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The Cambridge Handbook ofMultimedia Learning
During the past 10 years, the field of multimedia learning has emerged as a coherentdiscipline with an accumulated research base that has never been synthesized and orga-nized in a handbook. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning constitutes theworld’s first handbook devoted to comprehensive coverage of research and theory inthe field of multimedia learning. Multimedia learning is defined as learning from words(e.g., spoken or printed text) and pictures (e.g., illustrations, photos, maps, graphs, ani-mation, or video). The focus of this handbook is on how people learn from words andpictures in computer-based environments. Multimedia environments include online in-structional presentations, interactive lessons, e-courses, simulation games, virtual reality,and computer-supported in-class presentations. The Cambridge Handbook of MultimediaLearning seeks to establish what works (i.e., to determine which features of a multime-dia lesson affect learning), to explain how it works (i.e., to ground research in cognitivetheory), and to consider when and where it works (i.e., to explore the implications ofresearch for practice).
Richard E. Mayer is Professor of Psychology at the University of California, SantaBarbara, where he has served since 1975 . In 2000, he received the E. L. ThorndikeAward for career achievement in educational psychology. He is the author or editorof 20 books and more than 250 articles and chapters, including Multimedia Learning(2001 ), e-Learning and the Science of Instruction (2003) with Ruth Clark, and Learningand Instruction (2003).
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The Cambridge Handbook ofMultimedia Learning
�Edited by
Richard E. MayerUniversity of California, Santa Barbara
www.cambridge.org© Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press0521838738 - The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia LearningEdited by Richard E. MayerFrontmatterMore information
cambridge university press
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C© Cambridge University Press 2005
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning / edited by Richard E. Mayer.p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 0-521 -83873 -8 (hardback) – isbn 0-521 -54751 -2 (pbk.)1 . Computer-assisted instruction – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2 . Audio-visualeducation – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3 . Interactive multimedia – Handbooks,manuals, etc. I. Mayer, Richard E., 1947– II. Title.lb1028.5 .c283 2005
371 .33′4 – dc22 2005001322
isbn-1 3 978-0-521 -83873 -3 hardbackisbn-10 0-521 -83873 -8 hardback
isbn-1 3 978-0-521 -54751 -2 paperbackisbn-10 0-521 -54751 -2 paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility forthe persistence or accuracy of urls for external orthird-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publicationand does not guarantee that any content on suchWeb sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
Preface page ix
Contributors xiii
1 . Introduction to Multimedia Learning 1
Richard E. Mayer
p a r t i
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
2 . Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning 19
John Sweller
3 . Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning 31
Richard E. Mayer
4. An Integrated Model of Text and Picture Comprehension 49
Wolfgang Schnotz
5 . The Four-Component Instructional Design Model: MultimediaPrinciples in Environments for Complex Learning 71
Jeroen J. G. van MerrienboerLiesbeth Kester
v
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vi contents
p a r t ii
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING
6. Five Common but Questionable Principles of MultimediaLearning 97
Richard E. ClarkDavid F. Feldon
7. The Multimedia Principle 1 1 7
J. D. FletcherSigmund Tobias
8. The Split-Attention Principle in Multimedia Learning 1 35
Paul AyresJohn Sweller
9. The Modality Principle in Multimedia Learning 1 47
Renae LowJohn Sweller
1 0. The Redundancy Principle in Multimedia Learning 1 59
John Sweller
1 1 . Principles for Managing Essential Processing in MultimediaLearning: Segmenting, Pretraining, and Modality Principles 169
Richard E. Mayer
1 2 . Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in MultimediaLearning: Coherence, Signaling, Redundancy, SpatialContiguity, and Temporal Contiguity Principles 1 83
Richard E. Mayer
1 3 . Principles of Multimedia Learning Based on Social Cues:Personalization, Voice, and Image Principles 201
Richard E. Mayer
p a r t iii
ADVANCED PRINCIPLES OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING
1 4. The Guided Discovery Principle in Multimedia Learning 21 5
Ton de Jong
1 5 . The Worked-Out Examples Principle in MultimediaLearning 229
Alexander Renkl
1 6. The Collaboration Principle in Multimedia Learning 247
David H. JonassenChwee Beng LeeChia-Chi YangJames Laffey
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contents vii
1 7. The Self-Explanation Principle in Multimedia Learning 271
Marguerite RoyMichelene T. H. Chi
1 8. The Animation and Interactivity Principles in MultimediaLearning 287
Mireille Betrancourt
1 9. Navigational Principles in Multimedia Learning 297
Jean-Francois RouetHerve Potelle
2 0. The Site Map Principle in Multimedia Learning 313
Amy M. Shapiro
2 1 . Prior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning 325
Slava Kalyuga
2 2 . The Cognitive Aging Principle in Multimedia Learning 339
Fred PaasPascal W. M. Van GervenHuib K. Tabbers
p a r t iv
MULTIMEDIA LEARNING IN CONTENT AREAS
2 3 . Multimedia Learning of Reading 355
David Reinking
2 4. Multimedia Learning of History 375
Jennifer WileyIvan K. Ash
2 5 . Multimedia Learning of Mathematics 393
Robert K. Atkinson
2 6. Multimedia Learning of Chemistry 409
Robert KozmaJoel Russell
2 7. Multimedia Learning of Meteorology 429
Richard K. Lowe
2 8. Multimedia Learning About Physical Systems 447
Mary Hegarty
2 9. Multimedia Learning in Second Language Acquisition 467
Jan L. PlassLinda C. Jones
30. Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Skills 489
Susanne P. LajoieCarlos Nakamura
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p a r t v
MULTIMEDIA LEARNING IN ADVANCED COMPUTER-BASEDCONTEXTS
31 . Multimedia Learning with Animated Pedagogical Agents 507
Roxana Moreno
32 . Multimedia Learning in Virtual Reality 525
Sue CobbDanae Stanton Fraser
33 . Multimedia Learning in Games, Simulations, and Microworlds 549
Lloyd P. Rieber
34. Multimedia Learning with Hypermedia 569
Andrew DillonJennifer Jobst
35 . Multimedia Learning in e-Courses 589
Ruth Colvin Clark
Author Index 617
Subject Index 635
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Preface
During the past 10 years, the field of mul-timedia learning has emerged as a coher-ent discipline with an accumulated researchbase that has never been synthesized andorganized in a handbook. The CambridgeHandbook of Multimedia Learning consti-tutes the world’s first handbook devotedto comprehensive coverage of research andtheory in the field of multimedia learning.For purposes of the Handbook, multimedialearning is defined as learning from words(e.g., spoken or printed text) and pictures(e.g., illustrations, photos, maps, graphs, an-imation, or video). The focus of the Hand-book is on how people learn from words andpictures in computer-based environments.Multimedia environments include online in-structional presentations, interactive lessons,e-courses, simulation games, virtual reality,and computer-supported in-class presenta-tions. Overall, the Handbook seeks to estab-lish what works (i.e., to determine whichfeatures of a multimedia lesson affect learn-ing), to explain how it works (i.e., to groundresearch in cognitive theory), and to considerwhen and where it works (i.e., to explore theimplications of research for practice).
What distinguishes this book from editedbooks on distance learning or Web-based in-struction is our commitment to taking a sci-entific, evidence-based approach. My goal aseditor is to provide a comprehensive and fo-cused overview of the state of scientific re-search on multimedia learning. Each chapteris based on empirical research and groundedin cognitive theory, rather than offering un-substantiated recommendations, describingbest practices, or summarizing software de-velopment accomplishments. As the firstcomprehensive research-based handbook onmultimedia learning, The Cambridge Hand-book of Multimedia Learning is intended todefine and shape the field for years to come.
There are many books providing adviceon how to design multimedia-learning en-vironments, but these books are largelybased on the practical experience and wis-dom of the authors. Similarly, there arebooks reporting on the development ofonline instructional programs and Web sites,but these reports of development effortsare generally based on best practices andinformal case studies. Until recently, thelack of scientific research evidence in many
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multimedia-learning books could be justi-fied on the grounds that a solid researchbase did not yet exist. However, the quan-tity and quality of scientific research – con-ducted by researchers around the world –has reached a level warranting the field’s firstcomprehensive research-based handbook ofmultimedia learning.
As editor, I asked the world’s leadingmultimedia researchers to author chaptersin areas in which they have contributed tothe empirical research base. In particular, Isought authors who are leading researchersin the field of multimedia learning – that is,those with the strongest records of researchpublication. Because the field is largely inter-national, the chapter authors for the Hand-book span the globe. Each chapter author hada specific charge – that is, directions to re-view a well-defined subarea such as the roleof online worked-out examples or the roleof speech versus on-screen text. The chap-ters in each section follow the same generalstructure: describing the major research is-sue or question, providing examples of theresearch issue or question, summarizing re-search in which measures of learning arethe central focus, critiquing the research,and discussing implications for theoryand practice.
The Handbook consists of 35 chaptersorganized into five parts. Each chapter fo-cuses on a particular theory of multimedialearning (part 1 ), a basic principle of multi-media learning (part 2), an advanced prin-ciple of multimedia learning (part 3), mul-timedia learning in a content area (part 4),or multimedia learning within an advancedcomputer-based context (part 5). In orderto provide a common structure among thechapters of the Handbook, I asked authorsto organize their chapters around a com-mon set of issues. In particular, I asked theauthors of the theory chapters in part 1 toprovide a concise description of the theoryor model with concrete examples, to sum-marize the theory’s contributions to cogni-tive theory (i.e., to specify predictions thathave been tested), to summarize the theory’scontributions to instructional design (i.e., tospecify recommendations for instruction), to
describe any limitations of the theory, and tosuggest future directions for research. I askedthe authors of each of the other chapters toprovide a clear definition and example of thecentral principle or topic of the chapter, toreview the relevant published research liter-ature in sufficient detail, to assess the lim-itations of the research base, to summarizethe implications for cognitive theory and in-structional design, and to suggest directionsfor future research.
I solicited chapters that were concise (i.e.,containing no more than 25 double-spacedpages), focused (i.e., reviewing the researchon a specified topic), well-referenced (i.e.,containing a rich set of relevant references),evidence-based (i.e., providing an up-to-date review of the best empirical evidence),theory-based (i.e., relating the findings totestable predictions of theories when ap-propriate), and educationally relevant (i.e.,drawing implications for educational prac-tice when appropriate). In order to minimizeconfusion, I asked authors to clearly definejargon terms in the text as well as in a glos-sary at the end of the chapter. Each chapterwas reviewed and revised.
The intended audience includes anyoneinterested in how people learn from wordsand pictures in computer-based environ-ments. Although this handbook summarizesthe research base in multimedia learning, itis intended to be accessible to a general au-dience. On one hand, this handbook is de-signed to support readers with practical in-terests in how to design or select multimedialearning environments that promote learn-ing. On the other hand, this handbook isdesigned to support readers who have aca-demic interests in conducting or evaluatingresearch in multimedia learning. The Hand-book would be appropriate for courses re-lated to cognitive science, educational psy-chology, instructional design, human factors,multimedia arts and technology, professionaltraining, and interface design. It also wouldbe useful for instructors interested in de-signing or improving multimedia lessons inschool settings, job training contexts, andinformal environments. In short, The Cam-bridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
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belongs on the bookshelf of anyone whois interested in an evidence-based approachto Web-based learning, e-learning, hyperme-dia, multimedia, Web site design, distancelearning, instructional technology, human–computer interaction, virtual environments,or applied cognitive psychology.
As editor, I have tried to ensure that thishandbook reflects the values that I think areimportant for our field. In particular, I soughtto produce a handbook that is:
research based – The Handbook is in-tended to summarize the empirical re-search on multimedia learning, ratherthan describe untested best practicesor software development projects. Al-though I have much respect for thecraft knowledge of practitioners anddesigners, it is important to know if rec-ommendations are supported by scien-tific evidence and under what condi-tions they are supported. Thus, I valuea focus on scientific evidence as the keyto progress in our field.
theory grounded – The Handbook is in-tended to relate empirical research tocognitive theories of how people learn.My overriding premise is that multi-media learning environments should bedesigned in ways that are consistentwith what is known about how peoplelearn.
educationally relevant – The Handbookfocuses on issues that are relevant toeducation, that is, to helping peoplelearn. Thus, I sought chapters that of-fer research-based implications for in-structional design.
comprehensive – The Handbook offers abroad view of the field, including con-tributions from multimedia researchersaround the world. I value the perspec-tives of researchers who have devotedso much of their energy to understand-ing multimedia learning.
timely – The Handbook offers an up-to-date overview of the field. I valuetimeliness because the scientific studyof multimedia learning is maturing at
a rapid pace, and so are the practi-cal demands for building multimedialearning environments – ranging frome-courses to in-class simulations.
readable – In my role as editor I have triedto ensure that the chapters are clearand concise, with key terms defined andconcrete examples provided. In a mul-tidisciplinary field such as this one, it isimportant that the chapters communi-cate what is known in a way that gen-eral readers can appreciate.
In short, my values have motivated me toseek chapters that are based on empiricalresearch and grounded in cognitive theoryrather than chapters that mainly describe de-velopment efforts or best practices.
Editing this book has been a treat forme, because I could commission chaptersfrom the best researchers in the field andbe the first to learn what they had to say.I am pleased to share the fruits of this en-terprise with you in a timely fashion. Myhope is that you enjoy reading this hand-book as much as I have enjoyed editing it.I will consider this handbook to be a suc-cess if it helps you to understand what isknown about how people learn from wordsand pictures; gives you useful help in build-ing or selecting effective multimedia learn-ing environments; or encourages you to pro-duce or investigate research that contributesto cognitive theory and educational prac-tice. I hope that you will feel free to contactme at [email protected] to share yourcomments about The Cambridge Handbookof Multimedia Learning.
Acknowledgments
Although my name is listed as the editor,this handbook depended on the contri-butions of many people. In particular, Ithank the authors for producing excellentchapters, for keeping this project on sched-ule, and for responding so well to thereviewer’s comments. I thank the mem-bers of the handbook’s editorial board –John Sweller, Jeroen van Merrienboer, and
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xii preface
Wolfgang Schnotz – for their useful serviceto this project. I also wish to thank PhilipLaughlin and the staff of Cambridge Uni-versity Press for their many contributions tomaking this book a success. I am grateful tomy many research collaborators who haveworked with me over the years in the studyof multimedia learning, including Richard B.Anderson, Robert Atkinson, Julie Campbell,Paul Chandler, Dorothy Chun, GayleDow, Joan Gallini, Shannon Harp, JulieHeiser, James Lester, Steven Lonn, PatriciaMautone, Sarah Mayer, Roxana Moreno,Harold O’Neil, Jr., Jan Plass, Hiller Spires,
and Valerie Sims. I appreciate my homeinstitution – the University of California,Santa Barbara – and numerous funding agen-cies – including the National Science Foun-dation, the Office of Naval Research, and theAndrew Mellon Foundation – that have sup-ported my research on multimedia learning.Finally, my deepest appreciation goes to mywife, Beverly; my children, Ken, David, andSarah; and to the memory of my parents,James and Bernis Mayer.
Richard E. MayerSanta Barbara, California
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Contributors
Editor
Richard E. Mayer
Department of PsychologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CA 93106-9660
Editorial Board
Jeroen J. G. van Merrienboer
Educational Psychology ExpertiseCenter
Open University of the NetherlandsP.O. Box 2960
NL-6401 DL HeerlenThe [email protected]
Wolfgang Schnotz
Faculty of PsychologyUniversity of Koblenz-LandauThomas-Nast-Str. 44
D-76829 [email protected]
John Sweller
School of EducationUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW 2052
Chapter Contributors
Ivan K. Ash
Department of Psychology1007 W. Harrison StreetUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicago, IL 60607
Robert K. Atkinson
Psychology in EducationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ 85287
Paul Ayres
School of EducationUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW 2052
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xiv contributors
Mireille Betrancourt
TECFADepartment of Psychology and EducationUniversity of GenevaCH 1 21 1 Geneve 4
Michelene T. H. Chi
Learning Research and Development Center3939 O’Hara StreetUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA 1 5260
Richard E. Clark
Rossier School of EducationUniversity of Southern CaliforniaWPH 601CLos Angeles, CA 90089-0031
Ruth Colvin Clark
Ruth Clark Training and Consulting1 423 E. Main Street #193
Cortez, CO 81321
Sue Cobb
Virtual Reality Applications Research TeamUniversity of NottinghamUniversity ParkNottingham, NG7 2RDUnited [email protected]
Andrew Dillon
School of InformationSZB 564
1 University Station, D700
University of TexasAustin, TX 7871 2
David F. Feldon
Graduate School of Education and InformationSciences
University of California, Los AngelesLos Angeles, CA 90095 -1 521
J. D. Fletcher
Institute for Defense Analysis4850 Mark Center DriveAlexandria, VA 2231 1
Danae Stanton Fraser
Department of PsychologyUniversity of BathBath, BA2 7AYUnited [email protected]
Mary Hegarty
Department of PsychologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CA 93106-9660
Jennifer Jobst
School of InformationSZB 564
1 University Station, D700
University of TexasAustin, TX 7871 2
David H. Jonassen
School of Information Science and LearningTechnologies
221C Townsend HallUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO 6521 1
Linda C. Jones
University of ArkansasDepartment of Foreign LanguagesKimpel Hall 425
Fayetteville, AR 72701
Ton de Jong
Faculty of Behavioral SciencesUniversity of TwenteP.O. Box 217
7500 AE EnschedeThe [email protected]
Slava Kalyuga
Educational Assessment AustraliaUniversity of New South Wales1 2-22 Rothschild AvenueRosebery 2018
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contributors xv
Liesbeth Kester
Educational Technology Expertise CenterOpen University of the NetherlandsP.O. Box 2960
NL-6401 DL HeerlenThe [email protected]
Robert Kozma
Center for Technology in LearningSRI International333 Ravenswood AvenueMenlo Park, CA 94025
James Laffey
School of Information Science and LearningTechnologies
221L Townsend HallUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO 6521 1
Susanne P. Lajoie
Department of Educational and CounselingPsychology
McGill University3700 McTavish StreetMontreal, QuebecCanada H3A IT2
Chwee Beng Lee
School of Information Science and LearningTechnologies
1 1 1 London HallUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO 6521 1
Renae Low
School of EducationUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW 2052
Richard K. Lowe
Department of EducationCurtin University of TechnologyG.P.O. Box U1987
Perth, Western Australia 6845
Richard E. Mayer
Department of PsychologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CA 93106-9660
Roxana Moreno
Educational Psychology ProgramSimpson Hall, Room 1 23
University of New MexicoAlbuquerque, NM 87131 -1 246
Carlos Nakamura
Department of Educational and CounselingPsychology
McGill University3700 McTavish StreetMontreal, QuebecCanada H34 IT2
Fred Paas
Educational Psychology ExpertiseCenter
Open University of the NetherlandsP. O. Box 2960
6401 DL HeerlenHeerlenThe [email protected]
Jan Plass
The Steinhart School of EducationNew York UniversityEast Building, 239 Greene Street, #308
New York, NY 10003
Herve Potelle
University of PoitiersLaboratoire Langage et Cognition FRE
CNRS 2725
99 Avenue du Recteur Pineau86022 [email protected]
David Reinking
Eugene T. Moore School of EducationClemson University418 Tillman HallClemson, SC 29634
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xvi contributors
Alexander Renkl
University of FreiburgPsychological InstituteEducational PsychologyEngelbergerstr. 41
D-79085 [email protected]
Lloyd P. Rieber
Department of Educational Psychology andInstructional Technology
603C Aderhold HallUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, GA 30602-7144
Jean-Francois Rouet
University of PoitiersLaboratoire Langage et Cognition FRE
CNRS 2725
99 Avenue du Recteur Pineau86022 [email protected]
Marguerite Roy
Learning Research and Development Center3939 O’Hara StreetUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA 1 5260
Joel Russell
Department of ChemistryOakland UniversityRochester, MI 48309
Wolfgang Schnotz
Faculty of PsychologyUniversity of Koblenz-LandauThomas-Nast-Str. 44
D-76829 [email protected]
Amy M. Shapiro
Department of Psychology285 Old Westport RoadUniversity of Massachusetts, DartmouthN. Dartmouth, MA 02747
John Sweller
School of EducationUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW 2052
Huib K. Tabbers
Institute of PsychologyErasmus University, RotterdamP. O. Box 1 738
3000 DR RotterdamThe [email protected]
Sigmund Tobias
Teachers CollegeColumbia UniversityNew York, NY 10027-6696
Pascal W. M. Van Gerven
Faculty of PsychologyDepartment of NeurocognitionMaastricht UniversityP. O. Box 616
6200 MD MaastrichtThe [email protected]
Jeroen J. G. van Merrienboer
Educational Psychology Expertise CenterOpen University of the NetherlandsP.O. Box 2960
NL-6401 DL HeerlenThe [email protected]
Jennifer Wiley
Department of Psychology1007 W. Harrison StreetUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicago, IL 60607
Chia-Chi Yang
School of Information Science and LearningTechnologies
1 1 1 London HallUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO 6521 1
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