R ic h a r d M a c k a y is a Principal Environmental Planner at Mott MacDonald, specializing in ecology. He has a wide experience of wildlife surveys and environmental impact assessment, as well as formulating environmental policies for major companies. He is co-author of the World Health Organization’s award-winning Inheriting the World: The A tlas o f Children's Health and the Environm ent

Praise for previous editions:

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“A must for budding botanists and ecologists.” Rocky Road

“ Quite simply, every school and institution library should get a copy.”British Ecological Society

“A compact, clear and informative book that should have a place on the bookshelf of all readers interested in nature conservation.” Entomofauna

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“Fascinating and invaluable.” The Independent

“A new kind of visual journalism .” New Scientist

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Complete ly Revised and Updated Third Edit ion

Richard Mackay

from Routledge

This third edition first published by Earthscan in the UK in 2009

This edition published 2013 by Earthscan

For a full list of publications please contact:

Earthscan2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the U SA and Canada by Earthscan 711 Third Avenue, New York, N Y 10017

Earthscan is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © Myriad Editions Limited 2002, 2005, 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or

other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval

system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

The moral right of the author has been asserted

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN : 978-1-84407-628-4 (pbk)

Edited and co-ordinated for Myriad Editions by Jannet King and Candida Lacey

Design and graphics by Corinne Pearlman and Isabelle Lewis Maps created by Isabelle Lewis

Additional research by Jannet King

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C o n t e n t s

Introduction 7Acknowledgements 9

PART 1 Evolution 12Mass Extinctions 14

E xtinction is Hominim ieHuman Environmental Impact 18

F o rever

P art 2 Tropical Forests 22Temperate Forests 24

E cosystem s Grasslands 26Wetlands 28Shallow Coral Reefs 30Oceans 32

PART 3 The Arctic 36The Antarctic 38

F rag ile R egions Australia 40Central and South America 42Galapagos Islands 44Madagascar 46

P art 4 Primates 50Cats 52

E ndangered Ungulates 54A Elephants and Rhinos 56A n im als and Bears 58

PLANTS Rodents 60Bats 62Dolphins and Whales 64Reptiles and Amphibians 66Invertebrates 68Fish 70Plants 72

PART 5 Birds 76Birds of Prey 78

E n d a n g e r e d Parrots and Cockatoos 80Seabirds 82Migratory Birds 84

P a rt 6

I s s u e s o f C o n s e r v a t io n

Animal Biodiversity Plant Biodiversity Ecological Hotspots Conserving Animals Conserving Plants Conserving Domestic Breeds Import Trade Export Trade

9092949698

100102

Part 7 Protected Ecosystems and Biodiversity 106 Threatened Species 114

W o r ld T a b l e s

Sources 122Index 126

88

I n t r o d u c t i o n

EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION HAS GIVEN RISE to a cornucopia of life. Of all the species that have ever lived, only a tiny fraction is alive today. Spasms in Earth’s history, caused by volcanoes erupting and meteorites impacting, wiped out entire groups of organisms, and gradual climatic changes have eliminated others. The evolutionary strategies of some species were just not good enough and they succumbed to competitors and predators. The demise of the dinosaurs is a humbling tale. Their awesome size and power did not assure their survival. Quite the reverse: it left them slow to adapt to a changing environment and more vulnerable than mammals to catastrophic events.

As humans, an appreciation of our evolutionary origins has recently been complemented by a growing awareness of the genetic similarities we share with other living-creatures, particularly chimpanzees and bonobos. The Australopithecines, Homo ergaster and our other ancestors took tools, organization and culture well beyond the level of sophistication of the primates. Although we are of their line, the biological changes that accompanied their advancement are sufficient for us to consider ourselves a different “chrono-species”.

Some parts of the world are more ecologically interesting than others. Habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests contain a great variety of species. Some intrigue us because, like the Arctic and Antarctic, their wildlife is peculiar and we have not yet heavily disturbed them. Species on islands such as Madagascar developed in geographical isolation, giving rise to unique forms. Australia has the dubious distinction of suffering the most mammal extinctions. Many other regions and ecosystems could have been included here but for the lack of space.

A small fraction - probably fewer than 10 percent - of living species have been identified and classified. The remaining 90 percent are mostly invertebrates. Consequently, an anomaly arises in that the most intensely researched countries show up as having the highest number of threatened species. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, now a division of the United Nations Environment Programme, is the global data organization for conservation. IUCN is the umbrella group for conservation bodies around the world. It has promulgated a system for assessing whether a species is threatened and, if so, the severity of the risk. The definitive work is the organization’s publication: the IUCN Red List o f Threatened Species.

Representing the number of species threatened endorses the notion of a species as a closed gene-pool. This presents conceptual difficulties, such as in defining species among organisms that reproduce asexually, for example in animals that bud and in plants that spread by growth of horizontal stems. Despite its flaws, however, the species concept is useful for conservation. Subspecies and isolated populations of species are generally not counted in this book, although they are sometimes described in the text.

The distribution of living things does not respect political boundaries. However, decisions affecting conservation are still usually made by states, and their borders provide a convenient means of dividing the land surface. For groups of animals and plants, the level of threat has been represented in this atlas by the number of threatened species occurring in each country. This inevitably gives the impression that larger countries have greater conservation problems than smaller ones. To redress the balance, Part 6 Issues of Conservation highlights areas with the greatest biodiversity and those with the most endemic species.

Why should conserving biodiversity matter? Many people feel that we are stewards of the planet and that to annihilate species as we are doing is immoral. Quite apart from spiritual and aesthetic loss, each extinction also represents the loss of irreplaceable genetic information, including beneficial characteristics that could have been bred into domestic crops and livestock. Chemicals produced naturally are also used to develop pharmaceuticals. When “keystone” species become extinct the balance of whole ecosystems is threatened.

7

Global warming is one of a number of threats outlined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, completed in March 2005. This was the first comprehensive global evaluation of the world’s major ecosystems. The assessment found that 60 percent of ecosystem services (the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as fisheries and prevention of soil erosion) are being degraded or used unsustainably. Loss of species was identified as a major factor affecting both the resilience of natural services and less tangible spiritual or cultural values. The consequences for human well-being are severe, but by protecting ecosystem services in agriculture, industry and in our lifestyles, we can halt the decline.

Agreement between states can secure the conservation of common resources, such as ocean fisheries. It can also suppress damaging wildlife trade, driven by our fascination with the rare and exotic and the purported medicinal properties of some plants and animals. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was adopted in 1973. More recent treaties have addressed conservation within national jurisdictions. In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (the “Rio Summit”) adopted the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Climate Change and Forest Principles. All are relevant to threatened species. Although the Convention on Biological Diversity restated the principle of national sovereignty, it also placed a duty on states to conserve biodiversity by requiring that environmental impact assessments be carried out for infrastructure projects, for example.

The size of the human population is of major consequence in conserving biodiversity. Fewer people would allow us to leave habitats intact or to exploit them sustainably. Of course the environmental impact, or “ footprint”, of individual countries differs. The USA, with four percent of the world’s population, produces a quarter of the world’s greenhouse-gas emissions. However, the USA and other industrialized countries also develop most of the world’s clean technologies.

Pollution is a global issue. Carbon dioxide warms the whole planet, not just your back yard. The impact of global warming on threatened species will be profound. Polar bears will be stranded and starve as ice retreats. Plants with a limited distribution may not survive rising temperatures. Coasts and estuaries will be inundated. The world will lose species that have evolved over billions of years to form communities and habitats that without human interference would still exist in exquisite equilibrium.

The Convention on Climate Change went to the very heart of economic systems. An accord was signed in Kyoto in 1997, outlining binding limits on the global warming contributions of developed countries. The extent to which the transfer of clean technology to developing countries and “carbon sinks” could be debited from national emissions was contentious. In November 2000, talks in The Hague, Netherlands on the detail of the Kyoto agreement foundered on US intransigence, but in July 2001 a compromise agreement was reached by 180 countries (excluding the USA). Following ratification by Russia, the Kyoto Protocol finally came into force on 16 Februaiy 2005. Talks in Bali in 2007 aimed to map out a framework for concerted international action on global warming to succeed the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in 2012. It is not yet clear whether the successor treaty will secure deep cuts in emissions by developed countries and implement targets for developing countries, which - particularly with the industrialization of China and India - are becoming significant emitters of greenhouse gases. Both are required if catastrophic climate change is to be averted.

RICHARD MACKAY Cambridge, Summer 2008

8

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

My thanks to Caroline Pollock at the IUCN for providing data, to Patricia Patton at WWF-UK and Alex Solyom at WWF-US, who kindly supplied many of the photographs included in this book, and to the photographers who have generously given us permission to use their images (see below). I would also like to thank the Species Survival Commission of IUCN and Birdlife International, who were both helpful in clarifying data.

I am very grateful to the team at Myriad Editions - Jannet King, Candida Lacey, Isabelle Lewis and Corinne Pearlman - who worked tirelessly to ensure the rigor and visual impact of the book, and especially for Jannet’s help researching the new data.

Another sincere acknowledgement is to my parents Judith and John, who gave their wholehearted support.

The author and publishers are grateful to W WF in the USA and UK for permission to use a selection of images from the WWF photo archives. Known worldwide by its Panda logo, W W F is working around the globe to protect endangered species and to save endangered spaces. To learn more about W WF and its programs, visit the organization’s portal website at www.wwf.org. W WF assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of the text, maps or charts in the atlas. In addition to the W WF photographs, we are grateful for permission to use the following on pp. 10— 11: Giant tortoise: Neil Morrison WWF-UK. 16-17: Neanderthal skull: Patrick McDonnell/www.medicalillustration.net. 18-19: Turtle: Asther Lau/www.iStockphoto.com. 20-21: Red Sea coral: Charles Hood/WWF-UK. 22-23: Mahogany tree, Brazil: Mark Edwards/Still Pictures/WWF-UK; Tropical forest: WWF-UK; Rainforest destruction, Indonesia: Mauri Rautkari/WWF-UK. 24-25: Legal logging, Russia: UPM; Tree-planting, China: Asian-info. 26-27: Asia’s high steppes: iStockphoto/Robert Churchill; great Indian bustard: Raja Purohit. 28-29: Mangroves: Edward Parker/WWF-UK; Water hyacinth: USDA. 30-31: Red Sea coral: Charles Hood/WWF-UK. 32-33: Orange roughy: Greenpeace/Duncan; Coral: NOAA/MBARI. 34-35: Gentoo penguin, Antarctica: iStockphoto/Jeff Goldman. 36-37: Polar bears: Neil Morrison/WWF-UK. 38-39: Macaroni penguins: Mary Rae/WWF-UK; Rockhopper penguin: David Lawson/WWF-UK. 40-41: Gouldian Finch: Australian Wildlife Conservancy. 42-43: Sea lions: iStockphoto/Carrie Winegarden; Muriqui: Luiz Claudio Marigo/www.omuriqui.hpg.com. br; Unofficial roads: iStockphoto/Joseph Luoman; Pantantal: iStockphoto/Torsten Karock. 44-45: Galapagos penguin: iStockphoto/javaman3; Steven Morello/WWF-US; Lava gull: Gary Feldman; Giant tortoise: Neil Morrison/WWF-UK. 46-47: Madagascar rosy periwinkle: David R. Parks/www.mobot.org; Fish eagle: Greg Lasley; Golden bamboo lemur: endangeredcreatures.net. 48-49: Cheetah: Chris Harvey/WWF-UK. 50-51: Drill monkey: D. White/WWF-UK; Alaotra gentle lemur: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Orang-utan: Russel Mittermeier/WWF-US; Gorilla: Rick Weyerhaeuser/WWF-US. 52-53: Florida panther: David Maehr/Conservation Biology, University of Kentucky: www.fl-panther.com; Bengal tiger: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Cheetah: Chris Harvey/WWF-UK. 54-55: Bison: USFWS/WWF-US; Przewalski’s horse: John De Meij'/Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse; Pygmy hog: Durrell Wildlife; Hunter’s hartebeest: Gretchen Goodner/WWF-US. 56-57: Indian elephant: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Javan rhino: Thinkquest; Indian rhino: Bruce Bunting/WWF-US. 58-59: Brown bear: Mary Rae/WWF-UK; Giant panda: Edward Mendell/WWF-UK; Asiatic black bear: Ian Ledgerwood/WWF-UK; Spectacled bear: David Lawson/WWF-UK. 60-61: Beaver: David Lawson/ WWF-UK. 64-65: Blue whale: Paul Coppi/WWF-UK. 66-67: Panamanian golden frog: www.messiah.edu; Marine iguana: T. P. Littlejohns/WWF-UK;. Asian three-striped box turtle: Kurt Buhlmann/Conservation International. 68-69: Harlequin ladybird: Wild About Britain; Monarch butterfly: WWF-US. 70-71: Aquaculture: Edward Parker/WWF-UK. 72-73: Lady’s slipper orchid: E. Lister/WWF-UK; Wild bluebells: Jannet King; Caucasus: Cathy Ratcliff/WWF-UK; Mandrinette: Wendy Strahm/IUCN Red List Programme; Bastard quiver tree: Craig Hilton-Taylor/IUCN Red List Programme. 74-75: Short-tailed albatross: Hiroshi Hagesawa/Toho University. 76-77: Kiwi hen: Storm Stanley/WWF-UK. 78-79: Great Philippine eagle: www.philipineeagle.org. 80-81: Hyacinth macaw: Edward Parker/WWF-UK; Female Mauritius parakeet: Anne Lee/WWF-UK; Yellow-eared conure: Paul Salaman/Proyecto Ognorhynchus. 82-83: Short-tailed albatross: Hiroshi Hagesawa/Toho University. 84-85: Turtle Dove and Steppe Eagle: Sergey Dereliev/UNEP/AEWA. 86-87: Cloud forest, Costa Rica: iStockphoto/Francisco Romero. 88-89: Chimpanzee: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Red ruffed lemur: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Galapagos tortoise: Charles Hood/WWF-UK. 90-91: Everglades: iStockphoto/Harry Thomas; Epiphytes: Russel Mittermeier/WWF-US; Rainforest, Sumatra: Mauri Rautkari/WWF-UK. 92-93: Sequoia: iStockphoto/Tobia Peciva; Dinaric Arc: iStockphoto/Ralf Hirsch; Pygmy hippo: David Lawson/WWF-UK; Golden lion tamarin: David Lawson/WWF- UK. 94-95: Alaotran gentle lemur: James Morgan/Durrell Wildlife; Mallorcan midwife toad: Gerardo Garcia/Durrell Wildlife; Mauritius kestrel: Carl Jones/Durrell Wildlife; Black lion tamarin: Mark Pigeon/Durrell Wildlife. 96-97: Japanese knotweed: invasive.org; Svalbard Global Seed Vault: Mari Tefre/Global Crop Diversity Trust; Magnolia: Royal Horticultural Society; Golden pagoda: Craig Hilton-Taylor/IUCN Red List Programme;. 98-99: Angler sattelschwein/FAO; Red Maasai sheep/FAO. 100-01: African gray: Jannet King; 104-05: Monarch butterfly (photo montage): iStockphoto/Cathy Keifer.

Terrain bases on pages 26-27, 38-39, 43 and 92-93 were prepared using MAPS IN MINUTESTM ® RH Publications (1999); pages 18-19, 32-33, 40-41, 46-47 use Mountain High maps ® Myriad Editions; page 37 uses a base map created by Hugo Ahlenius and reproduced by kind permission of UNEP/GRID-Arendal. Available at: http://maps.grida.no

9

E x t i n c t i o n i s F o r e v e r

“Pragmatic self-interest alone should teach us that we must change before nature exacts inevitable revenge.”

— David Watson, author of How Deep is Deep Ecology 1

E v o l u t i o n

In 1831 the British naturalist Charles Darwin took a fateful voyage on the survey ship HMS Beagle. Over five years he studied the geology and wildlife of the lands the Beagle visited. He found fossils of species long extinct and wondered how new species had replaced them. His observations led him to deduce that the difference between species was an outcome of natural processes. Darwin’s thesis culminated in the publication in 1859 of On the Origin o f Species. Here he challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that the diversity of life was the product of supernatural design.

By Darwin’s day the concept of a “species" was widely understood as a group of organisms that can breed with each other but cannot interbreed with another species. The Swedish botanist Karl von Linne (who became known by his Latin name of Carolus Linnaeus) had developed a system in the mid-18th century that classified organisms according to their similarities, placing them in a hierarchy that, at the highest level, makes the basic distinction between animals and plants. His approach forms the basis of modern-day taxonomic diagrams (see opposite).

The difference between the approach of Linnaeus and Darwin was that while Linnaeus saw his work as “mapping” the world God had created, Darwin was interested in explaining how living creatures evolved and continued to develop. Darwin observed that there is variation within a species and that some characteristics are more beneficial than others. He knew that the characteristics of an adult organism depend on its parents and the environment where it lives. As life is a competition for scarce resources and a test of resilience in the face of harsh conditions, organisms with characteristics most likely to allow them to survive will breed most successfully.Those characteristics will then become more prevalent within the species as it adapts - or evolves - to its changing circumstances. When events such as a rising sea level or the movement of the Earth's continents splits a population into two, the new populations cannot meet to interbreed. Over time, separate evolution will cause changes in each group to the point where they can no longer successfully reproduce with each other - a new species has evolved.

A taxonomic diagram, such as the simplified version opposite, relates species by their evolutionary history. Species of the same order are considered to share a more recent common ancestor than species of the same phylum. Different species with similar features are grouped into families. Similar families belong to an order, related orders to a class and classes to a phylum, each of which belongs to one of the kingdoms. There are, however, different criteria for assigning organisms to different groups, and continuing debates as how the divisions should be made, even at the highest level of the kingdom.

Darwin’s theory of evolution is itself constantly being reviewed. In the 20th century scientists studying life at the molecular level recognized that natural selection occurs only indirectly between whole organisms (animals and plants).At a more fundamental level it is occurring between genes. This explains behaviors such as altruism: for example, ants will sacrifice themselves to defend their nests because what is important is the survival of the genes shared by related ants rather than survival of the individual.

EVOLUTION SIMPLIFIEDHow a single species can evolve into many species

time ---------------------------------------

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Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

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s p e c i e s i

SAPIENS 13

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M a s s E x t i n c t i o n s

The “biodiversity” of a place or region is a measure of the number of species present and of their abundance. Each species occupies a “ niche”- a specific location, relationship with its physical surroundings and mode of interaction with other species. Organisms of a single species in one place are called a population, and together populations form a community.

Species naturally become extinct as they fail to reproduce, either through extreme conditions or because of displacement by competitors. Even if a species adapts to these threats, it will, by definition, have evolved into a different species. Fossils suggest that this background rate of extinction is punctuated by short periods of mass extinction, defined as a period in which at least 50 percent of all species become extinct.

The precise cause of each mass extinction is difficult to assess. Catastrophes such as meteorite impacts and comet showers may have been responsible for some mass extinctions. Global climate change, fluctuation in the concentration of various gases, and other gradual environmental trends may have caused others.

4bn years agoorigin of the Earth

3.5bn years agoage of the

oldest fossils

*700 mya

multi-eelled organisms evolved

Interactions between species could even have been a factor, creating instability in complex, finely balanced communities. The loss of certain “keystone” species can be particularly damaging to communities. For example, in areas where otters have recently been hunted nearly to extinction, sea urchins have multiplied, consuming the kelp and so radically altering the habitat. Keystone species may be as small as soil invertebrates or even microbes.

Mass extinctions overwhelmed creatures living both on land and in the sea. On land, animals seem to have suffered more than plants. In the sea, trilobites - a group of marine animals with hard shells - suffered a repeated loss of species.

Mass extinctions have occurred roughly every 26 million years. It is not clear if this pattern has arisen by chance, or whether there is some explanation for it. There have been five particularly widespread mass extinctions. The species that survived, subsequently diversified to occupy the niches vacated by those that vanished. Thus, new forms of life appeared.

Although 1.8 million living species have been

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14 Copyright© Myriad Editions Limited

End of the Cambrian period: rising sea levels caused mass extinction,

although many of the species that probably became extinct were

soft-bodied, so left no fossil:

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210 myatowards the end of the Triassie period,

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marine species disappeared,

including trilobites.

End of the Cretaceous period: 85% of allspecies, including the dinosaurs, became

extinct. The presence of iridium in 66-million-year-old rocks suggests that a

meteorite strike shrouded the planet in dust and darkness. Alternatively, the extinction could

have been caused by gradual climate change.

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Modern humans are the last survivors of the Hominini tribe, whose many branches evolved as a result of geographic isolation, possibly brought about by climate change.

Humans are the only primates who habitually stand and move in an upright position. The oldest known hominins are the genus Australopithecus, which evolved from more ape-like creatures over 4 million years ago in Africa and appears not to have spread beyond that continent. Their jaws were ideally suited to feeding on fruit, nuts and berries, and they became extinct around one million years ago probably because their specialized diet became scarce as the climate became drier and savannah replaced woodland.

By the time of its demise, Australopithecus was not the only hominin in existence. Two and a half million years ago a larger-brained hominin developed, and evolved into a species (Homo sapiens) that was to dominate the planet.

Hominin skulls increased in size as the species evolved, indicating a growing mental capacity. From the size and form of different brain areas, scientists have been able to deduce how intelligence has developed: the frontal lobe indicates abstract processing and a capacity for language whilst the parietal lobe, at the top of the head, is responsible for technological and computational thinking.

It is this use of tools and technology, from clothing and housing to sophisticated farming methods, that has served as a buffer between Homo sapiens and the changing environment. Alterations in the population gene pool that lead eventually to new species developing have not been identified in humans for the last250,000 years.

About two and a half million years ago hominins began fashioning bladed tools by chipping rocks. The same ability for technological and computational thinking now presents opportunities for genetic manipulation and artificial body-parts - a development that may lead to the most rapid, awesome and potentially terrifying period of hominin evolution yet witnessed.

Homo neanderthalensis lived in Southern Europe 100,000 years ago. Up until about 30,000 years ago, they eo-existed with modern humans. Their demise may have been due to competition for resources with humans or it is possible they met a more violent end. Alternative theories suggest that Neanderthals were adapted to cold conditions and disappeared as the climate grew warmer. Although some scientists argue that Neanderthals gave rise to modern humans, most agree that they are not our direct ancestors.

Hominins are human­like primates, descended

from the genus Homo. Bones of Homo erect us

have been discovered across South and

Southeast Asia. They became extinct about

150,000 years ago - before the appearance

of Homo sapiens around 120,000 years ago.

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H erectusH erectus

FOSSIL FINDS IN AFRICA

area where fossils have been found

A AustralopithecusH Homo

A bahrelghazali

16 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

Most fossil finds are just fragments, such as a tooth or a piece of skull. "Lucy" is special because almost half of her skeleton was recovered and DNA testing showed that she lived 3.2 million years ago.

Lucy was discovered in the Hatar Valley in Ethiopia by Donald Johanson in 1974, and named after the Beaties' song, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" (remade by Elton John that year). Lucy was probably around 25 years old when she died. She would have stood about 3 feet 6 inches (1.10 meters) tall, although other Australopithecus afarensis from this area were up to 5 feet 8 inches (1.70 meters) tall.

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3.800.000 years ago

4.000.000 years ago

4.200.000 years ago

Homosapiens

Homoneanderthalensis

Homoheidelbergensis

Homoantecessor?

Homoerectus

HUMAN EVOLUTIONin millions of years

Australopithecusrobustus

African us

Australopithecusaethiopicus

Homo I ergaster 8

Australopithecusboisei

Homohabilis

Homo I rudolfensis I

Homo species

Australopithecus ---^ africanus

Australopithecusafarensis

Australopithecus anamensis I

H u m a n E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t

The total human demand on the planet’s natural resources exceeds the Earth’s capacity by 25 percent. Since emerging as the dominant species of the H om o genus, around 30,000 years ago, H om o sapiens has become the most powerful, creative, and ultimately destructive, life-form on the planet. The rate at which humans have multiplied and congregated into vast urban sprawls makes such demands on the environment that in places it is cracking under the strain.

Mining, the burning of fossil fuels and other polluting industrial activities, intensive agriculture involving excessive chemicals, deforestation for timber and agriculture, the creation of road networks that fragment ecosystems, the paving of the Earth’s surface, and the over extraction of water from aquifers - all these activities are changing the environment irrevocably. The delicate balance between the species that make up the Earth’s rich and varied ecosystems has been disrupted, and thousands of life forms are being pushed towards extinction by the activities of a single species.

By destroying ecosystems, we are sowing the seeds of our own destruction, because it is on these very ecosystems that we depend for our survival. Forests absorb carbon dioxide and stop soil from being washed away, mangroves filter impurities and protect the coastline, oceans help regulate the climate.

Signs of a warming climate are apparent across the world, and the change is occurring so rapidly that many species will have no time to adapt. Rising temperatures are leading to less predictable weather patterns, and more extreme weather events. This is interfering with plant growth and animal breeding, often upsetting mutually dependent relationships and putting many species, not least humans, under increased strain. The way of life - indeed the very survival - of millions of people and hundreds of thousands of species, is threatened.

Climate ChangeThe effect of global warming on ecosystems and species 2008 or la te s t available data

Caribou numbers in Canada's Northwest Territory are

declining - one herd by 35% in five years. Human activity

in the form of mining, oil and gas extraction may be taking

its toll, but scientists also point to climate change. Vegetation is appearing

earlier and dying back before calves have gained enough

weight to survive the winter.

&W

Tree swallowsin North America

migrate north 12 days earlier than

in 1980.

The Edith's checkerspot butterfly has become extinct in

80% of its previous range, because the snapdragon flowers

it relies on are drying up too soon.

Mosquitoes in North America are entering their winter dormancy 9 days later than in the 1970s,

increasing the period during which they can spread disease.

The polar bear population in Hudson Bay has fallen by 22% in recent years. With sea-ice breaking up 2-3 weeks earlier than 50 years ago, they are losing vital feeding time. The US government has implicitly acknowledged the process of global warming by listing the polar bear as a threatened species.

A significant increase in sea

level would destroy Florida's

remaining mangroves.

NV

The Quelccaya glacier, on which

Lima, Peru depends for its water supply, has been retreating by 30 metres a year

since 1990.

The mosquito that can carry the dengue and yellow fever viruses, previously limited to 3,300 ft (1,006 m) in the

Colombian Andes mountains, appeared at 7,200 ft (2,195 m) in 1998.

As sea ice retreats in the Antarctic peninsula, Adelie penguins are declining, and being replaced by gentoo penguins moving south from more temperate regions.

Copyright ® M yriad Editions Limited18

If global temperaturesincrease by 2.5°C or more, up to 30% of

species are likely to be at risk of extinction, according to the

International Panel on Climate Change.

British birds breed on average 9 days earlier than in the mid-20th century.Frogs mate up to

7 weeks earlier.

Arctic sea ice in the summer of 2007 shrank to its smallest extent since satellite records began in 1979 - 23% below the previous record, set in 2005.

j r

Spring has arrived in Europe earlier by, on average, 3 days every decade since the mid-20th century. This affects not only plant growth, but animal breeding cycles, and bird migratory patterns.

Flooding in Ethiopia in 2006 was followed by an

outbreak of cholera.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTThe area of productive land or sea needed to resource the lifestyle of one person 2003 hectares

111

A

Flooding in eastern Africa in 2007 created new breeding sites for mosquitoes, increasing

levels of malaria, and triggering epidemics of

Rift Valley Fever.

A link has been found in Bangladesh

between the prevalence of cholera

and increasingly extreme weather

events.

An increase in temperature of 1°C since the 1970s is causing glaciers to

retreat across the Himalayas. This brings the risk of devastating floods and presents a long-term threat to

river flow and water supplies in surrounding countries.

a*

The breeding season of lemurs on Madagascar is no longer synchronized with the growing season and the availability of food.

In 1997 malaria was detected for the first time as high as 6,900 ft

(2,103 m) in Irian Jaya, Indonesia.

Hot weather during turtle egg incubation increases the number of female baby turtles. Rising temperatures, coupled with the loss of shade-giving trees due to increasingly violent and frequent storms, has led to a preponderance of female turtles worldwide. No-one knows how this is likely to affect turtle numbers.

JThe rising sea temperature in the Great Barrier Reef and other coral reefs is leading to "bleaching” episodes. A potentially greater threat comes from the reduction in carbonate ions in the oceans caused by increased acidity as a result of the absorption of C0V

19

USA9.6

UK5.6

Brazil 2.1 |

China1.6 India

0.8

E c o s y s t e m s

“Try to imagine the Earth without ecosystems... Each ecosystem represents a solution to a particular

challenge to life, worked out over millennia... Stripped of its ecosystems, Earth would resemble

the stark, lifeless images beamed back from Mars...”

— World Resources 2 0 0 0 -2 0 0 1

T r o p i c a l F o r e s t s

The area bounded by the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S) is known as “the tropics”. Tropical rainforest, mainly comprised of evergreen trees, thrives in areas of high rainfall. Deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in the dry season, tend to grow in areas where there is a seasonal drought. In dry areas that are prone to fire, and where soils are particularly poor, trees grow sparsely, forming “woody savanna”.

Tropical forests bind the soil, helping to prevent erosion and retain the few nutrients present. They also absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, exchanging it for oxygen. Tropical forests cover only 6 percent of the Earth’s land area but probably contain over half the world’s species, most of which have yet to be identified.

Fire, often caused by lightning, is part of the natural cycle of regeneration in tropical forests. Fire destroys the forest canopy, enabling light to reach the ground, and saplings and herbs to grow. In most cases, however, forest fires are caused by humans. In some cases they are deliberately lit in order to clear forests for agriculture. In others, they are started inadvertently, perhaps by discarded cigarettes or sparks from machinery.

Clearing by slashing and burning techniques, and more recently by machines, may completely destroy the remaining major areas of tropical forests. Most of the tropical forests are in poor countries whose priorities are to clear land for agriculture. Attempts by wealthier countries to encourage development often lead to tropical forests being exploited for timber.

Once the forest is gone, the land is prone to erosion and flooding. Nutrients in the soil are rapidly leached and after a few years farming and ranching become untenable. Where the original forest cover is substantial, as in the Amazon, it has a major influence on climate. Loss of trees reduces local rainfall and may even disrupt the global climate. Sustainable exploitation of tropical forests, including selective logging and harvesting of products such as fruit and rubber, can provide a higher long-term income than more destructive practices.

T r o p ic a l Fo r estTotal area of tropical forest 1999 or latest available data square kilometers

B i 1,350,000 - 3,013,000

I I 500,000 - 890,000

350.000 - 460,000

f 100,000 - 250,000

10.000 - 99,000

fewer than 10,000

no tropical forest

Protected areas50,000 square kilometers and/or 40% of total area are protected

GUATrMALA HONDURAS

EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA

COSTA RICAPANAMA

DOMINICANREP.

T| I PUERTO RICO

GUADELOUPE | MARTINIQUE ^

ST LUCIA - O , TRINIDAD ft TOBAGO

2 2 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

TROPICAL FOREST BY REGIONProtected tropical forest as percentage of tropical forest in the region 1999 or latest available

tropical forest area

Lin thousand hectares

percentage protected

The mahogany tree is prized worldwide for its dark timber, and about 40% of mahogany logged in Brazil is exported to make furniture. The trees grow slowly, at low density, and the mahogany is already extinct in Honduras and Colombia.

FRENCH GUIANA

SENEGALGAMBIA—

GUINEA-BISSAUGUINEA-?

SIERRA LEONE LIBERI/)

ARGENTINA

Asia

16 .40/0

210,720

U S A

^ ^ H ^ M ^ H T qUYANAm., FRENC

1 .JAMAICA I. a r

BELIZE HA'

RAINFOREST LOSS1990-2005

square kilometers lost

^ area lost as percentage of^ total tropical forest in country

13%5% 18%

9%

•7%

•TSTb wm/KM Y T i

Philippines Congo, D.R. Burma 34,120 69,210 69,970

.24%

8 %

Tropical forests in the Congo basin are being degraded at a rate that may see them disappear by 2050, as rapid population growth and a desperate need to repay international debt drives indiscriminate logging.

Central America and Caribbean

12%

Indonesia Brazil280,720 423,290

Thailand Malaysia Cameroon14,450 14,860 33,000

PHILIPPINES

Vast areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared for their lucrative hardwoods and, more recently, in order to plant oil palm. In February 2007, the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia agreed to protect 77,200 sq miles (200,000 sq km) of tropical forest in Borneo.

America

PAKISTAN

12.2%Oceania

9 .10/0

imffln ? m i i448,063 70,812 620,514 53,560 23

SOLOMON •k, ISLANDS ^

FIJINEWCALEDONIAo

C H I N A

TAIWANEGYPT

_ _ _ _ _ ^

Sub-Saharan Africa

w rWfW MADAGASCAR

Ij^KAM BIQ U E

^ S waziland

OTHO

EQu l l | UGANDA SOMALIA

A U S T R A L I A

SRI LANKA

BANGLADESH INDIA BURMA LAQS

THAILANDH I t mvi

T e m p e r a t e F o r e s t s

Temperate regions lie to the north and south of the tropics (23.5° latitude). Deciduous temperate trees shed their leaves each winter. Nearer the poles “boreal” forests of conifers cover the largest area of any forest type in the world. Conifers also dominate temperate forests at higher altitudes and in places where soils are poor.

Temperate forests have been cleared for agriculture and felled for timber for thousands of years. In the late 20th century this trend slowed as populations in temperate regions stabilized and resources other than timber were used for fuel and building materials. In the 1990s the area of temperate forest cover worldwide rose. However, the ecological quality of many forests has continued to decline as plantations replaced “old growth” forests and the frequency of fires has risen. Fires started by people consume an average of one percent of the existing Mediterranean forest every year.

Inappropriate planting of trees to act as “carbon sinks”, a measure to counteract global warming, can actually reduce biodiversity. Most plantations are comprised of a few or even a single tree species such as eucalyptus and pine that may be alien to that habitat. Plantations do, however, make an indirect contribution to conservation by relieving the need to log “old growth” forests.Some plantations are now certified under schemes that demonstrate they are sustainably managed (see pages 96-97).

When forests become fragmented the plants and animals in each forest fragment can be isolated from adjacent forests and local extinction may result. It also becomes more difficult for species to migrate in response to climate change.

Pollution has also damaged temperate forests.The burning of fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen into the atmosphere. Transported by the wind this can fall to earth as dry deposits or combine with water to form “acid rain”. Polluting gases are also converted by sunlight into ozone, which interferes with the biological functioning of plants. Forests hundreds of miles from industrial centers are affected, in particular those in the northeast of North America, in East Asia and in northeastern Europe and Scandinavia.

* *m4

/B R A Z I L

TEMPERATE FOREST BY REGIONProtected temperate forest as percentage of temperate forest in the region 1996

temperate forest area in thousand hectares

. percentage protected

Asia South America 30/0

5.3% 15.80/o

8.90/0

North America 132,065 39,178

Europe

24 Copyright c Myriad Editions Limited 683,700 991,346

PARAGUAY

ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

Temperate ForestExtent of forest 1999 square kilometers

fewer than 1,000

no temperate forest

Forest certification schemes

more than 50% certified

10% - 40% certified

Russia has the largest area of temperate forest - around 3 million sq miles (8 million sq km) - but less than 1% of it is covered by a certification scheme. Russia has its own controls on logging, but illegal activity is hard to control.

Since 1998, China has undertaken a vast reforestation project - and by 2004 more than 177,600 sq miles

(460,000 sq km) had been planted - mainly by farmers or other citizens,

rather than by the government.

SOUTHAFRICA

WOOD PRODUCTION2005

thousand cubic meters

USA China Canada Russia471,862 286,103 199,345 186,500

25

2.500.000 or more

830.000

20.000 - 30,000

10.000 -19,000

1.000 - 9,000

NUKWAY SWEDEN

uM ESTONIA UK f LATVIA

/ ■ # DENMARK LITHUANIAf l russia^

I POLAND VNETH. GERMANY BELARUS

BELGIUM A y, T m S " SLOVAKIA UKRA'NE

FRAMPF LUX r A«STRIA HUNGARY MOLDOVA 'SWITZ. SL0VEN|A ROMANIA 4

W CR0AT1’A B' H SERBIA T MONTENEGRO- DULuArllATU6AL ALBANIA LMACEDONIA

SPAIN ITALY TURKEY AGREECE

TUNISIA CYPRUS SLEB-

OCCO

ALGERIALIBYA

EGYPT

t u rk ey

/ / KAZAKHSTAN

UZBEKISTANKYRGYZSTAN” ,

RBAIJANTURKMENISTAN

IRAN AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

GEORGIA^^ARMENIA AZERBAIJ

MONGOLIA P l f f

fj'N- , KOREA

n u i M A S0UTHC H I N A , KOREA

■ ^ —" NEPAL' ' ^ ^ 1

H TAIWAN

I N D I A Dl IDM A 5BURMA LAOS

THAILANDVIETNAM

JAPAN

)ROCCO

y PORTUGAL \ SPAIN

FINLAND

KN

A U S T R A L I A

G r a s s l a n d s

Grassland covers more of the Earth’s surface than any other type of terrain. Estimates range from 31 percent to 43 percent, depending on the definition of “grassland”, which can include savanna, prairie, scrub, high-altitude plains and Arctic tundra. More than 70 percent of some African countries are covered in grassland, and grassland makes up more than half the terrain in around 40 countries. One of the defining characteristics of grassland is that its vegetation is prevented from turning into forest by fire, grazing, lack of water or by freezing temperatures.

Grasslands support a wide range of wild animals, in particular birds. As well as providing year-round habitat for endemic bird species, grasslands also provide temporary refuge and breeding sites for migrating birds. They are therefore of vital importance, and their degradation in North America has resulted in a declining bird population since the mid-1960s.

Grasslands also provide grazing for domestic animals. In some areas of the world they have supported nomadic herds of sheep, goats and cattle for thousands of years. With growing human populations rearing ever more livestock, however, grasslands are at risk from over-grazing, which leads to soil erosion.

One of the major threats to grassland ecosystems is fragmentation by development, including roads. Breaking grassland up into small patches reduces its capacity to maintain biological diversity - it becomes degraded. This is what is happening in the Great Plains of the USA, where criss-crossing roads have fragmented 70 percent of the area into patches smaller than 386 square miles (1,000 square kilometres).

Much of the watershed areas of many of the world’s largest rivers are comprised of grassland. Here it performs the vital function of absorbing rainfall into underground aquifers that in turn feed into the river systems. Grasslands also act as “carbon sinks” by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They hold an estimated 33 percent of carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems, most of which is to be found in the soil.

Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

The dry Patagonian steppe inArgentina hosts abundant wildlife, including the endemic wild llama, the "guanaco". Human settlement is limited to "estaneias" (ranches) and a few small towns. Its aridity leaves the Patagonian steppe vulnerable to overgrazing by sheep and goats, which are turning some areas into desert. Pumas are hunted, often illegally, because they prey on livestock,

Tallgrass prairie in USA

Cerrado woodland andsavanna in Brazil

30/0 50/0 |

71%

21%

IO0/019o/o

26

Once common across the Indian subcontinent, the great Indian bustardis now on the verge of extinction because livestock overgraze its grassland habitat. Fewer than 700 birds are thought to survive.

G r a s s l a n d sMajor areas of grassland 2000

grassland

Current land use as percentage of estimated total grassland zone in selected areas

Southwest Australian shrublands and woodlands

20/o 40/o

Asian steppes

The grassland of Asia's high steppes supports around 30 million livestock, many of which are grazed on a nomadic system. However, over the past 50 years Russian and Chinese herders have

been encouraged to adopt more sedentary grazing methods mixed with arable farming. As

a result, the fragile ecology of their grassland has been unbalanced, and around 75% has been degraded. Although the grassland in

Mongolia is in better condition it is also now threatened by an increase in livestock grazed as

a result of privatization since 1990.

Woody savanna in central southern Africa

remaining grassland

converted to cropland

converted to urban areas other 27

jU bl 57%

0.4% 7.6%

l i f e ,

73%

2% p 6%

mmk72%

W e t l a n d s

Wetlands are among the world’s richest and most productive ecosystems. They include swamps, marshes, mangroves, lakes and rivers and cover over 2 million square miles (5.7 million sq km).

Wetlands occur on poorly drained land, where organic matter decays very slowly and peat accumulates, creating bogs. At northern latitudes mosses such as Sphagnum dominate the flora. Where the soil has more nutrients, both inland and at the mouths of great rivers such as the Mississippi and the Nile, grass grows to form marshes. Mangroves, adapted to grow in muddy tidal water that alternates between salty seawater and fresh, occur around deltas and elsewhere.They are mainly found in the tropics, but where ocean currents are favorable, occur also on sub-tropical coasts.

Salt marshes support a large number of invertebrates, providing food for diverse species of birds. Mangrove forests support lichens, orchids, and bacteria, and provide nesting sites for birds, and vital nursery and feeding sites for fish, crustaceans and other shellfish.

Agriculture is the principal cause of wetland destruction, but the damming of rivers can also disrupt these delicate ecosystems. Many wetlands have also been drained in an attempt to destroy the breeding sites of mosquitoes, and thereby control malaria. Wetlands have already been lost in Europe and North America and losses are now high in Asia and Africa. Inter-tidal salt marshes have been “reclaimed” and mangroves destroyed for the development of ports, marinas, housing and commercial fisheries. But salt marshes and mangroves provide vital ecological functions, helping to stabilize estuary banks and provide a barrier against the sea. Their destruction causes erosion and land subsidence and permits salt water to penetrate coastal soils and threaten fresh water supplies.

The Convention on Wetlands was signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971. By mid-2008, 1,752 sites were included in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance, representing over618,000 square miles (1.6 million sq km) of wetlands, nearly twice that in 2001. Signatories to the Convention undertake to practise “wise use” of those wetlands, to sustain their biodiversity.

Florida M angroves

mangroves

boundary of National Park

Tampa

&

F l o r i d a• Lake Worth

^Miami

World Heritage Site ^ National PaTk

Florida

Everglades' National Park

Florida has an estimated 765 square miles (2,000 sq km) of mangrove forests, comprising three different species: the red, black and white mangrove. During the 20th century large swathes were destroyed as the area was developed, including 44% in Tampa Bay, and 87% of those around Lake Worth. Even the conservation measures adopted in the Everglades National Park are not enough to protect it from water pollution. Florida’s wading birds, which depend on mangroves for their nesting areas, have declined to around 10% of their original level.

BAHAMAS

DOMINICAN

BELIZE JAMAICA

GUATEMALA HONDURAS EL SALVADOR . JR \ R A G U A

COSTA R IC / fS * » g ^PANAMA ?|

(j-p ANTIGUA 8t BARBUDA O - DOMINICA

O- ST LUCIA O BARBADOS

kpiNIDAD Et TOBAGO

MAUR

SENEGALGAMBIA—

GUINEA-BISSAU — GUINEJ

SIERRA LEONE LIBERIA

28 Copyright c Myriad Editions Limited

The financial value of the services mangroves provide in

terms of timber and shore protection is hard to assess, but range from $39,000-$ 130,000 per sq mile ($15,000-$50,000

per sq km) each year, or as much as $3 million ($1 m) a year in

popular tourist areas.

fo g l M l g , SURINAME \ ^

B R A Z I L

iSHIBKfl -'. (AY

n B tCHILE ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR A

W jM

\

U S A

C A N A D A

t

W e t l a n d s o f I n t e r n a t io n a l Im p o r t a n c eArea of protected wetlands in countries that are signatories to Ramsar Convention June 2008 square kilometers

50.000 or more

■ ■ 10,000 - 49,999

■ H 5,000 - 9,999

1.000 - 4,999

fewer than 1,000

not a signatory of Ramsar Convention

VIETNAM

CAMBODIA

oMAURITIUS

1,420 sq miles (3,680 sq km)

1961

Water hyacinth is an invasive plant, originating in South America but now a problem in North America, Asia, Australia and Africa. By 1998, it covered a large area of northeast Lake Victoria, interfering with fishing and transport, and providing breeding areas for disease-bearing insects.Neochetina weevils, which eat the plant, were released, and in 2001 had reduced coverage by 90%. Local involvement in rearing and releasing further weevils is keeping the plant in check.

926 sq miles

□MANGROVE LOSS

IN THAILANDTotal area

of mangroves 1961-2002

Thailand’s mangroves have declined as a result of the timber and charcoal industries,

urbanization, agricultural and aquaculture. In 2004, however, a plan was established to preserve the remaining forests. The 2004

tsunami underlined to local communities the important role mangroves play in providing

protection against surges. 29

ICELAND ^

t J r . J H M k aNORWAY

'firX J t D EN N ^^ f, LITHUANIA ^ RUSS

- “ RUSSIA**IRELAND -9 N^ H E |Wjy POLAND BELARUS

L jffilf l CZECH » UKRAINE i LIECHT. g, REP. SLOVAKIA

FRANCE ^ 7 WAW** HUNGARYR0MAN|A M° LD0VAg w i i i . SLOVENIA ROMANIA

Wtm. CR0AT'A B' H SERBIA RI M TAPIA, MONTENEGRO- BULGARIA P O R T U G J ^ H MONACO f ALBANIA (.MACEDONIA turk£

SPAIN ITALY g§H ^ ce Wl

MG E O R G IA ^ %

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

MStOCCX)

CYPRUS SYRIAH - LEB - S H I

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ALGERIAL IB Y A BAHRAIN

EGYPT

MALINIGER

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THAILAND

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SRI LANKA VM A* I*A Y S I A t .>

O PALAUO MARSHALL

ISLANDS

« V

A U S T R A L I A

NEWZEAL

S h a l l o w C o r a l R e e f s

Coral reefs are found in the shallow coastal waters of over 100 countries. They grow profusely in warm, well-circulating calm waters and cover an estimated 231,600 square miles (600,000 sq km) worldwide. Home to a vast number of different species, coral reefs are second only to rainforests in species richness.

Coral consists of thousands of invertebrate marine animals - known as “polyps” - with a hollow, cylindrical structure and a skeleton containing calcium carbonate. The lower end of the coral is attached to a rock or another polyp.At the free end is a mouth, surrounded by tentacles that can be extended to paralyze prey. While corals living in deep water (see pages 32-33) rely on this method, corals in shallow water obtain most of their food from photosynthesis by algae living inside them.

Sick coral provides an early warning that entire ecosystems are in danger. Since the 1980s, dozens of new infections, including white band and yellow pox, have attacked corals. Few of these ailments have a known cause, but human development of coastal zones is a likely factor.

Increases in sea temperature and level can cause the coral polyps to shed the algae on which they depend, causing them to lose their colour and die (“bleaching”). Although some reefs do recover over time, if climate change makes such episodes more frequent, this will no longer be possible.

The rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means that more is being absorbed by the world’s oceans. This is causing the water to become more acidic, which will eventually make it impossible for organisms, including corals, to form shells. Scientists are now warning that this might occur in surface waters as early as 2050.

Illegal fishing methods, such as the use of cyanide and explosives to stun fish, damages coral. Over-fishing also affects the ecological balance of a reef, which can become overgrown with algae if grazing fish are removed.

The loss of coral reefs is likely to reduce the fish catch of many tropical developing countries, around 25 percent of which comes from reef environments. Where reefs may have acted as barriers against erosiorl, their destruction may also allow the sea to encroach on coastal regions.

Nearly a third of 704 species of living coral studied are under threat of extinction, according to a 2008 IUCN report, which drew on the conclusions of scientists from 14 nations.

15°/0— ARABIAN40/o-----3 ^ REGION

110/o . 21,440 km270% ---- •

CAPE VERDE *©

In 1998, the severe "El Nino" phenomenon

- when the ocean- atmosphere system

in the tropical Pacific is disrupted and affects

weather conditions worldwide - coupled with global warming, caused massive coral

bleaching. Nearly half the reefs in the western

Indian Ocean were affected.

340/0 - 1 70/o 26o/o 230/o

ArabianSea

I n d i a nO c e a n

INDIAN OCEAN

31,280 km2

Over 350 protected areas include coral reefs, but these are often in countries without adequate resources to enforce the necessary controls. Tourism can both harm coral reefs, and supply the incentive and finances to protect reefs, but it has to be carefully managed.

Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

During the 1980s white band disease, caused by a bacterium related to cholera, nearly wiped out Acroporo corals across the Caribbean, where they had dominated coral communities for at least 4,000 years. In 2005, the region experienced one of the most devastating coral bleaching events on record.

The State of Coral

. shal low-sea coral reefs

4%110/0

250/0

6 O0/0

0 BERMUDA

*»•• V .

. ^ s**v. BAHAMAS. . •• • . DOMINICAN

C *" . . «*• ..REPUBLIC------- '—m ? •• * :

— v . . NETHERLANDS / ;• ANTILLES

. • •Qw.«*• *">**

Although the Great Barriergalapogos « Reef was assessed in 2004 as

ISLANDS^ . ,comparatively healthy, more recent research into the effects of a projected ocean

------------------ temperature increase of 1.5°Cindicate that it could lose most

• of its living coral by 2050 froma combination of bleaching and ocean acidity.

NORTHERN «L MARIANAS V

WESTERN.•__SAMOA -

P^AM ERIC^N SAMOAV : o^,ERI

already destroyed 1 threatened

critical at low threat

20/o -3

30/0 — 15% - 80% -

AUSTRALIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA

62,800 km2 3 7 % —

28% -

280/o -

80/o -

SOUTH AND EAST ASIA

97,100 km2 -------•

P o c i . f i c O c e a n

4% — 11o/o -

250/o -

60%

PACIFIC OCEAN 47,673 km2

HAWAIIAN . . q ISLANDS

CARIBBEAN ATLANTIC

_ 24,510 km2

„ SOLOMON 1 'w^ISLANDS '

•MARSHALLISLANDS

i

LANDS *I _ITILLES i O ST LUCIA

. •'-'ST VINCENT

31

O c e a n s

There could be up to 5 million species inhabiting the dark recesses of the sea, in ecosystems that are being destroyed even before they have been discovered. This rich and varied landscape has, until recently, been largely unstudied. Only since the development of submersibles able to withstand immense pressure have some of the secrets of the ocean depths been revealed.

Plankton and the carcasses of larger animals, drawn from the surface by gravity and currents, provide one source of energy in these completely dark waters, and cold-water coral on the seabed survives at depths of over 19,000 feet (6,000 meters), using tree-like branching structures to capture its food. Volcanoes thrust from the thin crust under the oceans, forming “seamounts”, and hydrothermal vents in the ocean floor belch out hydrogen sulphide, which microbes harness through chemosynthesis to provide another source of energy.

It is around seamounts that the most abundant deep-sea life is found. But even as these features are being identified and studied, they are being targeted by deep-sea bottom trawlers, which drag nets across the sea-bed, completely destroying any coral in its path. Such fishing practices contribute only around 1 percent of the world’s fish production but are wreaking immeasurable environmental damage.

Deep-sea species tend to be long-lived and slow to reproduce, and deep-sea trawling is causing their stocks to decline. Since trawling for orange roughy started in the late 1970s, stocks of this species are thought to have fallen by more than 70 percent in more than half the areas studied. In addition to the fish targeted by the trawlers, the nets bring up many other species, such as rare deep-sea sharks. The UN General Assembly called, in 2006, for urgent action to protect the fragile ecosystems on which these species depend. A meeting of 40 countries, organized by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization early in 2008, failed to draw up guidelines.

Localized damage to, and pollution of, the seabed is caused by drilling for oil and gas. As fields in shallower waters are nearing depletion, and technology is developed to drill at ever-greater ocean depths, companies are prospecting in deeper waters. Another potential

J9HHHHB11----------Da m a g e to the Ocean Floor2004

^ Orange roughy fishery

^ location of polymetallic massive sulphide deposits

A

AAA

Animals living around hydrothermal vents are

adapted to hot conditions and cannot survive in the

open ocean. Many vents have evolved their own unique

sets of species - often entirely new to science.

- immf^ '

/AAdvances in technology

permit mining of polymetallic nodules lying

on the sea bed over 16,500 ft (5,000 m) down.

The nodules contain nickel, manganese, copper and

cobalt. Mining presents yet another threat to the

fragile ecology of the

Drilling in offshore oil fields such as the

Campos Basin risks pollution of the deep

ocean by oil, lubricants, drill cuttings and other

chemicals. In the 1990s seven giant oil fields

over 3,300 ft (1,000 m) deep were discovered

around the world.

The giant squid - over 70 feet long - is the largest invertebrate ever to have existed. It is just one of many species inhabiting the ocean depths about which little is yet knownT s H K P H K man

A

source of energy, lying on the seabed itself, are nodules of frozen methane, although the technology for capturing the gas from these methane hydrates is still in its infancy. Interest has also been shown in sources of metals and minerals to be found at great depths on the ocean floor, with escalating prices for raw materials making the mining of these a more viable commercial proposition.

C opyrigh t ? M yriad Ed itions Lim ited32

Orange roughy are slow-growing and late to mature, making them susceptible to over-fishing.

ABottom-trawling has

devastated the Darwin Mounds, a coral community

lying 3,300 ft (1,000 m) deep. It was banned in 2003.

A

The search for new forms of energy is leading countries such as Japan and the

USA to co-operate in exploring the possibility of bringing to the surface

methane hydrate, lying in frozen form on the floor of the world's oceans more than

500m below the surfaced

XI* Deep-sea fish often group around

seamounts. They breed slowly and so

are particularly vulnerable to

over-exploitation.

Polymetallic massive sulphides, containing copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, are

deposited by hot springs welling up from the sea-bed. An Australian company has bought

the mining rights for deposits within the Exclusive Economic Zone of

Papua New Guinea.■I

FISHING THE DEEPCountry share of

high-seas bottom-trawl catch

2001

It * % > ' i• f Y * T

A ,

V. h

Lithuania4%

Estonia —70/0

Norway-^70/0

Portugal7%

Corals are not limited to warm, shallow waters,

but also live in cold, deep waters. Relatively little is known about them, and

they are being destroyed more rapidly than they are being studied. The

tallest reef so far observed is 115 feet

(35 m) high, and carbon dating has revealed it to

be 8,000 years old.

Total catch: 205,024 tonnes 33

Spain41o/o

Russia14%

other8%

Iceland20/o

Japan —40/0 4

Faroe Islands —60/0

F r a g i l e R e g i o n s

“There are no passengers on spaceship earth.We are all crew.”

- Marshall McLuhan

■ I

35

• i f l i . A

T h e A r c t i c

The Arctic presents some of the harshest conditions on the planet but is home to unique and fragile communities. Plants that are dormant for most of the year blossom during the brief Arctic summer. Vast numbers of birds, including over a hundred species of waterfowl and waders, breed and then migrate all over the world. Animals, such as polar bears, arctic foxes and seals, breed and then remain to over-winter.

Polar bears used to be widely hunted for their skins and meat. By 1970 their numbers had fallen below 10,000. In 1973, Canada, Denmark (which governs Greenland), Norway, the USA, and what was the USSR signed the International Agreement on Conservation of Polar Bears and Their Habitat. The treaty protects the polar bears’ feeding and breeding grounds and their migration routes. It also bans the capture of polar bears, except by scientists working to preserve the species, and by the Inuit, who are allowed to hunt only a certain number each year, and are banned from doing so when bears are pregnant or with their cubs.

The countries have established reserves where polar bears are completely protected. The international agreement also states that all five nations must ban polar-bear hunting from aircraft and large motorized boats, conduct and co-ordinate management and research efforts, and exchange research results and data. Since 1973 the polar bear population has risen again to between 20,000 and 40,000.

Hunting is not the only threat to Arctic wildlife. In recent years, warmer Atlantic Ocean water has penetrated the Arctic Ocean basin. Arctic ice cover and salinity have declined as the ice-cap has melted. Permafrost soils in Alaska, Canada and Russia are thawing. The area of Arctic ice is shrinking as a result of climate change, causing reductions in ice algae, which live beneath the ice and form the base of the Arctic food chain. This will affect fish, seals, whales and polar bears.Polar bears are already suffering from the loss of their hunting grounds on ice-shelves. Global warming will also cause forests to move north, replacing the Arctic tundra, affecting birds, such as the endangered red-breasted goose (see right) that breed in the Russian tundra.

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Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are produced by industries all over the world. They are wafted to the Arctic by wind and sea. Arctic wildlife is exposed to DDT (a pesticide), PCBs (from electronic equipment), and dioxins (from plastics). POPs are not excreted by animals, but accumulate in their fatty tissue. Those highest up the food chain, such as seals and polar bears, are most severely exposed. These chemicals can affect fertility and damage the immune system. Heavy metals, including mercury, arsenic, and lead are also carried to the Arctic.

One of the biggest threats to wildlife comes from drilling for oil and gas, which involves an extensive infrastructure of pipelines, roads, and harbors, all of which can disrupt animal migration routes, and fragment ecologically rich areas. They also bring the risk of oil spillage, as does the increase in shipping in the region that is expected as a result of the shrinking ice-fields.Russia’s claim to 463,000 square miles (1.2 million sq km) of land beneath the ice-cap on the grounds that it is an extension of its own continental shelf, if successful, would increase the possibility of under-sea mining in the region.

Collaboration between polar nations to address these wider problems is co-ordinated by the \ ^Arctic Council. The deeper causes of many of theproblems facing the Arctic, such as global >\warming and pollution, lie much further to the south, in the industrialized nations, and can only

2003-06

RED-BREASTED GOOSE Population estimates 1991-96

75,8791991-95

be tackled there.

60,4441998-2001

37,300?nm-nR36

B e r i n g Sea

ARCTIC OCEAN

‘eenland Sea

Norwegian Sea y

FINLAND i

iRWAY SWEDEN

The Arctic National Wildlife Refugeis a wilderness of 30,685 square miles (80,000 sq km), home to caribou, polar bears, musk oxen, arctic foxes, and grizzlies. Millions of birds from over 100 species breed there each year. Although the Refuge has been protected from development since its foundation in 1960, the proposal to drill for oil on its coastal plain presents a threat to its wildlife, especially to the breeding caribou.

Qv/fofA la^°

Rising temperatures and earlier spring melts could expose polar bear cubs, born in snow dens, to the harsh cold of the Arctic too early in their development.

1A pipeline in Komi, Russia ruptured in 1994, creating a major oil spillage. A clean-up operation prevented widespread ecological damage to the Pechora river basin, but aging pipes and poor maintenance could easily lead to another rupture in the region.

P r o t e c t io n a n d In c u r s io n2008 or latest available information----1 protected areas under national designations----1 or the Ramsar Convention

proposed major oil and gas pipelines existing major oil and gas pipelines

boundary of the Arctic conservation area as defined by Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) major navigation routes

Minimum extent of sea-ice 1982

200737

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T h e A n t a r c t i c

The Antarctic is a continent larger than Europe, measuring 5.4 million square miles (14 million sq km). Temperatures rarely rise above freezing, and most of the land is covered in ice. Glaciers flow from the interior into the oceans, creating enormous, ice-shelves, half a mile thick.

Life flourishes despite these severe conditions, and the terrain serves as a living laboratory for teams of scientists from around the world. The lichens growing on the rocks of the cold, dry valleys of Victoria Land, for example, give vital clues to life in severe conditions, such as those millions of years ago on Mars, and studies of the relationship between populations of natural predators and their prey in the seas surrounding the continent inform the management of fisheries worldwide.

Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK have all laid claim to parts of the Antarctic, although their sovereignty is not recognized by most other nations. The 1959 Antarctic Treaty promotes scientific co-operation and prohibits military activity, such as weapons testing, and waste dumping. Participating countries designate Specially Protected Areas (see map), to which access is restricted in order to leave important wildlife features undisturbed. Until the mid-1980s, scientific bases created high levels of local contamination (waste products, oil and rubbish). More recently, the scientific community has realized the importance of maintaining the Antarctic in its pristine state, as far as possible. Unfortunately, this has coincided with an increase in tourism in the area. More than 30,000 tourists visited the continent in 2007-08 - four times as many as 10 years previously. This increases the risk of the introduction of invasive species of plants and animals, and of a cruise ship grounding in the treacherous waters and causing an oil spill.

A further, and potentially even more damaging, threat to the region is posed by climate change. Temperatures on the Antarctic Peninsula have risen by around 2.5°C since the 1950s, leading in recent years to the dramatic disintegration of several ice shelves. The effect of this change on the flora and fauna is already being recorded,

with the loss of sea-ice around the peninsula decimating the population of Adelie penguins, which use it to reach their feeding grounds. As their numbers dwindle, they are being replaced by gentoo penguins, which thrive in open waters. Warming ocean temperatures could also herald the arrival of a range of predatory species, such as king crabs, that could destroy the delicate ecosystem.

Krill - small crustaceans that provide food for fish, seabirds and mammals - feed on algae that form under sea-ice, and so are affected by its diminishing area. A more immediate threat, however, comes from commercial fishing, which began in the 1970s. Fears of over-exploitation led, in 1981, to the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which regulates the annual krill catch but, despite this, krill stocks in 2003 were estimated at just one-fifth of their level in the 1970s, and the annual catch has continued to rise: from 109,000 tons in 2006-07 to over684,000 tons the following season. It is feared that falling global fish-stocks and improved technology for catching krill could increase demand to several million tons a year, which would have serious implications for the survival of whales, seals, penguins and other birds.

38 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

Threatened Antarctic species include

the macaroni and rockhopper penguins,

several types of albatross (Amsterdam, wandering,

Indian yellow-nosed, grey­headed, Salvin's and sooty),

the southern giant and white-chinned petrels, the

Eaton’s pintail duck, and the blue and fin whales.

South Orkney Islands (UK)

Southern Powell Islandbreeding colony of fur sealsLynch IslandAntarctic hair grass

Northern Coronation Islandseabird colonies and

lichen-dominated cliffs CoronationIsland

P rotected A r e a sSelected 2008Moe Island

maritime Antarctic ect system

Southern Ocean Sanctuary

Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA)South Orkney

S IslandsSouth Shetland Islands12 biologically diverse sites; bird and elephant seal breeding grounds Litchfield Island seabird breeding colonies Biscoe Point, Anvers Island plants a»fd invertebrates Cierva Point >unusual biodiversity A

Princess AstridCoast v x /

Svarthamaren Inlandseabird colony, including Antarctic petrel

CopeNorvegia

Taylor Rookery emperor penguin colony • Rook' rV lsland

0 six bird species, including cape pigeon

/ Green Island#'rich vegetation

Adelaide Island °^/ cS ' Berkner

S? IslandAlexanderIsland Hawker Island

most southerly breeding petrelsForlidas and Davis Valley pondssoutherly freshwater ponds

Marine Plainice-free ecosystem

Cape Roydsmost southerly Adelie penguin colony Ross A New College Valley

Island |--------rich in microflora and0 microfauna

# ----------- Beaufort IslandBeaufort Island extensive area of mosses

AN TARCTICASouth Pole

Haswell Islamimportant birc

0 and mammal breeding site

Bruce Spur

ThurstonIsland

Canada Glacierrich plant growth

in drylandsWalgreen Coast

0 Budd Coast breeding petrelse Shelf

RooseveltIsland

PorpoiseBasin

Adelie Coast # Point-Geologie Archipela<

diverse flora and faunar "Oates Cbast

Sabrina Islandflora and fauna representative of latitude

Balleny Islands

AntarcticPeninsula

Lagotellerie Island diverse flora and fauna

MargueriteBay In 1994 the International Whaling

Commission adopted the Southern Ocean Sanctuary, where commercial whaling is prohibited. The French and Australian navies seized at least eight fishing boats for alleged illegal fishinc in Antarctic waters in 1998.

Dion Islandsisolated emperor penguin colonyAdelaide

Island

Avian Island abundant and diverse seabirds

►£ — Botany Bay lichens y— Edmonson Point ->5| freshwater habitats

V I C T O R I AL AND

Ross Island " Cryptogam Ridge0

ice-free high-altitude area 4 with rare moss and liverwort

Cape Hallett^ich and diverse vegetation

ice-free high with rare moss

CaO * rich and diverse

%*

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-- O 'czse<=JL

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39

A u s t r a l i a

At 3 million square miles (8 million sq km), Australia is the world’s smallest continent. Yet its terrain is incredibly diverse, ranging from its central deserts to the rainforests of Queensland and Tasmania. The unique plant and animal life found in Australia is a reflection of its geographical isolation. Marsupials, or pouched mammals, such as the kangaroo or koala, have evolved into species as diverse as foetal mammals elsewhere in the world.

In an attempt to preserve Australia’s rich biodiversity Unesco has designated a number of World Heritage Sites. Although some of these are recognized for their fossils, most have been awarded their special status because of the need to protect unique natural habitats.

Australia’s flora and fauna are sensitive both to climate changes and to those brought about by humans. Some 34 species of animal are known to have become extinct in the past 30,000 years. The extinctions prior to the arrival of European settlers in the late 18th century were largely caused by an inadequate and fluctuating water supplies. More recent extinctions - of the Tasmanian tiger and several species of wallaby and bandicoot, for example - have been caused by humans.

Since their arrival in the late 18th century, European settlers have cleared and cultivated land in Australia, resulting in the loss of much of the country’s woodland and rainforest. Tree felling has led to soil erosion, and to the water table rising, which increases the salinity of the soil and destroys any trees left standing. New trees have been introduced but this has not helped: some of these cause further damage. The native pastures of Queensland, for example, are threatened by the non-native prickly acacia.

Animal species that have been introduced have also wreaked havoc. The natural habitats of indigenous birds and marsupials have been disturbed by grazing cattle and sheep. Aggressive hunters such as the fox (introduced by European sportsmen as quarry) kill indigenous species, as well as the non-native rabbit. The cane toad, introduced as a pest-control measure, has itself turned into a pest.

Australia’s rich biodiversity is, however, protected by a network of nearly 9,000 protected areas, covering 11 percent of the continent. The country also has a “necklace” of more than a dozen marine protected areas. UNESCO has designated a number of World Heritage Sites, many of which are intended to protect unique natural habitats. They include islands in the Indian Ocean and Tasman Sea for which Australia has responsibility. The most famous site is perhaps the Great Barrier Reef - 135,100 square miles (350,000 sq km) of coral. As one of Australia’s major tourist attractions, government agencies and environmental groups have to work hard to protect it from the ravages inflicted each year by hundreds of thousands of visitors.

Under the 1999 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, a comprehensive national protection scheme for wildlife has been developed that includes rigorous assessment of building developments likely to affect the habitats of threatened or migratory species. More recently, in response to habitat changes brought about by global warming, the government expressed the intention to create a “climate corridor” of linked reserves and natural habitats, running the length of the continent’s east coast, to enable species to move in response to changes in temperature and weather patterns. Time will tell whether these measures will reverse the decline of Australia’s wildlife.

175THREATENED SPECIES

Number of species classified as critically endangered, endangered

and vulnerable by IUCN 2008

40 Copyrigh t s M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

64

5038

47

87

A

55

/

Once, large flocks of Gouldian finches were a common sight in northern Australia. Change in land management and increasing cattle ranching have reduced the availability of native grass seed that Gouldian finches eat. Now only a few small, scattered populations remain.

Darwin#\ Kakadu

National Park

% ' *

Broome#

Barrow I.

Oirkrtog /y^Shark Bay q0

Perth •

boundary of World Heritage Site

smallerWorld Heritage Site Port Lincoln <

Willandra n Lake Region//

.Adelaide

PROTECTED AREASLocation 2006

¥- **

* -*

•■a

M

managedresource

28o/o

strict nature reserve21o/o

national park 4 0 %

TYPE OF PROTECTED , AREA 2006

protected wilderness 5 %

-habitat/species management 3 % f — natural monument 1%

protected landscape 1%

Kangaroo I.

Mount Gambier •

Vic tor iaCANBERRA

• Melbourne

King I. t

Orange-bellied parrots areendemic to the island of

Tasmania. Only about 180 remain. Although its summer breeding ground is protected,

orange-bellied parrots over-winter on mainland

Australia, where their habitat has been damaged by grazing. A recovery plan for the species has been established, which in addition to a captive breeding program, aims to secure habit,

especially for overwintering.

Flinders I.

Cape Barren I.

TasmaniaI • Hobart

TasmanianWilderness

41

Purnululu National Park

m lTana m i D e s e r t

Great Sandy Desert

NorthernTerr i tor ies

f Groote Eylandt

K Wellesley li

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n> \ o \

1 \Cairns^r \

nsland n ^ V( ISi ° \

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W

Wellesley Is. % \Vv i °V/ . \

A - C3',nsXWet Tropics of Queensland ( )

Queensland o-

,0 Fraser o Island■3

Brisbane

^ " J/

New South JjW a l e s Gondwana Rainforests

^ of Australia /y/ *

/ The Greater Blue ClMountains Areaj j / # Sydney

SouthAust ral ia

Great Victor ia Desert

Weste rnAustra l ia

GibsonDesert

Simpson # Desert

Alice SpringsUluru-Kata Tjuta

3 National Park

C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a

Central and South America is the most biologically diverse continent of the world. It includes temperate and tropical forests, high-altitude desert plateau, glacial peaks, freshwater and saltwater wetlands and coral reefs. While some areas remain relatively untouched by humans, others have been decimated by rapid urban growth, large-scale agriculture and mining.

The largest and best-known area under threat is the Amazon rainforest, home to several million species of plants, animals (including3,000 species of fish) and micro-organisms, many still unrecorded by science. Many of these species are confined to small areas and are sensitive to environmental change so are at a high risk of becoming extinct with the destruction of their habitat.

The region’s indigenous peoples historically lived by hunting, gathering and subsistence farming, mostly in small isolated tribes. Cattle ranching, mining and the timber industry were brought to the region by Europeans. Initially, settlement was restricted to the banks of the navigable rivers, still the principal means of transport, but roads are increasingly being built across the forest, some of them by the government, but most of them illegally, by developers.

The extent of the loss of rainforest habitat is difficult to assess in this huge, impenetrable area. The Brazilian National Institute of Space Research estimated deforestation between 2003 and 2004 to be 10,500 square miles (27,300 sq km). Although the annual rate declined in subsequent years, there were worrying signs, early in 2008, of an increase.In addition, mining activities and the effluent it produces, which can contain mercury, has severely polluted parts of the Amazon River.

Attempts are being made by governments, non-governmental organizations such as the WWF, Conservation International, university teams around the world, and wealthy individuals to protect parts of the remaining forest. One such scheme, the Amazon Region Protected Areas (ARPA) program, was set up in 2003 by WWF, the World Bank and the German

Development Bank in collaboration with the Brazilian government, It aims to establish109,000 square miles (283,000 sq km) of new protected areas and transform existing but neglected parks through a system of well-managed protected areas and sustainably managed reserves. At the same time as the Brazilian government is supporting such measures, however, it is pressing ahead with an infrastructure program that includes the development of roads through the rainforest, railways and dams, all of which will increase the rate at which vital habitat is lost.

The financial value of the rainforest is huge. Not only is it a source of potentially life-saving natural products that can be used in pharmaceuticals, but its vital function as a huge carbon store gives Brazil the opportunity to sell “carbon credits” to organizations unwilling to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide. Its ecological value is immeasurable, and its loss could lead to a catastrophic increase in the rate of climate change.

Important ecological areas do not fit neatly within political boundaries, and conservation projects are increasingly seeking co-operation between countries. In Central America, for example, where there are more than 400 protected areas, efforts are being made to establish a “ Mesoamerican biological corridor” that integrates the efforts of eight countries. And although other forest and mountain areas are now fairly well protected, it is recognized that more needs to be done to conserve the region’s wetlands, such as the Pantanal, and its coastal and marine areas. Natural World Heritage Sites have been established throughout the continent, and include a wide range of habitats. International co-operation is not always so forthcoming. Attempts to protect the biologically rich mountainous Cordillera del Condor region in South America, for example, have been hampered by a border dispute between Ecuador and Peru

Copyright s- Myriad Editions Limited42

Whale Sanctuary of

El Vizcaino • • #------1

Sea of Cortez and Islands

MEXICO

The Sea of Cortez World Heritage Site comprises 224 islands, islets and coastal areas, home to 695 plants, nearly 900 fish species, and nearly two-fifths of all species of marine mammals, including the California sea lion, and a third of all cetacean species.

CAYMAN

Sian Ka'an# $ Barrier-Reef Reserve System •

Tikal National Park

GUATEM/

COSTA RIO Area De Conservacion Guanacaste

BAHAMASr

TURKS Et CAICOS

4 Alejandro de Humboldt National Park

P rotected LandPercentage of total land area protected under IUCN categories l-V 2006

24% or more

H 110/0-19%

10/0 - 90/0

less than 1%

none or no data

World Heritage SiteWorld Heritage Site on danger list in 2007

cocos is. 9 Cocos Island National Park

Galapagos Island:GALAPAGOS IS.

The Amazon rainforest is being lost at an unsustainable rate, chopped down mainly to create land for agriculture. A commitment by the Brazilian government in 2007 to complete the paving of the BR-163 north-south road through the forest will undoubtedly facilitate this process. In addition, a network of unofficial roads, created by logging and mining companies, is spreading throughout the forest.

The world's largest freshwater wetland, the Pantanal is shared by Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay. It provides habitat for threatened species^ such as the giant river otter and the marsh deer, along with 120 other mammal species, 650 birds, 90 reptiles and 40 amphibians. Much of it is used by’? ranchers, and conservationists are working with them to ensure that the area is developed sustainably. Glaciares

i r„ FALKLAND IS.

1 (MALVINAS)

The Atlantic Forest has been reduced to 8% its original size, and is dangerously

fragmented, putting at grave risk the survival of the muriqui and 20 other mammals found nowhere else in the

world. Its rich diversity includes 2,200 species of birds and 20,000 species of plants, many of which would be lost if

the forest were degraded further.

43

DOMINICAN •^ B EP . PUERTO RICO

0 — VIRGIN IS. (UK) ( g

•TSEt NEVIS--- 1 — GUADELOUPE ,___________

DOMINICAMffiT!NJR UE Morne Trois Piton

A rRFNADIN S $ Nati° " al Parkj t GRENADINES - 0 £ BARBADOS

TRINIDAD Et TOBAGO

N IC A R A G U A fT v / m n a ir r , P D i :M * m i i i ! c National Pari^ I L A R A u U A V T J M f n ^ G R E N A D I N E S 0 BARBADOSCOSTA R IC /< g PANAMA . _ ________ too^ ^

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d National Park # ^^BBcanaim aMalpelojFauna and National )Flora Sanctuary ^ ^ ^ T a r k Central Suriname

_______ . TURKS et CAICC

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• Rio Platano ST K|ns a Npni idac biosphere Reserve

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Sangay National Park

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Huascaran National Park

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Park BOLIVIA>t is being M , „ „ .Noel Kempff Mercadorate, i to create

Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves

^ *| Pantanali Conservation Area

Atlantic Forest Southeast Reserves i' r % j

fS V ^ jPARAGUAY Iguacu National oPark ** * ji

National Park

tional Park

0 Central Amazon Conservation Complex

B R AZ I L

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ARGENTINA

^ 9Peninsula Valdes

# L # Glaciares

EAI V\ At

G a l a p a g o s I s l a n d s

The Galapagos Islands lie in the Pacific Ocean, about 625 miles ( 1,000 km) off the coast of South America. Because these volcanic islands have risen out of the seabed, evolution has taken place in isolation from the mainland, giving rise to species endemic to the islands. As Charles Darwin realized after his visit to the islands in 1835, species on neighbouring islands within the group have evolved unique characteristics in response to their environment. The result is a number of species and subspecies with small, localized populations, leaving them vulnerable to habitat destruction, disease, or climate change.

“Galapagos” means “tortoise” in Spanish, and the islands are home to giant tortoises, as well as about 300,000 marine iguanas. In the absence of indigenous predators - rice rats and two species of bat are the only native mammals - seabirds have bred freely, and large colonies of boobies, frigate birds, and the rare lava gull have flourished. In 1959, Ecuador declared the islands a national park, and in 1978 they became the first United Nations World Heritage Site. In 2007, however, they were placed on the World Heritage in Danger list because of the threat to their unique biodiversity from invasive species, tourism and immigration.

Only some of the islands have been settled, but the total population has grown from 2,000 in 1970 to 18,000 in 2008. Settlers have so far brought about 500 species of plants to the Galapagos, which are displacing the native flora. Introduced animal species include rats, cats, and goats (successfully eradicated from some islands). Tourism is the mainstay of the economy, with over 108,000 visitors in 2004, but fishing is also important. At least 800 fishermen are based on the islands, and larger boats fish off-shore, creating a hazard to marine mammals and birds.

In April 1997, the President of Ecuador issued an emergency decree, restricting the introduction of alien species, and promoting conservation. In 1998, the no-fishing zone around the islands was extended from 15 to 40 nautical miles, creating a marine reserve of over 50,000 square miles (130,000 sq km). However, attempts to limit fishing have been met with resistance from local people. The fate of the wildlife on the islands hangs on whether both economic and conservation needs can be met.

There are only around 1,300 Galapagos penguins,and their population appears to fluctuate according to the availability of food. Their fish diet relies on cold, nutrient-rich waters, but the El Nino phenomenon causes a flow of warmer waters, which disrupts their supply. The more frequent El Nino episodes, predicted as a result of climate change, could place them under greater threat.

I s lo I sabe la

# >*

V * . 1

A project to eradicate goats from the islands of Isabela and Santiago

was declared complete in 2006, since when petrels have

returned to nesting areas not Volcan use(j for years, tree ferns and

other native plants are showing signs of recovering,

and invertebrates thought to be extinct have been

identified.

_ Wolf 1646

Volcan Darwin 1280

0 1463A

Volcan La Cumbre

%

1097VolcanAlcedo

Islo Fernandina

& 01490

1250Volcan Cerro Azul ±

Volcan Santo Tomas Sierra Negra

£ Santo Tomas

0 Puerto Villamil Puerto Porvenir

Found only on the Galapagos, the lava gull, with 300 to 400 breeding pairs, is considered the rarest gull in the world.

Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

Isla Pinta

Isla Marchena

0

Isla Genovesa

The giant tortoise, once numerous on the islands, presented an easy meal to passing sailors and three of the 14 known subspecies became extinct In recent times, the main threat to the tortoise was the domestic goat, which competes with it for grazing, but this has now been eradicated from Pinta. This has come too late for "Lonesome George", however, who is the sole survivor. There are plans to introduce captive-bred Espanola tortoises to the island.

Isla Santiago

E n d e m ic S p e c ie sThe location of some of the species endemic to the Galapagos

marine iguana

galapagos penguin

flightless cormorant

giant tortoise

GIANT TORTOISEEstimated number of individuals in 1535 and 2008

250,000

1535

15,000

2008

Islo Rabida

- AIsla Pinzonm

Isla Santa Cruz

Since 1970 more than 500 young tortoises, bred in captivity, have been released on the island of Pinzon.

Puerto Ayora Isla Santa Fe

Between the mid-1960s and 1974, 14 giant tortoises, whose grazing had been decimated by goats, were taken from Espanola to breeding pens on Santa Cruz island. The goats were eventually removed from the island and by March 2000 a total of 1,000 tortoises had been reintroduced to the island.

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno

On 16 January 2001, the oil tanker Jessica, carrying 160,000 gallons of diesel and 80,000 gallons of bunker fuel, ran aground off San Cristobal Island. Her tanks ruptured. Fortunately, winds and currents took the oil away from the island, preventing a major ecological disaster.

mEl Progreso

Isla San Cristobal

Puerto Velasco Ibarra .

Isla Santa Maria m -4 Isla Espanola

45

M a d a g a s c a r

Madagascar is the world’s fourth largest island, with a land area of approximately 226,000 square miles (585,000 sq km). It is thought to have separated from Gondwanaland (present-day Africa) 60 million years ago.

Madagascar’s geographical isolation has led to separate evolution, producing many endemic species and a diverse range of habitat: tropical conditions along the coast, temperate inland areas and arid deserts in the south.

Several of Madagascar’s endemic species are threatened, despite the government’s endorsement of international agreements on biodiversity, desertification, endangered species, and marine life conservation. With a human population exceeding 20 million and growing at an annual rate of nearly 3 percent, the pressure on the country’s natural habitats is likely to continue.

Although the great elephantbird and Delalande’s coua, or snail-eating coua, are known to have become extinct, new species are being discovered all the time. Lemurs are primates that were displaced by monkeys elsewhere in the world and are now found only on Madagascar. A new species of woolly lemur, five new dwarf lemurs, and eight new species of mouse lemur have been announced since the beginning of the century.

THREATENED PLANT SPECIES Number of threatened plants 2008 11?

THREATENED ANIMALS

Number of species classified as critically

endangered, endangered and vulnerable

by IUCN 2008

254

DEGREE OF THREATNumber of animals in each IUCN Red List category 2008

189

The Madagascar rosy periwinkleis the source of two alkaloids -

vincristine and vinblastine - used to treat (and usually cure)

childhood leukaemia. The plants from which the alkaloids are

extracted are now grown elsewhere. The drug industry has

not returned any benefit to the people or to conservation projects

in Madagascar.

46 C o p y rig h t !& M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

47

353

21 r "20

8

«?•✓ ✓ * /

99107

8 5

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t+ X / * ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ /° ^* /

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62

i 101

aj.Oro£C

5

-av<Dcn

I 64/tsCDcCO~oj Rf

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<3

Cap d'Ambre • Antsiranana

The fish eagle was common in north-west Madagascar until the 1930s. It is now very rare, as a result of persecution, hunting, and the loss of nesting and feeding habitat.

Baie de

Montagne d'Ambre

I —

# lharana

Marojejy

Anjanaharibe-Sud

0Antalaha

Masoala

Amb^iijanahary

Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve is aWorld Heritage Site. Endangered lemurs and birds thrive in the undisturbed forests, lakes and mangrove swamps.

Moroml

Mananara

f •--Ambatovaky

Fenoarivo Atsinanana i *

Betampona

I j Toamasina

In 2007, the Rainforests of the Atsinanana, comprising a string of national parks down the eastern side of the island,

was designated a World Heritage Site.

Protected A reas in M adagascar2008

National Park

Strict Nature Reserve

Habitat/Species Management Area

• *Cap Sainte-Marie

The golden lemur is found only in the southeast of the island. About 1,000 inhabit the Ranomafana National Park. They eat the base of bamboo, and the new shoots, which are lethally toxic to most other mammals. 47

Lokobe# ' j Manongarlvo

Ankarana

Tsaratanana‘f ' A .

WL Bora ll

TampoketsaAnalamaitso

. . < ■ / Mahajanga

Marovoay

Ankarafantsika

Baie de Baly

Tsingy de ^ Namoroka

Bemarivo ’V ^A Maningoza Katsijy|

v % > . i

• u J *^ Marotandrano

c / 1Zahamena

----- -—Tsingy de Bemaraha

Andranomena

Morondava

Kirindy / Belo Sur Mer

Isalo

Vohibasia Pic de 1''ohibeManombo

. ......... 1 1

* • ^ I l l ' f',Beza-Mahafaly * \Midongy du Sud

Tsimanampetsotsa

\\ J | t vRanomafana

Manai^ary

Fianarantsoa //,») ir i pr>jA n r lr in n itra V

I * A 1 JBJ 4.1Ambohitartely f » Manfrivola

b 0 l o • MantadiaAntananarivo

Ant; rabC % , o

E n d a n g e r e d A n i m a l s a n d P l a n t s

“The time is past when large, rare creatures can recover their numbers without man’s strenuous intervention.”

- Peter Matthiessen, author and naturalist

P r i m a t e s

Apes, humans, monkeys, and prosimians such as lorises, bush babies, and lemurs make up the 234 species of primates, a mammalian order with distinctive common features indicating descent from a single ancestor: a small, tree-dwelling mammal that subsisted on fruit and insects.

Primates have prehensile hands with opposable thumbs, large brains (especially the cerebral cortex), and usually bear single offspring.Most are well adapted to life in trees, especially tropical forests, although some species have become terrestrial. Primates tend to live in complex social groups, and as infants are dependent on their mother, both for sustanance and for lessons in the practical and social skills. With a few exceptions, such as the Japanese macaque that lives on the Shimokita Peninsula at a latitude of 41 °N, very few primates have colonized temperate areas because they need a supply of food during the winter months as well as long daylight hours for foraging.

All primates share behavioral and anatomical characteristics, but humans and chimpanzees are particularly close. Chimps share almost 99 percent of our DNA. They use tools, laugh when tickled, and - when allowed - can live for 60 years. Like many other species of primate, chimps are endangered by deforestation and, especially, its consequences: as logging companies open up the forests, hunters move in. Since the mid-1980s hunting for “bushmeat” has become a lucrative industry. In 2001, over a million tonnes was taken from the Congo basin alone. Living ever-closer to humans, primates also suffer from diseases such as the Ebola virus.

A hundred years ago there were some two million chimps living in the Central African rainforest, stretching from Sierra Leone to Tanzania. By 2001, only 200,000 remained and their numbers continue to dwindle.

About 90 percent of primates live in tropical forests. They play an integral role in the ecology of their habitat, helping to pollinate plants and disperse seeds.

MEXICO

BELIZE

50 Copyrigh t ® M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

GUATEMALA

COSTA RICA ,PANAMA | | / VENEZUEL*

COLOMBIA *

ECUADOR

7

B R A Z I L

■ Our closest relatives■ are the four great■ apes: gorilla,■ chimpanzee,■ bonobo (pygmy■ chimpanzee), and■ orang-utan.

Only 5% of Cameroon's original forest remains.

It is inhabited by the critically endangered

lowland gorilla. The Cameroon government uses armed patrols to

protect gorilla colonies from poachers. In 2007,

they also negotiated the return of four

gorillas who had been captured five years

previously and held in zoos in Malaysia and

South Africa.

SENEGALGAMBIA-

GUINEA- g u in ea

T h r e a t e n e d P r i m a t e sNumber of species of primates classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

11 - 21

4 - 1 0

1 - 3

0

U i/ number of primates classified y fc as critically endangered

In the late 1990s, over 150 rare

eastern lowland gorillas were

reported to have been casualties of the civil unrest in

Rwanda.

The bonobo, orpygmy chimp,

has been a victim of the war in the

Democratic Republic of Congo.

Fewer than 50,000 remain.

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Lemurs are found only on Madagascar, where they have evolved in isolation for 100 million years. They range from the size of a mouse, to the size of a panda. A third of lemur species are thought to have become extinct since 1500 and, of the remainder, four-fifths are under threat from habitat loss and human hunting.

Many endangered primates live in countries least able to sustain

them, and suffer the consequences of poverty, ecological degradation, and conflict. The demand for palm

oil and biodiesel drives the conversion of tropical forest to plantations in Indonesia, a dire

threat to the remaining orang-utan.

51

| BRUNEI JLfmM A '*A Y S ^

^ ^ - ^ 1 N D * N E S I A

* *>. . ^

.y? TAIWAN

INDIA BANg^dF'SbHurma^ ^ ^ ,

thahamd\^-i v w ig[ m ETNAM; U CAMBOMW

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LIBERIA

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EQUATORIAL V 2 K GUINEA J I L |

C a t s

Cats belong to the Felidae family - a group of carnivorous mammals that includes the lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard, puma, lynx and the domestic cat.

Cats, whether large or small, are built for performance and are more specialized in this respect than any other flesh-eating mammal. They are powerfully built animals, with large and highly developed brains, making them more intelligent as well as stronger than their prey. They are also so well-coordinated that they almost always land on their feet when they fall.

Although the lion, tiger, and cheetah are agile climbers, they are mainly terrestrial in habit. The leopard, jaguar, and ocelot, in contrast, are very much at home in trees, where they sometimes sleep. The larger cats range over wide areas, often up to 50 square miles (129 sq km). Big cats usually rove alone or with a companion. African lions do form prides but these loosely bound groups of females, cubs and one or a few adult males lack the rigid hierarchy found in dog and wolf packs.

Humans are the main threat to big cats and hunting has long been a popular pastime. It remains a lucrative sport: in Botswana, for example, recreational hunters may pay up to US $30,000 to shoot a lion. The skin, teeth and claws of big cats provide rich pickings for traders. Those not threatened by hunters have had their extensive territories steadily eroded by agriculture and human settlement.

Many of Asia’s big cats are under threat, including the snow leopard (reduced to around6 ,0 0 0 in the wild), the Siberian tiger (reduced to 400 in the wild) and the Amur leopard (see page 95). As wild populations of big cats decline towards extinction, zoos and other sanctuaries become even more vital in ensuring their survival.

C A N A D A

52 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

The cheetah is generally considered the speediest of animals, capable of 60-70 mph (100-110 kmph), with rare reports of even higher speeds. A cheetah may also pursue its prey for a considerable distance, as much as 3.5 miles (5.5 km). But even its speed may not save it from hunters and the threat of extinction.

The highly endangered Florida panther is making its last stand in the higher elevations in the swamps of the Everglades. The few remaining animals became highly inbred, causing such genetic flaws as heart defects and sterility. In the 1990s, closely related panthers from Texas were released in Florida and are successfully breeding with the Florida panthers. Increased genetic variation and protection of habitat may yet save this subspecies.

WESTERNSAHARA

MAURITAN

SENEGAL -JMGAMBIA - 5 3

GUINEA-BISSAUGUINE/

SIERRA LEONE- LIBERIA

PERU

BOLIVIA

ARGENTINACHILE ARG!

US A

MEXICO

"m ? 6°,000

I S................ * * * * * *

1900 1950 1960

DECLINE OF THE TIGER

All tiger species7,000

2S2E 2*

1970 1980 1990

extinct 2,200 'n the

m tA2008

wild

2025

r » :S t

TIGER PARTS USED IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINEbrain blood fa tlaziness, pimples constitution, willpower leprosy, rheumatism

eyeballs testes bonesepilepsy, malaria, fevers, tuberculosis of rheumatism,cataracts, convulsions the lymph nodes weakness, paralysis

claws tail fecesas a sedative skin diseases boils, piles

nose teeth fleshepilepsy, convulsions, fever, rabies, asthma, nausea, malaria,dog bites sores on the penis improves vitality,

tones stomach andwhiskers stomach spleentoothache stomach upsets

T h r e a t e n e d C a tsNumber of species and subspecies of cat classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis2007

7-11

5 - 6

■ I 3 - 4

1 - 2

none or no data

53

" UMMN

In 2008, there were only about 1,400 Bengal tigersleft in the wild in ▼ ^ UKA India, according to the first scientific estimate ever conducted. They mainly survive in a string of reserves, where rangers struggle to protect them from poachers and further habitat loss. Tigers are a valuable source for traditional Asian medicine. Parts from a single tiger may earn US$5 million.

45,00030,000

25,000

f i U > /

f RTH REA

JAPAN* SOUTH

KOREA

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U n g u l a t e s

Horses, deer, cattle, pigs, sheep and goats are all ungulates - mammals with hooves of hard skin that allow the animals to run. Elephants and rhinoceroses (see pages 56-57) are also ungulates. Their teeth are adapted for their plant diet, with strong molars for grinding. Preyed upon by big cats, wolves and other carnivores, ungulates rely on various methods of defence. Some are large, many are swift, and others grow horns or antlers. They often mass in large herds to minimize the risk to an individual.

Domesticated ungulates accompanied earlier European explorers to Australia and to isolated islands all over the world, but have often threatened indigenous herbivores by over-grazing native plants. Non-native ungulates have interbred with indigenous species, and have also transmitted diseases such as rinderpest, which spreads from cattle to wild buffalo in Southeast Asia.

Ungulates provide an important source of meat for humans, and their hides are used for clothing and shelter. As vehicles and guns improved during the 20th century, ungulate populations began to suffer from the over-hunting that remains the most serious threat to their survival.

Areas designated as reserves are often vital for ungulate conservation. The tourists flocking to witness herds of ungulates roaming over African plains, provide a potential source of income for conservation in reserves. Kruger National Park in South Africa is Africa’s oldest reserve, founded in 1898, while Tanzania boasts the Serengeti and Ngorongoro parks.

To secure local support for conservation inside and outside reserves local people must enjoy the profits from hunting and tourism and participate in the management of their wildlife. The Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources ( c a m p f i r e ) in Zimbabwe is a successful example, demonstrating that the managed re-introduction of ungulates to areas where they had been hunted to local extinction can be successful with proper enforcement against poaching.

There may have been 60 million bison in North America before the arrival of Europeans. Hunting drove the bison to the point of extinction as settlers swept west across the continent. About 1,500 survived in areas such as Yellowstone National Park, established in 1872. The number of bison has since risen to over 400,000, most reared commercially for meat, hide and other products.

EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA

COSTA RICAPANAMA

a, SAHAR/

1 '

SENEGAL GAMBIA—GUINEA-BISSAU —

GUINEA—GUYANA

SURINAMEFRENCH GUIANA

B R A Z I L

CHANGING FORTUNES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN BISON

402,000

30 - 60 million

circa 1800

1,000

circa 1900

Only 20,000 are wild. The rest are reared

for their meat. w54 Copyrigh t !£j M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

MEXICO

BELIZElA-rck/iAi a HONDURAS

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

CHILE .„„rnT.».A ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

SIERRA LEONE — LIBERIA-

VENEZUELA

OLOMBIA

Przewalski's wild horse lived in the Mongolian steppes.

Wolves and humans drove it to extinction in the wild but it

has recently been re-introduced.

This baby pygmy hog is one of 70 reared at the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust breeding centre in Basistha, India. The species was feared extinct, but it is hoped that a conservation recovery program will

^enable hogs to be ireintroduced into the Himalayan foothills.

The critically endangered hirola or Hunter's

hartebeest is found only in southeastern Kenya.

Poaching and loss of habitat to domestic

livestock has reduced its numbers to between

1,000 and 2,000.

The last wildmember of the Arabianoryx was shot in 1972, but a captive-breeding programme at Phoenix Zoo, USA, saved it from extinction, and around 8,000 animals now survive in captivity in the Arabian Peninsula. Attempts to reintroduce them into the wild have had mixed success. The Sultan of Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary herd of 450 had dwindled to 65 by 2007, when the reserve became the first UNESCO World Heritage Site to be de-listed following the decision to allow oil production there.

approximately....... 500

WILD POPULATION OF ARABIAN ORYX

1964 1969 1972 1998 2003

Threatened U ngulatesNumber of species of ungulate classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis2007

m 11 - 20

m i 6 - 1 0

1 - 5

Number of ungulates classified as critically endangered

none or no data

3 - 4

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E l e p h a n t s a n d R h i n o s

The elephant family comprises two species: the Indian elephant (Elcphas m axim us), weighing about 5.5 tonnes, and the African elephant (.Loxodonta cifrieana) weighing up to 7.5 tons and standing between 10 and 12 feet (3-4 m) at the shoulder. Both species live in habitats ranging from thick jungle to savanna. They form small family groups led by the eldest females, and where food is plentiful groups join to create larger herds. Most bulls live in bachelor herds apart from the cows. Elephants migrate seasonally, according to the availability of food and water. They spend many hours eating and may consume 500 lbs (225 kg) of grasses and other vegetation in a day.

For many centuries the Indian elephant has been used as both a ceremonial and draft animal. Elephants have been crucial to Southeast Asian logging operations, for example. African elephants are also used as working animals, but not as extensively.

Elephants are in great danger from habitat destruction and human exploitation. Both Indian and African elephants are classified as endangered; the African elephant suffers in particular from poaching for the ivory trade. Although conservation measures have been taken, including patrols to protect against poachers, and the creation of large reserves, these can lead to further problems. In good conditions, elephant populations can increase at a rate of 5 percent a year which leads to overpopulation and may make culling necessary. Corridor areas are vital to protect major migratory routes and to prevent herds from becoming isolated.

Rhinoceroses have one or two horns on the upper surface of the snout, composed of keratin, a fibrous protein found in hair. The Indian rhinoceros (R. unicornis) is the largest of the family, at about 14 feet (4.3 m) long and weighing up to 5 tons. Most rhinoceroses are solitary inhabitants of savanna, scrub forest, or marsh, although the Sumatran rhino is now found only in deep forest. Rhinoceroses have poor eyesight but acute hearing and sense of smell. Despite their bulk, they are remarkably agile; the black rhino may attain a speed of about 30 mph (45 kmph), even in thick brush.

All but the white rhinoceros are listed as endangered in the Red Data Book. Despite protective laws, poaching continues to supply a thriving market, with rhinoceros horn and blood among the most highly-prized ingredients in traditional medicines.

Captive-breeding programs offer the only hope for maintaining some species until adequate protection can be provided in the wild.

Copyrigh t ® M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

MAURITANIA ■

S EGAMBIA”

MALINIGER

^ CHAD SUDANERITREA

NEA-BISSAU GUINEA *

SIERRA LEodft f fflRE LIBERlH^PB

■ R S I< 1 NIGERIA 4S i 03 CENTRAL ETHIOPIA ° 1 5 AFRICAN REPUBLIC

CAMEROON UGANDA SOm /EQUATORIAL G U I N M M g M , KENYA

GABON 1U .* RWANDA 4 3 7rnN Rn DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC OF CONGO URUNDI * J * 66

3 TANZANI/

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56

Mammoths are members of an extinct genus of elephants. The

woolly Northern, or Siberian, mammoth is by far the

best-known of all mammoths. Famished after the end of the Ice Age (11,000 years ago) by a diet

of low-nutrient mosses, and increasingly harried by

human hunters, the big grazers dwindled to extinction. Siberian

mammoths were sometimes trapped in ice crevasses. Their

bodies became remarkably well preserved in the ice and attempts

are now underway to collect viable DNA from these beasts in

the hope of being able to resurrect the species.The Indian elephant

is more closely related to the extinct mammoth than to the African elephant.

The Javan rhino is the rarest of the rhino species, with fewer than 60 animals surviving in only two known locations: one in Indonesia and the other in Vietnam. Rhinos have been poached from these small populations in recent years and much more intensive protection is needed if this species is to survive.

The Indian rhino is one of the two greatest success stories in rhino conservation (the other being the southern white rhino in South Africa). With strict protection from Indian and Nepalese wildlife authorities, Indian rhino numbers have recovered from under 200 in the early 20th century to over 2,600. Poaching has, however, remained high and the success of conservation efforts is precarious without continued and increased support from the governments in India and Nepal.

Distribution of Elephants and Rhinos 2000

Indian elephant

African elephant

African elephant recently extinct

no native elephants

Number of rhinos, where known

25 white rhino

black rhino

Indian rhino

Sumatran rhino

Javan rhino

J 3 7 8

» , — 2 ,2 3 9 BANGLADESH

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57

B e a r s

Bears are among the largest of the carnivores and belong to the family Ursidae. Eight species are recognized, and there are numerous subspecies.Six species are threatened, as is the lesser panda, which belongs to the family Ailuridae. Insufficient data exist about the sun or honey bear but this species is also feared to be threatened.

Bears vary in size from the sun bear, weighing only 66 lbs (30 kg), to the Kodiak brown bear, which can weigh 1,540 lbs (700 kg). Their diet varies as well. Polar bears are particularly fond of seals, panda bears eat mainly bamboo, and sloth bears prefer insects. Most bears, of course, eat honey.

Bears tend to live solitary lives, pairing only to mate. They are strong swimmers and smaller species are agile climbers.

Bears are hunted as trophies, for their hides, for meat and also from fear. When their territory overlaps with cultivated land, they are perceived as pests. Poachers kill bears for body parts and trap them for the pet trade or for use as performing animals. Bear gallbladders are used in traditional Chinese medicine to cure liver disease, cancer and other ailments.

In many parts of the world bears’ habitats have been eroded and their populations fragmented, leading to the threat of local extinction. Small, insular groups of bears can also become weakened by genetic depletion.

Sophisticated management of hunting and habitat protection has sustained bear species living in North America and the Arctic, although pollution and global warming are serious problems (see pages 36-37). Resources for conservation in Asia and South America are not as plentiful, however, and a growing human

population demands more land, which inevitably threaten bears. The establishment of wildlife “corridors” between reserves allows bears from different populations to mate and mix genes. Captive-breeding programs also offer hope for endangered bears. Over 100 giant pandas are kept in the world’s zoos, but captivity impedes their breeding success rate as well as their life span.

The brown bear, called "grizzly" in North America, once ranged over all the northern continents. It has been hunted near to extinction in Europe, where only isolated populations totalling 13,000 remain in mountain ranges. Attempts to reintroduce bears into the Pyrenees seem doomed.

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

The spectacled bear is found in South America, living in terrains

ranging from desert to rain forest, but it thrives best in cloud forest at around 2,000 metres. Logging and

mining activites, and the expansion of agricultural land, is threatening

the bear's survival. It is also hunted for its meat and skin. Attempts at

conservation are hampered by unstable political environments and

by drug trafficking.

58 Copyright c Myriad Editions Limited

f CUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

ARGENT INA

In 2004 there were nearly 1,600 giant pandas left in the wild in the mountain bamboo forests in central China. The 50 state-run nature reserves shelter two-thirds of them. The rest face the threat of deforestation and poaching. The focus of conservation work is habitat protection, but there is also a captive-breeding programme, which produced 34 cubs in 2006. However, none has yet been introduced to the wild.

The Baluchistan bear, a subspecies of the Asiatic black bear, is critically endangered.

POPULATION OF THREATENED BEARS2007 or latest available data

22,000-27,000

1 5,000­18,250 20,000

20,000+ ----20,000+

j* flh1,600 unknown

I N D O N E S I A

polar spectacled slothbear bear bear

Asiatic giantblack pandabear

sunbear

T h r ea t en ed B e a r sSpecies of bear considered under threat 2007

H spectacled (Andean) bear

■ Asiatic black bear

sun (honey) bear

* sloth bear

59

C H I N AA

BHUTAN « ■

INDIA BURMA ^

Threatened PandasSpecies of panda considered under threat 2000

lesser panda

giant panda

MONGOLIA

^ ^ T A I W A N

W SRI LANKA BRUNEI

^ T A l A Y S j j r ”

*► _

I ^I B S orth m' w ea X■ > < > ■ . J > r

R o d e n t s

There are over 2,000 species of rodent, making them the most diverse order of mammals. They are found above and below ground and in all parts of the world except for New Zealand and the Antarctic. Most rodents are small — the dormouse weighs less than an ounce (20 grams)- although there are exceptions, such as the capybara of South America, which grows to 110 lbs (50 kg).

Rodents are commonly seen as agricultural pests, carriers of disease such as bubonic plague and as a threat to biodiversity. The black rat and Norway rat are cited as key villains, travelling all over the world via ships, wrecking food stores and displacing native rodent species. In fact, rodents are ecologically valuable. Some, such as squirrels, help plants to reproduce by burying seeds. Burrowing rodents mix, fertilize and aerate soil. As prey, rodents provide essential food for predators.

Rodent populations tend to be larger than those of other groups of mammals and their breeding rates are very high, making them well-equipped as a species to recover from adverse weather and epidemics. Despite this advantage, sustained pressure on rodent populations can cause local extermination; for species with only a limited range this can result in extinction.

The greatest threat to rodents is the progressive loss of their natural habitat from urbanization, cultivation of crops, and grazing of domestic livestock. Throughout the 20th century the US government sponsored a program of poisoning and plowing to eliminate prairie dogs, which degrade cattle-grazing land. As a result, the black-footed ferret, which preyed on the prairie dogs, disappeared. Although still classified as extinct in the wild, black-footed ferrets have been reintroduced with some success from a captive- bred population.

Fur trapping is illegal in many places, but continues to threaten some rodent species. Rarity and value tend to go hand in hand, thus encouraging trapping of the few remaining animals.

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Ihe population of the short-tailed chinchillacollapsed by 80% in the last decade of the 20th century due to depletion of its habitat in the mountains of South America, and illegal trapping for its valuable fur. It is now critically endangered.

COSTA RICAPANAMAp

North American beaversdam rivers to create wetlands, providing habitat for a wide range of other animals. They were almost driven to extinction by fur trappers and land drainage in the early 20th century.

GUYANA

A MARMOT ON THE BRINKNumber of Vancouver Island Marmots in the wild

235

102

57

25

1984 1997 1999 2001

I Colony of Vancouver I Island Marmots

' C A N A D A

I ^ E V ahamas^ V ^* 'V DOMINICAN

CUBA REP.

JAMAICA HA|Tl I

PUERTO RICOi' i ia u m a i a HONDURAS

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VENEZUELAGUYANA

B R A Z I L

BOLIVIA* PARAGUAY

< mile *

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U S A

60

The Vancouver Island marmotsuffered from habitat loss due to logging. A recovery program for this species includes captive breeding and re-introductions.In 2001, there were only 25 left.

T h r ea t en ed R o d en tsNumber of species of rodents classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

H 21 - 50

11 - 20

6 - 1 0

3 - 5

1 - 2

none or no data

Number of critically endangered species of rodents

0

000

5 - 6

3 - 4

1 - 2

RUSSIA

NETH- RFRMANY ^LAND

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SOUTHAFRICA LESOTHO

61

FINLAND

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A U S T R A L I A

MSThere are about 900 species of bats, nearly a third of which are threatened. Bats are the only flying mammals. Most eat insects, although some eat nectar and fruit, helping to pollinate plants and disperse seeds. Vampire bats in Central and South America feed on the blood of large mammals.

Bats are nocturnal, avoiding the heat of the day, the risk of dehydration and the attentions of predators. They navigate at night using a form of sonar or echo-location. By day they roost in trees and caves, often in colonies of over a million bats. In urban areas they roost in buildings.

Bats are distributed over temperate and tropica regions but are most abundant near the equator. Those that spend the summer in temperate regions either hibernate or migrate towards the equator in winter. Most produce only one offspring each year, so bat populations tend to recover slowly from catastrophic events.

Bats bring several benefits to humans. Their droppings contain nitrogen and phosphorus and are collected for use as fertilizer. They also help to control populations of insects that are pests of crops and cariy diseases. A single bat can kill20,000 insects in one night. In contrast, they have only a few drawbacks for humans. Some commercial fruit farmers have to use nets to protect their crops from bats, and vampire bats can transmit diseases including rabies to their animal hosts.

Humans, on the other hand, threaten the survival of bats in many ways. Some bats, such as the large flying foxes of Southeast Asia, are hunted for food. Species such as Mexican fishing bats have became locally extinct following the introduction by humans of cats and rats to their island habitats. Mining, waste disposal and irresponsible tourism threaten the caves where bats roost.

Bats have suffered grievously from the loss of their natural habitat to agriculture and forestry.A vicious cycle ensues. The decline of bats in agricultural areas causes farmers to use more chemicals to control insect pests, which risks poisoning the few remaining bats.

The endangered lesser long-nosed bat is oneof the few bat pollinators in the southwestern USA, and is vital to the survival of agaves and giant cacti in the Sonoran Desert.

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C A N A D A

US A

mr i­, JAMAICA PUERTO RICO

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The greater mouse­eared bat is in decline.It once ranged over much of Europe, but the disturbance of its roosting caves, and modern agricultural practices have caused its disappearance from the r UK and other areas.

Threatened B atsNumber of species of bats classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis2007

34

■ 1 11 - 20

■ 1 6-10

3 - 5

1 - 2

none or no data

number ofcritically endangered bats

The Rodrigues fruit bat isfound only on the island of

Rodrigues. Its population was reduced to only 70 by a

series of storms in the 1970s. A program supported

by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Jersey,

UK, to preserve and restore the bats' habitat had raised

the wild population to around 3,000 by 2006.

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Giant fruit bats and flying foxes live in the forests of Southeast Asia. Excessive logging of the forests for

timber for export is destroying their habitat.

There are between 4,000 and 6,000 ghost bats, scattered

across northern Australia.Mining threatens their

remaining roosting sites.

A U S T R A L I A

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ISLANDS

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D o l p h i n s a n d W h a l e s

Dolphins, porpoises and whales are known as cetaceans. They are aquatic mammals that must come to the water’s surface to breathe through blowholes. There are about 80 species of cetaceans. Dolphin species include pilot and killer whales, and river dolphins living in South America and Asia. Porpoises tend to be smaller and stouter than dolphins. Dolphins and porpoises usually live in groups and mainly eat fish and squid. They are highly intelligent, and use sounds and ultrasonic pulses to communicate.

Dolphins that become ensnared in fishing nets usually drown. Those that live in rivers and estuaries are also adversely affected by chemical pollution and silting, and having to compete for food with humans. Their limited distribution makes them particularly vulnerable.

Some whales (including the sperm, bottle-nosed, beaked and beluga) have teeth and eat fish.Others (including the gray, right, humpback and blue) strain plankton and krill from the water, using a dense fringe of blade-shaped horny plates (“baleen”) in their mouths. Some whales are social, traveling in groups. They use a range of underwater sounds: barks, whistles, screams, and moans, for communication, and high-intensity clicks for navigation and to identify food sources.

Dead whales yield several products of commercial value, including meat, oil, whalebone, and ambergris which is used in perfume. Hundreds of years of whaling by increasingly effective methods has led to the near-extinction of several species, in particular the blue whale. The International Whaling Commission, set up in 1946, has attempted to combat this threat - both to whales and to the livelihood of the whalers. A moratorium on whaling, which came into force in 1986, has reduced the number of whales killed, and some species, such as gray and humpback whales, are showing signs of recoveiy. The Japanese have encouraged countries to join the Commission and vote with them against the moratorium but, as of early 2008, without success.

For some communities, whaling provides an important part of their diet, and plays a key role in their economy and culture. These are exempt from the ban on commercial whaling. People from Greenland hunt fin and minke whales, those

R U S S I A

d ^ ^ E P A L

NORTH

JAPAN

PAKISTAN Nepal Hong Kong

I N D I A SA R TAIWANBURMA

BANGLADESH

NORTHERNMARIANA MARSHALLISLANDS ISLANDS

&AAI4YSIAW?

J N D O T l t S I A

A U S T R A L I A

FRENCHSOUTHERNTERRITORIES

The blue whale is the most highly endangered whale. Since it became protected in 1967 the

population has not recovered from the brink of extinction.

in Siberia hunt gray whales. In Alaska bowhead, and occasionally gray, whales are caught.Japanese fleets have also been permitted to kill hundreds of minke whales, as well as some fin whales and 50 humpback whales each year for scientific purposes.

Whales are affected by human development, as their breeding and calving areas are often in shallow coastal waters. But tourism, in the form of “whale watching”, now helps support the economies of towns and villages that once relied on income from hunting whales. It also helps to promote public understanding and appreciation of whales, which may influence governments’ inclination to continue to protect them.

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SOLOMONISLANDSISLANDS

VANUATUFIJI—

CALEDONIA TONGA

NEW ZEALAND

SRI LANIW

CHI NA

The Yangtze river dolphin (the Baiji) was declared extinct, following a scientific expedition in 2006 which found no trace of it. However, a single dolphin was spotted in 2007, providing the species with a very slim chance of survival.

Noise from ice-breakers maydamage the hearing ofbeluga whales and mask their GREENLANDcommunication, potentiallyaffecting breeding.

-AMERICAN SAMOA— SAMOA FRENCH

POLYNESIAO

NICARAGUA COSTA RICA

W PANAMAC0LC

ECUADOR

The Gulf of California harbor porpoise iscritically endangered.

BAHAMASDOMINICAN

NETH. ANTILLES - y-ST LUCIAG o - ST VINCENT ft GRENADINES

WESTERN SAHARA

CAPE VERDE O

OSOUTH GEORGIA Et THE SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS

A whale sanctuary wasestablished by the IWC in 1994, permanently banning whaling in the waters around the Antarctic, with exemptions for "scientific research".

GREAT WHALE POPULATIONSIWC estimates of populations of the larger species of whales latest available data

minke whale 970,800

fin whale 33,200

CONGOREP. OF C P CONGO

ANGOLA

OST HELENA NAMIBIA

4

M A D A G A SC A R

m MOZAMBIQUER E U N I O N

SOUTHVFRICA

T h r ea t en ed D o l p h in s a n d W h a l esNumber of species of cetacea classified as criticallyendangered, endangered and vulnerableon a global basis 2007Inland and territorial waters

■ 9 International waters■ | 5 - 7 2000

3 - 4 11 - 16

1 - 2 6-10

none or no data 1 - 5

gray whale 26,420

bowhead whale 11,730

V pilot whale 780,000

right whale 7,800

blue whale _ 2,300

humpback whale * 63,600

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R e p t i l e s a n d A m p h i b i a n s

Reptiles are air-breathing vertebrates that have internal fertilization and scaly bodies. They include snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles and alligators.

The skins of lizards, crocodiles and snakes are used to make leather goods such as luggage, handbags and shoes. This has led to the virtual extinction of several species of crocodile and to a severe reduction in the populations of large lizards, snakes, and turtles.

Vertebrates such as frogs, toads and salamanders that are able to exploit both water and land habitats are known as amphibians (from the Greek for “ living a double life”). Despite this description, however, some species are permanent land dwellers, while others are completely aquatic. Amphibians absorb oxygen through their skin, which is kept moist by mucus-secreting glands.

The Global Amphibian Assessment, published in 2005, indicated that almost a third of amphibian species were threatened with extinction. Because of their absorbent skins, amphibians are susceptible to water pollution, even at low concentrations, or in protected areas some distance from the source of pollution. They are therefore considered one of the best indicators of pollution in the environment.

Because amphibians rely on moisture, they are also affected by changes in weather patterns. In the Americas, the Caribbean and Australia frog numbers have plummeted in recent years, largely because of the fungus chytrid, which attacks keratin in their skin, producing toxins and preventing them from using their skins to breathe. Scientists now think that it may be linked to drought, which is becoming increasingly frequent because of recent climate change.

Since the early 1990s environmentally conscious Australians have been reintroducing tadpoles into ponds and streams in an attempt to bolster flagging populations. This not only spreads disease, but introduces alien genes or even alien species that displace native frogs. Exotic frog species are also being introduced accidentally, imported in crates of fruit, vegetables, and flowers.

The last wild Panamanian golden frogs were taken into captivity in

2006 to protect them from the chytrid fungus that attacks the skin of amphibians, preventing

them from taking in oxygen. It is a major threat to amphibians in

many parts of the world.

C A N A D A

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vtMUt MAURITANIA

SENEGALGAMBIA—

GUINEA-BISSAU —GUINEA—

SIERRA LEONELIBERIA —

The marine iguana isonly found on the Galapagos Islands and is therefore vulnerable to local pollution and the destruction of its habitat.

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Threatened A mphibiansNumber of species of amphibians classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

□R U S S I A

MOROCCO

A LG ER IA

The Asian three-striped box

turtle is killed for use in Chinese medicine.

Believed to cure cancer, Its population

has declined drastically in recent years.

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Threatened ReptilesNumber of species of reptiles classified as critically endangered endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

more than 20

11-5

none identified

number of species of reptile known to have become extinct

VANUATU COOKO FIJI ISLANDS

NEW • n ACALEDONIA W TONGA Y '

--- . NIUEFRENCH,.

POLYNESIA-

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more than 100

51 - 100

11 - 50

1 - 10

none identified

11 - 20

16 - 10

ANGOLA

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I n v e r t e b r a t e s

Invertebrates are animals that lack backbones. They comprise over 90 percent of animal species. Some invertebrates are soft-bodied but many have a hard outer skeleton that provides protection and anchorage for muscles; these animals are called “arthropods”. The three groups of arthropods are chelicerates (spiders, scorpions and mites), crustaceans (crabs and shrimps) and uniramians (insects and centipedes).

The range of size and habitat of invertebrates is staggering. Some plankton measure less than two-hundredths of an inch (0.5 mm), while giant squid can grow up to 33 feet (10 metres) long. Crustaceans have been found over 2.5 miles (4 km) under the sea and spiders have been seen on Mount Everest. The practical difficulties in catching and inspecting smaller invertebrates means that the number of species can only be estimated. Some experts suggest that the number of species of insects alone is over 10 million and more are being discovered every year in remote areas of rainforest.

As new invertebrates are identified, other species are being added to the IUCN Red List. Identifying a species under threat requires money and effort. This map, together with others in the atlas, reveals a strong correlation between the number of species of invertebrates recognized as under threat in a country and the investment put into investigating them.

Invertebrates play a crucial role in many ecosystems. Other animals often rely on them for food. The plankton of the oceans support higher forms of life, including whales. Invertebrates can help in other ways too - insects pollinate flowering plants, and worms mix and aerate soil.

Some invertebrates, such as butterflies, capture the public imagination, but most are perceived of as distasteful or at least too numerous to warrant concern for their conservation. Invertebrates with restricted habitats or limited mobility are at risk both from human development and from climate change, which could, for example, eliminate a species that occurs only on a single mountain.

C A N A D A

Monarch butterflies migrate to Mexico for the winter from as far away as Canada. Almost all over-wintering Monarchs are concentrated in just eight groves of trees, with as many as 100,000 huddling together on a single tree for warmth. Disturbance by loggers can cause Monarchs to scatter on arrival in the autumn, jeopardizing their ability to mate the following spring. Climate change will bring more rain to these groves and the ice that forms kills Monarchs.

WESTEMSAHAW

MAURITAfi

GUINEA-

SIERRA LEONE LIBER!

Copyrigh t e M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

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' V , V ’ ' ' 1 BERMUDA

* BAHAMAS, CAYMAN IS. CUBA DOMINICAN

S REP.

JAMAICA HA|T| I PUERTO RICOBELIZE

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CHILE ARGENTINA3 PITCAIRN IS.

68 c°f

GEORGIA KYRGYZSTANARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN

The harlequin ladybirdj was introduced from Asia

to North America and Europe to control aphids. It has devastated native

ladybirds by predation and competition for food.

ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS

. © REUNION

T h r ea t en ed In v e r t e b r a t e sNumber of species of invertebrate classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

C H I N A

HOn9 K°"§ TAIWAN

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Number of species in each IUCN Red List

category 2007

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Fish are found in rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world, and range in size from a tiny goby, half an inch (12.5 mm) in length, to the 50-foot (15-metre) whale shark. Some species range widely through the oceans, while others are restricted to a single lake.

Fish congregate in schools to feed, breed and minimize the risk (to each individual) from predators. They lay eggs that hatch into larvae and develop into adult fish. Larvae and adult fish have different needs, and often live far apart. Oceanic fish may, for example, have coastal or freshwater spawning grounds.

Over 90 percent of the global catch comprises saltwater fish. Countries have control over fisheries in an “exclusive economic zone” up to 200 miles (320 km) from their coasts - or to the midpoint between opposing coasts. Despite this, and measures to define fishing quotas, most commercial fisheries are seriously depleted. Fish that move between national fishing zones are hard to protect. Stocks of the critically endangered southern bluefin tuna are only 10 percent of their level in the 1950s, but although a commission was established in 1994 to conserve the species, disputes between its member nations over quotas have hampered progress.

Freshwater fish, which represent only 10 percent of all fish caught, tend to be eaten locally, often providing crucial dietary protein for rural societies. Because freshwater species occur in limited areas, they are especially vulnerable to over-fishing and ecological damage. Dams and channels fragment habitats. Effluent and agricultural chemicals pollute them. Water abstraction sucks rivers dry.

Aquaculture (fish farming) accounts for about one-third of all fish produced. Around 90 percent comes from Asia, but the industry is growing rapidly in Latin America and Africa. Although it is hailed by some as a solution to the depletion of wild fish stocks, the production of a given weight of carnivorous fish such as salmon or of shrimp requires at least twice that in protein, much of it derived from captured wild fish. The waste emitted by unregulated enterprises can be highly damaging to fragile -coastal ecosystems such as

mangroves. Human health may also suffer from contaminants passed down in fish feed.

In 1997, W W F and Unilever founded the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), which established criteria for good fishing management. In Alaska, where overfishing reduced salmon harvests to about 25 million fish in 1959, habitat protection allowed stocks to recover sufficiently to enable a commercial salmon catch of 168 million fish in 2004.

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Aquaculture accounts for about one-third of fish eaten around the world.

capture

GLOBAL PRODUCTIONFish production from capture and aquaculture 1995-2005 million tonnes

aquaculture1999 2001

47.8

T h r e a t e n e d F ishNumber of species of fish classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

more than 50

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The Yangtze sturgeon iscritically endangered,

having been prevented from migrating between the sea and its spawning grounds up the Yangtze

River by the Gezhouba Dam and, more recently, the construction of the

Three Gorges Dam.'"GIBRALTAR TUNISIA JA PA N

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Lake Victoria once held over 300 species of cichlid fish. In 1954, Nile perch were introduced to increase the fishing catch, but caused the extinction of many of the cichlids. The discharge of sewage, agricultural and industrial effluent spurred the growth of algae in the lake which, with fewer cichlids to feed on them, quickly spread. Their decay strips oxygen from the water, jeopardizing the whole lake ecosystem.

71

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P l a n t s

Plants are vital to the survival of all other life forms on earth, forming the basis of most animal food chains, including that of humans. Plants harness the sun’s energy to produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis. They absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, helping to maintain a healthy atmosphere.

The plant kingdom is incredibly diverse, ranging from simple mosses to complex flowering plants and the 300-foot (100-meter) high redwood tree. There are between 275,000 and 300,000 species of vascular plants (ferns, conifers and flowering plants), around 34,000 of which are threatened with extinction (see right).

Humans often carry plants and their seeds around the world, sometimes intentionally to grow for food and for decoration, sometimes inadvertently. Predators and diseases that afflict native plants are often not well adapted to attack these introduced, “exotic”, plant species. As a result some exotic species become “ invasive”, competing with and displacing native species of plants. Exotic species may also interbreed with native plants, giving rise to hybrids. Plants endemic to a small area of land or an island are particularly at risk. Native plants on islands such as Hawaii and St. Helena, for example, have been devastated by invasive species.

Habitat destruction is an even greater threat to plant diversity. Human settlement and intensive farming continue to encroach on natural areas, threatening plants such as the Alabama canebrake pitcher-plant, which is now critically endangered following drainage of over 50 percent of the wetlands of Alabama. Unsustainable logging in forests around the world also threatens the survival of many endemic populations of plants (see pages 22-25), just as the world is waking up to the vital medicinal qualities of many species.

The lady's slipper orchidgrows on limestone soils

across the northern hemisphere. Because of its beauty it is prized by plant collectors, and has

therefore always been rare. The remaining plants

suffer from habitat destruction by logging

and agriculture.

C A N A D A

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732

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Trampling, destruction of woodland, trade in wild bulbs and hybridization with its domestic relatives has caused the decline of the wild bluebell in the UK, which hosts between a quarter and a half of the global population.

Over 1,000 species of plants grow in the alpine regions of the Caucasus. In these rugged mountains plant populations became isolated and have evolved into new species that are now threatened by over-grazing.

T h r e a t e n e d P la n t sNumber of species of plant classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

more than 200

H I 101 - 30051 - 100

11 - 50

1 - 10

none identified

more than 300 threatened plants, number given

The bastard quiver tree isfound in South Africa and Namibia. Over-grazing by goats and donkeys has reduced the population to fewer than 3,000.

The mandrinette is a species of hibiscus that produces a

scarlet flower. Only 36 mature trees survive, all of

them on Mauritius. Competition from invasive

plants has prevented mandrinettes from

reproducing.

73

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"The sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing.”

- John Keats, “ La Belle Dame Sans Merci" (1817)

B i r d s

Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates that have developed hollow bones, wings and feathers that enable most, but not all, to fly. Some birds are generalists, eating a variety of seeds, nectar, fruit, invertebrates or other animals. Other species have specialized diets. In 2008, an estimated 12 percent (over 1,200) of all known species of bird were considered under threat.

The greatest threat to birds is human destruction of their habitat through logging, commercial development and intensive agriculture, and the introduction of new predators, competitors and diseases. Even domestic cats, if allowed to roam free, can kill hundreds of small birds each year. Uncontrolled hunting and trapping threatens many species of birds. The imperial woodpecker, which once lived in upland forest in north eastern Mexico, was one of many species driven to extinction in the 20th century by deforestation and hunting. Migratory birds are especially vulnerable to trapping and shooting.

Intensive agriculture also threatens farmland birds, especially in North America and Europe. Winter sowing produces crops too dense for birds to nest in, and the frequent cutting of summer grass for silage destroys their nest sites. Skylark populations have decreased sharply in western Europe, but in eastern Europe, where intensive methods are not yet widespread, the bird’s populations tend to be more stable.

Climate change worldwide affects the fragile balance between birds and their food supply. Plants are flowering earlier in the spring, and changes to vegetation are altering the abundance of insects, worms and other creatures. This is likely to have a significant impact on the breeding and migratory patterns of birds.

In Southeast Asia, Africa and South America deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate (see pages 42-43), and at each review more tropical rainforest birds are classified as threatened. Rainforest species, such as the Indonesian caerulean paradise-flycatcher, are most at risk from unsustainable logging and forest clearance for agriculture and exotic timber plantations.

76

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In 1998 the bald eagle was officially removed from the US Fish and Wildlife Service critical list. Extensive use of pesticides had reduced its population in the USA (excluding Alaska) to fewer than 500, but conservation measures resulted in more than 7,000 nesting pairs by 2008.

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Percentage decline in Europe 1980-2005

T h r ea t en ed B ir d sNumber of species of birds classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

1980

2005

-610/qBird species identified as having gone extinct by 2008

Mice, introduced accidentally to Gough Island by whalers, are threatening the rare Tristan albatross and the Gough bunting. The house mice, which have evolved to three times their normal size, eat the'chicks alive in their nests. The British government is being urged to take urgent steps to exterminate the mice on this World Heritage Site.

The flightless kiwi is threatened by dogs, cats, rats and possums, and by habitat loss.

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B i r d s of P r e yBirds of prey include owls, and raptors such as hawks, eagles, vultures, and falcons. All birds of prey have talons for seizing their quarry, and curved beaks for tearing its flesh. They have good vision and hearing, but often a poor sense of smell. Raptors hunt during the day, and owls are nocturnal. Raptors eat other birds, mammals and carrion. Some, such as the bald eagle, can pluck fish from water. They are all skillful fliers and larger species have long, broad wings for soaring.

Many birds of prey have suffered from loss of habitat. Each breeding pair requires a large territory, which is often difficult to protect from development. Many of the chemicals used in farming are toxic to birds of prey. For example, the organochlorine pesticide DDT causes the shells of eagles’ eggs to thin, making them prone to break. Prohibition of the use of such pesticides in developed countries has helped protect birds of prey, but developing countries often cannot afford the less damaging but more expensive alternatives. Birds such as the Steller’s sea eagle, which feed on animals that have been shot, often suffer from lead poisoning as a result. Other birds of prey are killed for sport and food, and captured for falconry - all of which further depletes the populations of some species.

Habitat protection plays a critical role in the conservation of birds of prey. Control of poaching is important too. In many countries it is illegal to hunt birds of prey, steal their eggs or disturb their nests. Captive breeding and rehabilitation centers for injured birds can significantly help species at risk of extinction.

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The California condor population fell below 100 in 1940 because of hunting and lead poisoning. In 1987 the remaining nine birds were captured for a breeding program at Los Angeles Zoo and at the San Diego Wild Animal Park. This has held the species back from the brink of extinction and by 2008 there were 146 Californian condors living in the wild, and 151 in captivity.

CALIFORNIAN CONDOR IN CRISISNumber of individual birds in the wild

B R A Z I L

PARAGUAY

1940 1967 1987 2000 2008

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Va critically endangered species of owl

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DECLINE OF ASIAN WHITE-BACKED VULTUREBreeding population inKeoladeo National Park, near Bharatpur, India

0 nests1999-2000

20 nests1998-99

The white-backed and long-billed vultures, once seen circling in huge

flocks in the Indian subcontinent, are now nearing extinction, and attempts to

breed from captive vultures have met with little success. The vultures have been killed off by

consuming the carcasses of cattle that had been given the drug diclofenac to treat arthritis and boost milk yields. This

causes kidney failure in the vultures and leads to death within 30 days. The birds performed the important function of consuming the dead bodies of

livestock and, for those of the Parsee faith, of humans. This role is increasingly being filled by feral dogs, leading to an alarming increase in rabies.

79

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■■■■ mmmmmmFhe great Philippine eagle, which produces a single chick every two years, is vulnerable to clearance of its rainforest habitat for logging and farming. No more than 300 survive, almost all on the island of Mindanao.

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353 nests1987-88

50 nests1996-97

97-9825 nests1997-98

P a r r o t s a n d C o c k a t o o s

There are over 300 species of parrot, including lorikeets, cockatoos and parakeets. As many as 95 of them, or 28 percent, are threatened - the highest proportion of any of the major bird families.

Parrots come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The pygmy parrot can be less than 3 inches (10 cm) long, while some macaws grow to over 3 feet (1 metre) in length.Most are brightly coloured. Parrots have strong, hooked beaks, which they use for breaking open nuts. Many plants, such as the oil palm, rely on parrots to disperse their seeds. A few parrots are predatory. For example, the New Zealand kea is known to attack sheep.

Most parrots live in tropical forests, nesting in tree holes. They are not built for flying long distances, which means that species are often restricted to isolated islands, making them especially vulnerable. In the West Indies at least 16 species are known to have been exterminated by European explorers, and the Puerto Rican parrot is critically endangered (see right).

Parrots, particularly the African Gray and Amazon, are excellent mimics. This ability, along with their friendly nature and lively plumage, make them popular in zoos and also as pets, with most demand coming from Europe and Japan. Some countries, such as Mexico and Australia, forbid the export of parrots in order to conserve wild populations. Despite such efforts, the legal and illegal trade in parrots is huge, threatening the viability of wild populations. Poaching alone affects 39 species and is a greater cause of mortality than natural causes.

Parrots are hunted for food, and some seed-eating parrots are hunted by farmers because they are considered to be pests. Introduced predators, such as cats, are a hazard and imported birds can displace native parrot species or introduce avian diseases.

The greatest threat to most parrot species is loss of habitat, from fire, logging and human settlement. The Species Survival Commission’s conservation action plan for parrots presents techniques for their conservation in the face of habitat destruction and illegal hunting. Scarce resources in the face of competing economic interests may frustrate its effective adoption.

The hyacinth macaw is thelargest parrot in the world, but its size is no protection.It is threatened by the trade in exotic species and the destruction of its nesting habitat in Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay.

U S A

The Spix's macaw hasnot been seen in the

wild since 2000. There are, however, 120

individuals in captivity, and a breeding program

is underway.

The yellow-eared conure was feared extinct in 1998, but the discovery of a small flock in Colombia has led to a huge conservation project aimed at preserving the birds' habitat - the wax palm. The flock now numbers around 110 birds.

80 Copyright e Myriad Editions Limited

aL .CUBA DOMINICAN ^

, JAMAICA HA|T| I 1BEL,ZE PUERTO RICO \

GUATEMALA HONDURAS O DOMINICANICARAGUA ^ O n O ' ST LUCIA

1' O-ST VINCENT^ ■ A im U E S H GRENADINES

COSTA RICAL ^ L o ^ PANAMA J ^ ^ V E N E Z U E L A

/'**'sk B R A Z I L

BOLIVIA

ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

V

PUERTO RICAN AMAZON Number of parrots

in the wild

in captivity

In September 1989 Hurricane Hugo hit Puerto Rico; only half the wild population of parrots survived.

1972 early 1989 late 1989 after Hurricane Hugo

The Mauritius parakeet has recovered from the brink of

extinction. Intensive management of the wild

population has increased the population from as few as 10

birds in the 1980s to about 300 adults, although the species

remains endangered.

ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWEBOTSWANA

MAURITIUSOx o

REUNION

T h r ea t en ed P a r r o t s a n d C o c kato o sNumber of species of parrot and cockatoo classified as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

■ ■ 11 - 15

6-10

3 - 5

1 - 2

none or no data

A critically endangered species of:

parrot/parakeet/conure

lorikeet

macaw

cockatoo

The flightless, nocturnal kakapo parrot was reduced to a wild population of around 50. The parrots breed infrequently and are easy prey to introduced carnivorous species, such as rats. Conservation efforts have focused on relocating the remaining individuals to islands without predators and on supplementing their diet to encourage them to breed. The population now stands at 86 adults, plus several chicks born in 2008.

47

53 53

100

40

| 30-35

20041998

16

O KIRIBATI

SOLOMONISLANDS

VANUATU | \ COOKO I \ ISLANDS

OEDONIA FIJI

FRENCH POLYNESIA© k PITCAIRN IS. O

PHILIPPINES

™ f 'N D d N E S I A ' ’ V NEW} JM GUINEA

■% T EAST TIMOR

* | i

A U S T R A L I A

oNORFOLK IS.

M M y NEW NjNfl ]W ZEALAND^

S e a b i r d s

The term “seabird” is not a taxonomic classification, but simply a description of birds that live in a certain habitat, and exhibit certain physical characteristics and patterns of behavior. Many seabird species are, for example, good fliers, often exploiting prevailing winds to migrate extraordinary distances. Penguins and auks, though flightless, are strong and agile swimmers. Most seabirds catch fish and crustaceans near the ocean surface, but cormorants can dive up to 150 feet (46 metres) below the surface in search of prey. Some seabirds forage on land for insects, small rodents and rubbish. Skuas and frigatebirds harass smaller seabirds returning to land with fish, forcing their victim to drop its catch so that they can pluck it from the air before it hits the sea.

Seabirds usually nest in huge colonies, sometimes of over a million birds, on islands or cliffs where they are reasonably safe from native predatory mammals - although not always from “ introduced” species. Seabirds have a low rate of reproduction, which makes them vulnerable to catastrophic events, such as oil pollution or sudden food shortages.

In the 19th century North Atlantic sailors caused the extinction of the great auk by killing whole colonies for their flesh and feathers. Seabirds are still exploited for their eggs in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland and Southeast Asia, and such “harvesting”, if not properly controlled, can threaten their survival. Far out at sea, birds are still not safe from humans. Drift-nets, nicknamed “walls of death”, used by large fishing boats, trap birds such as shearwaters, despite a 1992 UN moratorium on the use of nets more than 1.4 miles (2.5 km) long.

Long-line fishing also takes a huge toll of seabirds. Lines can be up to 62 miles (100 km) long, with more than 20,000 hooks. The bait on the hooks presents a ready meal for seabirds - and also the risk of becoming caught and drowned. Conservation organizations are working with the fishing industry to promote responsible fishing techniques, such as an effective bird-scarer over the fishing line, and the weighting of the line to ensure that it sinks rapidly.

Pollution is an insidious threat to seabirds. Oil-spills have contaminated Adelie Penguins in the Antarctic, and when the Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons of crude oil into Prince William Sound in Alaska, thousands of seabirds died. Global climate change threatens all seabirds, because plankton, which are fundamental to the marine food chain, become less abundant when seawater warms.

Zino's petrel spends most of the year at sea. It nests each spring on the island

of Madeira. Cats, rats and humans have reduced the

population to between 130 and 160 birds.

fcMORC

T i

-GUADELOUPE h- MARTINIQUE

COSTA RICA .

v . x v^ W COLOMBIA

<>• \ ECUADO

The spectacled petrel nests only on Tristan da Cunha,

where it was driven near to extinction by wild pigs.

Although the wild pigs died out, allowing the bird population to recover

slightly, it is now threatened by long-line fishing.

FALKLAND ISLANDS

m SOUTH GEORGIA ft SOUTH w SANDWICH ISLANDS

82 Copyrigh t c M yriad Ed itions Lim ited ANTARCTICA

B R AZ I L

C A N A D A

BERMUDA

■ BAHAMAS

' MEXICO DOMINICAN) / ] REP.

. * HAITI ^‘ * ^ J A M A I C A

L / w Guatem ala ^

r-'r . MIT ADAHI I A \ )

k CHIB ARGENTINA

TRISTAN DA CUNHA

T h r ea t en ed S e a b ir d sNumber of species of seabirdsclassified as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on a global basis 2007

21 or more

U | 11 - 20

6 - 1 0

1 - 5

none or no data

Species of seabirdclassified as critically endangered

albatross

X frigate bird

petrel, shearwater

tern

cormorant

The volcanic island of Toroshima is the main breeding site of the ^short-tailed albatross, which

has recovered from near­extinction in the 1950s to an

estimated 2,000 birds in 2003. Conservation methods include

improving the habitat on Toroshima, and trying to reform

long-line fishing practices in the Alaskan fleets to prevent birds from getting caught on

hooks.

Tuna fisheries have reported catching

one seabird for . every 200-300 hooks set on their long-lines. Some

boats set as many as 20,000 hooks on

each line.2004

,j m l a n m j R U S S I A

* GERMANYUkraine !;■ KAZAKHSTAN

AUS. nnil MOLDOVA\ w ROM.BTUGALW CRO. b-h B111 Uzbekistan

w > * MONT.- BUL GEORGIA ^c- ~ 7 ----- y ALB- L c ARMENIA AZERBAIJANSPAIN 0r «*«-■ TURKEY TURKMENISTAN

W GREECE•------- SYRIA

IBRALTAR^ j LEB~ IRAQ IRAN AFGHANISTAN

KUWAIT PAKISTANc-** BAHRAIN ;

ALGERIA W _ r v p _ -QATARj r EG YPT UAE

SAUDIARABIA OMAN

ERITREA YEMENSUDAN

NIGERIACENTRAL

AFRICAN REPUBLICCAMEROON

EQUATORIAL UGANDA SOMALIAGUINEA— DEMOCRATIC s u m a l ia

O REPUBLIC OFSAO TOME GABON CONGOEt PRINCIPE _ RWANDA

CONGO BURUNDI - SEYCHELLESTANZANIA O

ANGOLA

# ST HELENA ^ ^ ^ ^ Z A M B I A MADAGASCAR A / ^NAMIBIA MAURITIUS ^ W

m j * - . ^

AFRICA ^

^ Vr l 200

> BOUVET ISLAND

\ 200I * V W 2 .0 0 0RENCH SOUTHERN

TERRITORIES ^

1950

1982 W

HEARD ISLAND Et MCDONALD ISLANDS

MONGOLIA

NORTH A K0REA

SOUTHkorea ja

chTnTVHong Kong

SAR |. 1 r , , * BANGLADESH MacaoN D IA BURMA ^ o s ^

^ VIETNAM PHILIPPINES

^ * M A L A Y S I A

SINGAPORE*

n ° ° n e ■

w o GUAM r~‘ NORTHERN MARIANA IS. '

•. o 0 MARSHALL ISLANDSmTcronesia,FED. STATES OF^ NAURU O KIRIBATI

^ ^ SOLOMON J ISLANDS

AMERICAN SAMOA ^__________WALLIS AND FUTUNA I

VANUATU COOK ^m ISLANDS %

L \ NEW NIUE 4> 1L W d O N ^ tONGAO®— d

' * FRENCH POLYNESIA •- 4PITCAIRN 9 %

1— sr i 1

iriniDiivi/o 1 j .

SPECTACLED PETREL Estimated number of nesting birds

^ 0,000

A U S T R A L I A NORFOLK IS.

mortality rate from long-line

fishing:700 birds a year

2000

NEWZEALAND

N E S I A

EASTTIMOR

*PAPUANEW

GUINEA

83

M i g r a t o r y B i r d s

Most migrating birds breed in the northern hemisphere in early summer, hatch their young and then head south to escape the winter. Their mobility makes them difficult to study and there is still much to be discovered about bird migration. Many projects are underway, involving ring tagging and satellite tracking. More traditional methods, relying on teams of amateur bird spotters, have been greatly helped by the ability to communicate information swiftly over the internet.

The main routes adopted by migrating birds have been identified and named, but not all birds stick to a single route. Some start on one flyway and then cross to another, and many birds take a circular tour - flying out on one route and back on another. Most migrating birds rely on stopover sites, at which they can rest, feed, and fortify themselves for the next stage of their journey. Wetlands are perhaps the most important of these habitats, but many, such as those near the Mediterranean coast, are threatened by commercial development, drainage for agriculture, or the loss of their inflow of fresh water.

Climate change will affect migratory birds in a number of ways. Unpredictable weather patterns and increased frequency and strength of storms will make it harder for small migrating birds to complete their journeys, putting these species under threat. Milder winters may increase the populations of non-migrating birds that compete for food with migrating ones, but may also mean that long-distance migrants do not need to travel so far to find temperate conditions. Drastic changes to rainfall patterns may mean the loss of vital habitats, such as the wetland areas on which so many migrants depend. In the Arctic, birds may lose their breeding grounds as permafrost melts and enables trees to colonize what was open tundra.

Many migrating birds never arrive at their destination. Millions are shot down, by farmers in the Middle East and Africa, and by hunters in southern Europe, where they are killed for sport. And if they escape the bullets, they still have to negotiate built-up areas, and avoid flying into skyscrapers or becoming erTtangled in power cables.

84 Copyrigh t 0 M yriad Ed itions Lim ited

M igration RoutesMain routes taken by migrating birds to escape northern winter

Routes in Americas:Pacific FlywayCentral FlywayMississippi FlywayAtlantic Flywayroute of the Arctic tern

Routes in Europe and Africa:.. Iceland to northern Europe

Siberia to northern EuropeEast Atlantic FlywayMediterranean/Black Sea FlywayAsia-Africa Flywayroute of the Arctic tern

Routes in Asia and Oceania:Central Asian-South Asian FlywayEast Asian-Australian FlywayWest Pacific Flyway

A wetland site under threatO selected examples

* major threat from human hunters

Aleutian Canada goose

Great Salt

Still-Lahontan Valley wetlands ^

Q Cheyenne Bottoms

sandhill crane

tundra swan

bird

Swainson's hawk

PaloVerde

Arctic tern

Okavango, t swamp i

Arctic tern1

LakeLoktak

Oblack-faced

spoonbill

ick s swan

Camargue

JCoto Dohana Q Montagu's harrier

Lake Ichkeul O m2

Migratory birds, such as the steppe eagle, rely on a network of healthy sites in which to feed and refresh themselves, and are therefore good indicators of the state of biodiversity across a wide area. More than 200 of the 522 populations of waterbird that migrate along the African-Eurasian flyways have decreased in recent years, and the United Nations Environment Programme has teamed up with other organizations to launch World Migratory Bird Day, held annually in May to draw the attention to the importance of protecting the environment and supporting migrating birds.

Malta has a strong tradition of shooting and trapping birds. The country's accession to the European Union in 2004 led to some restrictions on this activity, but hunters were still allowed to shoot the turtle dove, and illegal hunting continued on a massive scale.In 2008, the European Court of Justice made an interim ruling that spring hunting was illegal, with a final decision expected in 2009.

Populations of 36 species of shorebirds using the East Asian-Australasian flyway have dropped by 75°/o since the early 1980s.

*

Great Salt Lake andother American wetlands are considered by scientists to be threatened by global warming.

//

Siberian crane

LakeChilka

Dalmatianpelican

bristle-thighed curlew

85

Neyriz Q lakes ancl marshes

European stork

Lake lehkeul V.

swallow

I s s u e s of C o n s e r v a t i o n

“To achieve conservation results that are ecologically viable, it is necessary to conserve networks of key sites, migration corridors, and the ecological

processes that maintain healthy ecosystems.”

— W W F website, Endangered Spaces 6

A n i m a l B i o d i v e r s i t y

There are probably about 10 million species in the kingdom of animals. About 1.3 million of them have been named and described by the scientific community, but the total number can only be estimated because much of the world has not yet been properly surveyed. New techniques are constantly being developed for examining previously uncharted regions that were thought to be barren. For example, remote-control submarines are revealing some of the remarkable species to be found in the ocean depths, and the diverse communities of bacteria, protists and fish to be found in hydro-thermal vents on the sea floor (see pages 32-33).

In lakes and oceans diversity is highest near the surface, particularly in the “photic” zone (the top 100 feet or 30 metres), where photosynthesis takes place. On land, diversity tends to be at its lowest in temperate and polar regions, possibly as a result of extinctions caused by the advance of glaciers during the recent ice-ages. In the tropics, where there is reliable moisture and warm, stable temperatures, animal diversity is much higher. Species living in these regions do not need the broad characteristics necessary for coping with varying conditions (such as drought, or winter temperatures) and adapt and diversify to suit local conditions (such as a particular type of tree, or ground cover). This leads both to a rich diversity and to a large number of endemic species - those found only in one place. The endemic species shown on the map belong to groups that have been fairly well researched, but there are an even greater, and as yet uncounted, number of insects endemic to very small patches of land.

While the rate of extinction through natural processes is estimated as less than one species a year for every million species, habitat destruction has led to a current annual extinction rate of between 1,000 and 10,000 per million species.The disappearance of some species represents lost opportunities for exploiting genetic peculiarities that could have been harnessed for medicine and agriculture. A few will be “keystone” species, whose destruction will spell doom for entire communities.

Primates, such as the | chimpanzee, along with

other large mammals, tend | to reproduce more slowly

than smaller mammals, birds and reptiles. This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters and human interference.

C A N A D A

CUBA DOMINICAN

SEr4RTRINIDAD et TOBAGO

aK aV - . W VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

AQUyana

SUKIN

GAMBIA-_ GUINEA-BISSAU

guine!SIERRA LEONE

LIBERI

B R A Z I L

Isolated islands may not have a large number of species, but many will be endemic. Each of the Galapagos Islands is home to its own variation of species such as the giant tortoise, and the finch.

ARGENTINA URUGUAY

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M r cub/

MEXICO j :feEL|ZEJAMA'CA

GUATEMAflR|BU RASEL SALVADOF^W^RAGUA

COSTA RICaN ^ \ PANAMA

m & r *U S A

BOLIVIA

WRAGUAY

V , LULUMBIA

E c u f g nt PERU

88

A n im a l B io d iv er s it yNumber of mammalsper 10,000 square kilometers 2000 ENDEMIC SPECIES

100 or more■ more than 100 2004

■ 51 - 100 % mammals21 - 50

1 - 20

m

birds

none or no data reptiles

R U S S I A

KAZAKH STAN

KYRGYZSTAN

TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN

ISRAEL-” IRAQ ^ JORDAN

Lemurs are endemic to the island of Madagascar. They have developed an amazing variety to fill a range of ecological niches. Red-ruffed lemurs live only in the deciduous forest of the Masoala Peninsula in northeastern Madagascar, where logging and trapping have reduced their numbers to between 1,000 and 10,000.

bJ

m

A L a

A U S T R A L I A

TOTAL KNOWN SPECIES2008

m }8,200

w Ipm IB

5,700

89

1.3 million

30,300m

NEW V ZEALAND

10,000

to f i c k - I

-O Isz E c lRECro |

I I# i

| 1 3H i &

5,400

CHAD SU D A N

gCENTRAL ETHIOPIA

• DEMOCRATIC S° MAU/REPUBLIC OF MT* KENYA

ON CONGO 1 RWANDA

■ TANZANIA

7 A

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BOTSWANAMOZAMBIQUE <

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NORWAYSWEDEN

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UK DENMARK _lA1V,ARUSSIA - - LITHUANIA

IELAND „ .NETH‘ GERMANY ^LAND BEIARUSBEL CZ. UKRAINE

REP. SLAUS UIIM MOLDOVA

SWITZ. Su HUN' ROM.FRANCE

CR0- B' H SERB. 8ULMONT.— ^ GEOf

SPAIN ALB mac AITALY TURKEY

PORTUGAL GREECETUNISIA .SYRIA

LEB.-fIOROCCO ISRAEL -t

\ JORC

A LG ER IAL IBYA

EGYPT

MALINIGER f

BURKINA , CHAD SU D A N

E Q U A T O R I/ u J^ ^ B ^ S jf c fc - , SMQANDAGUINEA-* ... DEMOCRATIC MW

REPUBLIC OF M K[GABON CONGO .1

CONGO BURUNDI ^ I l STAN7AN

OVA

UZBEKISTANGEORGIA

ARMENS AZERBA,JAN*KEY TURKMENISTA

SYRIALLW IRAQ IRAN AFG>

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>T SAUDI UAEARABIA

OMAN

M O N G O LIA

C H I N AC H I N AANISTAN

PAKISTAN ^

IN D IA W BANGIAOESH

SOUTHKOREA

SOLOMONISLANDS

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P l a n t B i o d i v e r s i t y

About 300,000 species of plants have been identified, out of an estimated total of 320,000. Recently developed genetic techniques have enabled botanists to distinguish much more precisely the differences between species of plants. Flowering plants are by far the most numerous. While some are pollinated by wind, most species have arisen through successful co-evolution: using scent, colour and taste to encourage animals to pollinate them and disperse their seed.

Biodiversity is assessed in terms both of the number of species in a given area, and their abundance. A forest with one dominant species of tree and a handful of individuals of other tree species is considered to have a lower biodiveristy than a forest with the same number of tree species occurring in roughly equal numbers.As with animals, the diversity of plants tends to be highest near the equator, where the sun is strongest. In general, though, the lower and more widely fluctuating temperatures at high altitude, mean that diversity tends to be lower on mountains than at sea level.

Natural habitats provide numerous benefits, including the prevention of soil erosion, filtering of pollutants from water and the exchange of gases with the atmosphere. Such “ecosystem services” are not always taken into account, however, when development plans are drawn up. Over-extraction of natural resources and the cultivation of a small number of fast-growing varieties of crops condemn ever-larger areas of the Earth’s surface to low biodiversity.

Plants have evolved to grow even in water of varying

salinity. Pa-Hay-Okee ("grassy waters"), an area of 2,200 sq miles (5,700 sq km)

of unique wetland habitat, was declared the Everglades

National Park in 1947.

C A N A D A

NUMBER OF PLANT SPECIES IDENTIFIED2007

90 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limitedplants

♦%K12,000 m <41

550 n 145 1,000P

conifers ferns cycads clubmosses

■Sa w

MAURITANI

SENEGALGAMBIA—

GUINEA-BISSAU— J f i IJIN t A

SIERRA LEONE ' LIBERIA

flowering ci mosses and liverworts

16,000

v wCHILE ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

DOMINICAN JAMAICA^ -^>&£p

^ ^ H B S jfe E L IZ E ^ HAiTf^ g u a t e m a ^ R | | ® uras

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COSTA I ^ TRINIDAD a TOBAGO

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5 '

VU SA

Epiphytes illustrate the diversity of plant form. They have no physical contact with soil, but live on the trunks and branches of other plants in order to gain access to sunlight.

NDThe rainforests of

Southeast Asia support a highly diverse range of

plants, but are threatened with total destruction by 2050, mainly by logging

but also by fire.

'01 RE

The Fynbos is an area on the southern tip of Africa. About 70% of the 8,500 species of Fynbos plants are found nowhere else. Some, such as the Mountain Cypress, rely on periodic natural fires to regenerate. However, more frequent, accidental fires have disrupted this rich habitat. Much of the Lowland Fynbos has been lost to cereal fields and vineyards.

SAUDIARABIA OMAN

YEMEN

Plant B iodiversityNumber of Plant Species per 10,000 square kilometers 2000

above 4,000

3.001 - 4,000

f U J 2,001 - 3,000

1.001 - 2,000

below 1,000

none or no data

NEW CALEDONIA

NEWZEALAND

t 2,000 or more endemic vascular plants 2004 91

UZBEKISTANW KOREA ~

" “ " ,.. . >H JAPANIRAN AFGHANISTAN C H I N A

pun iptnwfkPHIUPBKS

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A U S T R A L I A

NDFINLAND

NORWAY

SWEDEN —ESTONIA

UK DENMARK “ LATVIA— LITHUANIAAND

NETR GERMANY ^ N D BELARUS BEL UKRAINE

FRANCE AUS unw MOLDOVASWITZ. Sl HUN- ROM.

MUNI SERB' BUL <4e---G EO R ^ f c ^SPAIN AIR I AZERB/

I , T A ^ W V TURKEY ^GfllfeCE

____, TUNISIA .flAMftfLEB. * ■

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ALGERIALIBYA

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SAUDI

MALI ARABIANIGER

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ANGOLAMALAWI J

ZAMBIA

NAM|B|A BQTSWAfj4

MOZAMBIQUE V "

j j M

E c o l o g i c a l H o t s p o t s

With threatened and degraded habitats on every continent, conservation organizations face a daunting task. Their strategy is to focus on key areas.

Conservation International has identified a number of “biodiversity hotspots” (see map) which have a high density of different species, a large number of endemic species, and have lost at least 70 percent of their original habitat.Although these hotspots, in total, comprise less than 2 percent of the Earth’s land surface, they contain around 44 percent of all vascular plant species and 35 percent of terrestrial vertebrates.

The W W F has also identified key ecoregions around the globe on which to focus its work - 200 of them. At the beginning of 2007, however, it also launched a new program. The Protected Areas for a Living Planet (see map) aims to facilitate the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), which has now been signed by 190 countries and includes a commitment to create a global network of comprehensive, well-managed and representative terrestrial and marine protected areas. The six ecoregions on which work has begun involve 34 countries, and brings together partner organizations and scientific institutions as well as governments.

Wilderness areas - where 75 percent of the natural habit is undisturbed, and there is a density of no more than 13 people per square mile (5 people per sq km) - are also the focus of the attention of conservationists. Although the size of the Amazon and Congo rainforests makes them appear unassailable, the speed of development is giving cause for deep concern. If no action is taken, their ecology will become degraded through fragmentation and fire damage long before the forests have vanished completely.

Ecological conservation cannot be imposed by external organizations or even by national governments. It requires the cooperation of those living and working in the area, many of whom depend on the very activities the conservation groups are trying to stop. So, the emphasis now is on training, education and the promotion of sustainable industries.

92 Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

The Atlantic forest has been reduced to around 7 percent of its

original terrain, with some so fragmented as to make its survival unlikely. The golden lion tamarin, found nowhere else, is just one of

nine critically endangered mammals in this hotspot.

The giant sequoia is one of the many species found in the California Floristic Province,which is also home to a number of threatened endemic species, such as the giant kangaroo rat, and desert slender salamander. It is the largest avian breeding ground in the USA.

Brazil'sAtlantic

Forest

CaliforniaFloristicProvince Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands

Mesoamerica

Tumbes/Choco/ Magdalena

Tropical Andes

Polynesia/Micronesia

Valdivian Forests

Caribbean

Brazil'Cerrado

The Dinaric Arc ecoregion includes the most extensive network of subterranean rivers and lakes in Europe, the shallow reefs and marine feeding grounds of the Dalmatian Coast, and the Dinaric Alps, inhabited by lynx, brown bear, and wolf.

Conservation Focus2008_____ Conservation International

biodiversity hotspots

_____ WWF Protected Areas fora Living Planet

The Altai-Sayan ecoregion is one of the remaining untouched areas of the world. It

includes several major mountain ranges, and a large area of forest. More than 200 rare plant

species are found there, as is the critically endangered snow leopard.

Succulent Karoo

Cape Floristic Province

New Zealand

| The Guinean forests of West Africa are under pressure from slash-and-burn agriculture and from small-scale mining. Large mammals such as antelope and primates are hunted for their meat and elephants are poached for ivory. The pygmy hippo and the white-breasted guineafowl are two of the many threatened species found in this region.

The Philippines boasts one of the most diverse ecosystems. A large proportion of its species are endemic, making the drive to conserve the remaining 8 percent of the islands' original vegetation even more urgent. 93

Southwest Australia —

? \, New Caledonia \

East Melanesian ^ Islands

-{West African Forests

Eastern__ (\ Afromontane

West Africa Marine

Coastal Forests of Eastern Afrtta

r— MaputalandPondoland-Albany

V — Madagascar

AHorn of Africa

Western bhats \ ^ and Sri Lanka \

Forests of the \ Lower Mekong

SundalandWallacea

EuropeanMediterranean Alps Carpathian

Caucus Mountainsof Central Asia

Altai S a y a r p ^ r ^

Mountainsof Sou^West ChinafeL

Iran’S-' Himalaya <=3Anatolian __V,

-Indo-Burma n . .Polynesia/Micronesia 7 ________________________________ _____1_______

— Philippines

C o n s e r v i n g A n i m a l s

How best to save threatened animal species has been a fiercely contested subject. In an ideal world all animals would be conserved in their natural habitat, but despite the efforts of conservationists the predicted rate of habitat destruction could result in as many as 2,000 species needing support through captive breeding if they are to survive. The conservation movement is now focusing on captive breeding undertaken alongside programs to conserve and manage the habitats in which the species thrive.

In order to keep a species genetically diverse and healthy, populations of between 250 and 500 are necessary, with breeding between animals in different centres. The breeding of endangered animals is in many cases managed by dedicated international programs, which keep detailed studbooks.

There are currently around 250,000 animals in the world’s zoos, but many of the species most prolifically represented are not the most threatened. Zoos are expensive to run, and although some zoos receive funding from national or local governments, most rely largely on ticket sales for their income. About 600 million people visit a zoo each year, but many zoos are faced with a dilemma - whether to provide a wide range of the more popular animals in order to attract more visitors, or to concentrate on threatened species.

Sometimes, animals bred in captivity can be released into the wild. This has been done successfully with the California Condor (see page 78), the Mallorcan midwife toad, and the Mauritius kestrel among others, but much depends on how well these released animals can be protected in the wild, and whether there is any suitable habitat left into which to release them.

•-I

The habitat of the black lion tamarin isBrazil's Atlantic Forest, less than a tenth

of which is left. Several of the species have been successfully bred at Jersey Zoo, but have not adapted as well as

hoped on release into the Brazilian forest. Conservationists are now

focusing on the strategy of replanting forest to create link corridors between

isolated groups of tamarins.Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

The Durrell W ildlife Conservation Trust,based at Jersey Zoo, runs captive-breeding

programs and conservation projects around the world in support of critically endangered

animals. These include the Alaotran gentle lemur, whose habitat is reduced to a single area of wetland in Madagascar, which was

declared a Ramsar Site in 2003.

BELIZE

GUATEMALA HONDURAS EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA

DOMINICANREP.I PUERTO RICO

C A N A D A

MEXICOA RAHAW

BERMUDA

CUBA

COSTA RICAPANAM

ECUAO

TRINIDAD a TOBAGO

PANAMA | VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

B R A Z I L

BOLIVIA

CHILE ARGENTINA

94

Zoos are increasingly adopting an approach to animal conservation that includes habitat protection. The Web of Life exhibition at London Zoo places species in context and looks at the inter-relationship between them and their natural environment.

C o n ser v a t io n ZoosNumber of zoos affiliated to the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) network 2008

more than 150

H I 70 - 85

10 - 50

fewer than 10

none or no data

COTED'IVOIRE

The Mallorcanmidwife toad was uae

thought extinct until 1980. It has since been bred in captivity by Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and others, and reintroduced into the island's northern mountains. The male incubates strings of eggs wound around his legs.

The wild population of the Amur leopard is now

reduced to between 30 and 35. Just over 200 are

living in zoos, where captive-breeding programs

are underway. The aim in North America is to

increase the population from 65 to 120, while

optimizing the genetic diversity. The program in Europe and the CIS holds

102 animals, but only 11 are pure-bred and most are related to

one another. The rest of the captive animals all possess a rogue gene,

possibly from a panther, which must be minimized through

careful selection.

FALL AND RISE OF THE NENE2001

The population of the Hawaiian goose (the Nene) was reduced to between 20 and 30 birds in 1949.A few birds were taken into captivity and by 1992 over 2,200 had been released into the wild.Others remain in captivity in zoos and wildlife centers around the world, except for a few that apparently escaped and have taken up residence in St James Park, London. Although captive breeding saved the Hawaiian goose in the short term, further research and conservation work in the wild is required to ensure its long-term future.

The Mauritius kestrelwas reduced to only four birds in 1974, but captive breeding and management of the remaining wild birds by Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust saved it from extinction. In 2008, there were around 800 wild birds.

20-30 in wild 1949

2,200 released into wild by 1992

95

A U S T R A L I A

new

W K t f f lFINLAND

N0RWAY SWEDEN R U S S I A

UKRAINE :■ KAZAKHSTAN

^ ^ ^ B W P ^ A U S . hun MOLDOVA ^ j

CRO S£RB UZBEKISTAN

'mW . { \ ^ ™ « , ARMEN.A A2ERB.UANy ^ GREECE

ISRAEL

CAMEROONUGANDA

MADAGASCAR

MAURITIUS

SOUTHKOREA •

’" f

H°n9 K| ^ TAIWAN

01JRMA

THAILANDVIETNAM PHILIPPINES

CAMBODIA

« BRUNEIM A‘ L#A Y S I A JL

SRI LANKA

■ i N D o I e ' s . A PAPUA — • > 9 NEW GUINEA

FIJINEW ©CALEDONIA► O

C o n s e r v i n g P l a n t s

Botanic gardens are the zoos of the plant world. There are about 1,600 of them, containing roughly a quarter of all species of flowering plants and ferns. They are visited each year by about 150 million people worldwide and, as with zoos, public education is an important function. Some gardens incorporate herbaria, where plant specimens are dried and held to provide a permanent reference for plant diversity. Botanic gardens often also maintain seed banks. Seeds are only viable for a certain period, so drying and low-temperature storage (“cryopreservation”) is used to prevent them germinating or rotting .

Governments around the world have declared nature reserves in order to protect important habitats. However, the size of a protected area is significant. Small reserves hold fewer individuals of any one plant species, which leads to a greater risk of that plant becoming extinct. Reserves need to be close to each other, or connected by similar habitat, to allow pollination and seed dispersal between them.

Preventing frequent fires is important for most plants. In the tundra the risk of fire is relatively low, plant diversity is modest and there is limited scope for agriculture. In consequence, fewer protected areas have been designated there.

Invasive plants can overwhelm ecologically balanced native flora. Physical destruction of invasive plants, pesticides and the introduction of herbivores and parasites are all used to control invasive species. Genetic pollution is a more recent hazard. Genetically modified crops could, in theory, pollinate natural relatives, with the result that genes from organisms as exotic as fish are spread to wild plants.

Eco-labelling of timber can exploit market mechanisms to promote conservation. The Forest Stewardship Council administers a certification scheme for timber extracted according to strict ecological principles. These aim either to leave forests largely intact or to give the species that are cut down an opportunity to regenerate. The success of such conservation strategies relies on harnessing the knowledge of local people about the plants around them.

B R A Z I L

96 Copyright © Myriad Editions Limited

Every year 12 million hectares of forest worldwide are cleared. About 8% of global forests are protected, but the loss of surrounding forests risks creating isolated fragments of habitat, which inevitably become less diverse.

Over 900 invasive species of plant,

such as the Japanese

knotweed, threaten the native flora of

the USA.

HONDURASEL SALVADOR

COSTA RICA

VIRGIN IS. (US) -OMONTSERRAT-i

-ST VINCENT ft GRENADINES O O BARBADOS O TRINIDAD ft TOBAGO

US A

BERMUDA

V BAHAMASMEXICO ^ °

CAYMAN IS. CUBA DOMINICANJ j j j p i REP.

JAMAICA I PUERTO RICOBELIZE /^O- VIRGIN IS <UI<)VIRGIN IS. (US) - O ' _

CAPEVERDE

RICA InliMIUAU tt IUdMUUVENEZUELA

GUYANA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

CHILE ARGENTINA

iAND

The Svalbard Global Seed Vault isover 130 meters deep, and was built by the Norwegian government to house millions of seeds from around the world. Nicknamed the "Doomsday Vault", it is intended as a backup to national seed vaults in the event of natural or man-made disasters, which have been known to destroy entire collections.

P lant C onservation InstitutionsNumber linked to regional association affiliated to Botanic Gardens Conservation International 2008

over 100

50 - 99

10 - 49

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

fewer than 10

none or no data

China is home to an estimated 31,000 plant species. In 2007 it launched a new National Strategy for Plant Conservation to halt the country's continuing loss of plant diversity, and to protect plants such as the Magnolia sieboldii, common in European gardens, but vulnerable in the wild.

BURKINAFASO

O GUAM O NORTHERN MARIANA IS. O PALAUq O MARSHALL ISLANDS

mI cronesia,FED. STATES OF„

NAURU C- KIRIBATI

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

CONGO

UGANDAKENYA

M A L A Y S I A SINGAPORE G

SEYCHELLESO

MAURITIUSO. OREUNION

The golden pagoda was only discovered in 1987. It is limited in the wild to the mountains bordering Little Karoo in Western Cape. Although it is largely contained within a nature reserve, care is needed to ensure that it does not face competition from invasive plants, and is not destroyed by fire.

I N D O N E S I A PAPUANEW

GUINEA

97

AMERICAN SAMOA q WALLIS AND FUTUNA SAMOA Q

I VANUATU 1—0 COOKO F!JJ ISLANDS

■ NEW O 0 ,5I CALEDONIA „_____ YI Q TONGA Q NIUE

FRENCH POLYNESIA O PITCAIRN O

NEWZEALAND

A U S T R A L I A

CAMEROON

ZX(D

- INLAND

SWEDEr< ; ■>/;; : ■ ■"JK

rf‘ GERMANY POLANDU K R A IN E ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ KA;

LU2 R r ™ rom. moldovaFRANCE

BUL G E O R G IA ^ ^

L c AZERBAIJANITALY TURKEY

GREECETUNISIA

O MALTAISRAEL —

r ~PALESTINE

AUTHORITY

SAUDIARABIA

slAI

:a z a k h s t a n M o n g o l i a

KYRGYZSTA^Jjj^^B

, N D IA BURMA *

THAILANDVIETNAM

SRI LANKA ;

M A L A Y S I A

R U S S I A

TANZANIA

MALAWIZAMBIA

ZIMBABWENAMIBIA

BOTSWANA

SOUTH P*K AFRICA L£Sf

mI cronesia,FED. STATES OF„

NAURU O KIRIBATI

SON TUVALUISLANDS Q TOKELAU-Q ,

O PALAU

C o n s e r v i n g D o m e s t i c B r e e d s

Humans have domesticated around 40 animal species. Over 12,000 years, thousands of different breeds have developed through selective breeding of these species as well as environmental factors. In recent decades, high-yielding breeds have been favored, with the result that other breeds are endangered or extinct. Over one-fifth of domestic animal breeds are threatened by extinction. On average, two breeds are disappearing every week.

Domestic animal diversity is an important component of global biodiversity. Of the 6,300 or so breeds identified by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), around 400 are “ intensively developed” : they produce high yields, but they also require a high level of maintenance, such as purpose-built shelters and specialized feed stuffs. The majority of the world’s people, however, still rely on breeds that require minimum shelter and natural grazing, but do not necessarily give a high yield of milk or meat. While there is a global need to increase food production, the promotion of high-yield breeds that cannot cope with adverse local conditions is not the answer.

The preservation of a wide variety of breeds provides a genetic pool from which scientists can develop animals to meet future needs. Climate change, with its attendant impact on local environmental conditions may require the development of drought-resistant breeds. The specific genes that provide certain breeds with resistance to disease can be identified and introduced into higher-yielding breeds. As food fashions change, for health and cultural reasons, breeds can be developed to meet demand.

The FAO World Watch List assesses the viability of specific breeds within a country.Some populations have been deemed too low for survival. Others are in the “critical” or “endangered” categoiy. This draws the attention of national organizations to threatened breeds within their borders, but it also produces anomalies. Countries in Africa, where data is not available on many breeds, register relatively few threatened breeds. On the other hand, European countries register a large number of threatened breeds because efforts are being made to conserve them.

DOMINICANREP.

O ANTIGUA ft BARBUDA

GUINEA-BISSAU —

COLOMBIA FRENCH GUIANA

ECUADOR AB R A Z I L

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

ENDANGERED DOMESTIC BREEDSselected species .O nnc FALKLAND cattle:

ISIANDS 1,311 breedsextinct - T 49

critical or critical-maintainedendangered or endangered-maintainednot at risk

393 r559

209Copyrigh t ® M yriad Ed itions Lim ited unknow n

The angler sattelschweinbreed was reduced to only j

30 breeding females in 1990, but this has since j

been increased to just J under 100. I

C A N A D A

45

U S A

ERMUDA

MEXICOCUBA

CHILE

URUGUAY

98

Th reatened Do m est ic B reed sNumber of identified breeds 2007

Number of extinct breeds 2007

45 or more (number given)

10 - 27

5 - 9

BURMA laos

THAILAND

UGANDA SOMALIA

KENYA

TANZANIA

The red Maasai sheep is genetically resistant to intestinal worms. Scientists working to identify and isolate the gene

hope to transfer immunity to other breeds.

I N D O N E S I APAPUANEW

guinea

A U S T R A L I A o 9 <NGA NIUE

goats: 618 breeds

209

22

319 '19

pigs: 739 breeds

225

140263

sheep:1,409 breeds

i 40 ,03

417

180 669

chickens: 1,273 breeds

493

40

156

221

363

NEWZEALAND

99

SWEDENX 7 9 \ ESTONIA

DENMARK LITHUANIA RUSSIA

/ X 1 s j r f ™ M0LD0VA% K J -NIA l o N T - ^ ^ ^ - y V

| ^ ^ ^ ^ L macedonia

FINLAND

MALTA

GEORGIAA - a r m fw ia AZERBAIJAN

f \ TURKEY ARMENIA

SYRIA

CYPRUS IRAQ IRAN

EGYPT

KAZAKHSTAN

58

R U S S I A

1SOUTHKOREA

JAPANC H I N A

PAKISTAN

BANGLADESH I N D I A BUR

PHILIPPINESMLAND

VIETNAMCAMBODIA

M A L A Y S I A

SRI LANKA

BURKINA CHADFASO

< z <Xo

MADAGASCA

BOTSWANAMOZAMBIQUE

^ \ -SWAZILAND

SOLOMONISLANDS

" "

43

I m p o r t T r a d e

Industrialized countries legally imported 38,500 live primates in 2002, largely for use in research laboratories; half went to the USA. Trade in other animals, in particular parrots and reptiles, is mostly driven by the pet trade, with 385,600 parrots legally imported in 2002, nearly half of them to Europe. There is also a large trade in reptile skins, now fashionable for clothes and accessories. Over 200,000 alligator skins are sold each year, although many of these are from farmed, rather than wild, animals. Reptile farming practices in some countries are brutal, and include skinning snakes alive, supposedly to obtain more supple skins.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) came into force in January 1975 and currently has over 170 signatory states. Under the convention, these states agree to ban commercial international trade in some species of animal and plant and to monitor trade in others. Export and import licenses have to be issued for species covered by the convention, and trade statistics reported annually to the CITES Trade Database, managed by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, UK. Compliance with the reporting requirements is by no means universal, however, with many countries failing to send in even 50 percent of the required reports.

This map (and that on pages 102-103) therefore reflects legal trade, sanctioned under CITES. It does not include the billions of dollars worth of illegal trading conducted worldwide. Nor does it indicate the mortality rate among those animals licensed for live export and import. What it does show, however, is the extent of the legal trade in species considered at risk. It also identifies the major importing countries, whose demand is driving the trade.

live primatesworld total imported

38,500The USA imports over 20,000 primates each year, the vast majority for use in animal-testing laboratories.

Germany 2% Netherlands 2 % ^ [ Belgium 3%

Canada 3% —

live lizardsworld total imported

____ 1,157,000

live snakesworld total imported

France 2%Mexico 2% L ^

Canada 2%Italy 3°/o - A

Japan 3%

Canada 2% Japan 2%

Spain 2°/o Taiwan 2%

France 3%Hong Kong 3°/o

China 4%

372,400 South Korea 4°/o

Germany 4%

Germany 5%

Italy 5%

100 Copyright19 Myriad Editions Limited

UK6%

France90/0

other \90/0

USA51%

JapanI60/0

C A N A D A

U S A

MEXICO

USA67%

USA68%

otherP - i 40/0 |

live parrots(including countries that import

and then re-export) 385,600

M a jo r Im po rters

CITES members legally importing over 1,000 live animals or wild orchids 2002

non-members or non-importers

Saudi Arabia 2% —a Mexico 3 % —

Taiwan 3 % —Israel 3%

Greece 4%~

Indonesia 4 %

Traillmd 4% Pojluqal 5%

other170/o Spain

9%

The African gray is apopular pet, prized for its

mimicry, but is declining in the wild as a result of the

trade. Europe is responsible for 90% of legally imported

African greys, with almost 360,000 imported between

1994 and 2003.

The demand for rhino horn (which can literally be worth more than its weight in gold) for use in traditional medicine in Southeast Asia drives the illegal poaching of the white rhino and the critically endangered black rhino. Conservationists argue that the governments of the importing countries must share responsibility for the continuing trade until they launch educational programs to counteract the belief that rhino horn has medicinal qualities.

live tortoisesworld total imported

26,200

Mexico 2% Madagascar 3%

South Korea 5%_Netherlands

50/0

Italy 50/0

UK 60/0-!

Hong Kong 6%

Hong Kong 1 % Australia 1 %

Netherlands 2o/on Thailande 3%

I N D O N E S I J

other 2 °/ o n *

Germany

wild orchidsworld total imported

46,500

France

■ 60/0 SPain India60/0 7%

Taiwan9%

Germany

ither4% I

Japan290/0

Taiwan 10% *

jrmany150/0

Japan450/0

USA21o/o

R U S S I A

CHI NA

^^^K U W A IT

SAUDIARABIA INDIA

1 “ 1ML denm JQ (+w

rowNDm . .. me

r

USAUK Japan 8%

Singapore80/0

France80/0

A

Italy130/0

Spa9°-

101

E x p o r t T r a d e

The financial rewards from the export of valuable wild animals and plants are considerable. Around 33,000 species are included in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). For species threatened with extinction, trade is banned except in exceptional circumstances. The convention also includes species for which trade needs to be controlled in order to prevent risk of extinction. Finally, it includes species protected in at least one country, where that countiy has asked other CITES parties for assistance in controlling trade worldwide.

Although the Convention regularly revises the list of species it covers, it is largely the responsibility of each member state to establish the appropriate maximum number of export licenses that can be issued for a species within its territory.

Even where appropriate licensing quotas have been established, they are difficult to enforce.CITES urges countries to designate a small number of ports of exit and entry, and to train specialized enforcement officers to help identify the species being traded. Little has been done in this regard, however, although measures taken in the USA, where only nine ports are authorized to handle wildlife exports and imports, do seem to have reduced illegal trade.

The organization TRAFFIC, the trade monitoring program of W W F and IUCN-The World Conservation Union, was set up in the 1970s to assist in the implementation of CITES. In recent years it has expanded its role to look not only at trade covered by the convention but at how international sectors, including the fisheries and timber trades, impact on whole regions.

Suriname 2% Mali 2%

Madagascar 2% Benin 2%

Ghana 3% —Tanzania 3%

live parrotsworld total exported

385,600

Togo 3%

Congo, Dem Rep 2°/o Paraguay 2% — Congo 2%-

Solomon Is. 2°/o- Suriname 3°/o — Guinea 3%

Guyana 3%Mali 3%

Netherlands 401^

The trade in parrots is worth millions of dollar. Several countries where the species is not indigenous act as hubs for the trade - importing the birds and then re-exporting them.

Cuba 5% Sene9al

5%

Panama 1% r- South Africa 1 % .— New Zealand 1% | r— other 1%

Colombia17o/o

live lizardsworld total exported

1,157,000

Copyright ® Myriad Editions Limited

otherm 8o/o

South Africa 30%

China140/oI H

CzechRep60/o

Netherlands 4 % —

Cameroon 4 % —

• rArgentina 4%P n h o

USA

BMEXICO ^ 1

xJAMAICA

EL SALVADOR NICBARBADOS #

ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

COLOMBIA ^ WC

J M hifjSP||B R A Z . L

^na wild orchidsI m r in a m e■ ^ world total exported A ?/ # 46,500

GUINE/fl

LIBERIA

Indonesia —30/0

dagascar 4 % — | s

Viet Nam640/0

Belize19%

El Salvador57o/o

other80/0

1 0 2 c

live tortoisesworld total exported

26,200

Major Exporters

| CITES members legally exporting over 1,000 live animals or wild orchids 2002 non-members or non-exporters

Barbados 2%

live primatesworld total exported

38,500

Guyana 2% Tanzania 2%

South Africa 2% Barbados 4%

Philippines 7 % —

Suriname 3% Togo 3%

Uganda 3°/o_

Ghana 3% — i

Guyana 4 % —

Zambia 6%

Stocks of beluga sturgeon in theCaspian Sea are dangerously low, but following a ban by CITES on the fishing and exporting of the fish in 2001, the harvest was allowed to resume in 2002 under a quota agreement. The level of this quota has, however, been criticized by conservationists. live snakes

world total exported 383,800

The trade in tiger parts, including stuffed tiger cubs, threatens to

wipe out the few remaining wild tigers in Indonesia, which amount

to fewer than 500 animals, all located in Sumatra.

SOLOMON ISLANDS ^

Cambodia 3% — Colombia 4% —

Malaysia 5%

A 50% fall from 1970 to 1985 in the number of African elephants prompted CITES to impose a ban on the export of ivory from 1990 onwards. With elephant stocks climbing once again, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe pressed CITES for permission to sell ivory from well-managed herds. In 2007, an agreement was reached whereby government-owned stocks already registered were permitted to be sold, under strict licence from CITES, with a subsequent nine-year "resting period" agreed. Meanwhile, poaching in central Africa is putting the survival of elephants in the region in jeopardy.

NEW

103

9TWother7%

El Salvador 30%

Brazil110/nSingapore

70/0Tanzania USA

S IKChina37%

other60/0

Indonesia80/0

Mauritius19o/o

Vietnam13%

CHI NA

NETHERLANDS

UKRAINEBELGIUM

MONTENEGRO

Ml LI X ® NIGER

SUDAN

111GUINEA DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC OF CONGO

TANzMj

COMOROS

- —

.^ ^ H ^ ^ K A M R IO I IF

AFRICA

MAURITIUS

^ ^ % IE T N A M >C A i i # PHILI^PMk Th

“ / a. w , *-"7 «;^ A L A Y S I M L '

* ! ■ ^ i0 O N E S I A *

Vietnam6%

Indonesia90/0

Ghana120/0

Togo240/0

Benin320/o

other 5% l

W orld T a b l e s

“ For reasons of disease, genetics and simple accident, no population of wild animals can be considered secure unless it contains around 500 individuals.”

- Colin Tudge, Last Anim als at the Zoo

P rotected Ec o sy stem s a n d B io d iv ersity

iLAND AREA

squarekilometers

2TROPICAL FOREST

1999 or latest available

3TEMPERATE FOREST

1999 or latest available

5WETLANDS

sq km protected

sq km sq km protected

%protected

sq km sq km certified

%certified

Afghanistan 652,090 - - - ^ 20762 0 OO/o -

Albania 27,400 - - - 10,660 0 OO/o 831

Algeria 2,381,740 _ ^ 2 6 £ 4 1 0 OO/o 29,596

Angola 1.246,700 375,637 9,772

CO - - - -

Argentina 2,736,690 43,599 2,407 6 % 190,944 0 OO/o 39,952

Armenia 28,200 _ _ _ 3,552 0 OO/o 4,922

Australia 7j682|300 140884 10310 70/o 228,767 0 OO/o 73,719

Austria 82,450 _ _ _ 35,927 f i l l 5001 | 150/o 1,224

Azerbaijan 82^560 _ 11,333 0 OO/o 995

Bahamas 10,010 _ . _ - - - 326

Bahrain 710 _ _ _ - - - 68

Bangladesh 130,170 8,625 321 4°/o - - 6,112

Barbados 430 4 0 0 % _ 0

Belarus 207,480 _ _ _ 62,801 7 OO/o 2,831

Belgium 30,230 - _ _ 6,872 40 1o/o 429Belize 22,810 14,404 6,283 440/o - - 236Benin 110,620 15,162 2,764 18% - - - 11,794Bhutan 47,000 9,663 2,216 23% 11,293 0 OO/o -

Bolivia 1,084,380 686,376 83,334 12o/o - - - 65,181Bosnia-Herzegovina 51,200 - - - 23,027 0 OO/o 109Botswana 566730 12^231 24,092 20o/o - - - 55,374Brazil |8 ,459,4201 3,012,726 206,579 70/0 26,129 6,660 260/o 64,341Brunei ^ ^ 5 j2 7 0 2 479 984 40% - - - -

Bulgaria 108,640 - - - 37,868 0 OO/o 203Burkina Faso 273,600 - - - - - - 2,992Burma 657,550 206,605 1,574 1o/o 95,735 0 OO/o 3Burundi 25,680 2,190 399 18% - - - 10Cambodia 176,520 115,159 29,537 260/o - - - 546Cameroon 465,400 200,088 11,991 60/0 - - - 6,066Canada 9,093,510 - - - 4,043,133 43,600 1o/o 130,667

Cape Verde 4,030 - - - - - - -

Central African Rep. 623,000 171,008 34,419 200/o - - - -

Chad 1,259,200 35,161 1,266 40/0 - - - 98,791Chile 748,800 - - - 145,265 0 OO/o 1,592

China 9,327,490 1,089 142 130/o 827,097 0 OO/o 29,375Colombia 1,109,500 531,861 57,516 11o/o - - - 4,479

Comoros 1,860 - - - - - - 160Congo 341,500 243,213 10,774 40/0 - - - 4,390

Congo, Dem. Rep. 2,267,050 1,350,712 89,705 70/0 - - - -

Costa Rica 51,060 14,640 6,553 450/o - - - 5,101Cote-d'lvoire 318,000 27,018 6,156 230/o - - - 1,273Croatia 55,920 - - - 13,913 1,670 120/o 866Cuba 109,820 17,614 2,701 150/o - - - 11,884

106

SPECIES DENSITY Number of species per 10,000 sq km

6MAMMALS

7BIRDS

8REPTILES

9AMPHIBIANS

10PLANTS

31 59 26 2 1,008 Afghanistan48 162 22 9 2,139 Albania15 32 13 2 520 Algeria56 156 - ■ V . 1,055 Angola50 140 37 24 1,463 Argentina59 169 36 5 n nn i Armenia29 72 83 23 1,741 Australia41 106 7 10 1,537 Austria49 122 26 5 2,109 Azerbaijan

_ _ _ _ Bahamas_ _ _ _ _ Bahrain

45 122 49 8 2,074 Bangladesh_ _ _ _ Barbados

27 81 3 4 772 Belarus40 125 6 12 1,073 Belgium95 271 81 24 2,200 Belize85 138 - - 990 Benin59 269 11 14 3,281 Bhutan67 - 45 26 3,885 Bolivia42 127 16 9 - Bosnia-Herzegovina43 101 41 10 563 Botswana45 162 53 63 6,058 Brazil

- - - - - Brunei37 108 15 8 1,615 Bulgaria49 112 - - 369 Burkina Faso62 216 51 19 1,742 Burma76 322 - - 1,783 Burundi47 118 32 11 - Cambodia

114 193 51 53 2,310 Cameroon20 44 4 4 335 Canada- - - - - Cape Verde

53 137 33 12 921 Central African Rep.27 75 1 - 322 Chad22 71 20 12 1,269 Chile41 114 35 30 3,340 China75 356 124 143 10,735 Colombia

- - - - - Comoros62 140 - - 1,870 Congo74 153 62 13 1,818 Congo, Dem. Rep.

120 350 125 98 7,074 Costa Rica73 170 - - 1,163 Cote-d'lvoire43 126 16 11 - Croatia14 62 47 25 2,949 Cuba

107

P rotected E c o sy stem s a n d B io d iv ersity

iLAND AREA

2TROPICAL FOREST

1999 or latest available

3TEMPERATE FOREST

1999 or latest available

5WETLANDS

sq km protectedsquare

kilometers sq km sq km protected

%protected

sq km sq km certified

%certified

Cyprus 9,240 - - - 1,396 0 OO/o 16Czech Republic 77,260 - - - 24,806 100 Oo/o 547Denmark 42,430 - - - 4,587 0 OO/o 20,788Djibouti 23,180 327 0 00/o - - - 30Dominican Republic 48,380 11,710 1,975 170/o - - - 200Ecuador 276,840 135,082 32,280 24% - - - 1,708Egypt 995,450 1,335 0 0% 44 0 Oo/o 1,057El Salvador 20,720 1,109 50 5% - - - 1,258Equatorial Guinea 28,050 17,486 0 0% - - - -Eritrea 101,000 10 0 0% - - - -Estonia 42,390 119,373 22,498 19»/o 15,240 0 Oo/o 2,260Ethiopia 1,000,000 - - - - - - -Fiji 18,270 6,411 61 10/0 - - - 6Finland 304,590 - - - 253,085 219,000 870/o 7,995France 550,100 - - - 108,306 10 OO/oGabon 257,670 214,815 7,778 4% _ - - 17,638Gambia 10,000 1,878 96 50/o - - - 263Georgia 69,490 - - - 31,581 0 OO/o 345Germany 348,770 - - - 104,015 32,420 31o/o 8,431Ghana 227,540 16,943 1,197 70/0 - - - 1,784Greece 128,900 - - - 44,225 0 Oo/o 1,635Guatemala 108,430 38,622 12,310 320/o - - - 6,286Guinea 245,720 30,730 331 lo/o - - - 64,224Guinea Bissau 28,120 11,411 0 OO/o - - - 391Guyana 196,850 178,444 2,358 10/0 - - - -Haiti 27,560 638 13 20/o - - - -Honduras 111,890 52,733 9,656 I 8O/0 - - - 2,233Hungary 89,610 - - - 7,765 0 Oo/o 2,354Iceland 100,250 - - - - - - 590India 2,973,190 444,499 39,496 90/0 92,603 0 Oo/o 6,771Indonesia 1,811,570 887,437 185,342 21o/o - - - 6,565Iran 1,628,550 - - - 23,479 0 Oo/o 14,811Iraq 437,370 - - - - - - 1,377Ireland 68,890 - - - 4,567 0 Oo/o 670Israel 21,640 - - - - - - 4Italy 294,110 - - - 67,573 110 Oo/o 598Jamaica 10,830 3,987 818 21o/o • - - - 378Japan 364,500 - - - 56,772 30 OO/o 1,303Jordan 88,240 - - - - - - 74Kazakhstan 2,699,700 - - - 26,377 0 Oo/o 3,533Kenya 569,140 34,225 2,834 80/0 - - - 1,018Korea (North) 120,410 - . - - 39,674 0 Oo/o -Korea (South) 98,730 - - - 14,260 0 Oo/o 46

108

SPECIES DENSITY Number of species per 10,000 sq km

6MAMMALS

7BIRDS

8REPTILES

9AMPHIBIANS

10PLANTS

- - - - - Cyprus41 101 5 10 - Czech Republic27 121 3 9 895 Denmark- - - - - Djibouti

12 81 69 21 3,354 ominican Republic100 460 126 141 6,421 Ecuador21 33 18 1 454 Egypt

106 196 57 18 2,277 El Salvador131 194 - - 2,312 Equatorial Guinea50 141 38 8 - Eritrea40 130 3 7 1,018 Estonia54 133 40 13 1,398 Ethiopia3 61 20 2 1,334 Fiji

19 78 2 2 345 Finland25 72 9 9 1,233 France64 157 - - 2,248 Gabon

112 269 45 29 935 Gambia56 - 27 7 2,292 Georgia23 73 4 6 824 Germany78 186 - - 1,308 Ghana41 107 24 6 2,131 Greece

114 208 107 49 3,948 Guatemala66 142 - - 1,043 Guinea71 159 - - 655 Guinea Bissau70 246 - - 2,329 Guyana2 54 77 40 3,743 Haiti

78 190 73 36 2,559 Honduras40 98 7 8 1,155 Hungary

5 41 0 0 175 Iceland47 137 58 31 2,363 India81 271 91 50 5,196 Indonesia26 60 31 2 1,489 Iran23 49 23 2 - Iraq13 75 1 2 499 Ireland91 141 76 5 2,194 Israel29 76 13 13 1,820 Italy23 110 35 23 3,207 Jamaica57 75 26 18 1,679 Japan34 68 35 - 1,069 Jordan28 62 8 2 - Kazakhstan94 222 50 23 1,703 Kenya

- 51 8 6 1,274 Korea (North)23 53 12 1,359 Korea (South)

109

P rotected Ec o sy stem s a n d B io d iv ersity

1LAND AREA

squarekilometers

2TROPICAL FOREST

1999 or latest available

3TEMPERATE FOREST1999 or latest available

5WETLANDS

sq km protected

sq km sq km protected

%protected

sq km sq km certified

%certified

Kuwait 17,820 - - - - - - -Kyrgyzstan 191,800 - - - 7,846 0 OO/o 6,397Laos 230,800 36,392 8,388 23% 8,492 0 OO/o -Latvia 62,290 - - - 16,239 0 OO/o 1,484Lebanon 10,230 _ - _ 355 0 OO/o 11Lesotho 30,350 889 78 9% - - - 4Liberia 96,320 31,485 913 3°/o - - - 959Libya 1,759,540 - - - 525 0 OO/o 1Lithuania 62,680 - - - 15,095 0 OO/o 505Luxembourg 2,590 - - - 806 0 OO/o 3Macedonia 25,430 _ _ - 10,907 0 OO/o 216Madagascar 581,540 69,401 3,831 60/o - - - 7,876Malawi 94,080 38,301 3,262 9% - - - 2,248Malaysia 328,550 130,065 15,181 120/o - - - 554Maldives 300 - - - - - - -Mali 1,220,190 61,320 1,417 20/o - - - 41,195Mauritania 1,030,700 - - - - - - 12,311Mauritius 2,030 - - - E - - 4Mexico 1,943,950 457,649 19,518 40/o 212,926 1,690 1o/o 59,526Moldova 32,870 - - - 1,434 0 OO/o 947Mongolia 1,566,500 - - - 26,365 0 0% 14,395Montenegro 13,810 - - - 36,644 0 OO/o 200Morocco 446,300 - - - 18,621 0 OO/o 2,720Mozambique 786,380 208,630 15,544 70/0 - - - 6,880Namibia 823,290 34,362 3,626 11o/o - - - 6,296Nepal 143,000 11,622 2,184 19o/o 26,605 0 OO/o 344Netherlands 33,880 - - - 2,351 690 290/o 8,189New Zealand 267,710 - - - 42,116 3,630 90/0 391Nicaragua 121,400 53,225 13,134 250/o - - - 4,057Niger 1,266,700 269 42 160/o - - - 43,176Nigeria 910,770 116,338 8,583 70/0 - - - 10,767Norway 304,280 - - - 81,386 56,000 69% 1,164Oman 309,500 - - - - - - -

Pakistan 770,880 8,065 45 10/0 20,830 0 OO/o 13,436Panama 74,430 37,444 11,577 31o/o - - - 1,599Papua New Guinea 452,860 357,905 38,257 110/0 - - - 5,949Paraguay 397,300 92,904 2,440 3% 28,476 0 0% 7,860Peru 1,280,000 756,362 38,917 50/0 - - - 67,806Philippines 298,170 24,023 1,248 50/0 - - - 684Poland 306,330 - - - 89,388 27,430 31% 1,451Portugal 91,500 - - - 26,613 0 0% 738Qatar 11,000 - - - - - - -Romania 229,980 - - - 81,372 0 OO/o 6,836

1 1 0

173161455623871437

57378695

2813

86

4625453042587535

1

86

2762172036

112

639093512730

29

SPECIES DENSITY

of specics per 10,000 sq km

8REPTILES

2412

234

41

2810

4

239555

110

3

12364

3326395841

41869

302

2341

11679357362

314

9

AMPHIBIANS

21

137

171

7

10473160

549 1

10

31512

1810

1

25

24 2

4846325 76 3068

10PLANTS

1931,412

6512,9611,103

993331967

2,5632,4791,6654,890

355239

4,5691,173

5331,8961,0491,340

9422,871

767802

3.256 238

1,059544439

1,1685,0883.257 2,311 3,674 2,907

7782,428

1,194

Kuwait Kyrgyzstan

Laos Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya

Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia

Madagascar Malawi

Malaysia Maldives

Mali Mauritania Mauritius

Mexico Moldova

Mongolia Montenegro

Morocco Mozambique

Namibia Nepal

Netherlands New Zealand

Nicaragua Niger

Nigeria Norway

Oman Pakistan Panama

Papua New Guinea Paraguay

Peru Philippines

Poland Portugal

Qatar Romania

111

6MAMMALS

7BIRDS

17

17111715240

16817

109

15453

230160

8159

135119 80

10460

117 109 252120 51

20760

135773988

3761841643106472

100

' 87 7

8

Q

Protected Ecosystems a n d Biodiversity

iLAND AREA

squarekilometers

2TROPICAL FOREST

1999 or latest available

3TEMPERATE FOREST1999 or latest available

5WETLANDS

sq km protected

sq km sq km protected

%protected

sq km sq km certified

%certified

Russia 16,381,390 - - _ 8,155,509 330 Oo/o 103,238Rwanda J4.670 2,907 2,237 77% - - - -

Samoa 2,830 - - - - - - -

Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 - - - - - - -

Senegal 192,530 20,763 1,449 70/0 - - - 997Serbia 77,470 - - 36,644 0 Oo/o 537Seychelles 460 - - - - - - 1Sierra Leone 71,620 2,598 528 20% - - - 2,950Singapore 690 _ _ _ _ _ _

Slovakia 48,100 - - - 23,079 0 0% 407Slovenia 20,140 _ _ _ 6,957 0 0% 82Solomon Islands 27,990 _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Somalia 627,340 118,003 1,351 1% - - - -

South Africa 1,214,470 103,326 5,334 5% 523 8,280 - 5,440Spain 499,190 _ _ 140,236 0 Oo/o 2,818Sri Lanka 64,630 15,806 4,366 28% - - - 85Sudan 2,376,000 122,882 15,065 120/o - - - 77,846Suriname 156,000 132,194 5,226 40/0 - - - 120Swaziland 17,200 2,861 92 30/0 - - - -

Sweden 410,330 -■ - - 293,636 111,670 380/o 5,145Switzerland 40,000 - _ - 13,086 490 40/0 87Syria 183,780 - - 471 0 Oo/o 100Tajikistan 139,960 - - - - - - 946Tanzania 885,800 143,562 22,728 160/0 - - - 48,684Thailand 510,890 162,370 50,651 31o/o 3,608 0 Oo/o 3,706Togo 54,390 2,240 59 3% - - - 12,104Trinidad Et Tobago 5,130 1,241 87 70/0 - - - 159Tunisia 155,360 _ 3,005 0 Oo/o 7,265Turkey 769,630 - - - 83,898 0 Oo/o 1,795Turkmenistan 469,930 - - - 2,164 0 0% -

Uganda 197,100 37,724 6,405 170/o - - - 3,548Ukraine 579,380 - - - 770,458 2,030 3% 7,447United Arab Emirates 83,600 - - - - - - -

United Kingdom 241,930 - - - 223,033 9,580 42o/o 9,180United States of America 9,161,920 4,428 297 70/0 2,7993,863 261,290 90/0 13,123Uruguay 175,020 20 0 Oo/o 969 0 OO/o 4,249Uzbekistan 425,400 - - - 2,309 0 Oo/o 313Venezuela 882,050 556,152 328,013 590/o - - - 2,636Vietnam 310,070 42,180 4,355 10% 7,233 0 Oo/o 258Western Sahara 266,000 - - - - - - -Yemen 527,970 - - - - - - -Zambia 743,390 219,885 70,176 320/o - - - 40,305Zimbabwe 386,850 153,967 18,732 120/o - - - -

1 1 2

23110

137245

77>13505937435222474372

174724357072

110

125312829

1182812174531287367

185681

SPECIES DENSITY r of species per 10,000 sq km

8 9 10REPTILES AMPHIBIANS PLANTS

5 4 - Russia- - 1,664 Rwanda- - - Samoa

14 - 345 Saudi Arabia37 1 780 Senegal33 10 1,896 Serbia

_ _ _ Seychelles- - 1,091 Sierra Leone

350 60 5,713 Singapore12 12 1,849 Slovakia20 16 2,535 Slovenia43 12 2,235 Solomon Islands49 7 768 Somalia65 22 4,797 South Africa15 8 1,383 Spain77 21 1,781 Sri Lanka_ _ 507 Sudan

60 38 1,997 Suriname- - - Swaziland2 4 498 Sweden9 11 1,898 Switzerland- - 1,145 Syria

18 1 - Tajikistan64 30 2,231 Tanzania81 31 3,170 Thailand

- - 1,739 Togo87 32 2,816 Trinidad Et Tobago25 3 873 Tunisia25 4 2,059 Turkey23 1 - Turkmenistan52 17 1,891 Uganda5 4 1,318 Ukraine

18 - - United Arab Emirates3 2 565 United Kingdom

30 28 2,036 Jnited States of America- - 882 Uruguay

18 1 1,369 Uzbekistan64 55 4,752 Venezuela59 25 3,306 Vietnam

- - - Western Sahara21 - 446 Yemen35 16 1,141 Zambia46 36 1,325 Zimbabwe

113

6 7MAMMALS BIRDS

Number

58

373

26

144

104

243

295

124

164

115

107

122

76

134

110

240

71

121

78

184

168

220

324

69

72

290

68

33

80

68

92

302

168

39

145

159

T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s

Number of Threatened Species 2008

1PRIMATES

2CATS

3UNGULATES

4RODENTS

5BATS

6DOLPHINS

AND WHALES

Afghanistan - 5 5 1 4 -Albania - - - 1 -

Algeria 1 5 7 - 4 -

Angola 2 3 2 - 2Argentina - 2 5 7 3 5Armenia - - 4 2 5 -Australia - - - 16 8 5Austria _ _ 2 3 _

Azerbaijan - - 5 - 5 -Bahamas _ _ - 1 1 1Bahrain _ _ 1 _ _ _Bangladesh 5 4 5 2 - 4Barbados - - - - - -Belarus _ ■ M l 1 - „ 3 " -

Belgium - - - 1 4 3Belize 1 - 1 - 1 -

Benin 3 3 1 - - 1Bhutan 2 5 6 2 - -Bolivia 2 1 4 6 1 1Bosnia-Herzegovina - - 2 6Botswana - 3 1 - 1 -

Brazil 21 - 2 14 14 4Brunei 3 5 1 - - -Bulgaria - - 4 6 1Burkina Faso 1 2 3 - - -

Burma 5 6 9 6 2 3Burundi 1 3 1 2 - -

Cambodia 6 5 6 3 - -

Cameroon 9 3 2 9 6 -

Canada - 1 - 2 1 9Cape Verde - - - - - 3Central African Rep. 2 3 2 - 2 -

Chad - 2 7 - - -

Chile - 2 2 4 4China 12 11 20 16 2 3Colombia 7 - 3 4 11 2Comoros 1 - - - 1 -

Congo 6 2 1 - 2 1Congo, Dem. Rep. 4 3 1 4 6 1Costa Rica 1 - 1 2 2 1Cote-d'lvoire 4 2 4 1 7 -

Croatia - - - 1 6 -

Cuba - - - 6 2 1

114

147455181

564>1

400541

220>2421

>20

112301

10

311521

38327

mbe r o f T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s2008

9INVERTEBRATES

10FISH

11BIRDS

12PLANTS

1 0 14 2 Afghanistan4 27 6 0 Albania

14 22 10 3 Algeria5 22 18 26 Angola

10 30 49 42 Argentina6 1 12 1 Armenia

282 87 50 55 Australia43 7 5 4 Austria4 5 13 0 Azerbaijan1 20 5 5 Bahamas0 6 4 0 Bahrain0 12 26 12 Bangladesh0 14 1 2 Barbados8 0 3 0 Belarus

12 8 1 1 Belgium1 24 3 30 Belize0, 15 4 14 Benin1 0 16 7 Bhutan1 0 31 71 Bolivia

10 28 6 1 Bosnia-Herzegovina0 2 8 0 Botswana

35 66 122 382 Brazil0 7 21 99 Brunei7 13 12 0 Bulgaria0 0 4 2 Burkina Faso2 16 39 38 Burma5 18 8 2 Burundi0 17 24 31 Cambodia2 43 15 355 Cameroon

12 26 18 1 Canada0 18 4 2 Cape Verde0 0 5 15 Central African Rep.1 0 6 2 Chad2 18 33 39 Chile6 60 86 446 China2 31 87 222 Colombia4 5 9 5 Comoros4 15 3 35 Congo

26 25 31 65 Congo, Dem. Rep.12 20 17 111 Costa Rica

1 19 12 105 Cote-d'lvoire14 42 11 1 Croatia5 28 17 163 Cuba

115

J 8REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

1

2

30

290

470

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

6

0

1

21

1

0

110

30

0

0

6

353

1

0

0

0

20

85209

0

0

136213

2

47

Numb

T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s

N u m b e r o f T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s2008

1PRIMATES

2CATS

3UNGULATES

4RODENTS

5BATS

6DOLPHINS

AND WHALES

Cyprus - - 2 - 1 -

Czech Republic 2 4 -

Denmark - - - - 2 1

Djibouti _. J 5

Dominican Republic - _ - 2 - 1

Ecuador 2 - 2 7 8 4_ 3 9 - - -

El Salvador _ _ 1 _ 2 -

Equatorial Guinea 8 1 1 2 1 -

Eritrea _ 2 5 1 1 1

Estonia - - - - 1 1

Ethiopia 2 11 8 7 -

Fiji _ _ - 4 V ' ■Finland 1 - 1

France _ _ 1 1 7 3

Gabon 5 2 1 1

Gambia 2 2 2 - - -

Georgia - 5 5 1

Germany - - - 2 4 2

Ghana 4 2 2 2 5 -

Greece _ _ 1 4 4 -

Guatemala 1 1 1 2 -

Guinea 2 2 3 - 8 -

Guinea Bissau 2 2 2 - - -

Guyana - - 1 1 4 1

Haiti 2 - -

Honduras - - 1 2 3 -

Hungary - - - 2 6 -

Iceland - - - - - 6

India 7 10 19 16 10 6Indonesia 13 9 8 47 34 5Iran - 6 4 5 7 -

Iraq - 2 3 - 4 1

Ireland - - - - - 3Israel - 1 5 3 4 -

Italy - - 2 1 6 2Jamaica - - - 1 3 -

Japan - 1 - 5 12 7Jordan - 2 5 - 3 -

Kazakhstan - 3 4 5 2 -

Kenya 1 3 5 4 5 5

Korea (North) - 3 2 - 4 ’Korea (South) - 1 2 - 1 6

116

40

0

0

10

10

11

6360

1

60

521

70

35

141

1

69

11

10

25278

20

10

58

11

5250

0

mber o f T h r e a t e n e d Spec i e s2008

9INVERTEBRATES

10FISH

11BIRDS

12PLANTS

0 11 4 7 Cyprus18 9 5 4 Czech Republic11 11 3 3 Denmark0 14 7 2 Djibouti6 15 14 30 Dominican Republic

51 15 68 1,838 Ecuador1 23 10 2 Egypt0 7 4 26 El Salvador0 13 5 63 Equatorial Guinea0 13 7 3 Eritrea4 2 3 0 Estonia

15 2 21 22 Ethiopia3 10 10 66

10 2 3 1 Finland63 27 5 7 France

0 21 5 108 Gabon0 16 5 4 Gambia9 8 8 0 Georgia

30 16 4 12 Germany0 17 8 117 Ghana

14 50 10 11 Greece7 18 11 84 Guatemala3 19 12 22 Guinea0 18 1 4 Guinea Bissau1 23 3 22 Guyana3 16 13 29 Haiti1 19 7 110 Honduras

26 10 9 1 Hungary0 11 0 0 Iceland

22 39 75 247 India31 111 116 386 Indonesia5 16 18 1 Iran2 6 18 0 Iraq3 8 1 1 Ireland

12 30 12 0 Israel58 31 7 19 Italy5 16 10 209 Jamaica

43 40 ■" tfg 12 Japan4 14 8 0 Jordan4 9 20 16 Kazakhstan

32 70 27 103 Kenya2 11 19 3 Korea (North)2 14 27 0 Korea (South)

117

7 8REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

0000

31163

094 0 0 9 1 0 23 0 1 0

105

765 06

46 5500

6333

4 1 0 0 6

172001611

N un

T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s

Number of Threatened Species2008

1PRIMATES

2CATS

3UNGULATES

4RODENTS

5BATS

6DOLPHINS

AND WHALES

Kuwait - 2 2 - - -

Kyrgyzstan 3 2 2 1 -

Laos 9 5 7 3 1 -

Latvia - - 1 2 1Lebanon - 2 3 - 3 -

Lesotho - 1 - 1 1 -

Liberia 3 2 4 - 6 1Libya - 3 5 - 1 -

Lithuania - 2 1 1 2 1Luxembourg - - 1 2 -

Macedonia - - - 3 6 2Madagascar 20 - - 5 6 -

Malawi - 1 1 - -

Malaysia 5 7 4 8 7 3Maldives - - - - - -

Mali 1 2 6 _ 1 -

Mauritania - 2 5 - - 1Mauritius - - - - 3 -

Mexico 1 2 1 33 15 7Moldova - - - 1 3 -

Mongolia - 1 6 3 - -

Montenegro - - - 1 4 -

Morocco 1 5 5 1 5 2Mozambique - 2 1 1 2 3Namibia - 3 2 - - 2Nepal 1 6 10 4 2 1Netherlands - - - 1 4 4New Zealand - - - - 2 5Nicaragua - - 1 - 1 1Niger - 3 7 - 3 -Nigeria 10 2 5 4 - -

Norway - - - - 1 7Oman - 1 6 1 3 -

Pakistan - 6 6 3 1 4Panama 1 - 1 3 1 3Papua New Guinea - - - 15 21 -

Paraguay - - 3 1 1 -Peru 4 1 3 e 15 3Philippines - - 5 22 11 -Poland - - 1 3 4 4Portugal - 1 - 1 7 4Qatar - - - - - -

Romania - - - 6 6 1

118

1211

0

6

0

350

0

2!0

0

!1

21

27)51

0

295360

12

8

0

30

497926

90

21

2

mber of T h r e a t e n e d Spec i e s2008

9INVERTEBRATES

10FISH

11BIRDS

12PLANTS

0 10 8 0 Kuwait3 0 8 14 Kyrgyzstan0 6 22 21 Laos

10 4 4 0 Latvia3 14 6 0 Lebanon2 1 5 1 Lesotho2 19 11 46 Liberia0 13 4 1 Libya6 4 4 0 Lithuania4 0 0 0 Luxembourg5 8 10 0 Macedonia

32 73 35 280 Madagascar16 101 12 14 Malawi21 47 40 686 Malaysia

0 11 0 0 Maldives0 1 6 6 Mali1 22 8 0 Mauritania

32 11 11 88 Mauritius40 115 59 261 Mexico4 9 9 0 Moldova3 1 20 0 Mongolia

11 20 9 0 Montenegro9 29 10 2 Morocco5 45 21 46 Mozambique0 20 21 24 Namibia0 0 31 7 Nepal6 9 1 0 Netherlands

14 16 70 21 New Zealand5 22 9 39 Nicaragua1 2 5 2 Niger1 21 12 171 Nigeria9 11 2 2 Norway4 21 9 6 Oman0 20 26 2 Pakistan2 21 19 194 Panama

12 38 31 142 Papua New Guinea0 0 28 10 Paraguay2 10 94 274 Peru

20 58 67 213 Philippines16 4 5 4 Poland83 39 8 16 Portugal

0 7 4 0 Qatar22 13 12 1 Romania

119

7 8REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

0

0

4

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

55

5

46

0

0

0

0

198

0

0

1

2

3

1

3

0

4

10

0

13

0

0

0

55

10

0

80

48

0

0

0

0

Numbe

T h r e a t e n e d S p e c i e s

Number of Threatened Species 2008

1PRIMATES

2CATS

3UNGULATES

4RODENTS

5BATS

6DOLPHINS

AND WHALES

Russia - 4 8 7 8 7

Rwanda 2 2 1 5 2 -

Samoa - _ - - - 1

Saudi Arabia _ 3 4 1 3 _

Senegal 2 3 3 _ 1 1

Serbia _ - - 2 6 -

Seychelles _ _ _ _ 3 -

Sierra Leone 3 2 4 1 1 _

Singapore _ 1 1 1

Slovakia _ _ 2 5 _

Slovenia - - - 1 6 -

Solomon Islands - - - 4 14 1

Somalia - 2 10 - _ 1 ’ -

South Africa - 3 2 1 3 5

Spain - 1 - 1 7 6Sri Lanka 3 3 - 3 - 4

Sudan 1 2 9 2 -

Suriname _ 1 - 3 3

Swaziland - 2 1 - 1 -

Sweden - - - 3 1

Switzerland - - - 1 3 -

Syria - 3 5 1 1 -

Tajikistan - 4 4 1 1 -

Tanzania 4 2 3 2 5 5

Thailand 5 6 8 4 4 2Togo 2 3 2 - - -

Trinidad £t Tobago - - - - - -

Tunisia _ 4 6 _ 4 1

Turkey _ 4 3 4 6 1

Turkmenistan - 3 6 3 2 -

Uganda 2 3 1 9 5 -

Ukraine - - 2 7 4 1

United Arab Emirates - 1 4 - - 1

United Kingdom - 1 - - 2 7

United States of America - 4 - 11 7 9Uruguay _ _ 1 _ 1 3

Uzbekistan - 4 4 1 2 -

Venezuela 2 - 1 5 5 3

Vietnam 13 5 7 4 3 -

Western Sahara - 3 5 - - 1

Yemen - 2 4 - 1 -

Zambia - 2 1 2 3 -

Zimbabwe - 2 1 1 2 -

1 2 0

6

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mber of T h r e a t e n e d S p ec i e s2008

9INVERTEBRATES

10FISH

11BIRDS

12PLANTS

29 22 51 7 Russia9 10 3 Rwanda,

1 8 7 2 Samoa2 15 14 3 Saudi Arabia0 28 8 7 Senegal

16 8 10 1 Serbia5 14 10 45 Seychelles2 16 10 47 Sierra Leone1 22 13 54 Singapore

19 9 7 2 Slovakia42 25 3 0 Slovenia

6 9 20 16 Solomon Islands1 25 12 17 Somalia

152 66 36 73 South Africa62 51 15 49 Spain52 31 13 280 Sri Lanka

2 13 13 17 Sudan0 21 0 26 Suriname0 3 7 11 Swaziland

13 9 3 3 Sweden29 8 2 3 Switzerland

6 26 11 0 Syria2 5 9 14 Tajikistan

43 137 39 240 Tanzania1 50 43 86 Thailand0 16 2 10 Togo0 21 2 1 Trinidad ft Tobago7 19 7 0 Tunisia

12 54 15 3 Turkey5 8 15 3 Turkmenistan

26 54 17 38 Uganda14 14 12 1 Ukraine

2 9 8 0 United Arab Emirates10 16 3 13 United Kingdom

571 166 74 242 United States of America1 27 25 1 Uruguay1 5 15 15 Uzbekistan3 31 26 68 Venezuela0 31 38 146 Vietnam1 19 1 0 Western Sahara6 17 13 159 Yemen5 10 10 8 Zambia4 3 12 17 Zimbabwe

121

7 8REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

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215

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S o u r c e s

For sources that arc available on the internet, in most cases only the root address has been given. To view the source, it is recommended that the reader type the title of the page or document into Google or another search engine.

PART 1 EXTINCTION IS FOREVER

12-13 EVOLUTIONDarwin C. On the origin o f species by means o f natural selection,

or The preservation o f favoured races in the struggle fo r life, first published 1859.

The academic technology web server, daphne.palomar.eduThe Evolution Wing www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/evolution.html

14-15 MASS EXTINCTIONSBB C Learning, www.bbc.co.uk/education World Resources Institute, www.wri.org

16-17 HOMININSInstitute of Human Origins www.asu.edu/clas/iho/The TalkOrigins Archive, www.talkorigins.org

18-19 HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTArctic sea ice shatters all previous record lows. National Snow and ice

Data Center, 2007 October 1. http://nsidc.org/news Vernon C. The plight of the Great Barrier Reef. 2008 May 23.

www.sciencealert.com.au Global warming: early warning signs, www.climatehotmap.org

[accessed March 2008]Global Footprint Network, www.footprintnetwork.org Greenemeier L. US protects polar bears under endangered species act.

Scientific American, 2008 May 14. www.sciam.com Menzel A et al. Impacts of climate variability, trends and N A O on

20th-century European plant phenology. In: Bronnimann S et al. Climate variability and extremes during the past 100 years. Springer Netherlands, 2007. www.springerlink.com

National Geographic, 2004 Sept.Northwest Territories Environmental and Natural Resources.

Caribou forever - our heritage, our responsibility. www.nwtwildlife.com

H um an development report 2007/2008. U N D R pp.102-05.http://hdr.undp.org

Walker G and King D. The hot topic. London: Bloomsbury, 2008. pp.39-40.

Part 2 ECOSYSTEMS

22-23 TROPICAL FORESTSFood and Agricultural Organization. State o f the w orld’s forests 1999.

FAO , 1999. www.fao.org Torests fo r life. W W F-U K , 2005. www.panda.org Bryant D, Nielsen D and Tangley L. The last frontier forests:

ecosystems and economics on the edge. World Resources Institute, 1997. www.wri.org

Tropical Forest Protected areas Tropical forest by regionEarthTrends: The Environmental Portal, www.earthtrends.wri.org Indonesia: Butler RA. Facts on Borneo, www.mongabay.com/borneo.

html [accessed 2008 Ju ly 15]Rainforest lossFAO . Global forest resources assessment. Downloaded from W D I

online.Rainforest information, www.mongabay.com [accessed 2008 May]

24-25 TEMPERATE FORESTSFood and Agricultural Organization. State o f the w orld’s forests 1999.

FAO , 1999. www.fao.org Forests fo r life. W W F-U K , 2005. www.panda.org Bryant D, Nielsen D and Tangley L. The last frontier forests:

ecosystems and economics on the edge. World Resources Institute, 1997. www.wri.org

Temperate Forest Temperate forest by regionEarthTrends: The Environmental Portal, www.earthtrends.wri.org China: Liang Chao. Tree-planting paying off as 18% growth

recorded. China Daily, 2008 June 11. www.chinadaily.com Russia: Markus F. Illegal logging spreads in Russia. 2001 October 29.

http://bbc.co.uk Wood productionFA O data, accessed via EarthTrends: The Environmental Portal.

www.earthtrends.wri.org

26-27 GRASSLANDSWorld resources 2000-2001, World Resources Institute, 2000.

pp.119-139. www.wri.org Sauer JR et al. The North American breeding bird survey, results and

analysis 1966-98. Version 98.1, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 1999.

GrasslandsWhite R, Murray S, and Rohweder M. PAGE analysis, Map 15.

World Resources Institute, www.wri.org Current Land Use: World resources 2000-2001. op. cit. p.123.Asian steppes: World resources 2000-2001, op. cit. pp.212-24.Great Indian bustard: Binding in India and South Asia, www.birding.in

[accessed May 2008]

28-29 WETLANDSWetlands of International ImportanceWetlands International, www.ramsar.org International Rivers Network, www.irn.org W W F. www.panda.orgFinancial value: In the front line. Shoreline protection and other

ecosystem services from mangroves and, coral reefs. U N EP, 2006. pp. 12-14. www.unep-wcmc.org

Florida mangroves: www.unep-wcmc.orgWater hyacinth: Biocontrol News and Inform ation , 2004 Dec, 25(4).

www.pestscience.com Mangrove loss in ThailandDatabase on local coping strategies. Mangrove reforestation in

southern Thailand. Summary, http://maindb.unfccc.int [accessed 2008 Ju ly 15]

30-31 CORAL REEFSThe State of CoralWilkinson C. The status o f coral reefs in the world. W W F, 2004.

www.globalissues.org Veron C. The plight of the Great Barrier Reef. ScienceAlert, 2008 May

23. www.sciencealert.com.au Butler RA. Coral reefs and mangroves have high economic value.

2006 Jan 24. http://news.mongabay.com Carpenter K, Livingstone S. IU C N report to Coral Reef Symposium,

2008 Ju ly 10. Reported by Radford T. One third of reef-building corals face extinction, study shows. The Guardian, 2008 July 10. www.guardian.co.uk

32-33 OCEANSFreiwald A et al. Cold-water coral reefs. Cambridge, U K : UN EP-

W C M C , 2004. "World Energy Council. Survey o f energy resources 2001.

www.worldenergy.org Biogenic reefs - cold water corals. Joint Nature Conservation

Committee, www.jncc.gov.uk [accessed 2008 Ju ly 15]Boswell R. Buried treasure. The American Association of Mechanical

Engineers, 2005 Feb. www.memagazine.org Greimel H. Resource-poor Japan is banking on ice that burns as

future fuel source. 2003 Ju ly 3. www.climateark.org N U R P research supports conservation of deep-sea corals. 2007 July

16. www.nurp.noaa.gov New research reveals clear scientific reasons for the bottom trawling

to stop. 2006 Nov 15. www.savethehighseas.org Fisheries organizations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans fail their

end of year report. 2007 Dec 10. www.savethehighseas.org U N FAO: Meeting ends without agreement on guidelines for high

seas deep-sea fisheries. 2008 Feb 10. www.savethchighseas.org

122

Orange roughyLack M., Short K. and Willock A. Managing risk and uncertainty in

deep-sea fisheries: lessons from Orange Roughy. T R A FF IC Oceania and W W F Australia, 2003. www.wwf.org.au

Polymetallic nodulesDeep-sea bed polymetallic nodule exploration: Development of

environmental guidelines, www.isa.org.jm International Seabed Authority. Marine mineral resources, factsheet.

www.isa.orgWorkshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology - current

status and challenges ahead. 2008 Feb. Background document. Jointly organized by The International Seabed Authority (ISA ) and Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India.

Methane hydrates: Japan, US agree to cooperate on methane hydrates. China View, 2008 June 7. www.chinaview.cn

Fishing the deepGiannia M. High seas bottom trawl fisheries and their impacts on

the biodiversity of vulnerable deep-sea ecosystems: Options for international action. IU C N , 2004.

PART 3 FRAGILE REGIONS

36-37 THE ARCTICMap created by Hugo Ahlenius and reproduced by kind permission

of UNEP/GRID-Arendal. Available at: http://maps.grida.no/go/ graphic/arctic-conservation-area-caff-topographic-map

Zockler C and Lysenko I, Water birds on the edge. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 2000.

Cold wars: Russia claims Arctic land. Geotimes, 2007 August 1.www.geotimes.org

Protection and IncursionProtected areas in the Arctic, Arctic transportation routes, The

decrease of Arctic sea ice. UNEP/GRID-Arendal. Maps and Graphics Library, 2007. http://maps.grida.no

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: W W F. O il and gas in the Arctic.2008 May 21. www.panda.org

Russian spillage: Russia oil spill. T ED case study. 1997 Nov 1.www.american.edu/ted/komi.htm

Red-Breasted Goose BirdLife International, www.birdlife.org

38-39 THE ANTARCTICReaney P. Antarctic warming killing off fish food. 2004 Nov 4.

www.abc.net.auDavis TH . Tourism threatens Antarctica. Quoting the International

Association of Antartic Tour Operators. 2007 June 5. http://travel.timesonline.co.uk

Fogarty D. Race for Antarctic krill a test for green management.Reuters. 2008 May 26.

IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgLarsen B Ice-Shelf Collapses. 2002 Mar 21. www.nsidc.org McKenna P. Warming seas threaten Antarctic marine life. 2008 Feb 16.

N ew Scientist Environment, http://environment.newscientist.com National Geographic, 2004 Sept.The World Factbook 2000. Central Intelligence Agency.Protected AreasSecretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. ASPA map and list, www.ats.aq Southern Ocean Sanctuary: International Whaling Commission.

www.iwcoffice.org

40-41 AUSTRALIANational Geographic, insert on Australia. Washington, 2000 July.Marine Protected Areas, www.environment.gov.auTaylor R. Australia to build climate corridor. Reuters. 2007 Ju ly 9.

http://uk.reuters.com Macintosh A and Wilkinson D. Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Act. A five-year assessment.The Australia Institute. Discussion paper no. 81. 2005 July. www.tai.org.au

World Heritage Sites www.unesco.org/whc Protected areas Type of protected areaCollaborative Australian Protected Areas Database 2006.

www.environment.gov.au

Threatened speciesIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgGouldian finch: Australian Wildlife Conservancy.

www.australianwildlife.org Orange-bellied parrot: http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/wildlife/birds/

obp.html

42-43 CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICABarreto P et al. H um an pressure on the Brazilian Am azon forests.

A n overview o f the findings and maps. Mar 2006. World Resources Institute, Imazon. Global Forest Watch, www.globalforestwatch.org

Vidal J. Road to oblivion. The Guardian, 2001 June 11. quoting William Laurence of Smithsonian Institute in Science, 2001 Jan 19.

W W F. Amazon Region Protected Areas Programme, www.panda.org W W F. Brazil announces new Amazon protected areas. 2008 May 30.

www.panda.org Protected LandEarthTrends: The Environmental Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.org World Heritage Sites: www.unesco.org/whc Muriqui: The Nature Conservancy. Places we work. The Atlantic

forest of Brazil, www.nature.org Conservation International. Atlantic Forests.

www.biodiversityhotspots.org Unofficial roads: Bellos A. The long road to ruin for the Amazon

forest. The Observer. 2007 April 15. www.guardian.co.uk Souza C Jr et al. The expansion o f unofficial roads in the Brazilian

Amazon. State o f the Am azon. 2005 May. www.imazon.org.br Panatal: W W F. Pantanal Program, www.panda.org

44-45 GALAPAGOSGalapagos Conservation Trust, www.gct.org Darwin Foundation, www.darwinfoundation.org Goats: www.galapagos.org/conservation/projectisabela.html Galapagos penguin: Vargas H, Lougheed C and Snell H. Population

size and trends of the Galapagos Penguin Spheniscus mendiculus. Ibis, 2005,147. pp. 367-74.

46-47 MADAGASCARProtected Areaswww.parcs-madagascar.com/carte.htmWorld Heritage Site: http://whc.unesco.orgThreatened animals, Degree of threat, Threatened plant speciesIU C N Redlist. www.redlist.orgMadagascar rosy periwinkle: www.mobot.orgFish eagle, golden lemur: W W F. www.panda.org

Part 4 ENDANGERED ANIMALS AND PLANTS

50-51 PRIMATESDay P. British biologist warns of threat to monkeys. Daily Telegraph,

1999 Oct 31. p.16.Duke University Primate Center, www.duke.edu/web/primate University of Manitoba www.umanitoba.ca Threatened Primates IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgCameroon: Cameroonian gorillas arrive home. 2007 Nov 30.

http://news.bbc.co.uk

52-53 CATSThreatened CatsIU C N Red List, www.redlist.org Decline of the tigerBig Cat Rescue, www.bigcatrescue.orgBengal tiger: Nitin Sethi. Just 1,411 tigers in India. Times o f India,

2008 Feb 13. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com Florida panther: Florida Panther Net.

www.floridaconservation.org/panther

54-55 UNGULATESThreatened UngulatesIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgArabian oryx: World Heritage Sites, http://whc.unesco.org Regional strategy for the conservation of Arabian O ryx. Jordan

Times, 2007 May 30. www.arabenvironment.net Hirola: Butynski TM. Independent evaluation of hirola antelope

(Beatragus hunteri) conservation status and conservation action in

123

Kenya. Nairobi, 2000, chapter 7. http://coastalforests.tfcg.org Baby pygmy hog: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, www.

durrellwildlife.org Changing fortunes of the N orth American bison Carter D. Future of the buffalo business. National Bison Association.

www.bisoncentral.com

56-57 ELEPHANTS AND RHINOSDistribution of Elephants and RhinosIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgInternational Rhino Foundation, www.rhinos-irf.org

58-59 BEARSKemf E, Wilson A and Servheen C. Bears in the wild. W W F, 1999. Threatened Bears, Threatened Pandas IU C N Red List, www.redlist.org Population of threatened bearsW W F. www.panda.orgBrown bear: Hunters kill last female bear native to Pyrenees. 2004

Nov 4. www.timesonline.co.uk Giant pandas: Elegant S. When pandas go wild. Time. 2007 Jan 6.

www.time.com W W F. Panda factsheet. www.panda.org

60-61 RODENTSNowak R. Walker's mammals o f the world, 6th ed. vol II. Baltimore

and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Threatened Rodents IU C N Red List, www.redlist.org A Marmot on the BrinkBryant A, Forestry and historical population dynamics of the

endangered Vancouver Island marmot, Contributed talk, American Society of Mammalogists meeting, Durham, New Hampshire, June 2000. www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca

www.marmots.org

62-63 BATSThreatened BatsIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgRodrigues fruit bat: Factsheet provided by Durrell Wildlife

Conservation Trust, www.durrell.org

64-65 DOLPHINS AND WHALESInternational Whaling Commission, www.iwcoffice.org Threatened Dolphins and Whales IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgYangtze River Dolphin: Baiji dolphin previously thought

extinct spotted in Yangtze river. Science Daily, 2007 Sept 1. www.sciencedaily.com

Great whale populationsInternational Whaling Commission, www.iwcoffice.org

66-67 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANSDisasters take their toll on amphibians, www.climateark.org Global Amphibian Assessment, www.globalamphibians.org Threatened Reptiles, Threatened Amphibians IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgEarthTrends. The Environmental Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.org Panamanian golden frog: Last wave of wild golden frog. 2008 Feb 2.

http://news.bbc.co.uk Frog chytrid fungus, www.environment.nsw.gov.au

68-69 INVERTEBRATESThreatened InvertebratesIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgHarlequin ladybird: Hunt for the Harlequin - a U K survey for the

world’s most invasive ladybird. Natural Environment Research Council, press release, 2005 March 15. www.nerc.ac.uk

Monarch butterflies: Oberhauser K and Townsend Peterson A. Modeling current and future potential wintering distributions of eastern North American monarch butterflies. Proceedings o f the National Academy o f Sciences o f the United States o f America 2003, 100. pp.14063-68

Threatened crustaceans IU C N Red List, www.redlist.org

70-71 FISHThreatened FishIU C N Red List, www.redlist.org

Global productionFAO . World fisheriess production by capture and aquaculture 2005.

www.fao.org

72-73 PLANTSThreatened PlantsIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgMandrinette: IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgBastard quiver tree: Yun L. Saving the bastard quiver tree. IU C N .

2007 Ju ly 8. www.conservation.org Extent of the threat IU C N Red List, www.redlist.org

Part 5 ENDANGERED BIRDS

76-77 BIRDSThreatened BirdsIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgBald eagle: American Bald Eagle Information.

www.baldeagleinfo.com Tristan albatross, Gough bunting: Vidal J. From stowaway

to supersize predator: the mice eating rare seabirds alive. The Guardian, 2008 May 20. p.3.

Farmland birdsEuropean Bird Census Council. Trends of common birds in Europe,

2007 update, www.ebcc.info/trends2007.html

78-79 BIRDS OF PREYThreatened Birds of PreyIU C N Red List, www.redlist.org Californian condor in crisisUS Fish & Wildlife Service. 1996 Recovery Plan for the California

Condor, http://ecos.fws.gov CRES. Milestones in Californian Condor Conservation.

http://cres.sandiegozoo.org Decline of Asian white-backed vulture Prakash V. Bombay Natural History Society, quoted on:

www.peregrinefund.org/conserv_vulture.html O ’Connell S. Change in the pecking order. The Guardian, 2002

October 24. www.guardian.co.uk Birdlife International. Hopes soar after vulture chick hatches. 2007

January 9. www.birdlife.org Great Philippine eagle: W W F. www.panda.org

80-81 PARROTS AND COCKATOOSSnyder N et al, editors. Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation

Action Plan. IU C N , 2000.W W F. www.panda.org Threatened Parrots and Cockatoos IU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgKakapo: Kakapo Recovery Programme, www.kakaporecovery.org.nz Mauritius parakeet: Birdlife International, www.birdlife.org Spix’s macaw: Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation. Factsheet.

http://awwp.alwabra.com Yellow-eared conure: International Conure Association.

www.conure.org Puerto Rican Amazon parrotQuist C F et al. Granular cell tumor in an endangered Puerto Rican

Amazon parrot, www.vet.uga.edu Birdlife International facsheet. www.birdlife.org

82-83 SEABIRDSUnited Nations General Assembly Resolution 46-215. 1991 Dec 20.W W F. www.panda.orgThreatened SeabirdsIU C N Red List, www.redlist.orgMadeira petrel, spectacled petrel, short-tailed albatross:

www.uct.ac.za Birdlife International. Factsheet. www.birdlife.org

84-85 MIGRATORY BIRDSW W F. www.panda.orgThe Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, www.ramsar.org World migratory bird day 2007. www.worldmigratorybirdday.org Climate change linked to migratory bird decrease. Science Daily, 2003

Mar 23. www.sciencedaily.com

124

Bird migration at mercy of weather patterns. N ew Scientist, 2008 May17. http://environment/newscientist.com

AmericasNational Audubon Society, www.audubon.org US Forest Service, www.r5.fs.fed.us W W F www.panda.org Europe and AfricaBirdLife International, www.birdlife.orgRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds, www.rspb.org.ukBirdWatch Ireland, www.birdwatchireland.ieGuardian Education. 2000 Mar 28.Migrating birds know no boundaries, www.birds.org.ilwww.wildwatch.comWorld Heritage Sites, www.unesco.orgWorld migratory bird day. www.unep-aewa.orgAsia and OceaniaSanctuary Asia, www.sanctuaryasia.comWorld migratory bird day 2008 focuses on biodiversity. Migratory

bird numbers plummeting globally - warning signs of a changing environment. African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. 2008 May 8. www.unep-aewa.org

Malta: Malta in about-turn on bird hunting laws. 2006 April 3. www.birdlife.org

Maltese 2008 spring hunting season banned by European Court. 2008 April 25. www.birdlife.org

World Migratory Day: World migratory bird day 2008 focuses on biodiversity. Migratory bird numbers plummeting globally - warning signs of a changing environment. African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. 2008 May 8. www.unep-aewa.org

Part 6 ISSUES OF CONSERVATION

88-89 ANIMAL BIODIVERSITYGroombridge B and Jenkins MD. World atlas o f global biodiversity.

World Conservation Press, 2000.Animal BiodiversityWorld resources 2000-2001. World Resources Institute, 2000, Table

BI.3. www.wri.org Endemic speciesEarthTrends: The Environmental Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.org Total Known SpeciesInvertebrates: Global Environmental Outlook 3. United Nations

Environment Programme, www.unep.org Fish: Froese R and Pauly D, editors. FishBase 04/2008 version.

www.fishbase.org Birds: LePage D. Avibase: The World Bird Database 2004. Port

Rowan, Ontario: Bird Studies Canada, www.bsc-eoc.org Reptiles: European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EM BL ). The

EM BL Reptile Database 2004. Heidelberg, Germany: EM BL . www.embl-heidelberg.de

Amphibians: Information on amphibian biology and conservation 2004. Berkeley, California: AmphibiaWeb. http://amphibiaweb.org

Mammals: Reeder DM , Helgen K M and Wilson D E. Global trends and biases in new mammal species discoveries. Museum of Texas Tech University Occasional Papers no. 269, 2007 Oct 8.

90-91 PLANT BIODIVERSITYGroombridge B and Jenkins MD. World atlas o f global biodiversity.

World Conservation Press, 2000.Plant BiodiveristyWorld resources 2000-2001. World Resources Institute, 2000, Table

BI.3. www.wri.org Endemic vascular plant speciesEarthTrends: The Environmental Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.orgNumber of plant speciesU N EP- W C M C

92-93 ECOLOGICAL HOTSPOTSConservation FocusConservation International, www.biodiversityhotspots.org W W F Protected Areas for a Living Planet, www.panda.org

94-95 CONSERVING ANIMALSConservation ZoosWorld Association of Zoos and Aquariums, www.waza.org Am ur leopard: Alta Amur Leopard Conservation.

www.amur-leopard.org

Mauritius kestrel: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust.www.durrellwildlife.org

Fall and Rise of the Nene Wildlfowl & Wetlands Trust, www.wwt.org.uk

96-97 CONSERVING PLANTSPlant Conservation Alliance, www.nps.gov/plants/index.htm Plant Conservation Institutions East Asia Botanic Gardens.

http://202.127.158.171 /eabgn/english/index.htm Canada B C G I. www.bgci.org/canada/inst_map Data for U SA and Africa from BC G I. www.bgci.org/usa Data for Europe: The International Plant Exchange Network (IPEN ).

http://www.bgci.org/abs/ipen Pacific Agricultural Plant Genetic Resources Network (PA PG R EN ).

www.spc.int China: www.bgci.org Golden Pagoda: www.redlist.org Japanese knotweed: www.invasive.org Magnolia: www.bgci.org Svalbard Global Seed Vault: www.bgci.org

98-99 CONSERVING DOMESTIC BREEDSThreatened Domestic BreedsFA O Domestic Animal Diversity Information System.

www.fao.org/dad-is Endangered domestic breedsCommission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

The state of the world’s animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. Rome: FAO , 2007. p.39-40.

Definition of termsCritical: 100 or fewer breeding females, 5 or fewer breeding males,

or a population of under 121 and decreasing, with the percentage of breeding females below 80 percent.

Endangered: 101-1,000 breeding females, 6-20 breeding males, or a population of 81-99 and increasing, with the percentage of breeding females above 80 percent.

Critical maintained/Endangered maintained: critical or endangered populations for which active conservation programs are in place or populations are maintained by commercial companies or research institutions.

100-01 IMPORT TRADEMajor ImportersData from C IT ES available via EarthTrends: The Environmental

Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.org African gray: African Grey parrots under threat from pet trade.

Planet Ark. 2006 Ju ly 5. www.planetark.com

102-03 EXPORT TRADEMajor ExportersData from C IT ES available via EarthTrends: The Environmental

Portal, http://earthtrends.wri.org Sturgeon ban: Caspian Sea states to resume caviar trade. C ITES press

release. 2002 Mar 6. www.cites.org Pew Institute for Ocean Science expresses concern over new caviar

quotas. 2008 May 27. 222.pewtrusts.org Ivory: African Elephant ivory sales allowed before renewed ban.

Environment News Service. 2007 June 14. www.ens-newswire.com Tiger parts: Authorities act against tiger poachers in Sumatra. 2008

June 4. www.traffic.org

Part 7 WORLD TABLES

106-13 Table 1: PROTECTED ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Column 1: FAOSTATColumns 2-3: EarthTrends: The Environmental Portal.

http://earthtrends.wri.org Column 4: www.ramsar.orgColumns 5-9: World resources 2000-2001 Table BI.3.

114-21 Table 2: THREATENED SPECIESIU C N Redlist. www.redlist.org

125

I n d e x

acid rain 24adaptation 12, 14, 42, 70 Advance Brazil 42 Africa 16, 17 African gray parrot 101 agriculture 16, 42, 52, 58, 60, 62,

76, 84, 93 Alabama canebrake pitcher-

plant 72 Alaotran gentle lemur 94 Alaska 54, 70 albatrosses 38, 74, 77, 83 algae 30, 36 Amazon 22, 42, 43, 92 amphibians 15, 66- 67, 107- 13,

115- 21 Amur leopard 52, 95 Angler Sattelschwein 98 Antarctic 34- 35, 38- 39 Antarctic Treaty (1961) 38 aquaculture 70, 71 Arabian Oryx 55 Arctic 37- 38 Arctic Council 36 arctic fox 36Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

37arthropods 68 Asian high steppe 27 Asian three-striped box turtle 67 Asian white-backed vulture

78- 79 Asiatic brown bear 59 Atlantic forest 42, 43, 92 Australia 40- 41

bacteria 28 Baluchistan bear 59 bandicoot 40 bastard quiver tree 73 bats 62- 63, 114- 20 bears 58- 59 beluga whale 65 big cats 52- 53, 114- 20 biodiversity 14, 24, 28, 42 60,

88- 89, 90- 91, 108- 13 biofuels 51birds 76- 77, 107- 13, 115- 21

breeding of 19, 26, 28, 36- 37, 76, 78

decline in population of 18, 76- 77

migration of 36, 76, 84- 85 of prey 78- 79

bison 55, 54 black-footed ferret 60 black lion tamarin 94 blue whale 64 bluebell 73 bonobo 51 botanic gardens 96 bowhead whale 64, 65 brown bear 58 buffalo 54 bushmeat 49, 50, 93 butterflies 68

monarch 68

Californian condor 78 Campfire Project (Zimbabwe)

54cane toad 40captive-breeding programs 45,

56, 58, 60, 78, 94- 95 carbon credits 42 carbon dioxide 22, 42, 72 carbon emissions 26 carbon sinks 24, 26, 90 Caribbean 31 caribou 18, 37 cats 52- 53, 114- 20 cattle 26, 40, 54- 55 Central America 42- 43 CFCs 38 cheetah 48 chimpanzee 50, 88 Chinese medicine 53, 58, 67, 101 chytrid 66CITES 100- 01, 102- 03 climate change 8, 14, 16, 18- 19,

22, 24, 30, 32, 36, 38, 42, 58, 68, 76, 84, 98

coastal regions 42 flooding of 22, 30, 84 development of 84

cockatoos 80- 81 common cord-grass 28 Congo basin and rainforest 23,

50, 92Conservation International

92- 93

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1981) 38

coral reefs cold-water 32, 33 warm water 20, 28, 30- 31, 93

Cordillera del Condor 42 crocodiles 66 crustaceans 28, 68, 69, 82

Darwin, Charles 12, 44 DDT 36, 78 deer 54- 55 desert 42 dinosaurs 15 dioxins 36 DNA see genes dolphins 64- 65 domestic animals 54, 98- 99

grazing of 26, 60 Donana National Park 85 drift-nets see fishing Durrell Wildlife Conservation

Trust 55, 63, 94- 95

ecological footprint 19 ecosystems 20- 33 El Nino 30, 44 elephants 56- 57, 93, 103 epiphytes 86, 91 Everglades National Park 28,

52, 90evolution 12- 13, 12, 14- 15,

16- 17, 44, 46 export trade 80, 100- 01 extinction 14- 15, 16- 17, 40, 60,

66, 76, 82, 88, 98- 99 local 24, 58, 62 threat of 50, 72, 98

Exxon Valdez 82

Faroe Islands 82 fin whale 64, 65 fire 22, 25, 42, 51, 80, 92, 96 fish 28, 36, 38, 42, 70- 71, 82,

115- 21 fish eagle 47 fishing 70

drift-nets 38, 64, 82 illegal 30, 38 increase in catch 70- 71 long-line 38, 82, 83

126

over-fishing 70 quotas 38, 44

Florida panther 52 flying foxes 62 food chain 70, 72, 82 Forest Stewardship Council 96 forest,

certification schemes 24- 25, 96

destruction of 23, 43 Mediterranean 24, 82 rainforest 22- 23, 40, 42, 43,

50, 51, 91 temperate 24- 25, 42, 106- 12 tropical 22- 23, 34, 42, 106- 12

forestry 24, 62 fossil fuels 24 fossils 14, 16 fox 40fragmentation

of forest 24, 92 grassland 26

Fynbos 91

Galapagos Islands 44- 45, 66, 88 Galapagos penguin 44 genes/DNA 12, 16, 18, 38, 42,

50, 58, 90, 94, 95, 96, 98 gentle lemur 51 ghost bat 62giant panda 25, 58, 59, 94 giant tortoise 10, 44, 45, 88 global warming see climate

change goats 26golden lemur 47 golden lion tamarin 92 golden pagoda 97 gorilla 50, 51 Gough bunting 77 Gouldian finch 41 grasslands 26- 27 gray whale 64, 65 great auk 82Great Barrier Reef 19, 40 great Indian bustard 26 great Philippine eagle 79 greater mouse-eared bat 62 Greenland 64, 82

harlequin ladybird 69 Hawaiian goose 95 heavy metals 36 herbaria 90- 91Hirola/Hunter’s hartebeest 55

hominins 16- 17 horses 54- 55 human

evolution 12, 13, 16- 17 population increase 24, 46, 58 settlement 80

humpback whale 65 hunting 50, 52, 54, 58, 76, 84 hyacinth macaw 81

Iceland 82Ichkeul National Park 84, 85 imperial woodpecker 76 import trade 80, 100- 01 Indian elephant 57 Indian Ocean 30 Indonesia 23 insects 68- 69, 82 International Whaling

Commission 39, 64 Inuit 36invertebrates 14, 15, 38, 68- 69,

89, 115- 21 IUCN 7, 9, 102 ivory trade 56, 93, 103

Japan 64Japanese knotweed 96 Jessica 45

kakapo parrot 81 keystone species 14, 88 killer whale 64 kiwi 77Kodiak brown bear 48 krill fishing 38

lady-slipper’s orchid 72 land area 106- 12 lava gull 44, 44 lemurs 46, 51, 89, 94 lesser “red” panda 59 lesser long-nosed bat 62 lichens 28, 38 Linnaeus, Carolus 12 little blue macaw 80 logging 22, 24, 25, 42, 50, 56, 58,

72, 76, 80, 89, 96 eco-friendly 22, 24, 96

London Zoo 95 lorikeets 80- 81

Madagascar 46- 47, 89 Madagascar rosy periwinkle 46 magnolia 93

mahogany 22Mallorcan midwife toad 94 Malta 85mammals 15, 38, 107 mammoths 57 mandrinette 73 mangroves 18, 28- 29, 106- 12 marine iguanas 44, 66 marine reptiles 15 Marine Stewardship Council 70 marshes 28 marsupials 40 Mauritius kestrel 95 Mauritius parakeet 81 Mexican fishing bat 62 microbes 14 migration of

birds 26, 36, 76 forests 36, 84 plant species 24

mining 42, 58, 62, 93 minke whale 64, 65 monarch butterfly 68, 104-05 mosquitoes 18 mosses 28, 38, 72 muriqui 43

natural selection 12 North American beaver 60

ocean depths 32-33, 88 Okavango delta 29 orange-bellied parrot 41 orange roughy 32- 33 orang-utan 51 orchid trade 101, 103 over-grazing 26, 27 owls 78- 79 ozone

pollution 24 statospheric 38

Panamanian golden frog 66parakeets 80- 81parrots 80- 81, 100, 101, 102Patagonian steppe 26PCBs 36peat bogs 28Pechora river basin 37penguins 18, 38, 38petrels 38, 83pilot whale 65plankton 38, 68, 82plantations 24, 76plants 72- 73, 107- 13, 115- 21

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flowering 15, 19 medicinal uses of 46 72 vascular 15, 72

poaching 56, 58, 80, 93, 101 polar bears 18, 36, 37, 58 pollination 96pollution 24, 42, 45, 58, 64, 70,

82porpoises see whales prairie 26 prairie dog 60 prickly acacia 40 primates 168, 43, 50- 51, 93, 100,

100, 103, 114- 20 Przewalski’s wild horse 55 Puerto Rican parrot 80, 81 puma 26 pygmy hippo 93 pygmy hog 55

Ramofana National Park 47, 51 Ramsar Convention 28 raptors 78- 79 red Masai sheep 99 Red Sea, tourism in 30, 31 red-breasted goose 36, 36 red-ruffed lemur 89 reptiles 15, 66- 67, 100, 100,

107- 13, 115- 21 skins of 66, 100 trade in 100, 102, 103

rhinoceroses 56- 57, 101 rinderpest 54 rodents 60- 61, 82, 114- 20 Rodrigues flying fox 62 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 97

salination 28, 40 saltmarshes 28 savanna 22, 26 scrub 26seabirds 38, 44, 82- 83 seals 36seed banks 96, 97 seed dispersal 96 shearwaters 82 sheep 26, 40, 54- 55 shellfish 28short-tailed albatross 74, 83 short-tailed chinchilla 60 shrimp farming 93; see also

aquaculture Siberia 64 'Siberian tiger 52 skylark 76

slash and burn agriculture 22,51, 93

snow leopard 52 soil

carbon stored in 26 erosion of 22, 26, 40, 42, 90,

93nutrients in 22

South America 42- 43 Southeast Asia 82 southern bluefin tuna 70 Southern Ocean Sanctuary 38,

39, 65Species Survival Commission 80 species

definition of 12 endemic 26, 44, 46, 72, 88- 89 introduced (exotic) 40, 44, 66,

70, 72, 76, 80, 82, 83 spectacled bear 58 spectacled petrel 83 Spix’s macaw 80 Steller’s sea eagle 78 steppe eagle 85 sturgeon 103 sun bear 58sustainable development 22, 92

Taiwan 101Tampa Bay, Florida 28 Tapajos National Park 43 Tasmanian tiger 40 temperate forest see forest,

temperate Thailand, mangrove loss in 29 tiger

decline of Bengal 53 use of in medicine 53, 103

tools, use of 16, 50 tortoise

giant 10, 44, 45, 88 trade 101, 103

tourism 44, 54 damage caused by 30, 31, 62 eco-tourism 42, 64

tradelegal 100- 01, 102- 03 illegal 53, 100, 101, 102

Tristan albatross 77 TRAFFIC 102 trapping 60, 76, 89 trees

deciduous 22 evergreen 22 redwood 72

trilobites 14tropical forest see forest, tropical Tsingy de Bemaraha 47 tundra 26, 36, 96 turtle dove 85 turtles 19

UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) 98

UNESCO 40 ungulates 54- 55, 114- 20 United Nations 82 urbanization 60

Vancouver Island marmot 60, 61

wallabies 40 war, effects of 51 waste disposal 62, 70 water hyacinth 29 water pollution 28, 64, 66, 70 wetlands 28- 29, 42, 84- 85,

106- 12drainage of 84

whales 36, 38, 64- 65, 68, 114- 20 whaling 64Wolong Nature Reserve,

Sichuan, China 25 World Conservation Monitoring

Centre 100 World Heritage Sites 40, 40- 41,

42, 43, 44 WWF 92- 93, 102

Yangtze river dolphin 64- 65 Yangtze sturgeon 71 yellow-eared conure 80 Yellowstone National Park 54

Zino’s petrel 83 zoos 51, 52, 94- 95

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