The American Occupational Therapy Association’s 93 rd Annual Conference & Expo APRIL 25–28, 2013...
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The American Occupational Therapy Association’s 93 rd Annual Conference & Expo APRIL 25–28, 2013 SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA from heartfelt leadership to compassionate
The American Occupational Therapy Associations 93 rd Annual
Conference & Expo APRIL 2528, 2013 SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA from
heartfelt leadership to compassionate care
Slide 2
Assembly of Student Delegates: Power & Leadership Florence
Clark PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA, AOTA President
Slide 3
Components of My Talk Preparing for Power Occupational Therapys
Relationship With Power Ways of Understanding Power Defining
Professional Power Abraham Lincoln: A Powerful Leader Cultivating
Power
Slide 4
The Centennial Vision
Slide 5
PREPARING FOR POWER Americas elite boarding schools
Slide 6
Preparing for Power: Americas Elite Boarding Schools
Socialization for power Insular community of American aristocracy
Discourage individuality in order to form collective class identity
Exclusive: You go there to be separated from ordinary people (p.
53). Academically rigorous & highly competitive Privilege must
appear to be earned, because the only real justification for
inequality is that it is deserved. (p. 125) Socialization for power
Insular community of American aristocracy Discourage individuality
in order to form collective class identity Exclusive: You go there
to be separated from ordinary people (p. 53). Academically rigorous
& highly competitive Privilege must appear to be earned,
because the only real justification for inequality is that it is
deserved. (p. 125) Cookson, P.W. & Persell, C.H. (1985).
Preparing for power: Americas elite boarding schools. New York:
Basic Books.
Slide 7
The Boarding School Classroom Cookson, P.W. & Persell, C.H.
(1985). Preparing for power: Americas elite boarding schools. New
York: Basic Books. At the center of an Exeter education is the
Harkness classroomtwelve to fourteen students and a teacher seated
around a table for the purpose of forming and expressing ideas
rather than dispensing and receiving information, a classroom in
the Socratic manner where maximum participation is encouraged,
pretense and careless preparation readily perceived. (p. 96)
Students who havent read the days assignment have little hope of
escaping detection. There is no back row at prep school, as almost
everyone sits around a table or in a circle. (p. 98)
Slide 8
Life After Prep School Significantly higher acceptance rate
into Ivy League Colleges Graduates make up high proportion of
leaders in business, law, politics, and corporate boards Nearly 90%
of all U.S. cabinet officers between 1897-1973 were members of
either the business or the social elite. (p. 200) Influence on
media Inner-circle business leaders go out of their way to be
available to the press, to communicate the private enterprise
perspective on a variety of critical issues. (p. 202) Involvement
in the arts, museums Volunteerism Significantly higher acceptance
rate into Ivy League Colleges Graduates make up high proportion of
leaders in business, law, politics, and corporate boards Nearly 90%
of all U.S. cabinet officers between 1897-1973 were members of
either the business or the social elite. (p. 200) Influence on
media Inner-circle business leaders go out of their way to be
available to the press, to communicate the private enterprise
perspective on a variety of critical issues. (p. 202) Involvement
in the arts, museums Volunteerism Cookson, P.W. & Persell, C.H.
(1985). Preparing for power: Americas elite boarding schools. New
York: Basic Books.
Slide 9
The Chosen Ones With none of the other American children I have
worked with have I heard such a continuous and strong emphasis put
on the self. In fact, other children rarely if ever think about
themselves in the way children of well-to-do and rich parents
dowith insistence, regularity, and, not least, out of a learned
sense of obligation. These privileged ones are children who live in
homes with many mirrors. They have mirrors in their rooms, large
mirrors in adjoining bathrooms. When they were three or four they
were taught to use them; taught to wash their faces, brush their
teeth, comb their hair. Personal appearance matters and becomes a
central objective for such children. (p. 55) Cookson, P.W. &
Persell, C.H. (1985). Preparing for power: Americas elite boarding
schools. New York: Basic Books.
Slide 10
The Chosen Ones: Prep Poise Cookson, P.W. & Persell, C.H.
(1985). Preparing for power: Americas elite boarding schools. New
York: Basic Books. The first step on the road to being somebody is
to act like somebody, even if you are not quite sure who that
somebody is. (p. 56) Groton Video: http://www.groton.org/academic/
academic_experience?rc=0
Slide 11
OCCUPATIONAL THERAPYS RELATIONSHIP WITH POWER
Slide 12
Power vs. Leadership Power: Ability to achieve ones goals
Power: Ability to achieve ones goals Leadership: Process of
influence to achieve a goal Leadership: Process of influence to
achieve a goal
Slide 13
Types of Power Reward power: based on the ability to reward
others Coercive power: based on the ability to punish others
Legitimate power: based on position or official power Referent
power: based on identification, charisma Expert power: based on
knowledge or skill that can help another to meet his or her goals
(French & Raven, 1959)
Slide 14
Occupational Therapys Relationship with Power Historically, OTs
have not been comfortable with being powerful Why the unease?
Opposite of caring Masculine attribute Association with domination
Historically, OTs have not been comfortable with being powerful Why
the unease? Opposite of caring Masculine attribute Association with
domination
Slide 15
Getting Comfortable With the Idea of Being Powerful Power is
neither good nor bad The ethics of power lie in its use Power is
neither good nor bad The ethics of power lie in its use
Slide 16
Power 1)Ability to do or act; capability of doing or
accomplishing something 2)Natural strength 3)Political control in
the government of a country, state, etc. 1)Ability to do or act;
capability of doing or accomplishing something 2)Natural strength
3)Political control in the government of a country, state,
etc.
Slide 17
Powerless 1)Unable to produce an effect 2)Lacking power to act;
helpless
Slide 18
Powerful vs. Powerless Professionals Powerful Able to exert
great influence Can oversee work to be creative and effective
Experience less burn out and more job satisfaction Powerless Rival
and bully one anotherThwarted ambitionsLive in fearDisbelieve in
the values of their professionsEating their young
Slide 19
History of OT Power In Health Care OT was constrained in
establishing market control due to: Our difficulty in defining our
commodity Our decision to shy away from licensure until the early
1970s Our lack of political presence in Washington DC until
Medicares establishment As a result When Medicare laws were passed
in 1965, OT was not made eligible to access Medicare as a primary
provider OT was constrained in establishing market control due to:
Our difficulty in defining our commodity Our decision to shy away
from licensure until the early 1970s Our lack of political presence
in Washington DC until Medicares establishment As a result When
Medicare laws were passed in 1965, OT was not made eligible to
access Medicare as a primary provider (Gritzer & Arluke,
1989)
Slide 20
WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING POWER
Slide 21
Critical Social Theory Emphasis on Power Structure Privileged
and disenfranchised Bases of power are prestige, status, social
class, etc. Political struggle is path to power for oppressed
group. Emancipation: women winning the right to vote The influence
of labor unions Emphasis on Power Structure Privileged and
disenfranchised Bases of power are prestige, status, social class,
etc. Political struggle is path to power for oppressed group.
Emancipation: women winning the right to vote The influence of
labor unions (Bradbury-Jones, Sambrook, & Irvine, 2008)
Slide 22
Organizational/ Management Theory Emphasis on
Context/Environment Focus on hierarchical organization structures
(particularly top/down) Power is the ability to get things done
Control over: Access to resources Access to support and decision
making Information Opportunity for advancement or opportunity
beyond ones job description Where you are on the organizational
chart Emphasis on Context/Environment Focus on hierarchical
organization structures (particularly top/down) Power is the
ability to get things done Control over: Access to resources Access
to support and decision making Information Opportunity for
advancement or opportunity beyond ones job description Where you
are on the organizational chart (Bradbury-Jones, et al., 2008;
Kanter, 1993; Laschinger & Havens, 1996; Manojlovich,
2007)
Slide 23
Social Psychological Theories Emphasis on Individuals
Personalities No matter the environment, a few hardy individuals do
whatever it takes to achieve their aims Manipulate the few
empowering structures they find Personal efficacy; determination;
vigilance; self- confidence; etc. Work between cracks Sniff out
potential power opportunities like a bloodhound on the hunt
Emphasis on Individuals Personalities No matter the environment, a
few hardy individuals do whatever it takes to achieve their aims
Manipulate the few empowering structures they find Personal
efficacy; determination; vigilance; self- confidence; etc. Work
between cracks Sniff out potential power opportunities like a
bloodhound on the hunt (Manojlovich, 2007; Spreitzer, 1995; Quinn
& Spreitzer, 1997; Kuokkanen & Leino-Kilpi, 2000)
Slide 24
Post-structural Theories Emphasis on Local Situations Power is
not distributed top-down. It also works bottom-up and laterally.
Capillary form: reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches
their bodies, influences their every action, their words, their
everyday lives in everyday context. (Foucault,1980, p. 39) Power is
negotiated continually in everyday contexts (Kondo, 1990) Consumer
alliances Emphasis on Local Situations Power is not distributed
top-down. It also works bottom-up and laterally. Capillary form:
reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches their bodies,
influences their every action, their words, their everyday lives in
everyday context. (Foucault,1980, p. 39) Power is negotiated
continually in everyday contexts (Kondo, 1990) Consumer alliances
(Foucault, 1995; Bradbury-Jones, 2007)
Slide 25
DEFINING PROFESSIONAL POWER
Slide 26
Defining Professions Exclusive occupational groups applying
somewhat abstract knowledge to particular cases Control of
knowledge and skill Abstract system of knowledge: Problems and task
can be redefined and defended Strong professional association
Exclusive occupational groups applying somewhat abstract knowledge
to particular cases Control of knowledge and skill Abstract system
of knowledge: Problems and task can be redefined and defended
Strong professional association (Abbot, 1998)
Slide 27
The Medical Power Continuum Stratification by: Area of Medical
Practice Degree of Independence Rank in remaining hierarchy
Academic Credentials Stratification by: Area of Medical Practice
Degree of Independence Rank in remaining hierarchy Academic
Credentials (Gloubermann, 2002)
Slide 28
Professional Power Ability to retain jurisdiction when system
forces imply that a profession ought to have lost it
Interprofessional force Dominating conflicts and preventing
conflicts from arising Need abstract knowledge Ability to retain
jurisdiction when system forces imply that a profession ought to
have lost it Interprofessional force Dominating conflicts and
preventing conflicts from arising Need abstract knowledge (Abbott,
1998, p. 136)
Slide 29
A POWERFUL LEADER Abraham Lincoln
Slide 30
Lincolns Legacy Lincolns Leadership Qualities Resilience
Forbearance Emotional intelligence Consideration of all sides of an
argument Listening, always being present and authenticity are
essential leadership qualities whether one is leading a country in
wartime or a company during a period of transformation Howard
Schultz, CEO of Starbucks (Kohen, 2013)
Slide 31
Careful Listening Listened to those inside and outside his
sphere of influence Gathered advice - even from those who didnt
agree with him Traveled to the battlefields and held open office
hours in the White House (Kohen, 2013)
Slide 32
Resilience Experienced many obstacles: the growing toll of the
war, defeat in battle, pressures from abolitionists, personal loss
Lincoln was able to experience a range of emotions without acting
on them rashly or compromising his larger goals. He used emotional
intelligence and a deep faith in his vision to navigate difficult
terrain. (Kohen, 2013)
Slide 33
The Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln went on to draft the
Emancipation Proclamation A way of communicating his commitment to
a larger purpose He was able to shift tactics to meet changing
circumstances without abandoning his larger goal. (Kohen, 2013)
Things had gone on from bad to worse, until I felt that we had
reached the end of our rope on the plan of operations we had been
pursuing; that we had about played our last card and must change
our tactics or lose the game Abraham Lincoln
Slide 34
CULTIVATING POWER
Slide 35
Characteristics of Empowered People Empowered people have a
sense of Self-determination Meaning Competence Impact Empowerment
not something that management does to employees, but rather a
mind-set that employees have about their role in the organization
(p. 41). Empowered people have a sense of Self-determination
Meaning Competence Impact Empowerment not something that management
does to employees, but rather a mind-set that employees have about
their role in the organization (p. 41). (Quinn & Spreitzer,
1997)
Slide 36
Facilitating Empowerment Four levers Clear vision and challenge
Openness and teamwork Discipline and control Support and sense of
security Leaders must be empowered in order to empower others! Four
levers Clear vision and challenge Openness and teamwork Discipline
and control Support and sense of security Leaders must be empowered
in order to empower others! (Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997)
Slide 37
Barriers to Empowerment Bureaucratic culture Emphasizes status
quo Strong top-down tradition Multi-level conflict Divisions
between departments Conflict among peers Personal time constraints
Downsizing Stressful conditions Conform, dont rock the boat! (p.
43). Failure to develop voice Bureaucratic culture Emphasizes
status quo Strong top-down tradition Multi-level conflict Divisions
between departments Conflict among peers Personal time constraints
Downsizing Stressful conditions Conform, dont rock the boat! (p.
43). Failure to develop voice (Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997)
Slide 38
Cultivating Your Power Present Present papers at
interdisciplinary meetings at which no one discipline dominates
(e.g. GSA) Build relationships Build relationships with senior,
well-respected administrators with whom you have overlapping
interests who are not occupational therapists/occupational
scientists Publish! Publish! Publish! Network! Network! Network!
Develop your voice Develop your voice and ability to speak
incisively and concisely Present Present papers at
interdisciplinary meetings at which no one discipline dominates
(e.g. GSA) Build relationships Build relationships with senior,
well-respected administrators with whom you have overlapping
interests who are not occupational therapists/occupational
scientists Publish! Publish! Publish! Network! Network! Network!
Develop your voice Develop your voice and ability to speak
incisively and concisely
Slide 39
Cultivating Your Power strategic use of your successes Ensure
the strategic use of your successes to give publicity to the
services you provide Invest time in public relations Invest time in
public relations as a source of power that will enable you to do
more of what you are good at Build alliances Build alliances with
the clients that you work with strategic use of your successes
Ensure the strategic use of your successes to give publicity to the
services you provide Invest time in public relations Invest time in
public relations as a source of power that will enable you to do
more of what you are good at Build alliances Build alliances with
the clients that you work with Pollard, Sakellariou, &
Kronenberg, 2008)
Slide 40
References Abbott, A. (1998). The system of professions: An
essay on the division of expert labor. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press. Bradbury-Jones, C., Sambrook, S., & Irvine, F.
(2008). Power and empowerment in nursing: A fourth theoretical
approach. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(2), 258-266. Cookson,
P.W. & Persell, C.H. (1985). Preparing for power: Americas
elite boarding schools. New York: Basic Books. French, J. R. P.,
& Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright
& A. Zander, Group Dynamics (pp. 150-167). New York: Harper
& Row. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of
Prison. Translated by A. Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books.
Gloubermann, S. (2002). Structures, power, and respect: The nurses
dilemma. North York, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Nursing Advisory
Committee. Retrieved from
http://www.healthandeverything.org/files/Nursing_Paper.pdf (pp.
13-14).http://www.healthandeverything.org/files/Nursing_Paper.pdf
Gritzer, G. & Arluke, A. (1989). The making of rehabilitation:
A political economy of medical specialization, 1890-1980. Berkeley
and Los Angeles: The University of California Press. Kanter R.M.
(1993) Men and Women of the Corporation, 2nd edn. Basic Books, New
York. Kohen, N.S.(2013, January 27). Lincolns school of management:
Resilience and careful listening, as learned in 1862. The New York
Times, pp YBU1 YBU7. Kuokkanen, L. & Leino-Kilpi, H. (2000).
Power and empowerment in nursing: Three theoretical approaches.
Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(1), 235-241. Laschinger, H.K.S.
& Havens, D.S. (2006). Staff nurse work empowerment and
perceived control over nursing practice: Conditions for work
effectiveness. Journal of Nursing Administration, 26(9), 27-35.
Manojlovich, M. (2007). Power and empowerment in nursing: Looking
backward to inform the future. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues
in Nursing, 12(1). Pollard, N., Sakellariou, D. & Kronenberg,
F., eds. (2008). The political practice of occupational therapy.
Edinburgh: Elsevier. Quinn, R. & Spreitzer, G.M. (1997). The
road to empowerment: Seven questions every leader should consider.
Organizational Dynamics, 26(2), 37-49. Spreitzer, G. (1995).
Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimension, measurement,
and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5),
1442-1465.