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biology of the bone
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The Biological Basis of Bone & Anatomical Directional Terms
28 FEB http://thesebonesofmine.wordpress.com/category/diagenesis/
Be prepared for a long post!
The adult human skeleton consists of more than 200 separate bones (often around
206) whilst the juvenile skeleton can have over 300 individual bones (predominately
in newborn babies) (White & Folkens 2005). Over time certain bones fuse to others
(such as the os coxa or hip bone) to produce stable and protective environments
once the soft tissues have fully grown (ie the plates of the cranium once the brain
has fully grown). In life, the skeleton can weight from between 12% to 20% of a
person’s weight. Please click on the below picture to enlarge the general elements
in the human skeleton.
Basic Human Skeletal Elements.
The skeleton, and individual bones, both act as tissue and as organs (White &
Folkens 2005). Primarily the skeleton acts as a mechanical component for the
musculoskeletal system. They provide a framework for the organs and support for
the body by helping to anchor muscles, tendons and ligaments; as well as acting
as rigid levers for the muscles to help produce movement (White & Folkens 2005:
31). Important physiological functions include the production of blood cells whilst
bone can also acts as a storage for calcium & fat deposits.
Traditionally skeletal elements are classed around 4 main groups- long bones, short
bones, flat bones, & irregular bones. Bone is mainly consisted of a composite
material of Hydroxyapatite (mineral) & Collagen (protein). It is amongst the
strongest of biological materials- able to cope with high stress levels, bending
& contortion pressures. The basic structure of living bone is provided below.
The outer surface is the membrane called the Periosteum, the outer bone surface
is called Cortical bone (otherwise known as compact bone), the inner bone is
called Trabecular bone (spongy, shock absorbing), whilst in the long bones
a Medullary Cavity is often present (Mays 2008, Schwartz 2007).
Basic Long Bone Anatomy Diagram (Wikipedia).
Generalized Bone Growth (Baron
2008-http://www.endotext.org/parathyroid/parathyroid1/parathyroid1.html).
The growth of bones in the womb up until full maturity is directed by two
different processes. Endochondral Ossification is a process by which bones are
preceded by cartilage models. Ossification is initiated before birth of the baby, and
is amongst one of a number of processes
ongoing. Intramembranous Ossification occurs when apposition of tissue within an
embryonic connective tissue membrane covering. However, this is limited to the
Cranial (Frontal & Parietal) bones (White & Fokens 2005: 46).
Fusion of the epiphysis plates to the diaphysis plates in the long bones of the
skeleton (femora, tibia, humeri etc) occurs during late adolescence, and is often
used as an age estimator. Anatomical directional terms and planes of reference are
used to give precise locations when discussing the human skeleton. This is so that
when using this nomenclature it is obvious to all concerned about what is being
talked about; it is used to avoid ambiguity. Below is a diagram outlining the main
terms.
Anatomical Planes (Wikipedia).
Standard Anatomical Directions.
The skeleton is often described of as composing of the appendicular & the axial
skeleton. The appendicular skeleton is the locomotor of the body. The appendicular
skeleton includes the elements and joints of the feet, leg & hip bones together with
the hand, arm and shoulder bones. This allows an astonishing array of movement
and functions, although more rotation and general movement is permissible at the
shoulder joint because of its structure in comparison to the weight bearing hip and
knee joints (Schwartz 2007). The axial skeleton holds the pelvic girdle, the ribcage,
the shoulder girdle & the cranium. This houses all of the main organs of the body,
and supports the basic biological function of life as we know it.
Finally, I’ll quickly mention bone microstructure. The basics of bone microstructure
include both Volkmann’s & Haversian canals- basic nutritional and blood supplies
for the bone. At the micro level, bone is made of and replaced by
Osteons- including Osteocytes, Osteoblasts, Osteoids & Osteoclasts. In living
persons the bone is covered by the periosteum, a living tissues that acts as a soft
tissues from which vessels bringing in and out blood etc moves through (White &
Folkens 2005). Here is a guide depicting variation between human and
various animal microstructure, and how to recognise the variations. But we will
leave those for now (and discuss them in later post)- instead here is a tasty
transverse diagram of the insides of the microscopic structure of bone!
Bone Microstructure (Wikpedia 2011).
A full list of terms & directions are described here. As we are in the business of
archaeology, the condition of the bone is dependent on two main processes post
burial/deposition Diagenesis & Taphonomic changes. Diagenesis “is the cumulative
physical, chemical and biological environment; these processes will modify an
organic object’s original chemical and/or structural properties and will govern its
ultimate fate, in terms of preservation or destruction” (Wikipedia 2011). Whilst
taphonomy is the study of decaying and decayed organisms. Thus the ”study
(of) taphonomic processes(can be used) to determine how plant and animal (as well
as human) remains accumulate and differentially preserve within archaeological
sites. This is critical to determining whether these remains are associated with
human activity. In addition, taphonomic processes may alter biological remains after
they are deposited at a site.” (Wikipedia 2011).
A discussion of tooth anatomy will follow in the next week or so, as teeth are a
distinct part of our bony body. Various elements of the skeleton, ie the vertebral
column, will be discussed in separate posts for a more in depth study. For the
moment it is important to grasp the fundamentals. Terminology regarding subject
key words (terms such as ‘Bioarchaeology’ or ‘Physical Anthropology’) will be
discussed in the following post to decide what exactly they mean, and where they
came from. Hopefully this short series of introduction posts will help broaden your
knowledge of Human Osteology…
o Please head over to Powered By Osteons blog to learn about the microbiology of
bone, including how Osteoblasts & Osteclasts work.
Bibliography:
Larsen, C. 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behaviour From The Human
Skeleton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mays, S. 1999. The Archaeology of Human Bones. Glasgow: Bell & Bain Ltd.
Schwartz, J. H. 2007. Skeleton Keys: An Introduction to Human Skeletal
Morphology. New York: Oxford University Press.
White, T. & Folkens, P. 2005. The Human Bone Manual. London: Elsevier Academic
Press.