The Art of Argument

“People are never so likely to settle a question rightly as when they discuss

it freely.” (Robert Southey)

Robert Southey (1774 – 1843) was an English poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called "Lake Poets", and Poet Laureate for his last 30 years. His biography of Horatio Nelson was adapted for the film Nelson in 1926. He is most famous for the children’s classic The storey of the Three Bears.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Southey)

Introduction

Purpose of Education

Learn to think clearly and logically.

Perhaps the best test of your ability to think reason soundly is your ability to argue convincingly.

Toulmin’s Structure of Argument should assist us in analyzing rhetorical arguments.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin#/media/File:Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif)

Do not confuse argument with persuasion.

• Argument is assertion supported by proof and logic. Too much of what we often call argument is mere opinion. Argument seeks to convince the listener or reader. To argue successfully you must present facts, statistics, quotations, illustrations, and figures, to prove that your assertions are sound. Your reasoning must also be supported with warrants and backing, either implies\d or stated.

Persuasion

Persuasion seeks to cause people to do what you want them to do. To persuade effectively you must present strong, sincere reasons, vivid illustrations, and sound comparisons.

Both argument and persuasion require clear, logical thinking before and during their presentation.

Why Argue?

• To convince one to accept your point of view;• To make a decision;• To frame your argument to make it acceptable

to the other POV;• To find points of agreement;• To be objective and fair;• To pursue a course of action.

Purposes for Argument

• Defend a viewpoint

• Change a situation

• Critique a viewpoint or text

• Expose a problem/ raise awareness

• Strengthen an opinion

• Reach a compromise

Opinion Versus Fact

• Opinions are challengeable (because are not based on facts)

• Facts can be verified– The interpretation of facts may be challenged– The way a fact is used varies depending on the nature of

the claim– Arguments are built on facts (objective evidence)

Types of Argument

• Logical - appeals to rational, intellectual faculties

• Persuasive - appeals to emotions and opinions

Degree of intensity depends on:

• Purpose

• Subject

• Audience

Most university writing is logical.

Types of Reasoning - Inductive

Moves from examples to general statement.

e.g., take enrolment stats on all courses at the university, and make a statement about students’ preferences.

Types of Reasoning - Deductive

Begins with an accepted principle, applies it to a special point, and reaches a conclusion, i.e. it moves from general statement to specifics.

e.g., syllogism.• Major premise + minor premise = conclusion• All men are mortal, Myron is a man, therefore

Myron is mortal.

Logical Fallacies

When writing syllogism, take care not to commit the fallacies of: • A non sequitor minor premise• A false major premise• An illogical conclusion Example: • All mosquitoes carry malaria (false major premise)• I was bitten by a mosquito (minor premise)• Therefore I shall die of malaria (conclusion)

Logical FallaciesCaution List

• Oversimplification - a simple solution to a complex problem. E.g., “Low employment results in a threat of war in Central America and the Middle East.”

• Hasty generalization - based on too little evidence. E.g., “That is the best movie I ever saw and should get an Academy Award.”

• Post hoc, ergo propter hoc - “After this, therefore because of this” - confusing chance or coincidence with causation. E.g., “I’ve had a cold since I went to the hockey game. My cold was the result of going to the game.”

• Begging the question - Assuming a premise that needs to be proven. E.g., “Conservation is the only means of solving the energy problem. Therefore we must seek out better methods of conserving energy.”

• False analogy - misleading - E.g., “He is a good basketball coach and will be a good coach of anything.”

• Either/ or thinking - seeing only 2 sides when more might exist. E.g., “Used car salesmen are either honest or crooked.”

• Non sequitor - “Does not follow.” E.g., he is a good speaker and therefore knows his subject.”

Organization (1/3)

Beginning or Introduction (Things to consider)

• Identify the issue or topic• State your thesis• Show why it’s important• State what the reader and writer share and give

background• Define your terms• Blueprint your essay

Organization (2/3)

Middle or Body (Things to consider)

• Organize - least to most important, most familiar to least familiar, easiest to understand to hardest

• Provide sufficient evidence. Facts, stats, examples, descriptions, narrations, quotes, comparisons, causes/effects, and other “reasons”

• Warrants (shows connections)• Acknowledge strongest opposing argument and

rebuttal

Organization (3/3)

End or Conclusion (Things to consider)

• Summary?• Tie up loose ends.• Give a personal reaction.• Call to action?

ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES (1/2)

• Dramatic introduction– Creates interest in topic

• Common ground– Shares values of reader

• Concession– Acknowledges other viewpoint– Shows fairness

ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES (2/2)

• Emotional and ethical appeals– Evoke feelings and morals of reader– But!!! These work best when they are subtle and not

extreme

• Comparison– Compare-contrast two sides

• Appeal to reader interests– Shows how reader could be affected by claim

Rebuttal STRATEGIES

• Strategy 1: Acknowledgement– Mentions the other side– Does not comment on specific claims

• Strategy 2: Limited rebuttal– Responds to the main point(s) on the other side– Omits less-known arguments on the other side

• Strategy 3: Full rebuttal– Responds to all main points on the other side

• Point-by-point rebuttal (responds point by point)• Block rebuttal (presents all points on one side, then the other)

Note• Avoid overstatement and understatement.• Let the evidence convince. Avoid excessive

emotion.• Avoid qualifications such as “perhaps, maybe,

I think, sometimes.”

The Assignment

• Final Paper - ENGL 1501AB15F • Due: December 2, 2015 • Late submissions will NOT be accepted.

Click here for the complete assignment