The CIO's chief concern: Communication

ELSEVIER Information & Management 27 (1994) 129-137

Case Study

The CIO’s chief concern: Communication

Charlotte Stephens *, Thomas Loughman Abbott Turner School of Business, Columbus College, 3600 Algonquin Dr., Columbus, GA 31907-2079, USA

Abstract

Because they discuss complex issues with top management and business unit managers who are often outside the information system function, Chief Information Officers (CIOs) must be able to communicate clearly, without overusing technical jargon. This study, employing empirical research, presents both quantitative and qualitative information about five CIOs in five industry types. Each CIO was observed for one week to determine his work activities. Observations took place over a period of 215 work hours. A narrative of events, conversations, and mail was also maintained to assist with a qualitative analysis of the observations. The qualitative section of the study describes and analyzes metaphors used by the CIOs. By explaining complex issues metaphorically, the CIOs were able to convey ideas effectively and powerfully to a variety of functional managers.

Key words: Analogy; Chief Information Officer; Communication; Information technology; Mintzberg; Metaphors

1. Introduction

A new management role emerged in the 1980’s, the Chief Information Officer or CIO. The CIO’s areas of responsibility include information systems, computer operations, telecommunications, office automation, and end user computing. This executive is the highest-ranking information technology (IT) executive in the organization and reports no more than two levels away from the CEO. The title most commonly assigned this new role is Senior Vice President or Vice President [4]. Brumm’s survey of 111 CIOs showed the average annual salary to be $186,000.

* Corresponding author.

The CIO’s objective is to enable the organization to deploy IT as a competitive weapon, as a means to gain and sustain a competitive advantage. The CIO is a change agent whose goal is to increase the organization’s ability to adapt to a changing environment. According to John Dono- van [7], the CIO’s ability to bridge the gap between IT and strategic objectives is a matter of survival:

If they [information managers] don’t move to the strategic end, they will be lost. And so will the companies they serve. I am talking about survival. . . . Even our economic power base is at risk. History shows that wherever economic power goes, ideologic power follows. What happens if economic power shifts from the U.S. to Japan?

037%7206/94/$07.00 0 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved SSDI 0378-7206(94)E0056-A

130 C. Stephens, T. Loughman /Information & Management 27 (1994) 129-137

In a survey sponsored by Arthur Andersen and Company [31, CEOs were “nearly unanimous in believing that information technology could give their firms competitive advantage.”

However, this survey also “clearly indicates that very few CEOs know how to accomplish this objective.” Despite the fact that “IS [Information Systems] now touches every business activity of a company offering a product or service - from conceptualization, design, and production, to marketing, distribution and support” [12], few CEOs are familiar with IT. CEOs need a CIO who can guide the organization’s use of IT.

O’Riordan [ 111 described CIOs who will be successful in guiding the organization’s use of IT. The successful CIO must 1. be a business person more than a technical

specialist,

technology from a business perspective, 4. be innovative and flexible, 5. and communicate well.

2. maintain an overall view of business needs, 3. cross department boundaries and understand

Synnott [13] has said that the CIO must be able to operate in a decentralized organization where influence is more important than control. The CIO’s role is a critical one and different from that of the IS manager of past decades.

Perhaps the most important difference today is the CIO’s increased contact with top management and business unit managers. This is the source of the CIO’s greatest concern, according to a survey conducted by Andersen Consulting [15]. The survey asked 120 IS executives from the Fortune 500 to select their top ten concerns from a list. Communication with top management, functional managers, and end users was listed by 92% of these executives while only 74% of them listed “translating information technology into competitive advantage.” While providing a competitive advantage is the CIO’s reason for being, we can conclude from this that doing so is not the CIO’s chief concern.

This paper presents a study of five CIOs’ communications from quantitative and qualitative perspectives. After a brief summary of the study and quantitative results, the paper focuses on how these five CIOs use metaphorical language

to communicate with top management, functional managers, and end users.

2. Studying the successful CIO

The research on this new role has, to date, been largely prescriptive. Observation of successful CIOs on a day-to-day basis has been lacking. The study described here is based on empirical research. The five Chief Information Officers se- lected for this study met the following criteria: - highest ranking IT executive in their organiza-

tions - reported no more than two levels from Chief

Executive Officer - areas of responsibility included IS, computer

operations, telecommunications, office automation, end user computing/information center

- responsible for strategic planning of information resources. Indicators of effectiveness were also consid-

ered. The manufacturing CIO had recently received the Society for Information Management’s Partners in Excellence Award and was an advisor to MIT’s Center for Information Systems Re- search. The university CIO was on the Board of NeXT Computers, advisor to the National Sci- ence Foundation, and had written over sixty arti- cles, many concerning the use of IT in higher education. He had successfully implemented IT programs at two other universities. The insurance company had recently been named by Forbes

magazine as one of the most innovative in the United States. Both the government agency and utility company CIOs were recommended by academic researchers familiar with their work. Three of the five had graduate business degrees.

These five CIOs in five industry types (Table 1) were each observed continuously for one work week, for a total of 215 work hours. During these, 623 activities were observed: 109 scheduled meetings, 176 unscheduled meetings, 174 telephone calls, 42 tours, and 122 desk work sessions. The methodology employed was that employed by Mintzberg [14]. During this time, any change in participants or medium (meeting, call, tour, desk

Table 1

CIOs’ background

C. Stephens, T. Loughman /Information & Management 27 (1994) 129-137 131

Manager A B C D E

Position Title

Type Company

Experience _ as CIO _ with organization _ in industry

CIO Sr. VP

insurance

2 yrs.

5 yrs.

20 yrs.

CIO Vice Provost

university

2 yrs

2 yrs.

22 yrs.

CIO Sr. VP

manufacturing

8 yrs. 26 yrs.

26 yrs.

CIO Director

government

agency

1.5 yrs.

7 yrs.

15 yrs.

CIO

Sr. VP and CIO

utilities

3 yrs.

27 yrs.

27 yrs.

Size A (insurance): annual revenues of $553 million, assets of $6 billion, 16 million IT budget

B (university): IT personnel budget $4.1 million annually

C (manufacturing): annual sales of $600 million D (govt. Agency): annual budget of IS division over $150 million

E (utilities): annual revenues of $7.5 billion, assets of $20 billion

work) signalled the end of one activity and the beginning of another. The observer categorized each activity by several variables, including: medium, participants, location, purpose, and who initiated the activity. Each piece of mail was also categorized, but desk work was timed as one activity. Each verbal contact was timed. These were then entered into a database for quantitative analysis. A narrative of events, conversations, and mail was also maintained to assist with a qualitative analysis of the observations. We first present quantitative results and then focus on qualitative aspects of the study. The quantitative results reveal the importance of verbal communication.

3. Quantitative results

Verbal communication during scheduled meetings, unscheduled meetings, and telephone calls consumed much of the CIO’s day (Figure 1). Using a summary of the coded activities (Table 21, we can portray an average day in the life of these CIOs. During eight-hours, the CIO would spend five hours in meetings, four in scheduled meetings and one in unscheduled meetings. Tele- phone calls would require three quarters of an hour, and tours or “walk abouts” about 10 min- utes. Between meetings, calls, and tours, the CIO would work at his desk, usually in half hour

“snatches,” for about two hours. Written communication was an important part of desk work, with the CIO initiating a letter, memo, or report during three out of four daily desk work sessions.

Communication (phone or face-to-face) consumed almost 6 hours of the workday. Mintzberg’s [14] study of five CEOs yielded similar results. Even when the CIO was alone, written communication, or what one CIO called “wordsmithing,” was an important task. The target of this communication was outside the IT unit more often than inside it (Figure 2). Therefore, knowledge of technical jargon or IT could not be assumed. The quantitative analysis of the work weeks of these

Scheduled Meetings 475%

Desk

Tours 20%

Calls 89%

nscheduled Meetings 13.9%

Fig. 1. Time analysis by medium.


Table 2

Time summary by medium

DESK WORK

No. of sessions

Time on desk work (hours)

Average duration (min.) Proportion of time

TELEPHONE CALLS

Number of calls

Time on telephone (hours)

Average duration (min.)

Proportion of time

SCHEDULED MEETINGS

Number of meetings

Time in meetings (hours)


Proportion of time

UNSCHEDULED MEETINGS

Number of meetings

Time in meetings (hours)


Proportion of time

TOURS

Number of tours

Time in tours (hours)


Proportion of time

122

59.45 29

28%

174

18.63

6

9%

109

103.2

59

48%

176

30.33 11

14%

42

3.36 6

2%

five CIOs reveals why 92% of the Fortune 500 CIOs ranked communication with those outside the IT unit as their chief concern. They spent most of their time communicating, most of which took place outside their own unit.

From non-IT Unit

From IT $nit 42

Fig. 2. Participant analysis.

Influence or persuasion was critical, and media characterized by Lengel and Daft [9] as “rich” predominate, with the richest kinds of media, face-to-face interaction, consuming 63% of the work day.

4. Qualitative results

Richness in communications was not restricted to media employed. CIOs also used figurative or metaphorical language rather than relying on the literal or discursive level. In each of the five organizations, the CIO distinguished himself in two ways: (1) ability to read ongoing situations from others’

perspective;

(2) skilled use of metaphorical language. Seeking the appropriate metaphor or analogy

seemed to sharpen the CIOs’ ability to read situations from others’ perspective (empathy). This empathy, or ability to “get inside someone’s head,” is becoming more critical to IS profession- als, especially given the move away from tradi- tional transaction processing systems to Decision- Expert (DSS-ESS) and Communication (CSS) Support Systems [ 11.

4.1. The nature of metaphor

Metaphors and analogies (expanded metaphors) create interaction between two ideas re- sulting in a meaning that has a more powerful impact than either idea alone. According to I.A. Richards [16], “In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction.” For example, “Man is a wolf.” According to Richards, “The metaphor selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes features of the principal subject [man] as the ‘tenor’ by implying statements about it that nor- mally apply to the subsidiary subject [wolf] as the ‘vehicle.“’ Relying heavily upon imagery, metaphors can promote an emotional engagement not ordinarily activated by simple exhortations or logical analyses.


According to Chandler [51, “The past decade has witnessed a newfound interest in figurative language.” The study of organizational change has begun to focus on the use of metaphor by change agents [6]. Metaphors can be used effectively during each of Lewin’s [B] three stages of change: unfreezing, moving, and freezing. Bridges [2] gives the example of announcing a plant closing as the ship’s last voyage, allowing time for the crew to plan their future after this final voyage. Rather than describing this closing time in terms of the problems being experienced by the organization, in a sinking ship metaphor, a planned final voyage metaphor was employed. Bridges reports that output unexpectedly increased during this period, and management attributed much of the success to the mental and emotional mindset created by the metaphor.

4.2. Examples of CIOs using metaphorical lan-

guage

Table 3 summarizes the examples of metaphorical language discussed in this article, identi-

Table 3

Tenor and vehicle of metaphors employed

fying both the primary idea (tenor) and the subsidiary idea with which it is linked (vehicle).

Not only are the communication media employed by these five successful CIOs rich, but the language itself is persuasive as well as informa- tive. Communication skills were essential to the CIO’s role as change agent.

4.3. The insurance company CIO

IT had been used to expand the insurance company’s product base and improve customer service. A new business strategy, adopted in the early 1980’s, had thrust IT into a strategic position, and a new executive position, Senior Vice President of the Information Services Division, had been created. Acting as a CIO, this executive quickly gained power in the senior management circle and became the chairman of the strategic planning group. However, other senior executives - all of whom had been with the organization for years - seemed to resent the territory gained by this newcomer. His influence with the CEO

Tenor Vehicle

All functional areas must work together if the company is to World War II’s D-Day

survive and succeed

We must work together, emphasizing each others’ strengths, if Playing doubles in tennis with one’s spouse

we are to bring this project and other projects to successful

completion dates.

The field support group can not allow transmission failures Caring for a baby on an iron lung

because these failures can lead to the loss of independent

sales agents and eventually, to declining market share.

Effecting a culture change in a large organization is a very Performing maintenance on a Boeing 747 aircraft while tne

difficult and dangerous job. aircraft is in flight

The CIO is uncertain of the appropriate level of detail to use Painting a picture with a broad brush, providing an impression, or

when he presents the new organizational structure to one with a fine brush, providing much detail and realism

operating company president.

Revising guidelines for a government agency with extensive Digging bottomless pit contract services is a time consuming, tedious, and seemingly

endless, task.

Effective writing requires a careful selection and manipula- Wordsmithing or blacksmith’s work tion of words.

Changes should be implemented in an incremental manner Farmer using pitchfork to distribute hay from bales instead of all at once.


proved hard to maintain, and he eventually left the organization. The current CIO inherited this turf battle.

When the new, state-of-the-art Data Center was dedicated, the current CIO employed a powerful metaphor in a humorous way to explode this old pattern of win-lose relationships, of internal turf battles. His speech at the opening of the new Data Center compared the move without an in- terruption in services to World War II’s D-Day operation. Well-known character traits were used to humorously portray senior managers as mili- tary figures who contributed to this historic operation’s success. The cast included the CEO as President Roosevelt, the operations manager as General Patton, IBM’s representative as General Montgomery, the First Senior Vice President as General George Marshall, the project manager for the new facility as General Eisenhower. The CIO portrayed himself as a paratrooper. He caused a wave of laughter when he described his role in the D-Day victory: “My job as a paratrooper was twofold. First, to go behind enemy lines and secure forward positions and second, to disrupt communications and bring about confu- sion. I’ve always been really good at that second job.”

The organization had created a very visible new center of power, symbolized by the new building, its elegant furnishings, and mysterious equipment. Yet other senior managers left as conquering heroes and not as managers whose power had been diminished. Many left with new nicknames. Most importantly, they were all in the same army or on the same team, joined in a common, critical effort. The battle had been re- defined. The enemy was not within. The enemy was in the insurance marketplace. To win would require coordinated effort, a strong alliance which would not permit turf battles.

4.4. The university CIO

The university CJO, or Vice Provost of Infor- mation Technology, held a newly created position in this prestigious, private, Southern university. This position was created as part of a reorganiza- tion. He was hired to lead the new Division with

responsibility for academic computing, administrative computing, and telecommunications. Ad- ministrative computing and telecommunications had previously reported to the Executive Vice President for Finance and Operations. The CIO believed that an important new human resources system was deadlocked because the client group reported to this Executive VP. Finance seemed to resent the loss of control. Furthermore, some members of the IS project group perceived the CIO as a threat and did not welcome this change. The CIO advocated frequent contact with clients, client participation on development teams, the use of database management systems so that clients could meet many of their own information needs through end-user computing, and the use of “plain English” instead of technical jargon. The administrative development group had worked in an isolated setting, some miles away from the campus. They seemed to avoid client contact, generally taking on an “us-versus-them” approach. Technical jargon was used freely. They were accustomed to file management systems, which required frequent client requests for change. The new CIO met resistance from the administrative development group and Finance.

Problems with completing the specifications for the administrative human resource system had become so severe that the CIO employed an outside consultant to report to him and the university Provost.

The CIO called a meeting to discuss a revised time table for the project. The meeting was attended by clients and IS people. The CIO invited a group from a successful fund-raising project to attend to share this experience with the personnel, finance, and IS people working on the human resource system. He began the meeting by praising the Assistant VP of Development on the new-fund raising system. He continued by citing excellent work on the part of specific IS personnel. This positive note was carried further by the Assistant VP of Development who asserted that the experience of working as a team had been productive. A clear counterpoint to the current negative situation was created. Implicit was the message the problems with the human resource system were not endemic to the new organiza-

C. Stephens, i? Loughman /Information & Management 27 (1994) 129-137 135

tion. He focused responsibility for the fundraising system’s success on specific individuals among the client and IS group, generously forgoing all credit for the success and at the same time, removing himself as a political pawn in the success or failure of a system.

The CIO pushed for a freeze date for system specifications. When the VP of Finance responded that they were trying to freeze the specifications, the CIO told a Knute Rockne joke about eleven guys trying to beat Army versus eleven guys actually doing it. When the laughter subsided, he casually commented that freezing specifications is a critical point in projects during which intense conflict is common. Then, he used the analogy of playing mixed doubles with one’s spouse to emphasize that there was no alternative to setting a freeze date. Trying to place blame on others was a futile activity. “It’s too late to improve the spouse’s game. The game is on! All you can do is provide encouragement and support and not forget that you’re going to have to sleep with her that night.” The tennis analogy clarified the present situation, (the game is on!) and re- minded the VP of Finance that the CIO was not without political clout. The analogy lessened his vulnerability about a freeze date, clarified his view of the situation, worked to maintain a positive atmosphere, and replaced conflict with a team relationship. A logical, discursive statement of the same message would have been less con- vincing and much less powerful than the tennis analogy.

4.5. The manufacturing CIO

The manufacturing CIO was an established member of the senior management team. He and other senior managers had been with the company for more than twenty years and grown with it. By using IT for competitive advantage, this manufacturer of commercial lighting had gained and maintained market share in the industry. Some of the technology was on the cutting edge and experienced problems. Since IS were employed by sales agents, distributors, warehouses, and manufacturing divisions, problems affected everyone. The IS group assigned to new technol-

ogy implementations had to be on constant alert. A recent lapse in attention had caused a Califor- nia warehouse and three major sales agencies to begin placing and filling orders via fax machines, bypassing the system altogether. The Vice Presi- dent of Marketing had become involved and was defending the sales agencies and warehouse manager as “heroes.” The CIO faced a problem with the IS group and marketing.

The CIO called an 8:30 a.m. meeting attended by the Vice President of Information Systems and the project team involved in the new technology. Before they arrived, he had written on the marker board in red: Improving Performance. He began amiably by saying that the Senior VP of Market- ing had told him that the sales agents and warehouse manager were heroes, “They should be given medals for entrepreneurship!” He smiled. After the laughter subsided, he added quietly, “At least they were responding when the system wasn’t working.” He stated that the business de- pended on the performance of the IS unit. “We have to respond to a failure like a parent re- sponds to a baby on an iron lung. But maybe kids are like customers. Expendable. Power failure. Throw them away. Have another. File a malfunc- tion report in triplicate.” When the Vice Presi- dent of Information Systems responded that the group was unaware of the problem until after it had occurred, the CIO continued: “You mean you’re reacting to the child screaming. We should know the power went out before he does. I want you to identify your pulse points, the places to monitor so that these problems can be inter- cepted. Then use measures of these pulse points as a basis for action.”

4.4. The government agency Cl0

This government agency manages science and engineering projects related to space transporta- tion and exploration. The CIO was responsible for IS and telecommunications at a field center that managed a global network: 19 agency sites, 58 colleges and universities, 238 contractor loca- tions, and sites in Europe, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Canada. The CIO’s unit has 75 agency employees and 1,200 contractor employees. A


matrix organization is employed, making written guidelines particularly important. IS Division employees may report to both a science and engineering project leader and an IS manager. Con- tractor employees report to an IS manager and a manager in their own company.

Part of the CIO’s Total Quality approach was to revise existing guidelines, streamlining them and removing contradictions. He met with a group charged with this revision. He began by saying that he was aware the activity seemed like “digging a bottomless pit.” He described the activity as “wordsmithing,” the melting, pounding, shap- ing of bureaucratic procedures into workable guidelines that would provide necessary controls. The metaphors imparted the CIO’s understand- ing of the difficulty and tedium of the task at hand.

4.7. The utility company CIO

Anticipated deregulation of the utilities industry caused the President and CEO of this company to begin a culture change, the first step of which was a restructuring. The utility company was organized by regulatory requirements into a service company and six operating companies with defined geographical areas. Each operating company had its own Information Resource Organi- zation, and the services company had another that provided services to all operating companies on a charge-back basis. The first restructuring effort was to combine all Information Resource Organizations into one group reporting to the Chief Information Officer, who reported to the President and CEO of the holding company and the President of the services company. This restructuring met with resistance from both the operating company officers, who felt they might be losing control, and members of the Informa- tion Resource Organizations, who perceived a threat to job security and isolation from their client base. Because regulations prohibit much direct control of operating companies by the holding company, this restructuring had to be voluntary.

In an attempt to overcome the resistance, the CIO met with each operating company President.

He used the analogy of an artist painting a picture: “Do you think he will want a broad brush, or detail?” During a presentation, he repeated an analogy of John Clendenin (CEO of BellSouth Corporation): effecting a culture change is like trying to do maintenance on a 747 while keeping it in operation. Describing the communication of specific changes to top information resource managers, the CIO used a farming analogy: “We don’t want to put the whole bale of hay out at one time; use a pitchfork.”

5. Conclusion

In 1988, Luthans, Hodgetts, and Rosencrantz [lo] published the results of research with forty- four managers over four years at many management levels and from many functional disciplines. Their book Real Managers gives this “pragmatic advice and guidance for those who want to get ahead and climb the ladder of success in today’s organizations. Networking and communication skills seem to be the most important keys to success.” Certainly, these Chief Information Offi- cers had been and continued to be successful. A communication skill which was particularly critical for the role charged with bridging two worlds - IT and the rest of the business - was the ability to bridge two ideas, and create a total meaning having far greater impact than logical, discursive explanations. Rich media were chosen, those allowing for verbal and nonverbal cues. Face-to-face exchanges dominated. Furthermore, lively metaphors were employed frequently to persuade as well as to inform.

References

[l] R. Bostrom, “Successful Application of Communication Techniques to Improve the Systems Development Pro- cess,” Information and Management, 16: 5 (1989), 279- 295.

[2] W. Bridges, Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1991.

[3] E. Brown, K. Karwan, and J. Weitzel, “The Chief Infor- mation Officer in Smaller Organizations,” Information Management Reoiew, 4: 2 (1988), 25-35.


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A. Preminger, F. Warnke, and 0. Hardison, Jr, Princeton

Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton University Press, 1965.

Charlotte S. Stephens is an Assistant

Professor of Management at the Ab-

bott Turner School of Business,

Columbus College, Columbus, Geor-

gia. She has over ten years of man-

agerial experience in operations man-

agement, industrial engineering, and

information systems with two major

textile companies, Milliken and Co.

and WestPoint Pepperell. Current re-

search interests include communica-

tion for information technology man-

agers, risk assessment for emerging technologies, the CIO’s

role, and a quality work environment for knowledge workers.

She has published in Information and Management, MIS Quarterly, Production and Inventory Management Journal, In- formation Strategy, Journal of Systems Management, and oth-

ers. Dr. Stephens received the Ph.D. in Management (Con-

centration in MIS) from Auburn University.

Tom Loughman is an Assistant Pro-

fessor of Management at the Abbott

Turner School of Business, Columbus

College, Columbus, Georgia. He has

research and consulting experience

with several major organizations in

the southeast. His research interests

include sociotechnical systems, com-

puter-assisted instruction, manage-

ment communication, and communi-

cation auditing. Dr. Loughman holds

the Ph.D. from Auburn University.

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The CIO's chief concern: Communication