in regions where employment opportunities are more limited and vice versa (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012).

Table 2. Real Development of Educational Institutions’ Operational Costs/Students by Sector in 1995–20121 (adapted from Statistics Finland, 2014g)

Sector of Education Year1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012

EUR EUR EUR EUR EUR EUR

Pre-primary education .. 5000 6100 5800 5700 5800Comprehensive school education 2) 7000 7200 7700 8200 8200 8200Upper secondary general education 2) 5500 5600 5900 5900 5800 5800Vocational education 3) 11500 11000 11000 10900 10900 10800Polytechnic education 3) .. 7700 7300 7400 7200 7000University education and research 4) 12500 13800 12400 13800 14300 13800Total 8300 8300 8400 8900 8900 8800

Note: 1) Operational costs have been adjusted with respect to price level in 2012, utilising the price index relevant

for the field of operation based on national economic accounting regarding public expenditure on education. 2)

The costs include, computationally, employers’ pension insurance premiums, which municipalities’ have paid for

their faculty 1995–2000. In 2000–2012, it also includes comprehensive education and upper secondary education

organised by folk high schools. 3) Minor projects are not included. 4) Costs/students do not include new entrants

registered absent in universities of applied sciences. Minor projects are not included. 5) The costs include external

financing for universities. Due to the change in the Universities Act (558/2009), the figures since 2010 are not

completely comparable with earlier figures. The costs include rental costs for the state’s real estate organisation for

only part of 1995. Costs for 2010 do not include transferable appropriations for operational costs and universities’

shared costs.

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2. The main structure of the VET programmes

2.1 VET programmesIn Finland, the VET curricula are defined by national qualification requirements, education pro-viders’ locally approved curricula and students’ personal study plans. The national qualification requirements are defined by the Finnish National Board of Education. They determine “compo-sition of studies and objectives, core contents and assessment criteria for study modules”, as well as “provisions on student assessment, student counselling, on-the-job learning, special education and training, educational arrangements for immigrants and apprenticeship training” (Finnish Na-tional Board of Education, 2014c; Cedefop Refernet, 2011).

The national qualification requirements are drawn up in co-operation between employers’ or-ganisations, trade unions, the Trade Union of Education and student unions. In addition, the local partners participate in the construction as advisers and consultants on the side of the National Education and Training Committees (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014c). The National Education and Training Committees are tripartite bodies established for each occupational field by the Ministry of Education and Culture for a term of three years at a time. Their duty is to plan and develop vocational education and training (Cedefop Refernet, 2011). Local curricula are ap-proved by the boards of the education providers.• VET is organised into eight different fields of vocational education and training as follows: • Humanities and education; • Culture; • Social science, business and administration; • Natural sciences; • Technology, communication and transport; • Natural resources and the environment; • Social services, health and sport; and• Tourism, catering and domestic services.

In 2008, there were 53 different vocational qualifications in the above mentioned fields (see Ap-pendix 2). In addition, the different vocational qualifications include one or more study pro-grammes. Accordingly, there are specialisations leading to about 120 study programmes in to-tal (see Appendix 2; Finnish National Board of Education, 2014c). Since 2007, the increases in student numbers have been the biggest in the two largest fields, namely the fields of technology, communication and transport, and social services, health and sport (see Appendix 2, Figure 1).

The national core curricula for upper secondary vocational qualifications and the requirements for competence-based qualifications are common to education and training for young and adult students. The scope of the qualifications is 120 credits (40 credits per year; 1 credit is equivalent to 40 hours of study).

According to the present core curricula (which were valid at the time of writing this report in autumn 2014), a VET qualification includes vocational studies and on-the-job learning, which varies according to the qualification (90 credits; min. 20 credits on-the job learning); core sub-

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jects, common to all qualifications (20 credits, out of which 16 are compulsory and 4 are optional) and free choice subjects (10 credits) (see Figure 3). These are studies in: • the native language; • the other national language; • foreign language; • mathematics; • physics and chemistry; • social, business and labour-market subjects; • health education; physical education; • arts and culture; environmental studies; • ICT; ethics, other cultures; • psychology and entrepreneurship; • free choice studies, which vary (10 credits).

These studies include at least 1.5 credits of student counselling and a final project with a mini-mum of 2 credits.

Figure 3. Example of the structure of VQ in social and health care, 120 cr (curriculum-based qualification) (Finnish National Board of Education, 2010, pp.14-16)

The latest curriculum reform concerning vocational education took place in 2014. The new curric-ula will be utilised from 1st August 2015 according to the Law on the Change of Law Concerning Vocational Education 787/2014 and the Decree on the Contents of a Vocational Qualification 801/2014 (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta annetun lain muuttamisesta 787/2014; Valtioneuv-oston asetus ammatillisen perustutkinnon muodostumisesta 801/2014; Finnish National Board of Education, 2014b). In the new curricula, the earlier study credits (study weeks; in Finnish: opin-toviikot), which were used for following the progress of studies, have been transformed. Instead of study weeks, the progress of studies will be counted by collection of so-called competence credits (osaamispisteet, in Finnish) in the future. The qualifications, which used to be 120 credits (study weeks), will involve 180 competence points according to the new curricula. The shift in

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the names of credits can be interpreted as a shift underlining the competence-based approach in vocational education.

In the new curricula, a typical qualification of 180 competence points includes vocational studies (135 competence points), core subjects common for all (35 competence points) and free choice modules (10 competence points). In other words, the structure of the curriculum and length of studies is otherwise the same, but in the new curriculum there is less room for free choice and optionality. Also, the number of vocational qualifications will remain relatively stable and only be reduced by one, from 53 to 52 (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014b). Furthermore, the new curricula emphasise more competencies needed in society and the labour market (8 com-petence credits vs. 1 credit in earlier curricula). This means that students are required to study skills that support participation in society, looking for jobs and acting constructively at workplace, commitment to lifelong learning, entrepreneurship as well as sports and health care. The assess-ment of skills is planned to take place according to a similar scale as earlier, from one to three. According to the scale, one would be equivalent to satisfactory, two to good and three would be equivalent to creditable (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014b).

On the side of the curriculum reform, the programme for reorganising the network of upper secondary education providers has raised a lot of public discussion (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014d). This programme aims at the structural reform of upper secondary and adult education in order to enhance opportunities for their operation in the future. The demand for launching this developmental programme has been initiated by demographic changes and later accelerated by the recession since 2008. In its development plan, the Ministry of Education and Culture sets the aim that “the programme will contribute to the creation of a vital, functional network of educational units (Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2011, p. 32). In the public discussion, for example, the teachers’ Trade Union of Education in Finland has per-ceived the suggested law for merging of the education providers’ network to be camouflage for the cancelling of upper secondary institutions (OAJ, 2014).

2.2 Types of VET

In Finland, VET qualifications can be completed in three major ways: (i) in the form of school-based education and training, (ii) apprenticeship training or (iii) competence-based qualifications which allow adult students to demonstrate their vocational skills regardless of how and where they have acquired them. A comparison of the size of these different routes is presented in Table 3.

The school-based VET has maintained its position as the most popular system (83.6%) by which to complete a VET qualification in comparison to apprenticeship training (16.4%) in Fin-land (see Table 4). Curriculum-based basic VET is aimed at youth education, whereas the other types of VET are mainly aimed at adults (Finnish National Board of Education, 2010).

19


Table 3. Number of VET Students by Type of Education in 2007 and 2010 (adapted from Cedefop ReferNet Finland, 2012, p. 15)

2007 2010 Proportion as a % of all VET students in 2010

Upper secondary VETUpper secondary vocational qualification 126,025 133,690 49.9Competence-based qualificationsUpper secondary vocational qualification 28,041 36,931 13.8Further vocational qualification 30,081 31,664 11.8Specialist vocational qualification 6,846 6,541 2.4Apprenticeship trainingUpper secondary vocational qualification 27,169 22,797 8.5Further vocational qualification 20,503 19,633 7.3Specialist vocational qualification 14,841 16,461 6.1Total 253,524 267,717 100.0Women % 50.2 50.6Special needs education 6.1 7.2Mother tongue other than Finnish or Swedish 4.2 5.0

Table 4. VET Students by Type of Education in 2013 (Statistics Finland, 2014j)

Type of VET Vocational school-based education

(N=262,144, 83.6%)

Apprenticeship training(N=51,466, 16.4%)

Total(N=313,610)

Men%

Women%

Total%

Men%

Women%

Total%

Men%

Women%

Total%

Curriculum -based basic VET

69.1 61.2 65.2 0.9 0.8 0.9 58.8 50.6 54.6

Preparatory initial vocational education for a skills examina-tion

15.4 20.9 18.1 37.4 39.7 38.6 18.7 24.2 21.5

Preparatory edu-cation for further qualifications

12.5 14.8 13.7 32.8 30.2 31.4 15.6 17.5 16.6

Preparatory edu-cation for a spe-cialist vocational qualification

3.0 3.1 3.0 28.9 29.3 29.1 6.9 7.7 7.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

20


In addition to the major routes of VET described above, there has been a desire to support ver-satile and flexible study tracks. These have been pursued in order to support, in particular, suc-cessful transitions from basic education to upper secondary vocational education. The following pre-vocational programmes have been developed to be taken before entrance to education leading to an upper secondary vocational qualification for those who are not able to make an immediate transition (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014a):• Preparatory instruction and guidance for VET – VET Start (Ammattistartti in Finnish, 20–40

credits) ◦ This programme is aimed at those young people who have no clear idea of their career

choice or insufficient capabilities to apply for vocational studies. • Rehabilitative instruction and guidance for the disabled (20–120 credits)

◦ This programme is directed to the disabled, and it allows them to develop their compe-tencies, acquire capabilities required in vocational studies, working life and independent living.

• Preparatory education for immigrants (20–40 credits) ◦ The purpose of this programme is to improve immigrants’ language and the other skills

required for vocational studies. This education is aimed at immigrants and people of immi-grant origin who already have basic language skills (Finnish or Swedish).

• Home economics course (20 credits) ◦ The course provides students with capabilities and practical skills required to manage their

everyday lives and households.

These preparatory programmes (20-40 credits) are not comparable with the curriculum-based VET that comprises 120 credits and leads to a qualification.

The students’ right to flexible and versatile studies has also been underlined in legislation in several ways. For example, the Act on Vocational Education and Training (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta 630/1998) contains the provision of a students’ right to make individual choices in their studies. The Vocational Education and Training Decree (Asetus ammatillisesta koulutukses-ta 811/1998) contains the provision of how to inform students of the training offered, of student counselling, and recognition and validation of prior skills. Also, the new Law on the Change of Law regarding Vocational Education stipulates students’ right to individualised study plans, right to have counselling, and recognition of prior learning (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta annetun lain muuttamisesta 787/2014, §29, §29a, §30). Accreditation of prior learning aims to shorten the duration of education and to avoid overlaps in education. Recognition is based on learning out-comes and is decided by the VET provider.

Furthermore, there are some special vocational institutions that are primarily responsible for the education of disabled people and for the above mentioned preparatory and rehabilitative ed-ucation and guidance. These institutions provide facilities and services for students with severe disabilities or chronic illnesses. There is a direct application to the institutions and they also ac-cept applications throughout the year (Cedefor ReferNet Finland, 2011).

21


Tabl

e 5.

Typ

es o

f IV

ET

Prog

ram

mes

(ada

pted

from

Ced

efop

Ref

erN

et, 2

011)

Nam

e of

IVET

pr

ogra

mm

e A

dmis

sion

re

quire

men

t M

ain

econ

omic

sect

ors

Cor

resp

ondi

ng

ISC

ED le

vel

and

orie

ntat

ion/

dest

inat

ion

Bal

ance

bet

wee

n ge

nera

l and

voc

a-tio

nal s

ubje

cts

Bal

ance

bet

wee

n sc

hool

- and

wor

k-ba

sed

train

ing

Aver

age

dura

tion

of

stud

ies

Acc

ess t

o (h

oriz

onta

l/ve

rtica

l) to

ot

her p

athw

ays

Initi

al v

ocat

iona

l qu

alifi

catio

n C

ompl

etio

n of

bas

ic

educ

atio

n

Prim

ary

sect

or a

nd u

tiliti

es:

Nat

ural

reso

urce

s and

the

envi

ronm

ent

Man

ufac

turin

g:Te

chno

logy

, com

mun

ica-

tion

and

trans

port

Con

stru

ctio

n Te

chno

logy

, com

mun

ica-

tion

and

trans

port

Dis

tribu

tion

and

trans

port:

Te

chno

logy

, com

mun

ica-

tion

and

trans

port

Bus

ines

s and

oth

er se

rvic

-es

: N

atur

al sc

ienc

es;

Soci

al sc

ienc

e, b

usin

ess

and

adm

inis

tratio

n; T

our-

ism

, cat

erin

g an

d do

mes

tic

ISC

ED 3

90

cre

dits

voc

a-tio

nal;

20 c

redi

ts g

ener

al;

10 c

redi

ts fr

ee-

choi

ce su

bjec

ts

(can

be

eith

er o

r)

Min

imum

20

cred

its o

n-th

e-jo

b le

arni

ng

120

cred

its

(=3

year

s)

Wor

k, G

ener

al u

pper

se

cond

ary,

Fur

ther

vo

c. q

ual.,

Spe

cial

ist

voc.

qua

l., P

olyt

ech-

nics

, U

nive

rsiti

es

22


2.3 Apprenticeship training

Development of the legislative frameworkIn Finland, apprenticeship training has been chosen by adults mainly as further or specialist vo-cational qualifications (see Figure 4, Table 6). The Finnish tradition of organising VET has not obliged employers to take a major responsibility for initial training of newcomers to their field of industry. Accordingly, they have preferred to leave such training to the state and the municipali-ties as well as to employee representatives (Kivinen & Peltomäki, 1999). By the 1980s, appren-ticeship training was considered appropriate as an alternative for those who had not applied or been accepted for the normal vocational training in institutions (Kaisaniemi, 1987). This approach to apprenticeship has been enhanced by the latest policy interventions, which will be discussed at the end of this section (see e.g. Oppisopimuskoulutuksen kehittämistyöryhmä, 2004, p. 9) .

Since the beginning of the 1990s, apprenticeship training has been developed in three ma-jor steps. First, the Apprenticeship Act was launched in 1992 (Laki oppisopimuskoulutuksesta 1605/1992). Its aim was to improve the status of apprenticeship training as a work-oriented form of training in an otherwise mainly institutional vocational education system during a time of re-cession (Poutanen, 2008). Furthermore, it was hoped that apprenticeship training would help un-employed, unskilled, young people at risk of marginalisation to find jobs and earn their livelihood (Kivinen & Peltomäki, 1999).

Second, a major step for developing apprenticeship in Finland took place, when the Appren-ticeship Act of 1992 (Laki oppisopimuskoulutuksesta 1605/1992) was overruled in 1999 and new legislation for education was adopted (Oppisopimuskoulutuksen ja työelämäyhteyksien johto-ryhmä, 2001). The regulations considering apprenticeships for youth were embedded in the Act and Decree on Vocational Education (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta 630/1998; Asetus am-matillisesta koulutuksesta 811/1998). The regulations concerning apprenticeship for adults were embedded in the Act on Adult Education (Laki ammatillisesta aikuiskoulutuksesta 631/1998).

The Law on Vocational Education (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta 630/1998) stipulated that vocational education could be organised in school-based form in classes, as distant or mul-ti-form learning, as apprenticeship training or otherwise related to completion of practical tasks at the workplace. Furthermore, it defined that apprenticeship training had to be based on a written temporary work contract between a young person over 15 and the employer. The employer had to sign an agreement with the educational provider.

Third, a further development of the apprenticeship scheme took place when it was expanded to address entrepreneurs and civil servants. Since 1999, entrepreneurs have also had the right to participate in the apprenticeship scheme while they are working in their own enterprise. They will not be remunerated for the supervision if the education is arranged in their own enterprise (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta annetun lain 17 §:n muuttamisesta 1185/1998; Oppisopimuskoulu-tuksen ja työelämäyhteyksien johtoryhmä, 2001). Later, the legislation was changed so that civil servants are able to undertake apprenticeship training, without having to take leave of absence (Lankinen, Rasku & Huhtala, 2007; Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta annetun lain 17 ja 19§:n muuttamisesta 1341/2007). Since 2000, the apprenticeship scheme has also been expanded con-

23


siderably in financial terms (see Table 1, section 1.2.). These changes have reflected the policy of organising apprenticeship training mainly as further and specialist education addressing adults.

In the present apprenticeship model, each apprentice is given a personal study plan (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014). The plan is based on a national core curriculum issued by the Finnish National Board of Education. When a student is targeting competence-based quali-fication, the curriculum is based on the requirements of competence-based qualifications. Also, in the new legislation on vocational education, issued in 2014, regulations considering apprentice-ships for youth have been embedded in the Act and Decree on Vocational Education. The latest law states simply that vocational education can be organised in the school-based form or as ap-prenticeship training (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta annetun lain muuttamisesta 787/2014). The competence-based qualifications mainly targeted at adults are stipulated by a law of their own (Laki ammatillisesta aikuiskoulutuksesta annetun lain muuttamisesta 788/2014).

The apprenticeship training in Finland is organised to combine on-the-job learning and the-oretical instruction. Accordingly, approximately 70–80% of the learning takes place under the supervision of an on-the-job instructor in the workplace, while vocational institutions provide the supplementary theoretical instruction. The trainees receive a salary from the employer according to salary levels defined by collective agreements (about 80% of the wages of a skilled worker in a particular field). During the periods that trainees are studying at vocational education institutions, they are entitled to get, for example, daily allowances and subsidised travelling and accommoda-tion. Employers with trainees are reimbursed for their provision of education (Ministry of Educa-tion and Culture, Finland, 2014e).

Gradual expansion of apprenticeship scheme The Europe-wide good results concerning the employability of apprentices have encouraged the Finnish policy makers to target increasing the apprenticeship scheme (Vartiainen & Viinisalo, 2009). For example, the development plan for education and research for the years 1995–1999 set the target of increasing participation in apprenticeship training. The aim was that participation within the apprenticeship scheme would cover 20% of the total of initial vocation education and training offered to youth (Oppisopimuskoulutuksen ja työelämäyhteyksien johtoryhmä, 2001). By 2001, it was recognised that the target had not been met. The aim was decreased and it was instead targeted that the apprenticeship scheme would be the route chosen by 10% of all entrants starting in initial vocational education and training (Oppisopimuskoulutuksen ja työelämäyhteyk-sien johtoryhmä, 2001, p. 20). The achievement of this aim depends on the interpretation of the role that further and specialist VET has, as Tables 6 and 7 confirm.

24


Tabl

e 6.

App

rent

ices

hip

Trai

ning

in F

inla

nd 2

005–

2012

: Ent

rant

s, A

ppre

ntic

es, a

nd G

radu

ates

Year

New

en

tran

tsA

ppre

ntic

es

Gra

duat

es

Tota

lTo

tal

Wom

enIn

itial

voc

a-tio

nal q

ualifi

-ca

tions

Furth

er v

oca-

tiona

l qua

lifi-

catio

ns

Spec

ialis

t vo

catio

nal

qual

ifica

tions

Tota

lW

omen

Initi

al v

oca-

tiona

l qua

lifi-

catio

ns

Furth

er v

oca-

tiona

l qua

lifi-

catio

ns

Spec

ialis

t vo

catio

nal

qual

ifica

tions

%%

%%

%%

%%

2005

1

2006

2

2007

3

2008

4

2009

5

2010

6

2011

7

2012

8

20,0

6621

,793

28,3

7528

,013

20,1

2121

,674

21,9

7720

,911

51,3

0754

,632

63,2

9570

,037

65,9

9759

,702

56,8

7655

,554

51 49 48 46 47 50 52 53

37 40 43 45 43 39 41 36

35 34 33 32 32 33 30 34

28 26 24 23 25 28 29 30

10,1

1111

,097

10,9

8012

,193

14,3

2014

,306

13,2

7113

,039

55 55 55 52 50 50 55 55

32 30 32 33 39 42 45 31

39 39 40 40 37 32 30 39

29 31 28 27 24 26 25 30

Not

e: A

ll da

ta h

as b

een

adap

ted

from

Sta

tistic

s Fin

land

. The

yea

r and

hea

ding

of t

heir

publ

icat

ion

on S

tatis

tic F

inla

nd’s

web

page

s are

as f

ollo

ws:

1)

(200

6). O

ppis

opim

usko

ulut

ukse

ssa

51 3

00 o

salli

stuj

aa v

uonn

a 20

05. h

ttp://

ww

w.st

at.fi

/til/a

op/2

005/

04/a

op_2

005_

04_2

006-

11-0

2_tie

_004

.htm

l.2)

(200

7). O

ppis

opim

usko

ulut

ukse

ssa

54 6

00 o

salli

stuj

aa v

uonn

a 20

06. h

ttp://

ww

w.st

at.fi

/til/a

op/2

006/

04/a

op_2

006_

04_2

007-

11-0

1_tie

_004

.htm

l.3)

(200

8b).

Opp

isop

imus

koul

utuk

sess

a 63

300

osa

llist

ujaa

vuo

nna

2007

. http

://w

ww.

stat

.fi/ti

l/aop

/200

7/04

/aop

_200

7_04

_200

8-11

-03_

tie_0

04.h

tml.

4) (2

009a

). O

ppis

opim

usko

ulut

ukse

ssa

70 0

00 o

salli

stuj

aa v

uonn

a 20

08. h

ttp://

ww

w.st

at.fi

/til/a

op/2

008/

04/a

op_2

008_

04_2

009-

11-0

3_tie

_004

.htm

l.5)

(201

0). O

ppis

opim

usko

ulut

ukse

ssa

66 0

00 o

salli

stuj

aa v

uonn

a 20

09. h

ttp://

ww

w.st

at.fi

/til/a

op/2

009/

04/a

op_2

009_

04_2

010-

11-0

3_tie

_004

_fi.h

tml.

6) (2

011)

. Opp

isop

imus

koul

utuk

sess

a 59

700

osa

llist

ujaa

vuo

nna

2010

. http

://w

ww.

stat

.fi/ti

l/aop

/201

0/04

/aop

_201

0_04

_201

1-11

-03_

tie_0

04_fi

.htm

l.7)

(201

2a).

Opp

isop

imus

koul

utuk

sess

a 56

900

osa

llist

ujaa

vuo

nna

2011

. http

://w

ww.

stat

.fi/ti

l/aop

/201

1/04

/aop

_201

1_04

_201

2-11

-06_

tie_0

04_fi

.htm

l.8)

(201

3c).

Opp

isop

imus

koul

utuk

sess

a 55

600

osa

llist

ujaa

vuo

nna

2012

. http

://w

ww.

stat

.fi/ti

l/aop

/201

2/04

/aop

_201

2_04

_201

3-11

-06_

tie_0

04_fi

.htm

l.

25


Table 7. The Number of Graduates from Apprenticeship Training Compared to the Number of All Graduates from VET in Finland in 2000–2012

Year New entrants(apprentices)

Graduatedapprentices

VET gradu-ates

in total*

Proportion of apprentices as a % of all VET graduates

in the respective year2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012

15,3851

16,8471

18,1021

19,3161

19,1421

20,0661

21,7931

28,3753

28,0134

20,1215

21,6746

21,9777

20,9118

7,5011

7,7801

7,9091

8,4891

11,4151

12,4711

12,5611

10,9803

12,1934

14,3205

14,3066

13,2717

13,0398

55,4772

52,5452

52,0412

54,0792

56,6782

58,1972

60,2802

62,1869

62,4989

66,4279

67,9579

70,5969

70,8039

13.514.815.215.720.121.420.817.719.521.621.118.818.4

Note: *VET graduates in total include not only school-based vocational qualifications but also apprenticeships and

competence-based qualifications. All data has been adapted from Statistics Finland. The year and heading of publica-

tion on Statistic Finland’s webpages are as follows:

1) (2008a). Oppisopimuskoulutukseen osallistuneet, uudet opiskelijat ja todistuksen saaneet 1997–2006 (Excel, 21.5.).

http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2006/04/aop_2006_04_2007-11-01_tie_004.html.

2) (2008c). Tutkintotavoitteisen koulutuksen opiskelijamäärän kasvu hidastunut.

http://www.stat.fi/til/opiskt/2007/opiskt_2007_2008-01-25_tie_001.html.

3) (2008b). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 63 300 osallistujaa vuonna 2007.

http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2007/04/aop_2007_04_2008-11-03_tie_004.html

4) (2009a). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 70 000 osallistujaa vuonna 2008.

http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2008/04/aop_2008_04_2009-11-03_tie_004.html.

5) (2010). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 66 000 osallistujaa vuonna 2009.

http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2009/04/aop_2009_04_2010-11-03_tie_004_fi.html.

6) (2011). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 59 700 osallistujaa vuonna 2010.


7) ( 2012a). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 56 900 osallistujaa vuonna 2011.


8) (2013c). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 55 600 osallistujaa vuonna 2012.


9) (2014). Tutkintoon johtavan koulutuksen opiskelijat ja suoritetut tutkinnot.

http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_koulutus.html

The popularity of apprenticeship training has increased gradually since the 1990s (Rinne & Järv-inen, 2011). The expansion of the apprenticeship scheme since the beginning of 2000 is reflected

26


in financial terms too (see Table 1, section 1.2), but it has remained predominantly a route for adult education (see Table 6 and 7). For example, in 2010 and 2011, the share of those aged 16–19 years who participated in apprenticeship training was only 0.46% and 0.49% respectively (based on the information received from Statistics Finland through personal correspondence with Ms. Suvi Vainio, Senior Actuary, 17.7.2014).

The expansion and decrease of participation in apprenticeship training in general in 1997-2013 can be seen in Figure 4 (see also Appendix 3, Table 1). While the numbers presented in the Figure include apprenticeships offered as initial vocational education as well as further and specialist vo-cational qualifications, the increase in participation in the apprenticeship scheme seems striking at first. A closer look at the division between initial vocational qualifications, further qualifications, and specialist vocational qualifications is presented in Table 6 for the years 2005–2012. This shows that there has been a moderate increase in the participation in the apprenticeship scheme on the whole. Despite an increase from a total of 10,111 graduates to 13,039 graduates in 2005–2012, the proportion of those having completed the initial vocational qualification through the appren-ticeship scheme has remained between 30–45% of all apprentices.

Figure 4. The number of apprentices in Finland 1997–2013: Students, new entrants, and graduates who have participated in education for initial, further, and specialist vocational qualifications (adapted from Statistics Finland, Appendix 3, Table 1)

The amount of qualifications completed in initial vocational education and training through the apprenticeship scheme (described above) means that, even though the apprenticeship scheme was enhanced on the whole in Finland in 2000–2012, it has not become a particularly strong model of youth education within the Finnish educational system. The relative growth of the apprenticeship scheme with respect to VET education on the whole can be seen in the Table 7. Around 18% of

27


all VET qualifications were completed through the apprenticeship scheme in 2012 (Table 7), but only 36% of them were initial vocational qualifications (see Table 6).

The development of the apprenticeship scheme has not been stable and the numbers of gradu-ates from the apprenticeship scheme considering initial vocational education have varied notably (see Table 6). The considerable variance in the numbers of graduates is partly an outcome of the effects that the recession has had on the Finnish economy and employment since 2008. In addition, the numbers of student places available in institutional education, provision of adult education motivated by labour policy, and the numerous projects targeted at reducing youth unemployment and activating youth have had an effect on young people’s interest in the apprenticeship scheme (see also Kivinen & Peltomäki, 1999; Brunila et al., 2011). As a result, in Finland, apprenticeship training has been targeted mainly at adult (further) education.

However, the latest policy interventions with respect to apprenticeship training have launched a programme for apprenticeship training aimed at youth to be combined with the “Social guaran-tee for young people” (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014f). The guarantee pro-vides all young under 25-years-old with employment, internships, education, training, workshops or rehabilitation activities. Its combination with apprenticeship training aims at developing mod-els which combine traditional, vocational school-based education and apprenticeship training. It is particularly targeted at youth without upper secondary qualifications (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014f). At the same time, other financing for apprenticeship training has been reduced and maximum number of study places reduced by 5,900 (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012f). This cut-back will most probably mainly effect adult education organ-ised as apprenticeship training, since apprenticeship training has been taken mostly by adults in Finland. The latest development programme targeted at the apprenticeship scheme can be inter-preted as the fourth important step in the development of apprenticeship scheme since the 1990s. It seems to be aimed at enhancing the apprenticeship scheme as a training programme for youth.

One of the major challenges in developing the apprenticeship scheme in Finland has been increasing the completion of qualifications (see Figure 4). Study results on non-completion of qualifications through apprenticeships have brought up reasons for quitting the contracts (Mäki-nen, 2010). Actors participating in the organisation and completion of apprenticeships underline slightly different reasons for non-completion. From an employers’ perspective, contracts have been non-completed because of a trial period, students’ decision, change of workplace, unani-mous agreement for quitting the contract, no time for studies, changes in the enterprise and law of employment (Mäkinen, 2010). From the students’ perspective, reasons like lack of time for studies, lack of support from supervisors and finding motivation for studies were found more important for ceasing the contract. From an institutional perspective, lack of support and supervis-ing, students’ life situation and problems with theoretical task were seen as the most problematic issues (Mäkinen, 2010).

The latest development programme of the apprenticeship scheme aims to support completion of a trial period before making actual apprenticeship contracts in order to encourage employers to take on apprentices. Furthermore, the completion of parts of qualifications is encouraged, even if students do not find completion of the entire qualifications meaningful (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012f).

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3. Transition into VET and completion of VET programmesIn this section, the transition patterns into Finnish VET programmes after compulsory education as well as the completion of VET programmes will be explored. First, the selection procedure for upper secondary education will be described. Second, the immediate transitions after compulsory education to VET and elsewhere, and the characteristics of students who have chosen VET will be presented. Third, the completion of VET programmes is studied.

In Finland, students apply for VET through a national joint application system that is a tool to rationalise student selection. The entry requirement for vocational upper secondary education is a leaving certificate from a comprehensive school (basic education) or an equivalent amount of studies (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuksesta, 630/1998; Ministry of Education and Culture, Fin-land, 2012b). The Ministry of Education and Culture determines more precise student admissions criteria. These include a previous study record in basic education or general upper secondary education (average grades for all subjects and grades emphasised in the relevant field), work ex-perience and entrance or aptitude tests (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011).

Education providers are allowed to use “flexible selection” and to ignore the order of scores required for admission for individual student-related reasons. If, for example, the providers con-sider that the applicants have sufficient capabilities to complete the education and training, they may also admit them as students (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011). Students are free to choose which educational institution they apply to.

Participation in VET has been steadily increasing in Finland since 2003. In 2003, 37% of compulsory school leavers went directly to initial vocational education and training, while 55% continued to general upper secondary schools (Statistics Finland, 2008d). By 2008, the percent-

Figure 5. Direct transition to further studies of graduates of the 9th grade of comprehensive school 2005– 2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014c)

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age of those choosing VET immediately after compulsory education had increased to 42% and it has remained around 41–42% since then (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011; Statistics Finland, 2014c). At the same time, the share of those continuing in general upper secondary schools has decreased to 50–51% (Statistics Finland, 2014c). The change in the immediate continuation to general upper secondary or VET studies is represented in Figure 5 for the years 2005–2012 (see also Figure 11 for a longer time-period).

The students who continue to VET start their studies in one of the eight major educational fields (or in the minor field of other studies, which refers to safety and security mainly). In 2013, over 40% of VET students began their studies in the field of technology and transport, 17% in the field of social services, health and sport, and 12% in the field of business economics and ad-ministration (Statistics Finland, 2014a). The distribution of men and women among the students participating in VET was almost equal on the whole, but varied significantly according to the fields (Figure 6).

The ages of students who started in curriculum-based VET in 2013 also varied quite a lot (Table 8). Most of the students (70%) were 15–19 years old and transferred directly from com-prehensive (basic) school to vocational education and training, but 30% were 20 years old or older. Men seem to start VET younger than women. One fifth of those who started their studies in VET institutions were between 20–24 years old. The variance in the age of entrants shows that, in Finland, initial VET is quite often also completed by those who change their occupation or are not satisfied with their initial field of study. Furthermore, young people under 25-years-old are directed to participate in education or other activities where they would otherwise be unemployed by regulations such as “Social Guarantee for the Young People” (Ministry of Employment and the Economy, 2013).

Students’ progress in post-compulsory education varies according to the sector of education and the field of education. The graduates of general upper secondary education have typically had the highest pass rate in post-compulsory education. In 2012, 80% of general upper secondary students completed matriculation examinations and general upper secondary qualifications in at most 3½ years, whereas 64% of VET students passed their qualifications within the same time-frame (Table 9. Statistics Finland, 2014h). Compared to upper secondary education, the prolon-gation of studies has been more typical for higher education students. In polytechnics, in 2012, the pass rate was 43% and in the traditional science universities 49%. Also, the follow-up study (Stenström et al., 2012) revealed that prolonged studies are more typical for HE students than for others. Furthermore, the differences between educational fields and between men and women have appeared persistent (Stenström et al., 2012). The pass rate of education typically increases in time and, accordingly, when a longer time has passed from the start of education there are more graduates. For example, in 2012, when additional one year was taken into account (i.e., in 4½ years), 88% of the upper secondary general school students completed their studies, and 73% of the VET students also completed their studies in 4½ years.

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Figure 6. New students in vocational education (curriculum-based) by field of education and gender in 2013

Table 8. Age of the New Students in the Curriculum-Based VET Programmes in 2013 (Statistics Finland, 2014a)

Age Men(n = 3204)

%

Women(n = 3243)

%

Total(n = 6447)

%15–19-year olds20–24-year olds25–29- year olds30–34- year olds 35–39- year olds 40–44- year olds 45–49- year olds 50–54- year olds 55 year olds or older

76.316.53.91.70.80.30.30.10.1

64.125.15.42.31.30.80.60.30.1

70.420.64.62.01.00.60.50.20.1

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Table 9. Pass Rates by Sector of Education in 2012 (Statistics Finland, Education 2014h)

Sector of education Duration of studies (years)

Pass rate % TotalMen Women

Upper secondary general education

3.5 78.7 80.1 79.5

Vocational education and training (curriculum-based)

3.5 65.0 63.5 64.3

Polytechnic education 4.5 28.0 55.8 43.3University education 5.5 36.9 58.6 49.4

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4. Enhancing links between VET and working life

The relation of vocational education and training to working life has changed over time. Histori-cally, learning and work were inseparable during the pre-modern era, whereas during the modern era a progressive differentiation has taken place between work and learning (Stenström, 2009). In the modern era, a clear divide between the context of production (work) and the context of repro-duction (education) became evident (Lundgren, 1991; Marhuenda, 2000). The two contexts have developed their own institutions, language, rationale, needs and traditions.

In the late modern era, the differentiation of educational and labour market institutions has be-come fragmented, and new links between them have been created. As a result, these two systems (education and labour) have become closer to one another. Learning and work after post-compul-sory education have been organised in different forms, and knowledge and skills are also provided and learnt outside formal education and training (Boud, 2005; Harris & Chisholm, 2011; Tessar-ing & Wannan, 2004).

In Finland, until the 2000s, initial vocational education had traditionally been organised by vocational institutes. Practical training and learning have been an element of vocational education, but the number and implementation of practical training periods have varied from one education-al sector to another (Pohjonen, 2002; 2005; Uusitalo, 2001). Since the turn of the millennium, a number of new initiatives have been created with the aim of strengthening cooperation between working life and vocational education in Finnish VET. These include the introduction of on-the-job-learning periods and skills demonstrations as part of school-based VET (Räisänen & Räkköläi-nen, 2014; Virtanen, Tynjälä, & Eteläpelto, 2014). Practical training was also part of school-based VET earlier. However, as components of initial VET, previously delivered practical training and the current on-the-job learning differ in several ways. The main characteristics and differences be-hind these forms of adopting learning from work experience as a part of VET are listed in Table 10.

Traditionally, in vocational education, the previous practical-training-related learning model was behaviouristic or neo-behaviouristic, and school-based learning was seen as having a central role in the process of learning vocational skills (Uusitalo, 2001). Accordingly, learning and also guidance were frequently coincidental. The emphasis was on students’ good adjustment to the workplace and the carrying out of assignments as instructed. The assessment process focussed on students’ external behaviour and working methods, rather than learning. In addition, the influence of context was not adequately taken into consideration (Uusitalo, 2001; Tynjälä, Virtanen, & Valkonen, 2005).

The incorporation of on-the-job learning (workplace learning) into the curriculum has been undertaken since 2001. The minimum overall length of this component is 6 months (20 credits) in the whole of an initial vocational 3-year qualification (120 credits). On-the-job learning is the guided and goal-oriented study in the workplace. According to the recommendations for its organisation, on-the-job learning does not demand a contract between an employer and a student and students do not get paid for duties completed during the on-the-job learning period (Ministry of Education, Finland, 2005; Tynjälä et al., 2006). On some occasions, providers of education pay employers a small sum in exchange for the guidance given to students (Ministry of Education, Finland, 2005; Tynjälä et al., 2006).

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Table 10. Main Differences Between On-the-job Learning and Practical Training in Initial VET (adapted from Santala 2001, p. 50; Stenström, Laine & Kurvonen, 2006; Uusitalo 2001) 3

On-the-job Learning(Current Workplace Period)

Practical Training(Previous Workplace Period)

Duration At least 20 credits3 Varies depending on vocational study field and qualification

Agreements Based on a written contract (known as a tripartite agreement)

No written contract needed

Targets Learning new things and applying one’s learning in practice, discussed extensively on the level of the individual, enterprises and society

Gaining practical experience

Basis of Targets

Student-defined targets, targets based on the curriculum, targets linked with the working environment, integration of dif-ferent targets, for example in working-life projects

Targets based on the curriculum or no defined targets

Learning Model

Constructive-contextual, experiential and cooperative learning

Behaviouristic, neo-behaviouristic and coincidental learning

Student Role Self-directed and interactive Mainly other-directedTeacher Role Advisor SupervisorSources of Learning

Work experience, the work environment and the work community, materials and equipment, work situations, discussions, learning from guidance, learning assign-ments and project work

Theory, work assignments, work perfor-mance and learning by observing other workers

Learning Methods

Work-based learning, reflective discussions, learning through projects, team learning, learning diaries, essays and reporting

Performance in work assignments, observation, imitation, repetition, no written assignments

Guidance Targets

Student-defined targets, motivation, planning of work-based learning, work performance, student experiences, fostering reflection, vocational growth and career planning

Phases of the work process, external performance in work situations, external performance models, little connection between guidance and learning targets

Forms of Guidance

Guidance in work situations, guidance discussions (individual students, student groups), mentoring and vocational skills demonstrations

Occasional guidance given by VET institutions and workplaces, the ap-prentice-master model and discussions during work

Nature of Assessment

Continuous, affects the assessment of study units

Not regulated, can be agreed on be-tween those involved

Evaluators Workplace trainer, the student, teacher(s) Workplace trainer, teacher, (student)Assessment Targets

Student’s ability to define personal learning targets, self-regulation skills, performance at work, social skills, internal models and reflection skills, ability to grasp the bigger picture

Adapting to the work community, mastery of work, work performance, external behaviour and external activity of student

3 One credit equals an average of 40 hours of studies

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In the present model, on-the-job learning is a learning method that builds on the objectives of the curriculum. It aims at taking the needs of both the student and the workplace into account as broadly as possible. The student can establish a personal contact with real work and, correspond-ingly, the workplace gets the opportunity to influence education and training and, in due time, gains employees better prepared for practical work than before. The aim is to guarantee vocation-al skills that stem from working life needs and to promote students’ employment opportunities, as well as to facilitate the recruitment of skilled labour into enterprises and other workplaces.

Adoption of the new approach has meant a radical change in attitudes and forms of organising VET both for the institutes and the workplaces (Numminen, 2000b). The social partners have had to agree with the provision of company-based on-the-job training. The implementation of on-the-job training periods in the vocational curriculum has demanded the provision of supplementary education for vocational teachers and workplace instructors (Numminen, 2000b). Furthermore, local organisation of on-the-job learning periods has involved making agreements between em-ployers and vocational education institutions regarding the sharing of duties between participants, organisation of student guidance, and student assessments as well as possible reimbursements to the employer (Tynjälä, Virtanen, & Valkonen, 2005). In addition, employers and educational institutions must have agreed on the aims and essential contents of on-the-job learning together with its length and timing (Tynjälä et al., 2005).

On the whole, the workplace learning system in Finnish VET has been received very positive-ly. Studies have shown that vocational students have been motivated to learn “real work” during their workplace learning periods. In particular, students have felt that they have learnt indepen-dence and initiative taking and have become more self-confident (Virtanen, 2013). With respect to adopting professional skills, learning skills, collaboration skills, and self-assessment skills, they consider themselves as having developed as professional agents more generally (Virtanen, 2013).

In addition, since the system has been introduced, there has been a persistent declining trend in the number of dropouts from initial VET (Virtanen, 2013). Whereas 13% dropped out from initial VET in 2000/2001, the number of dropouts from initial VET was 9% in 2011/2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014f). This trend is different from the trends of dropping out in other forms of educa-tion in Finland because it is somewhat stronger. In university education, dropping out has mildly increased from 4% to 6% during the same years (Statistics Finland, 2014f).

Despite the generally positive development at the system level, the learning environments of the different vocational fields seem to differ significantly from each other in this respect and they offer students different settings for on-the-job learning (Anttila et al., 2010; Virtanen, 2013). This has been prevalent, for example, in comparisons of the field of social services and health care and the field of technology and transport. Depending on the learning environment provided by the workplace, students from the field of technology and transport may have to adopt a more active role in order to receive better learning outcomes than students in the field of social services and health care (Virtanen, Tynjälä, & Eteläpelto, 2014; Virtanen, Tynjälä & Stenström, 2008). The long traditions of organising guidance for students in the field of social services and health care have supported the advent of a strong model of on-the-job learning. Other educational fields might benefit from benchmarking this model (Virtanen, 2013.) Teachers have considered the task of finding workplaces and their variance challenging in the organisation of on-the-job learning

35


(Peltomäki & Silvennoinen, 2003; Tynjälä et al., 2005; Virtanen & Collin, 2007). Also, their roles have changed. The introduction of the new form of workplace learning has meant that teach-ers have to increasingly guide, evaluate and complete other duties related to workplace learning (Vähäsantanen & Eteläpelto, 2009).

Efforts to achieve closer cooperation between VET and the workplace have also included the adoption of a new form of assessment, which has become known as vocational skills demonstra-tion (Stenström, 2009). This means that, at different points during their training in initial VET, students demonstrate the skills they have learned in tests arranged as either practical work situ-ations or as practical assignments. These skills demonstrations assess how well the student has achieved the competencies needed in the labour market. Skills demonstrations also bring togeth-er workplace representatives and teachers (Räkköläinen, 2011; Stenström, Laine, & Kurvonen, 2006). Their organisation has affected and enhanced the models of organising on-the-job learning not only by effecting the timing, contents, guidance, and student assessment, but also through demanding new forms of learning agreements and documentation. Their adoption has thus also increased the demands for administration (Anttila et al., 2010).

In sum, the system of on-the-job learning and vocational skills demonstrations has contributed to the creation of closer links between education and work, closer collaboration between teachers and workplace instructors (e.g. in the assessment process) and closer integration of theory and practice (Stenström, 2009). Although Finland has followed the current trend to shift part of the teaching and learning process from educational institutions to the workplace, on-the-job learning including vocational skills demonstrations remains within the domain of formal education. This Finnish practice derives from the school-based nature of the VET system and the egalitarian edu-cational principle that governs assessment (Stenström, 2009).

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5. Transition from VET to the labour market

The graduates’ entry to working life can be seen as one of the central criteria when judging how successful educational institutions have been in achieving their objectives and how useful and able the holders of the new qualifications have proved themselves in working life (Stenström, 2006). At the same time, the national economic situation is one of the most important factors effecting opportunities for employment.

The appropriateness of the employment found by individuals entering working life can be considered from several perspectives: in terms of the policy associated with transition from ed-ucation to working life; in terms of the interests of the individual making the transition; from a quantitative as against a qualitative viewpoint; or in terms of objective as against subjective crite-ria (OECD, 2000, p. 31; Stenström, 2006).

The unemployment rate is a common quantitative indicator of graduate employability, but there are also many other important dimensions that can be considered in this context (Elias, McKnight, Pitcher, Purcell & Simm, 1999). For example, external evaluations of the quality of a job are conducted using objective criteria based on various categories and classifications. Salary is one of the most common objective indicators. Other indicators include job title, work tasks, and the employee’s position in the organisation.

Typically, access to the labour market is connected to the graduates’ educational level and the field of education. In Finland, the comparison of graduates’ educational level in relation to employment indicates that the highest employment rate was among university and polytechnic graduates and lowest among those graduates who have only passed the matriculation examination (see Table 11).

Table 11. Employment of Graduates One Year After Graduation by Level of Education in 2007–2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014i)

Year Matriculation examination

%

IVET%

Polytechnic degree

(Bachelor)%

Lower uni-versity degree

(Bachelor)%

Higher uni-versity degree

(Master)%

Doctoral degree

%

2007 44.1 74.5 88.7 74.3 87.7 87.42008 45.4 73.8 89.2 70.4 88.3 87.62009 41.2 66.9 85.0 68.7 86.4 87.52010 43.5 69.0 85.9 67.6 87.9 88.72011 45.0 71.5 87.0 68.7 88.4 87.62012 46.1 69.7 86.5 67.2 86.8 89.0

The comparison shows that the same trend has prevailed through 2007–2012, when graduates’ employment has been observed one year after their graduation. The effects of the recession and its persistency since 2008 are also remarkable: the transition to work was somewhat more difficult for graduates in 2012 than in the previous year (Statistics Finland, 2014i). Around 70% of VET

37


graduates were employed, which was two percentage points lower than the year before. Finding employment also deteriorated slightly among those with tertiary education degrees. Some 87% found employment among both polytechnic (bachelor’s degrees) and university (master’s de-grees) graduates. Employment has only improved for those with doctoral degrees.

Unemployment grew in nearly all levels of education in 2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014i). Of all graduates, the proportion of unemployed was 8%. The highest proportion (14%) of unemploy-ment was among VET graduates. Nearly 7% of the graduates from polytechnics and close to 6% of the graduates with university degrees were unemployed.

Access to the labour market is also related to gender. During the period 2007–2012, men’s transition to working life has increased by two percentage points (Statistics Finland, 2014i). Women found employment more easily than men. The proportion of employed women was 13 percentage points higher than that of men. Of all graduates, 62% of men and 75% of women were working. The rate of employment was 62% for men and 77% for women among VET graduates. The employment rate was higher for higher education graduates. Some 85% of men and 87% of women with polytechnic degrees were employed, while 88% of men and 86% of women with university degrees had found jobs.

The yearly comparison between VET graduates (Statistics Finland, 2014i) indicates that the transition from upper secondary vocational education to the labour market was more difficult for graduates in 2012 than in the previous year (Table 12). In 2012, around 70% of VET graduates were employed, when employment was measured one year after their graduation. That was two percentage points lower than in 2011. At the same time, 13% were unemployed. Another 7% were still full-time students, while 9% fell into the group “others” (those involved in military or non-military service, homemakers, or pensioners) (Statistics Finland, 2014 h, i). During the past 10 years, the employment of graduates has increased and decreased in line with the general weakening of employment since 2009 (Statistics Finland, 2014 h, i). The comparison of VET graduates’ status one year after graduation indicates that employment has decreased from 2007 to 2012, while unemployment has increased.

Table 12. Employment of VET Graduates One Year After Graduation in 2007– 2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014i)

Employmentstatus

2007%

2008%

2009%

2010%

2011%

2012%

Employed 74.5 73.8 66.9 69.0 71.5 69.7Full-time stu-dents

7.1 6.5 7.7 7.9 7.3 7.4

Unemployed 9.3 11.0 15.5 13.1 12.1 13.5Others 9.3 8.7 9.9 10.0 9.1 9.4Total N 52205 53579 53404 57200 57956 60917

The comparison of employment between fields of education in VET also revealed differences (Table 13, Statistics Finland, 2014i). The transition was smoothest for graduates in the fields of

38


“other” (i.e. safety and security) and social services, health and sport. The unemployment rate was highest (20%) in the field of natural sciences (ICT) and technology, communication and transport (18%).

Table 13. Employment of Graduates One Year After Graduation by Field of VET in 2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014i)

Field Employed

%

Full-time students

%

Unemployed

%

Others

%

Total

%Humanities and education 77.1 7.3 10.6 5.0 100.0Culture 56.4 17.9 17.3 8.4 100.0Social science, business and administration

76.7 6.0 10.5 6.8 100.0

Natural sciences 45.7 19.6 19.6 15.1 100.0Technology, communication, and transport

61.8 7.4 17.7 13.1 100.0

Natural resources and the environment

63.8 9.5 14.6 12.1 100.0

Social services, health, and sport

85.7 4.6 5.8 3.9 100.0

Tourism, catering, and do-mestic services

71.5 6.7 13.1 8.7 100.0

Other field 93.4 1.4 4.7 0.5 100.0

In the following, the transition patterns will be described utilising a five-year follow-up study (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012), where transitions to labour market after VET are observed five years after starting studies. When the transition period is longer than above, where it is only one year (Table 13), the employment rates are higher. The highest employment rate (100%) was found in the field of “other” (i.e. safety and security), which is a small specific field. The second highest employment rate was among social services, health, and sport graduates where only 6% were unemployed, whereas about 22% of the technology, communication, and transport graduates were unemployed (Table 14). These study fields are also gender segregated so that the former is a female-dominated field while the latter is a male-dominated field. In addition, there are also field-specific differences between the graduates’ socio-economic and occupational status. Over half (66%) of the social services, health, and sport graduates were employed as lower-ranking clerical workers (white-collar jobs), whereas half of the technology, communication, and trans-port graduates were blue-collar workers.

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Table 14. VET Graduates’ Socio-Economic Status by Graduate Field Five Years After Starting Their Studies by Study Field (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012)

Field of VET Self-em-ployed

%

Upper level em-ployees

%

Lower level em-ployees

%

Manual workers

%

Students

%

Un-em-ployed

%

Others

%

Total

%Humanities and education

0.9 8.0 46.0 19.5 0.9 12.4 5.3 100

Culture 4.8 9.9 21.7 20.4 1.0 14.4 7.7 100Social science, business and administration

3.6 4.0 49.4 15.5 1.1 12.3 3.6 100

Natural sciences 1.7 9.0 25.4 14.7 0.0 17.5 6.8 100Technology, com-munication, and transport

2.1 1.4 7.5 50.3 1.5 22.2 4.4 100

Natural resources and the environ-ment

11.7 2.8 13.3 40.7 1.2 15.7 2.0 100

Social services, health, and sport

5.1 1.8 66.1 14.1 0.5 5.5 1.4 100

Tourism, catering, and domestic services

2.0 0.8 17.4 48.5 2.2 17.1 5I.7 100

Other field 0.0 3.4 72.4 24.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100Total 3.4 2.9 26.9 35.0 1.2 16.1 4.2 100

In addition, the 5-year follow-up study (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012) indicated that 68% of students who had started in vocational education in 2004 and graduated by 2009 were employed (Figure 7). Among the rest of these 2004 entrants, 16% were unemployed, 10% were full-time students, and 5% fell into the group “others” at the end of 2009. However, there are big differenc-es between study fields.

There were also gender differences in the socio-economic status. Men were more often manual workers, whereas most of the women were lower level employees. The status is connected to the classification of the occupations (e.g. practical nurse is a lower level employee and mechanic is a manual worker).

One factor influencing the graduates’ socio-economic status seems to be their previous educa-tional background (Figure 8). Those who had completed more than one qualification before their latest VET programme were more typically employed in white-collar jobs (47%) than their peers with no prior qualification (21%). Many studies (Livingstone, 2010; Nilsson & Nyström, 2013; Tomlinson, 2008) have indicated an inflation of formal educational requirements. This rapid ex-pansion of education has led to underemployment and an opportunity trap (Brown, 2003).

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Figure 7. VET graduates’ socio-economic status in the labour market five years after starting their studies (3-years programme) in 2009 by gender

Figure 8. VET graduates’ socio-economic status five years after starting their studies with respect to previous educational background (basic education, upper secondary vocational education, upper secondary general education, at least two qualifications)

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6. Access to higher education

In Finland, the development of initial vocational education as a route that leads to eligibility for tertiary education has taken place through several measures of educational policy since the 1990s. First, the experiments of youth and polytechnic education were established in the 1990s. They of-fered the opportunity to combine general upper secondary and vocational upper secondary studies so that eligibility to higher education could be achieved through participating in the matriculation examination (of general upper secondary schools). In Finland, the matriculation examination of general upper secondary schools has been the gold standard for access to studies in traditional science universities. Later, the curricula of VET were developed and VET graduates, who had completed a three-year curriculum-based qualification, were also awarded eligibility to higher education. In addition, the establishment of polytechnics in the 1990s created a more practice-ori-ented route to higher education on the side of the traditional science universities. In this chapter, these developments are described in more detail. Thereafter, the transitions to higher education are described with the help of quantitative data.

Double qualification In Finland, double qualifications (combination of general upper secondary and VET qualification) have been offered since the 1990s. In the 1990s, a so-called jam of matriculated general upper secondary students was discussed more and more as a problem for educational policy. There were not enough study places available for general upper secondary graduates to get into traditional science universities (Ahola, 1997). In order to find solutions for the development of the education system, two experimental projects were started in parallel: the youth education pilot project and the polytechnics experiment. The idea of the youth education pilot project was to allow general upper secondary and vocational upper secondary students to combine studies from both of the schools. An Act was promulgated in order to allow upper secondary institutions to cooperate for this purpose, both locally and regionally, in 1991 (Laki nuorisoasteen koulutuksen ja ammattiko-rkeakoulujen kokeiluista 391/1991; Numminen, 1997; Virolainen & Valkonen, 1999).

The aim of the experiment was to identify ways to promote individuality and flexibility. The evaluations of the educational system had pointed out needs such as to raise level of education, decrease boundaries between educational sectors, give credit for earlier and other studies, de-crease dropouts and number of double qualifications, shorten study times, decrease boundaries between practice-oriented and theoretical studies, and address internationalisation (Numminen, 1997). The justifications for the Act further underlined: changes in the labour market and skills demands, need to raise attractiveness of post-compulsory education and to enhance local govern-ance of education at the municipality level (Numminen, Lampinen, Mykkänen, & Blom, 1999).

As a result of educational institutions’ collaborative efforts, three major models of collaborative networks emerged: 1) a city model where educational institutions situated close to one another col-laborated; 2) a regional model of collaboration where distances between institutions could be short but also vary between 20-40 kilometres; and 3) a collaborative unit of two educational institutions (general upper secondary school and vocational education institution) (Numminen, 1997; 2000a).

The pilot project increased the range of options available in the vocational and general upper

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secondary curricula by allowing 30-40% flexibility into the curricula (Virolainen & Valkonen, 1999). The educational institutions allowed students to use the flexibility: 1) to pursue studies that would enrich the curriculum with subjects and contents that their own institution was not able to provide; 2) to adopt studies giving eligibility to higher education (upper secondary VET qualifica-tions did not then give general eligibility to higher education); 3) to take professional studies that relate to their primary study field and vocation and enrich competences; and 4) to have hobby-re-lated studies such as music studies included in the qualification (Virolainen & Valkonen, 1999).

Based on the experiments, some important shifts took place in the organisation of the educa-tion system. In particular, the development of vocational education so that it would give general eligibility to higher education was important. Furthermore, polytechnics were made permanent when the Polytechnics Act was promulgated in 2003 (Ammattikorkeakoululaki 351/2003). Later, they started to use the English translation “Universities of Applied Sciences”. Enhancement of the accreditation of prior learning was also important.

As a result, the youth education pilot project did not become a model practiced in the whole of the country (see Meriläinen, 2011). In 2005–2006, 63% of vocational institutions and 83% of general upper secondary schools reported that they were collaborating (Mäensivu et al., 2007). They had formed 102 collaborative networks altogether. Some general upper secondary schools have also collaborated with higher education institutions regionally. The opportunity to complete the double qualification (matriculation examination and vocational qualification combined) has been more common in some of the larger cities and smaller cities committed to offer them, for example in Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Kotka, Tampere, and Rovaniemi.

The number of students who had completed both the vocational upper secondary qualification and the matriculation examination was estimated to be an average of 5% when the issue was studied in areas where schools had formed networks in 2004–2005 (Mäensivu et al., 2007). The differences between areas where collaborative networks have been formed and where they do not exist seem to be considerable. According to nationwide data, the amount of students who studied both in general and vocational upper secondary schools had increased from 2,047 students in 2002 to 3,805 students, in 2009 (Opetushallitus, 2012, p. 90). In the academic year 2008–2009, there were 1,935 young people who completed both a vocational qualification and the matricula-tion examination of general upper secondary schools (Opetushallitus, 2012).

The latest Development Plan for Education and Research by the Ministry of Education and Culture (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012a) still mentions the need to enhance collaboration between general upper secondary and vocational institutions. However, the focus of that collaboration has shifted from educational content to joint use of “facilities, support servic-es and teacher resources across institutional boundaries and with higher education institutions” (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012a, p. 32). Accordingly, upper secondary qual-ifications will be developed separately but institutions are encouraged to collaborate in order to increase cost-efficiency and the accessibility of education.

The Finnish polytechnics (universities of applied sciences, UAS) were created in the 1990s as a parallel tertiary education track with a competitive status but distinct profiles and missions. By 2000, all polytechnics were established on a permanent basis. The principles underlying poly-technic education derive from a need for a highly trained expert workforce (Numminen, Lamp-

43


inen, Mykkänen & Blom, 1999). The rapid growth of industry in the field of technology and information technology in particular was linked with changes in occupational qualifications. Em-ployees were seen to face the challenge of developing competences that allow them to function as knowledge workers.

The Finnish polytechnics were developed from former vocational colleges and higher voca-tional education institutions. They have no direct international model although they do resemble the German Fachhochschulen and the Dutch HBO system (Salminen & Ylä-Anttila, 2010). At the time of the establishment of the polytechnics, the objective of the educational policy was that about 65% of each age group would complete a tertiary degree (Ahola, 1997; Lampinen, 1998).

The legacy of these educational reforms seems to be continuing. One of the key objectives of the Finnish Educational Development Plan for the period 2011–2016 includes supporting lifelong learning (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014b). The principle of lifelong learning entails that everyone has sufficient learning skills and opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills in different learning environments throughout their lifespan. This viewpoint is integrat-ed into education policy and other policy sectors relating to education and training.

As a results of the commitments undertaken in educational policy, the Finnish education system has no dead-ends. Students’ opportunities to progress from one level of education to the next are safeguarded by legislation. Both general and vocational upper secondary certificates (120 credits) provide eligibility for further studies (Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014b).

The entry requirement of the polytechnics (universities of applied sciences, UAS) is a cer-tificate from an upper secondary school or the matriculation certificate, a vocational qualification or corresponding foreign studies. The extent of polytechnic degree studies is generally 210−240 study points (ECTS), which means 3.5 – 4 years of full-time study. It is also possible to gain entrance to UAS if the UAS considers the applicant’s former knowledge and skills sufficient for studies. Typically, for example, students who have completed studies in the open UAS would be accepted into some fields. The most popular track from upper secondary education to university of applied sciences is from upper secondary general schools, but many VET graduates also con-tinue their studies in the UAS, as the following findings confirm.

Since their permanent establishment, the UAS offer a systematic route to continue vocational graduates’ studies in higher education. The follow-up study (Stenström et al., 2012) indicated that about 14% of graduates with a VET qualification from the upper secondary level have moved on to higher education at a university of applied sciences within two years of their graduation. If we look at the entrants to UAS, the picture is different. In 2003, 24% of entrants to UAS had a VET qualification as their former education background, and 13% had completed both general and vocational upper secondary education (Virolainen & Stenström, 2014; Virolainen & Valkonen, 2012, p. 122). This means that it is typical for VET graduates to apply to UAS after some years of work experience.

The following figures (Figure 9 and Figure 10) and Table 15 describe those VET graduates (14%) who entered into UAS within two years of their graduation in more detail. There seems to be a number of background factors involved in these transitions. First, the choice was more typical for female VET graduates (15%) than for males (12%). Second, the previous educational background seems to be connected to the transition to universities of applied sciences (Figure 9). Those who

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have gained the matriculation examination before VET graduation were more eager (30%) to move to higher education than others. Also, the younger graduates who had only a basic education (13%) moved to the UAS more than the others. These results are derived from additional follow-up data considering 2009, which was connected to data from the project of Stenström et al. (2012).

Figure 9. VET graduates’ continuation to UAS by previous education

Figure 10. VET graduates’ continuation to UAS by parents’ educational background

In addition, the parents’ education level is reflected in VET graduates’ further studies: the higher the parents’ educational level, the more likely it is that the graduates will continue their studies at UAS (Figure 10). Furthermore, there are differences between the fields of VET with respect to access from VET to UAS (Table 15). These differences in transitions reflect not only the individu-

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als’ and their parents’ aspirations, or differences in the grades of attendees in different educational fields, but also employment opportunities and availability of study places.

Despite the number of factors involved in the transitions processes, the figures show how over-all structural factors in society still have a strong influence on people’s educational opportunities (e.g. Furlong & Cartmel, 1997; Stenström et al., 2012; Vanttaja, 2005). Still, education policy measures are influential in shaping the degree of equity in each country’s education system. The Nordic model of comprehensive school seems to have led to smaller differences than the schools in liberal market economies (Antikainen, 2008).

Table 15. VET Graduates’ Continuation to UAS by Field of Education

Field of VET Men%

Women%

Total%

Totaln

Humanities and education 4.8 17.4 15.0 113Culture 24.0 21.6 22.4 313Social sciences, business and administration 19.2 23.4 22.1 470Natural sciences 34.8 21.4 31.6 177Technology, communication and transport 9.2 10.7 9.5 1709Natural resources and the environment 10.0 10.9 10.5 248Social services, health and sport 25.0 13.6 14.4 765Tourism, catering and domestic services 5.5 12.5 11.0 592Other 9.1 0 6.9 29Total 12.3 15.3 13.9 4416

The following example shows how support for VET students can increase the transition from VET to UAS. In Central Finland, nearly a quarter (22%) of the graduates from the Jyväskylä vo-cational institute applied to a university of applied sciences in 2013 (Stenström, 2014). This num-ber of applicants is bigger than the above mentioned number of UAS students with a vocational qualification. One reason for this is probably the Acceleration Lane Project (ALP) coordinated by JAMK University of Applied Sciences. Its aim was to diversify and strengthen the vocation-al know-how (competence) of vocational education and training students in Central Finland by creating and enabling flexible educational careers, and enhancing and rebuilding the structures of VET at secondary and tertiary level.

A starting point in ALP was to make the educational system more effective and to enhance the permeability of the secondary and tertiary vocational education so as to shorten the graduation/study times as well as the transition from upper secondary education to tertiary education, along with reduced educational overlaps and better recognition and validation of prior learning (Sten-ström, 2014). For example, the Degree Programmes of Nursing, Engineering and Business intro-duced differentiated higher education study modules that were offered to the initial VET students of Jyväskylä Educational Consortium.

These study modules were aimed at motivating the VET students to move on to (vocational)

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higher education, and to shorten students’ transition from vocational upper secondary education to higher education in their chosen subject field (Stenström, 2014). These study periods also offered a possibility for students to see what higher education studies include and what kind of skills are needed.

At the upper secondary level, the focus was particularly on the design and implementation of courses oriented toward studies in vocational higher education so that students would get a chance to gain personal experience of tertiary level studies while also obtaining competencies in line with higher education objectives at the upper secondary school (Stenström, 2014). ALP courses were targeted at general and vocational upper secondary students alike. In addition, the measures for upper secondary education involved a number of support practices for the implementation of specific courses. For example, in the practical nurse programme the teachers of this field acted as liaisons between the students and the teachers of the polytechnic and also as a kind of tutor during the specific courses.

In higher education (in the University of Applied Sciences), the development was focused on recognition of prior learning and the validation of non-formal and informal learning and the procedures for identification of previously acquired competencies. The emphasis was also on the procedures of student counselling, curriculum planning, and creating possibilities to pursue stud-ies across the educational organisations (Stenström, 2014).

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7. The esteem and position of VET

In recent years, Finnish education policy has paid much attention to the transitions from com-prehensive education to further educational levels. Almost all young people finishing compre-hensive school at the age of 16 years have access either to general upper secondary education or to upper secondary vocational education and training (Cedefop ReferNet Finland, 2012). Nearly all comprehensive school graduates apply for further studies, as barely 2% do not do so (Statis-tics Finland, 2014d). Respective admission statistics show that a total of 91% go on to further studies aiming at a qualification or degree after comprehensive school (Statistics Finland, 2014c; Myrskylä, 2011). The immediate discontinuation of studies has remained at around 9% in the 2000s (Figure 10, see also Figure 5). Traditionally, the general upper secondary education has been more popular among graduates of the 9th grade of comprehensive schools, but the amount of such applicants has decreased in the 2000s. At the same time, continuing studies in vocational upper secondary education have become more popular. A long tradition has existed in Finnish education that there is a division between general (academic) and vocational education (Lahelma, 2009). The general upper secondary education prepares students for the matriculation exami-nation giving eligibility to traditional universities, whereas the vocational education provides skills and competences for students leading mainly to working life. The general upper secondary education has long been appreciated in Finnish culture, for example by the celebration with the white student cap (Brunila, Kurki, Lahelma, Lehtonen, Mietonen & Palmu, 2011). In addition, the general upper secondary culture has become more familiar to students in lower secondary school where the academic school culture exists. Vocational education has been restructured in recent years, whereas the general upper secondary education has held its position relatively unchanged (Brunila et al., 2011). In Finland, the dichotomy between general and vocational studies has been seen to diminish as an outcome of restructuring vocational education to allow continuation of studies in tertiary education (Brunila et al., 2009). Despite the change, young people still have to choose between more academically-oriented general or vocational education when they move to the upper secondary level. Also, in tertiary education the routes (UAS and traditional science university) have related connotations. In accordance with this, educational policy defines the curricula of educational routes as more theory or practice-oriented, preparing for more or less academic or manual work. As a result, the structural division of upper secondary education into two routes, general upper secondary and vocational upper secondary education, has been reflected in the metaphors through which young people speak about these routes and their choices related to them. In general, in Finland the division is dichotomised in metaphors related to theory and practice, heads and hands, or doing rather than reading, and the metaphors are repeated by teach-ers, study counsellors and young people themselves (Lahelma, 2009; Brunila et al., 2011). Young people may, however, question the dichotomy when they have more experience of education and work (Lahelma, 2009).

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Figure 11. Immediate continuation of studies in upper secondary education in 2000–2012 in Finland (Statistics Finland, 2009b; 2014c)

In educational policy, the two upper secondary routes are described as equal options, but cultur-ally expectations related to the routes and their different outcomes seem to have a strong hold. For example, in the educational discussion on educability two competing representations of in-telligence, underlining the natural or social construction of intellectual abilities, have appeared persistent (Räty, Komulainen, & Hirva, 2012).

The popularity of vocational education and training has increased little by little since the early 2000s. The year 2009 was the first year when the majority of applicants listed a VET programme as their primary choice (Cedefop ReferNet, 2011, p. 27). While interest in vocational educa-tion has increased, after basic education one half of youths continue in general upper secondary schools in 2012 and 42% in IVET (Statistics Finland, 2009b; 2014c). Correspondingly, in 1992, 52% of students completing the comprehensive school immediately continued in general upper secondary schools and 32% in IVET (Lasonen & Stenström, 1995).

The following facts may explain the VET’s increased parity of esteem with respect to general upper secondary education: 1) upper secondary vocational education and training has been devel-oped more clearly towards the world of work during the last decade; 2) there have been several campaigns organised by the Ministry of Education and Culture and social partners to improve the image of vocational education; 3) skills competitions, like the annual Finnish National Skills Competition “Taitaja”, have also increased the popularity of VET (Cedefop ReferNet Finland, 2011); and also 4) eligibility to higher education, 5) establishment of the UAS, 6) international-isation of VET education (Stenström & Virolainen, 2014; Virolainen & Stenström, 2014). One factor that has strengthened the status of vocational education, in particular, is the establishment of universities of applied sciences in the 1990s, as they offer an attractive route to higher educa-tion for those interested in more practice-oriented studying.

Although the attraction of vocational education and training has been steadily growing, there

49


are some challenges to developing Finnish vocational education and training. One challenge is that the increased popularity of VET alongside the changing working life and competence re-quirements creates new demands on VET (Laukia, 2013). There is a need to develop the VET system to be more responsive to a heterogeneous student population, to meet the needs of those aiming to participate in skills competitions (Ruohotie, Nokelainen, & Korpelainen, 2008), and those at risk of dropping out (e.g., Kuronen, 2010).

Differences in the parity of esteem of the upper secondary education routes, and between general and vocational education, can be described by a number of their attractions (primary ap-plicants/study places) (Table 16).

Table 16. Attraction of the Upper Secondary Education (Primary Applicants/Study Places) in 2008–2013 (Finnish National Board of Education, 2014)

Study Field 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013Upper secondary general education 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.84Humanities and education 1.81 1.71 1.75 2.09 1.94 2.03Culture 1.59 1.82 2.01 2.02 2.08 2.02Social science, business and administration 1.06 1.14 1.22 1.33 1.44 1.46Natural sciences 0.90 0.99 1.06 1.05 1.15 1.25Technology, communication, and transport 1.24 1.20 1.25 1.29 1.27 1.23Natural resources and the environment 0.91 1.00 1.13 1.20 1.10 1.15Social services, health, and sport 1.88 1.90 2.13 2.16 2.19 2.18Tourism, catering, and domestic services 0.80 0.85 1.02 1.13 1.14 1.08Total 1.05 1.08 1.15 1.19 1.19 1.19

The indicators of the attraction of upper secondary education show that the attraction of general education has remained stable from 2008 until now. Upper secondary general (academic) schools have more study places than applicants, whereas the vocational institutions have less study places than applicants. The situation in VET varies between different educational fields. The most at-tractive field is social services, health and sport, then come the fields of humanities and education, and culture. The least attractive field in VET seems to be tourism, catering, and domestic services. However, the increased number of applicants to VET may partially be an outcome of unemploy-ment, and recession since 2008.

In addition, there are differences between the VET study fields by gender (Table 17). The fe-male-dominated fields are social services, health, and sport, humanities and education, tourism, catering, and domestic services, culture, whereas the male-dominated fields are technology, com-munication, and transport, other field (e.g. security sector), and natural sciences (ICT).

It seems that vocational education often follows the gender-segregated patterns of the la-bour market (Stenström, 1997). Women work chiefly in social and personal services, whereas male-dominated areas are industry-related. A basic feature of gender-based divisions in occu-pations and in the labour market is that women are mainly engaged in work that involves other

50


people and their immediate well-being and maintenance. Women and men work in different fields and, even within the same field, in different positions.

Table 17. New VET Students by Study Fields in 2013 (Statistics Finland, 2014d)

Field of VET Men(N=25463)

%

Women(N=23472)

%

Total(N=48935)

%Humanities and education 23.7 76.3 100.0Culture 34.0 66.0 100.0Social science, business and administration 40.4 59.6 100.0Natural sciences 87.2 12.8 100.0Technology, communication, and transport 80.4 19.6 100.0Natural resources and the environment 44.8 55.2 100.0Social services, health, and sport 12.9 87.1 100.0Tourism, catering, and domestic services 30.3 69.7 100.0Other field 82.4 17.6 100.0Total 52.0 48.0 100.0

On the whole, the percentage of women among all new students in education leading to a qualifi-cation was 54% in 2012 (Figure 12). Of students in upper secondary general schools, 57% were women and in vocational education 51% were women. Among polytechnic students, the percent-age of women was 57% and among university students 56%.

Figure 12. New students in education leading to a qualification or degree by sector of education and gender in 2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014a)

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8. Socially inclusive VET and dropouts

In the Nordic universalistic regime, which is dominant in Finland, education and training path-ways are planned to be inclusive and flexible to individual choice (Walther, 2006; 2009). Young people are not regarded as just a future resource, but they are supported in their individual choices and transitions, and the purpose is to provide everyone with at least a secondary level education (Sweet, 2009; Walther, 2006). The Finnish model encourages lifelong education, so that transi-tions between educational levels and to work would be as flexible as possible (Stenström et al., 2012).

Dropping out can be examined from the respective viewpoints of individuals, schools, the ed-ucation system, and society (Kouvo, Stenström, Virolainen & Vuorinen-Lampila 2011; Kuronen, 2011). At the level of the education system and society, dropping out is reflected in a slower tran-sition to employment, possible decrease in educational attainment, and general experience of fail-ure for the young people who dropped out of education and consequently are at risk of exclusion (Komonen, 2012; Stenström et al., 2012). Dropout rates have been decreasing since the beginning of the 21st century, but the absolute number of dropouts has not fallen much, nor has the number of students who gain their qualifications in the target time been growing as desired (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2012b).

Despite the increased popularity of the Finnish vocational institutes and the fact that dropping out has diminished during the first decade of the 21st century, vocational schools still have the highest dropout rates in upper secondary education in Finland (Rinne & Järvinen, 2011). Drop-ping out was highest (8.7%) in VET as compared to the other educational levels and sectors (general upper secondary education 3.5%, UAS 8.5%, and universities 6.4%) during the academic year 2011/2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014a). Men discontinued more often than women, except for vocational education (women 9.3% and men 8.3%).

Table 18 describes the trend of discontinuation in different educational levels in ten academic years, from 2000/2001 to 2011/2012. The percentage of discontinuation of upper secondary gen-eral education seems to be quite stable at around 4% during these ten years. The discontinuation in vocational education has decreased from 13.1% to 8.7%. In 2011/2012, the percentage of dis-continuation among polytechnic students was almost the same (8.5%) as in VET. Although the discontinuation of university education is lower (6%) than in the polytechnics, it seems to have increased slightly in recent years.

Closer inspection of discontinuation by VET study fields indicates that education was discon-tinued most often in the field of natural sciences (ICT) (Table 19). Discontinuation was, in relative terms, the least in the field of humanities and education, social sciences, health and sports, and in the field of “other” that includes fire and rescue training. As a whole, the discontinuation has decreased in VET in recent years.

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Table 18. Discontinuation of Education in Upper Secondary General, Vocational, Polytechnic and University Education in Academic Years 2000/2001–2011/2012 (Statistics Finland, 2014e)

Academic year Upper secondary general education

%

Vocational education

%

Polytechnic education

%

University education

%2000/2001 4.2 13.1 9.5 4.22001/2002 4.1 12.3 7.6 5.32002/2003 3.7 11.3 8.2 5.02003/2004 3.8 10.7 8.4 4.82004/2005 3.9 10.5 8.7 5.42005/2006 4.2 10.5 9.2 5.82006/2007 4.2 10.2 9.0 5.62007/2008 4.5 9.8 9.2 6.12008/2009 3.9 8.5 8.6 6.22009/2010 4.0 9.1 8.6 5.92010/2011 4.0 9.1 8.8 6.52011/2012 3.5 8.7 8.5 6.4

Table 19. Discontinuation of VET Students by Year and Study Field (Statistics Finland, 2014e)

Field of VET 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012Humanities and education 6.0 5.9 6.8 7.5 6.4Culture 9.3 7.9 8.0 8.2 7.9Social science, business and administration

9.5 8.3 8.2 7.7 7.7

Natural sciences 13.5 11.3 11.6 12.4 10.6Technology, communication, and transport

8.3 6.8 7.6 7.6 7.5

Natural resources and the environment

11.6 11.6 10.2 10.6 9.7

Social services, health, and sport 7.0 6.2 6.5 6.9 6.4Tourism, catering, and do-mestic services

10.6 9.2 10.6 10.0 9.4

Other field 2.0 2.2 1.9 2.0 1.3Total 8.9 7.6 8.1 8.1 7.8

The regional differences in the discontinuation and completions of studies are pictured in Table 20. They reflect the complexity of factors effecting the completion of studies. For example, in

53


the only metropolitan area of Finland, which is situated in the Uusimaa, the completion rate is the lowest. There, young people have more employment opportunities, which may result in non-completion. On the contrary, in North-Carelia, where youth unemployment has been high, the completion rates of VET are very high.

Table 20. Progress of VET Studies by the Different Finnish Regions (Statistics Finland, 2014h)

Region Completion of qualification

%

Prolonged studies

%

Dropped out%

Total(n=6447)

%

n

Uusimaa 59.0 11.3 29.7 100.0 1326East-Uusimaa 59.2 11.1 29.7 100.0 135South-West Finland 67.7 4.7 27.6 100.0 487Satakunta 66.0 8.2 25.9 100.0 306Häme 66.5 8.3 25.3 100.0 289Tampere region 69.7 8.0 22.3 100.0 539Päijät-Häme 60.8 14.0 25.2 100.0 222Kymenlaakso 66.0 8.0 26.1 100.0 226South Karelia 68.1 8.4 23.5 100.0 166South Savo 58.4 11.5 30.1 100.0 226North Savo 73.3 6.0 20.7 100.0 348North Karelia 78.6 6.0 15.5 100.0 219Central Finland 68.7 6.4 24.9 100.0 342South Ostrobothnia 73.3 5.7 21.0 100.0 318Ostrobothnia 74.2 6.5 19.4 100.0 201Central Ostrobothnia 74.1 6.9 19.0 100.0 131North Ostrobothnia 68.5 8.5 23.1 100.0 520Kainuu 71.9 10.9 17.1 100.0 82Lapland 69.4 9.4 21.3 100.0 330Åland 64.7 0.0 35.3 100.0 34

The non-completion of studies provides a complementary picture of the progress of VET studies. It can be seen from the perspective of progress of studies when one starting cohort is followed through their expected study time. In Figure 13, the progress of studies is described year by year differentiated by educational fields (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012). Furthermore, in Figure 14 dif-ferent age-groups are compared and it can be seen how, among the students starting in vocational education in 2004, almost a quarter (23%) discontinued their studies in 2004–2009, as revealed by a recent study (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012). In the study, a cohort of those who started their studies in 2004 was followed throughout the expected span of their VET programme, and the resulting figures are in line with the general dropout rate of the starting cohort of VET students (25% in 5½ years in 2012) (Statistics Finland, 2014h).

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Figure 13. Progress of studies by field in VET (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012)

The results of the study indicate that a primary factor connected to graduation or dropping out was the student’s starting age (see Figure 14; Stenström & Valkonen, 2012). The older the students were when starting, the more likely they discontinued their studies. The background factors had different connections to graduation for different age groups. The youngest were more likely to complete their studies, especially when compared to the older ones with prior education higher than just the compulsory school. In other age groups too, previous education had a connection to the completion of the VET programme. These results are consistent with earlier research findings (Mehtäläinen, 2001). Besides age, dropping out has been connected with gender.

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Figure 14. VET students’ careers by gender

One of the current debates with respect to education concerns male students becoming excluded from society as labour market requirements increase (Cedefop ReferNet Finland, 2011). Dropping out was more common for men (25%) than for women (20%). In addition, dropping out showed a connection to previous education; those having a vocational qualification before pursuing another one ended up discontinuing their studies more often than others (Figure 15). Dropping out also seems to be connected with employment. Compared to the graduating students, the dropouts were more often unemployed 5 years after the start of their studies (Stenström & Valkonen, 2012). In a society where the significance of education and qualifications is highlighted, young people without such attainments have less choice of available jobs and they end up with low paying jobs with little educational demands and poor prospects for career advancement more often than others (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007).

During the last few decades, there have been attempts to reduce young people’s dropping out of education as well as the interruption of vocational schooling, for example by increasing career guidance and individual counselling both in basic and upper secondary education and by paying special attention to the teaching and learning of certain “risk-groups” of young people. A similar kind of special education that has been available in basic education for decades has now been in-troduced in vocational education and training as well (Rinne & Järvinen, 2011; Vanttaja & Rinne, 2008, p. 45).

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Figure 15. VET students’ employment status five years after they started their studies

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9. Challenges of Finnish VET

Although the attraction of vocational education and training has been steadily growing, there are some challenges to developing the Finnish vocational education and training. On one hand, dropouts create a challenge. On the other hand, the increased popularity of VET with the changing working life and competence requirements create new demands on VET (Laukia, 2013).

Study results considering inter-school reasons for dropping out have underlined the meaning of well-being and how it affects schools’ atmospheres. It has been noted that teachers’ motivation affects the quality of education and interaction with students and vice versa. Heterogeneous stu-dent groups create a challenge for organising education (Rantanen & Vehviläinen, 2007). Youth has also become more demanding with respect to education, while the post-Second World War period has been reflected in the welfare-states’ shift from a generation of limited educational re-sources (the generation born before 1935) to a generation of multiple opportunities and welfare (the generation born post-1956) (Kauppila, 2013).

In order to tackle the exclusion of young people, the Finnish Youth Guarantee was launched at the beginning of 2013 (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2013). It will offer everyone under the age of 25, as well as recent graduates under 30, a job, on-the-job training, a study place or rehabilitation within three months of their becoming unemployed. Its intention is to prevent young people from being excluded from society.

In addition, the instrument of preparatory instruction has been developed to lower the thresh-old of education and training and to reduce dropouts. The aim of this instruction is to improve students’ capacities to obtain a place in vocational education and training. Such instruction takes six months between basic education and vocational education and training (ReferNet Finland, 2012). In addition, so-called youth workshops offer training and work experience placements to unemployed young people under 29 years of age. They offer a place for young people to learn life skills, grow into adulthood and get hands-on work experience, encouraging and helping them to seek further training.

In order to respond to the requirements of the changing world of work, the flexibility of voca-tional qualifications has been further increased, for example diversifying opportunities to include modules from other vocational qualifications (further and specialist vocational qualifications) or UAS degrees (ReferNet Finland, 2012). Furthermore, students will be supported by implement-ing flexible and supportive practices such as improved recognition of prior learning.

Several reforms are ongoing in the Finnish education system. They challenge the present sta-tus of Finnish VET and they deserve follow-up. These include the restructuring of the network of upper secondary education providers (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014d); the curriculum reform which will be implemented from August 2015 (Laki ammatillisesta koulutuk-sesta annetun lain muuttamisesta 787/2014; Valtioneuvoston asetus ammatillisen perustutkinnon muodostumisesta 801/2014; Finnish National Board of Education, 2014b); effects of the Social Guarantee for Young People (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2013; Ministry of Ed-ucation and Culture, Finland, 2014f); and redirection of apprenticeship training toward youths (Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, 2014f). All of these changes may affect the transi-tion patterns of young people. The network of educational institutions affects the accessibility of

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upper secondary education in the regions and may result in uneven provision of VET in different regions, unless it is carefully planned. The restructuring of the curriculum aims to introduce more a competence-based orientation in VET, but it should still provide young people with academic skills that allow the continuation of studies in tertiary education. The recent policy aiming to tar-get apprenticeship training combined with school-based training to youths without employment or education seems to be quite a contradictory shift. Traditionally, apprenticeship has been a route for adult education and thus served the needs of further and specialist education. It remains to be seen whether the shift suggested by educational policy is welcomed by employers.

Several studies have indicated that transitions from youth to adulthood and from studies to work have changed (e.g. Raffe, 2008; Thomson et al., 2002). Today, transitions involve movement back and forth, and individual educational paths may lead in many different directions before es-tablishing a more permanent position in the labour market. In the course of an individual’s life in our post-modern society, the transitions can be characterised by individualisation, inconsistency, prolongation and fragmentation (Walther, 2006). Youth transitions have not only been prolonged but also de-standardised. According to Walther (2006), this process is related to such factors as extended periods in education, labour market flexibility and the trend of individualisation. These characteristics have been referred to using the metaphorical term of “yo-yo transitions” (Walther, 2006). These yo-yo transitions represent the period of shift between youth and adulthood.

Transitions between youth and adulthood can be examined as involving a complex system of socio-economic structures, institutional arrangements and cultural patterns. The characteristic welfare system of each country influences transitions at the macro level. Walther (2006) examines the transition regimes of 11 countries on the basis of the welfare regime categories of Gallie and Paugam (2000). He divides transition regimes into four groups: 1) universalistic regimes, 2) lib-eral regimes, 3) employment-centred regimes, and 4) regimes of low security.

The universalistic transition regime in Nordic countries is based on a comprehensive school system. At the individual level, young adults are encouraged and supported in experimenting with yo-yo transitions by individualised education and welfare options. Youth is associated with active self-development through education. Young people are not regarded as just a future resource, but instead are supported in their individual choices and transitions, and the purpose is to provide everyone with at least a secondary level education (Walther, 2006; Sweet, 2009).

The Finnish policy is in line with the universalistic regime, in which young people’s individual choices and transitions are supported. The results of the five-year follow-up study (Stenström et al., 2012) show that yo-yo transitions are evident in the Finnish education system as well (Walther, 2006). Young people proceed from one educational level to another in a nonlinear fashion. This finding seems to be in line with Beck’s (1999) feature of risk society (i.e. individualisation), although the social background could also still be seen as connected to the young people’s edu-cational careers. Structural factors and the educational opportunities provided in a society have a strong influence on people’s educational choices (Furlong & Cartmel, 1997; Vanttaja, 2005). In accordance, education policy measures are influential in shaping the degree of equity, transition patterns and people’s employability in each country’s education system.

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67


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Appendix 1

Table 1. The change in the numbers of vocational institutions 2005, 2010, and 2013 (adapted from Official Statistics of Finland, Statistical Database PX-Web Statfin, Koulutuksen järjestäjät ja oppilaitokset [Providers of education and educational institutions])

Ownership¹ Vocational institutes

Special needs vocational institutes

Specialised vocational institutes

Vocational adult educa-tion centres

2005PrivateStateMunicipalityFederation of Mu-nicipalitiesCounty of ÅlandTotal

300

29

1176

182

750

10

13

3721

00

40

1506

170


302

13

816

132

600

006

3220

00

34

1103

110


3028

791

120

600

006

3220

00

34

1203

100

25¹ Includes the whole country and all teaching languages.

71


Table 2. Students and vocational institutions 2005, 2010, and 2013

Year Vocational institutes, with1-99 students 100-299

students300-499 students

500-999 students

more than 1000students

2005 12 48 35 47 38

2010 3 30 20 28 49

2013 2 26 19 30 41

Note: Adopted from Statistics Finland’s Statistical Database PX-Web Statfin, Koulutuksen järjestäjät ja oppilaitokset [Providers of education and educational institutions].

Table 3. Number of students in vocational institutions 2010, 2013

Institutions 2010 2013

Vocational institutes 182 800 173 200

Special needs vocational institutes 5 300 5 000

Specialised vocational institutes 22 900 12 900

Vocational adult education centres 43 100 36 500

Note: Adopted from Official Statistics of Finland. 2011. Providers of education and educational institutions [e-pub-

lication] http://www.stat.fi/til/kjarj/2010/kjarj_2010_2011-02-17_tie_001_en.html and Official Statistics of Fin-

land. 2014. Providers of education and educational institutions [e-publication http://www.stat.fi/til/kjarj/2013/

kjarj_2013_2014-02-13_tie_001_en.html]

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Appendix 2

The fields of VET and their study programmes

Humanities and Education• Vocational Qualification in Child Care and Education and Family Welfare, Children’s Instruc-

tor 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Sign Language Instruction 2010• Vocational Qualification in Youth and Leisure Instruction 2009

Culture• Vocational Qualification in Audio-Visual Communication 2010,

◦ Amendments 2012• Vocational Qualification in Crafts and Design, Artisan 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Circus Arts 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Dance 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Music 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Visual Expression, Visual Artisan 2010 • Further Qualification in Handicraft 2007

Social Sciences, Business and Administration• Vocational Qualification in Business and Administration 2009 • Further Qualification in Estate Agency Services 2011 • Further Vocational Qualification in Foreign Trade 2012

Natural Sciences• Vocational Qualification in Information and Communications Technology 2010 • Technology, Communication and Transport• Vocational Qualification in Air Traffic Control 2010• Vocational Qualification in Aircraft Maintenance 2010• Vocational Qualification in Boat-building 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Building Maintenance Technology 2010• Vocational Qualification in Construction 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Electrical Engineering and Automation Technology 2009• Vocational Qualification in Food Production 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Information and Telecommunications Technology 2009• Vocational Qualification in Laboratory Technology, Laboratory Technologist 2009• Vocational Qualification in Land Surveying 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Logistics 2009• Vocational Qualification in Metalwork and Machinery 2010• Vocational Qualification in Mining 2009

73


• Vocational Qualification in Plastics and Rubber Technology 2010• Vocational Qualification in Processing Industry 2010• Vocational Qualification in Property Maintenance Services 2010• Vocational Qualification in Publishing and Printing 2010• Vocational Qualification in Safety and Security 2010• Vocational Qualification in Seafaring 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Surface Treatment Technology 2010• Vocational Qualification in Technical Design 2010• Vocational Qualification in Textiles and Clothing 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Upholstery and Interior Design 2009• Vocational Qualification in Vehicle Technology 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Watchmaking and Micromechanics 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Wood Processing 2010 • Specialist Qualification in Management 2011

Natural Resources and the Environment• Vocational Qualification in Agriculture 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Fishery 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Forestry 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Horse Care and Management 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Horticulture 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Natural and Environmental Protection 2009 • Further Qualification in Hiking and Nature Services 2012 • Further Qualification for Riding Instructors 2012

Social Services, Health and Sport• Vocational Qualification in Beauty Care 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Dental Technology, Dental Laboratory Assistant 2010• Vocational Qualification in Hairdressing, Hairdresser 2009 • Vocational Qualification in Pharmaceutics 2010• Vocational Qualification in Social and Health Care, Practical Nurse 2010

◦ Amendments 2011 • Vocational Qualification in Sports, Sports Assistant 2010• Further Qualification for Chiropodists 2010 • Further Qualification for Masseurs/Masseuses 2011 • Specialist Qualification in Beauty Care 2011

◦ For example the study programmes or specialisations (the third year) for vocational quali-fication (VQ) in Social and Health Care, Practical Nurse are as follows: ▫ Customer Services and Information Management ▫ Emergency Care ▫ Rehabilitation

74


▫ Children’s and Youth Care and Education ▫ Mental Health and Substance Abuse Welfare Work ▫ Nursing and Care ▫ Oral and Dental Care ▫ Care for the Disabled ▫ Care for the Elderly

Tourism, Catering and Domestic Services• Vocational Qualification in Hotel, Restaurant and Catering Services 2010 • Vocational Qualification in Household and Cleaning Services 2010 • Vocational Qualification in the Tourism Industry 2009 Further Qualification for Hotel Recep-

tionists 2011 • Further Qualification for Tourist Guides 2011

Adapted from: Finnish National Board of Education. (2011). Requirements for Vocational Qualifications. Voca-

tional qualification in social and health care, practical nurse. Publications, 21. Helsinki: Finn-ish National Board of Education. Retrieved from http://www.oph.fi/download/140436_voca-tional_qualification_in_social_and_healthcare_2010.pdf

Finnish National Board of Education. (2014). Vocational upper secondary education. Retrieved from http://www.oph.fi/english/curricula_and_qualifications/vocational_upper_secondary_education

75


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76


Appendix 3

Table 1. The number of apprentices in Finland 1997–2012: Students, new entrants, and graduates who have participated in education for initial, further, and specialist vocational qualifications

Year Students New entrants Graduates

199719981999200020012002200320042005200620071

20082

20093

20104

20115

20126

20137

27,61338,90835,31636,02938,96341,45945,32147,68551,30754,63263,29570,03765,99759,70256,87655,55451,466

15,12819,76411,05815,38516,84718,10219,31619,14220,06621,79328,37528,01320,12121,67421,97720,91118,228

4,1718,1427,9867,5017,7807,9098,48911,41512,47112,56110,98012,19314,32014,30613,27113,03912, 869

Note: All data have been adapted from Statistics Finland.Years 1997–2006: Statistics Finland (2008a). Oppisopimuskoulutukseen osallistuneet, uudet opiskelijat ja todistuksen

saaneet 1997–2006 (Excel, 21.5.). Http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2006/04/aop_2006_04_2007-11-01_tie_004.html.1) (2008b). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 63 300 osallistujaa vuonna 2007. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2007/04/aop_2007_04_2008-11-03_tie_004.html.2) (2009a). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 70 000 osallistujaa vuonna 2008. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2008/04/aop_2008_04_2009-11-03_tie_004.html.3) (2010). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 66 000 osallistujaa vuonna 2009. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2009/04/aop_2009_04_2010-11-03_tie_004_fi.html.4) (2011). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 59 700 osallistujaa vuonna 2010. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2010/04/aop_2010_04_2011-11-03_tie_004_fi.html.5) (2012). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 56 900 osallistujaa vuonna 2011. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2011/04/aop_2011_04_2012-11-06_tie_004_fi.html.6) (2013c). Oppisopimuskoulutuksessa 55 600 osallistujaa vuonna 2012. http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2012/04/aop_2012_04_2013-11-06_tie_004_fi.html.7) (2014). Ammatillisessa koulutuksessa 313 600 opiskelijaa vuonna 2013. Liitetaulukko 1. Ammatillisen koulutuk-

sen uudet opiskelijat koulutuslajeittain 2013, Liitetaulukko 2. Ammatillisen koulutuksen opiskelijat koulutuslajeit-tain 2013, Liitetaulukko 3. Ammatillisen koulutuksen tutkinnon suorittaneet koulutuslajeittain 2013.

http://www.stat.fi/til/aop/2013/aop_2013_2014-09-23_tie_001_fi.html.

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