1959 BRIAN ROBERTS : ANTARCTIC ORNITHOLOGY 107

THE BRITISH CONTRIBUTION TO ANTARCTIC ORNITHOLOGY

BRIAN ROBERTS

Thomas Pennant’s ‘ Account of the different species of the birds, called Pinguins ’ published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society ’ for 1768, appears to be the earliest monograph dealing with an Antarctic bird. This describes and illustrates the King Penguin Aptenodytes patugonica from a Falkland Island specimen, and also two other penguins from South America and the Cape of Good Hope.

Antarctic ornithology, like so many other studies, really dates from Captain Cook’s three voyages. His first, in the ‘ Endeavour ’ (1768-71), was made famous for scientific discoveries by the services of Sir Joseph Banks and Daniel Carl Solander. The latter’s original manuscript descriptions of birds seen during the voyage are preserved in the British Museum (Natural History), and copies of them were eventually published by Gregory Mathews (1912). These notes show that the first bird described from the Southern Ocean was procured on 22 December 1768.

The scientific results of Cook’s second voyage in the ‘ Resolution ’ and ‘ Adventure ’ (1772-75) are much better known. During this voyage the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time on 17 January 1773. I t was held to be in the public interest that naturalists should accompany this expedition, and, as Cook dryly observes in the preface of his official narrative, “ Mr. John Reinhold Forster and his son were pitched upon for this employment”. The choice turned out to be an unhappy one, for they were querulous and uncongenial shipmates. However, it proved valuable in one quite unexpected way : the eloquent expression which the two men gave to their grievances supplies all the touches of human interest that are lacking in Cook’s impassive chronicle. Johann Reinhold Forster was one of the best naturalists of his day, and his son Johann Georg Adam Forster was a competent artist. William Anderson, surgeon on the ‘ Resolution ’, also made notes on birds. Anders Sparrman, a Swedish naturalist and pupil of Linnaeus, joined the ‘ Resolution ’ at Cape Town. The birds encountered are known chiefly from the records of these four men, particularly from the elder Forster’s famous manuscript ‘ Descriptiones animalium . . . ’ (eventually published by M. H. C. Lichtenstein in 1844). Forster published his ‘ Memoire sur les Albatros ’, describing three species, in 1785, but owing to disagreements with the British Government there was a delay of more than fifty years in making most of his other observations known.

The ornithological results of Cook’s third voyage in the ‘ Resolution ’ and ‘ Discovery ’ (1776-80) have been brought together and discussed by E. Stresemann (1950). William Anderson, who had been on the second voyage, thereby gaining, as a companion of the Forsters, ample experience in matters of ornithology, also took part in the third voyage. He collected birds with enthusiasm and kept a diary about the species he saw. Some of his notes on the birds of Kerguelen were published in the official report on the voyage (1784). Anderson unfortunately fell ill of consumption and died on board the ‘ Resolution ’ in 1778. His manuscripts came into the possession of Sir Joseph Banks, and subsequently reached the British Museum (Natural History).

I t was Johann Reinhold Forster who published a pamphlet in 1771 : ‘ Short directions for collecting, preserving and transporting all kinds of natural history curiosities ’. If we read this explanation of the methods in vogue in his time, it is no surprise to learn that nearly all the specimens procured during Cook’s three voyages have perished. However, there is some compensation in the survival of the drawings made by the artists employed during the voyages. These are preserved in the British Museum, and are by Sydney Parkinson (first voyage) J. G . A. Forster (second voyage) and William Ellis

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(third voyage). Each was in the habit of drawing an outline, sometimes colouring the bill and feet from the freshly shot bird, but much of the colouring was left to be filled in at home from the actual specimens, and in many cases this was never done. One of Parkinson’s drawings, for example, is the earliest known illustration of Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus, and was later used by Heinrich Kuhl when he formally named it (1820). Forster and Ellis both made some excellent drawings of penguins and petrels captured in the Southern Ocean. These drawings have been catalogued and discussed by Osbert Salvin (1876) and R. Bowdler Sharpe (1906).

In considering Cook’s voyages, we should not overlook the writings of John Latham and Thomas Pennant, both of whom had access to many of the original records and specimens. Latham published the novelties in his ‘ General synopsis of birds ’ (1781- 87), but his names have not survived because he did not use the Linnaean system, and was forestalled by J. F. Gmelin. Almost all the islands visited were at that time ornithologically unexplored, and most of the species collected proved to be new to science. Cook visited South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands and Prince Edward Islands. Collections and observations were also made for the first time in the Southern Ocean, far from land.

There was an interlude of many years until the expedition fitted out by the Admiralty under Sir James Clark Ross in the ‘ Erebus ’ and ‘ Terror ’ (1839-43), when observations were made on the Antarctic mainland for the first time. Ross himself was an enthusiastic natural history collector as well as an accomplished magnetician and an able commander. Among the staff of the ‘ Terror ’ was Robert M’Cormick, surgeon and zoologist, and Joseph Hooker, assistant surgeon and botanist. M’Cormick made a speciality of birds. The 142 Antarctic specimens which he sent to the British Museum were all carefully labelled with the date, locality, etc., details often neglected by ornithologists at that time. Many excellent notes on the habits of Antarctic birds from M’Cormick’s pen were published by John Gould.

M’Cormick’s interest in the handling of the ship and the intricacies of ice navigation often absorbed his attention to the exclusion of his scientific work, so that, as the voyage progressed, Hooker took over more and more of the duties of zoologist. However, the two naturalists got on very well together, largely because Hooker was careful never to put any strain on their friendship. Thus, at the Auckland Islands in December 1840, the mate of the ‘ Erebus ’ put a second egg in the nest of an albatross and M’Cormick was persuaded to elaborate a theory of twin eggs to account for its presence there. Hooker did not dare to tell him of the hoax, which subsequently led to various minor contro- versies in Europe. The story that M’Cormick begged in vain to be allowed to land on the Antarctic mainland, as stated in his own memoirs (1884), assumes a different complexion when it is known that by the rules of the service one medical officer had always to remain on board a man-of-war, and that on this occasion it was Hooker’s turn to go ashore.

Apart from some systematic notes by G. R. Gray on the penguins (1844), no detailed account of the birds procured during this voyage was published at the time of its return. Sir John Richardson and J. E. Gray edited the zoological reports. The section on birds (1844-45) was prepared by G. R. Gray, but was restricted to New Zealand species. An Appendix by R. Bowdler Sharpe issued in 1875 included some fine coloured plates of Antarctic birds drawn by D. W. Mitchell under the supervision of J. E. Gray, who had apparently intended to publish them many years earlier.

The plans for the voyage of the ‘ Challenger ’ (1872-76) included instructions to explore the Southern Ocean “ as far as the neighbourhood of the great Ice Barrier ”. The Government which sponsored this celebrated expedition certainly could not have foreseen the immense prestige which it was to secure for Britain among men of science throughout the world. The civilian staff were under the direction of C. Wyville

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‘I’homson, and included J. J. Wild, H. N. Moseley, John Murray and J. Y. Buchanan- all of whom contributed to the record of birds observed. The ‘ Challenger ’ visited Prince Edward Islands, Iles Crozet, Iles de Kerguelen and Heard Island, adding substantially to our knowledge of these groups. The ornithological results were pub- lished in the ‘ Challenger Reports ’ by P. L. Sclater and Osbert Salvin (1878-81). Other volumes in this great series contain beautifully illustrated monographs on the anatomy of the Tubinares, by William Alexander Forbes (1882), and on the anatomy of the Spheniscidae, by Morrison Watson (1883).

When, in 1874, the Government determined to despatch several expeditions to observe the transit of Venus, the Council of the Royal Society requested the Treasury to attach naturalists to those destined for Kerguelen and Rodriguez. The naturalist selected for the former was the Rev. A. E. Eaton, who was well qualified by his knowledge of the arctic fauna and flora. Eaton did good work and his field notes on the habits of Antarctic birds are still full of interest. The bird specimens which he collected were described by R. Bowdler Sharpe and Howard Saunders (1879), who took the opportunity to prepare a complete account founded on the specimens in the British Museum, together with the reports of the German and American transit of Venus expeditions, which had recently been published.

Apart from a German expedition to South Georgia in 1882-83, and a few sealers, the Antarctic remained undisturbed until four vessels of the Dundee whaling fleet made an experimental southern voyage in 1892-93. Two surgeon-naturalists were selected to accompany them, W. S. Bruce and C. W. Donald. The facilities for scientific work left much to be desired, but they Ivere able to make some pioneer observations on penguins in the Graham Land area.

The ‘ Southern Cross ’ expedition (1898-1900), fitted out by Sir George Newnes and led by C. E. Borchgrevink, examined a large stretch of the coast of Victoria Land. Nicolai Hanson, an experienced Norwegian collector and taxidermist employed at that time by the British Museum in London, was appointed zoologist. His death at Cape Adare, in October 1899, cut short a very promising career ; fortunately his diary has been published by the British Museum, and his collections were brought back safely and described by R. Bowdler Sharpe (1902).

Scott’s ‘ Discovery ’ expedition (1901-04) marks the beginning of a determined effort by several nations to elucidate the problems of Antarctica. Others were soon to follow in this attack on terra australis nondum cognita of the early geographers, but the first inland journeys were British. The ‘Antarctic Manual’ of 1901, prepared for the guidance of this expedition, contained a chapter by Howard Saunders reviewing the state of knowledge of south polar birds. Saunders was only able to list 26 species ; a measure of the inadequacy of our knowledge at that time, Among the scientific staff of the ‘ Discovery ’ was Edward Wilson, surgeon, artist and zoologist, whose character has become well known through the two biographies by George Seaver. Wilson’s personal influence, his remarkable artistic output, and his other practical contributions to the success of the expedition have tended to obscure his ornithological studies. His eye-memory for colour was outstanding, and the conditions under which he worked, demanding the utmost rapidity, developed it still more. His method was to make rapid pencil sketches in the open, supplemented by copious notes of colour effects for greater accuracy, and then to work them up later by lamplight in his cabin. His finely illustrated report on birds (1907) will always remain a classic. Particularly noteworthy was his monograph on the Emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri, which reviewed all that was then known about this bird, and included an account of the discovery of the first known breeding colony, at Cape Crozier.

Perhaps the most important result of the voyage of the Dundee whaling fleet in 1892-93 was its introduction of W. S. Bruce to Antarctic research. I t was not until

Once again there was an interlude of many years.

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ten years later, however, that he was able to realize his dreams by organizing the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in the ‘ Scotia ’ (1902-04). Bruce was himself an enthusiastic ornithologist, and his staff included R. N. Rudmose Brown, D. W. Wilton and J. H. Harvey Pirie as naturalists. The largest and most interesting bird collection brought back by any Antarctic expedition was handed over to William Eagle Clarke for description. The scientific reports included a major contribution to the ornithology of the South Orkney Islands and the Weddell Sea (1905-13). The united efforts of the officers and crew, as well as the scientific staff, laid the foundations of our knowledge of bird distribution at sea in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. The services of D. Waterston and A. Campbell Geddes were called in to,report on the anatomy and embryology of the penguins collected.

During Scott’s second expedition in the ‘ Terra Nova ’ (1910-13) observations on birds were made and recorded by several members of the party, but especially by Edward Wilson. Had he survived he would no doubt have produced a report as valuable as that which he had written on the results of the ‘ Discovery ’ expedition. When the ‘ Terra Nova ’ returned, Wilson’s notes and specimens were handed over to W. R. Ogilvie-Grant. Once again, death intervened and it was not until 1930 that P. R. Lowe and N. B. Kinnear were able to complete the publication of a report on the birds. The delay, however, had made possible some careful comparisons with the collections in other museums, especially in Paris. It was thus possible to reach important con- clusions regarding some supposed subspecies and their geographical distribution. The report was greatly enriched by the reproduction of many of Wilson’s sketches and watercolours. These set a new standard which in many respects has never been sur- passed. Few realise the extraordinary care and industry that he put into this activity,* although it was in fact only a side-line from his medical and other duties.

During the ‘ Discovery ’ expedition Wilson’s interest had been aroused by the Emperor Penguin colony at Cape Crozier. He realised that a winter journey in total darkness and at temperatures around -70°F. would be necessary to study the breeding of this remarkable bird, and in 1911 he undertook with W. R. Bowers and A. Cherry- Garrard what Scott described as “ the hardest journey that has ever been made ”. Wilson’s official report of this feat-‘‘ the weirdest bird-nesting expedition that has ever been made ”-can be read in Vol. 2 of ‘ Scott’s last expedition ’ (1913), and perhaps no document could be more characteristic of the man than this, with its terse and simple chronicle of facts and its complete self-effacement. A more personal narrative is fortu- nately available in Cherry-Garrard’s book ‘ The worst journey in the world ’ (1922). One of Wilson’s objects was to secure early embryos, for at that time it was thought that the Emperor was the nearest approach to a primitive form of bird. These embryos were described by Cossar Ewart in an appendix to Cherry-Garrard’s book, and later, in more detail, by C. W. Parsons (1934).

Another ornithological result of the ‘ Terra Nova’ expedition was G. Murray Levick’s report on the natural history of the Adklie Penguin Pucheramphus addiae, the first major monograph to deal with a single Antarctic species. This was one of the official reports published by the British Museum. His popular book ‘ Antarctic penguins ’ (1914) is much more widely known.

Herbert Ponting’s photographic record of Scott’s last expedition fully demonstrated the value of adding an official photographer to the party. His still photographs remain unsurpassed in quality (it is remarkable that he used only a single aperture and exposure throughout). His cinematograph film introduced a new recording technique, bringing to the rest of the world for the first time a true idea of the interest and variety of the animal and bird life of the Antarctic. His work, and that of Frank Hurley with later

* Over 1000 of Wilson’s Antarctic sketches and water-colours, with his original notebooks, are preserved at the Scott Polar Research Institute. Most of them have never been published.

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expeditions in the ‘ Aurora ’ (1911-14), and ‘ Endurance ’ (1914-16), were the pioneer efforts in this field. Contem- porary reviews leave no doubt about the tremendous impact which these films had in their early years.

A. G. Bennett, for many years Acting Government Naturalist at Stanley in the Falkland Islands, has written a number of valuable papers on the birds of the Falkland Islands Dependencies based on his observations while serving as Whaling Magistrate in the South Shetland Islands in 1913-14, 1917-19, 1921-23 and 1925-27, and in the South Orkney Islands in 1914-15. He also made considerable skin collections for the museum in Stanley and for the British Museum and American Museum of Natural History. The total destruction by fire of the Stanley Museum in 1944 resulted in the tragic loss of the whole of this collection.

Douglas Mawson’s Australasian Antarctic Expedition in the ‘ Aurora ’ (191 1-14) was the first specifically Australian venture to the Antarctic mainland. A series of the highest quality bird photographs was secured, together with a notable collection of skins and eggs. The nesting places of several petrels were discovered for the first time. A second Emperor Penguin rookery found on Haswell Island was of special interest. A comprehensive report on birds was planned, but became one of the casualties of the first World War. After many vicissitudes, the results were eventually incorporated in R. A. Falla’s work on the birds of the B.A.N.Z.A.R.E. (1929-31).

In 1921 T. W. Bagshawe and M. C. Lester spent a year at Waterboat Point in west Graham Land ; the smallest party ever to winter in the Antarctic. They were the undaunted “ survivors ” of a much larger projected expedition which had failed abso- lutely in its objectives ; but their own success must always remain an inspiration to those who meet difficulties. Bagshawe’s report on the behaviour of the Gentoo Penguin Pygoscelis ,pupua is still much the best that has been published.

Shackleton’s expedition in the ‘ Quest ’ (1921-22) visited S0ut.h Georgia and touched at the South Sandwich Islands, Elephant Island and Gough Island. G. H. (now Sir Hubert) Wilkins made ornithological observations throughout the voyage. Among his collection was a splendid series of the Gough Island Bunting, which P. R. Lowe described as a new genus, Rowettiu (1923).

The “ Discovery Investigations ”, initiated by the Colonial Office in 1925, and continued under the auspices of the National Institute of Oceanography since 1949, represent by far the finest example of sustained research in the Antarctic yet achieved. The work has been mainly biological, with a view to providing a sound basis for the international control of the whaling industry, but it has never been restricted-ranging over the whole field of our understanding of the Southern Ocean and the fringes of the continent and its off-lying islands. The published ‘ Discovery Reports ’ contain many contributions to ornithology, both directly and indirectly. Special mention should be made of four of these reports : on the birds of South Georgia by L. Harrison Matthews (1929), on the South Sandwich Islands by S. Kemp and A. L. Nelson (1931), on the embryology of penguins by C. W. Parsons (1932), and on the South Orkney Islands by R. A. B. Ardley (1936). Routine ornithological observations were recorded throughout many of the voyages of the Discovery Committee’s ships, from 1925 until the present time. Records of this kind, mostly still unpublished, are gradually building up a general picture of the seasonal limits of distribution of birds in the Southern Ocean, and of the factors which influence this distribution. The members of the staff who have perhaps contributed most to this work are R. A. B. Ardley, T. J. Hart, G. W. Rayner, and J. R. Strong. The very extensive data and collections of the “ Discovery Investigations ” constitute an unmatched source of information on the environment of Antarctic birds and of their place in the general economy of oceanic life. In 1951 the National Institute of Oceanography started its own ringing scheme, primarily for marking birds at sea.

Fortunately their original films have been preserved.

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j. E. Hamilton, Government Naturalist of the Falkland Islands, was seconded for service with the “ Discovery Investigations ” in 1924. He was in the South Shetland Islands in 1520-21 and 1923-24, the South Sandwich Islands area, 1927-28, and South Georgia, 1926-28. He published a systematic report on the sub-Antarctic forms of the Great Skua Cathamcta skua in 1934, and also many other short notes on Antarctic birds.

The British-Australian-New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (1929-3 l), led by Sir Douglas Mawson, made a reconnaissance exploration of a large part of the coast of the Australian Antarctic Territory during two summer voyages. The report on birds, prepared by R. A. Falla (1937), marked a major advance in Antarctic ornithology. This included the results of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911-14). For the first time since Wilson, a competent zoologist was able to combine his own field-observations with study of the available museum specimens. This was a British Commonwealth enterprise, demonstrating the advantages of Commonwealth and international co- operation in Antarctic research.

The British Graham Land Expedition in ‘ Penola ’ (1534-37), was the first full-scale British expedition to winter in the Antarctic since the wreck of Shackleton’s ‘ Endurance ’ in 1516. The staff included the present writer, who was able to make a study of the breeding behaviour of penguins, especially the Gentoo Pygoscelis papua, and of the life history of Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus. Papers on these were published in 1940 ; the outbreak of war in 1939 unfortunately put an end to plans for further work on the specimens collected.

The Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey is a research and administrative organi- sation now operating in Graham Land, South Georgia, the South Orkney Islands and South Shetland Islands. A number of stations have been occupied since 1944, providing opportunities for continuous observation in a way that has never previously been possible in the Antarctic, but is now also a feature of the work from several other countries, especially Australia. The published series of ‘ Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey Scientific Reports ’ already includes a number of ornithological contributions : on the fossil penguins from the mid-Tertiary of Seymour Island, by B. J. Marples (1953), the breeding behaviour and development of the Emperor Penguin at the Dion Islands, by Bernard Stonehouse (1553), the embryology of the Emperor Penguin, by T. W. Glenister (1554), and the Brown Skua Catharacta skua of South Georgia, by Stonehouse (1556). W. J. L. Sladen has completed for publication a large monograph on the social structure of the penguin colonies at Hope Bay, chiefly of the genus Pygoscelis. Stonehouse also has in the press the results of his detailed investigation of the King Penguin Aptenodytes patagonica at South Georgia. Other members of the staff who have made significant ornithological observations are J. D. Andrew, R. M. Laws and J. M. Roberts. In addition, at all the stations amateur ornithologists have kept routine bird-logs with varying degrees of interest and reliability.

The continuity of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey organization made it possible to start the first specifically Antarctic bird-ringing scheme in 1947. Initially, this was planned for a series of purely local investigations. It was hoped that a high proportion of marked birds of known age could be available for study in selected colonies near some of the stations. However, during the first two years of operation, Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus ringed in the South Orkney Islands began to be reported from Australia and New Zealand. It became clear that with some species the proportion of long-distance recoveries would justify a larger-scale effort. This ringing programme has now become a routine activity at several of the stations. About 1600 Giant Petrel nestlings, for example, were marked during the last two seasons. Recoveries from these have been most encouraging, some birds being shown to cover 10,000 miles within six weeks. As part of his investigations, Sladen has pioneered the use of flipper rings for marking penguins.

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Capt. J. Wilkinson of H.M.S. ' Protector ', one of the British naval vessels detailed for service in the Antarctic during this period, has published an account of the birds of the South Sandwich Islands, which he visited in March 1956.

Since the war, several British ornithologists have taken advantage of the facilities afforded by the whaling industry to make short summer visits to the Antarctic. In 1946 C. A. Gibson-Hill went to South Georgia and later published some notes on the Cape Hen Procellaria aequinoctialis. Niall Rankin's visit to South Georgia in 1947 was primarily undertaken to photograph wild life : the superb photographs of penguins and petrels which he secured are well known.

When in 1946-47 United Whalers Ltd. started experimenting with amphibious aircraft for whale spotting, one of the air unit aboard the floating factory ' Balaena' was Martin Routh, who published an interesting paper on his ornithological observations made in the Southern Ocean. Seasonal changes in the distribution and density of oceanic birds can only be elucidated by combining large numbers of reliable sight records accumulated from many different sources over a long period. Unpublished records of this kind from the Southern Ocean have been collected for many years by the Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge, where they are available for consultation. In particular this review should mention the long series of unpublished observations made from floating factories by Neil MacLeod during five voyages between 1949 and 1957.

'The Gough Island Scientific Survey (1955-56), organised by J. B. Heaney, was a small but model expedition to map and examine the meteorology and biology of this remote sub-antarctic island. The zoologists were M. W. Holdgate and M. I<. Swales, who took full advantage of this opportunity to study the petrels which breed there in numbers beyond estimate. An interesting novelty among their results was a long series of high-quality sound records of the local bird calls, now added to the R.B.C. library.

A review of the collections in the British Museum in 1951 showed that at that time thcre were still rather less than a thousand specimens from the Antarctic and sub- Antarctic rcgions ; mostly derived from the expeditions already mentioned above. A fraction of these provided the basis for the relevant parts of the great ' Catalogue of birds '. It was Osbert Salvin's intention, on completing the section on Tubinares for Vol. 25, to prepare a more elaborate monograph on this group, illustrated by coloured figures of each species. For this purpose he had some forty plates prepared by J. G. Keulemans. When Salvin died in 1898, Frederick Du Cane Godman, his lifelong friend and colla- borator, assumed the task, and with the assistance of R. Bowdler Sharpe, brought it to a successful conclusion. The ' Monograph of the Petrels (Tubinares)', issued in five parts (1907-lo), marked a decided advance. It was already becoming clear that roughly two-thirds of the hundred or so species of Tubinares breed only in the Southern Hemis- phere, and that they are chiefly concentrated on the remote islands in the Southern Ocean.

No account of Antarctic ornithology would be complete without mention of Gregory M. Mathews, who died in 1949. Many of his numerous publications on Australian birds were extended to include Antarctic species. He never visited the Antarctic- ccmfining his studies to museum specimens and a magnificent private library. His extreme views on the matter of subspecies led him to name more Antarctic races than any other ornithologist, frequently on very slender grounds ; and he later treated genera and subgenera in the same lavish manner. No student of Antarctic birds can afford to ignore his writings, but many must have entertained serious doubts in the difficult task of evaluating his work in the fields of systematics, nomenclature and biblio- graphy. In later years, when be began to study the petrels of the world, and hence a large proportion of the birds found in the Antarctic regions, he sometimes adopted a more restrained attitude. Together with Tom Iredale, who was for twelve years his private secretary, he published on a scale not equalled by any other student of southern

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hirds. The last of his large works, Birds of Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands and the Australasian south polar quadrant ’ (1928), sumptuously illustrated by H. Gronvold and F. W. Frowhawk, was also one of the last of the costly monographs which were characteristic of a more leisurely age.

Reference may be made to my Bibliography of Antarctic Ornithology ’, published by the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) in 1941. Later publications can perhaps be traced most easily from the annotated lists of current literature in each issue of the ‘ Polar Record ’. Perusal of these lists gives pardonable satisfaction for the high proportion of British contributions.

In conclusion, I would like to express appreciation of the non-British (or, rather, non-United Kingdom) contribution to Antarctic ornithology. This review is restricted to British work solely because it marks a British centenary. It has been an unusual and indeed an invidious task to omit the important contributions of our overseas colleagues. Until recently, British enterprise in Antarctic exploration has been out- standing. Hence the opportunities for observing and collecting birds in this region have been ’ especially favourable for British ornithologists. The past ten years have seen a remarkable change in this situation: there has been a tremendous increase in interest and an influx of inhabitants and facilities. Antarctica is now beginning to join the other continents as a place which can be visited by anyone who wishes to do so.

Space does not allow a bibliography to accompany this paper.