The Agricultural Development of Hill Stations in Tropical

Geographical Review of JapanVol. 61 (Ser. B), No. 2, 191-211, 1988

The Agricultural Development of Hill Stations in Tropical Asia

-A Case Study in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia-

Shigeru SHIRASAKA*

There are many highland settlements known as "hill stations" or "summer resorts" in Southeast Asian countries under the tropical and subtropical climate. The hill station is not a native institution, but one developed during the nineteenth century by the British and Dutch colonial masters in order to make sojourns in a foreign land more comfortable. In southern Japan, the worst period is from

June through August, though its intensity does not compare with that farther south. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the period extends throughout the year.

The Cameron Highlands is the most famous hill station in Peninsular Malaysia being one of colonial origin. The Cameron Highlands is located between 1,000 and 1,500 meters above sea level on the main range of central Malaysia. Today, the Cameron Highlands is mainly a summer resort, but it is also a very important mid-latitude vegetable growing area.

The development of the Cameron Highlands began only after 1926, though it was discovered by, and named after, William CAMERON in 1885. Almost simultaneous with the opening of the Cameron Highlands as a hill resort was the growth and development of vegetable farming by farmers of

Chinese origin. There are also three new vegetable farming settlements developed after World War II.Some 47 per cent of the inhabitants of the Cameron Highlands are Chinese Malaysian, and they

shoulder the vegetable growing business. The temperate vegetables in the Cameron Highlands are mostly to be found above 1,000 meters above sea level. Some twenty-five types of mid-latitude vegetables

are cultivated here, though the main crops are Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes, which are popular with most of the people in Malaysia. Almost all the vegetable seeds are imported from Japan.

Farm labor on the vegetable farms, which average one to two acres in the Highlands, is normally family labor. Large amounts of chicken dung are used as fertilizer, and farming is very intensive. Crops such as spinach, bell pepper (paprika), and celery are grown under cover to protect them from the rather heavy rains that fall around here. Each farmer follows his own judgement in the choice of crops to grow with a mind to the vegetable price in the markets. Therefore, there is no established cycle of crops.

Today, most of the vegetables produced in the Cameron Highlands are transported by large trucks to the main cities in Peninsular Malaysia, and some 25-30% are exported to Singapore.

Key words: agricultural development, hill station, Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, tropical Asia

I. Introduction

We find that highland settlements, known as "hill stations" or "summer resorts" were

formed in many tropical and subtropical coun

tries in Southeast Asia. The United Kingdom and

the Kingdom of the Netherlands had established

colonies in Southeast Asia, but it was not possi

ble for the expatriates to acclimatize to the trop

ical climate with high temperature and high humidity. Therefore, they used to return home to their mother countries for long vacations at two or three-year intervals (SPENCER, J. and THOMAS, W., 1948, BUTCHER, J., 1979). Among the British, the length of their stay in Malaya was supposed to be six years, but in reality was almost always only three or four years. However, it was in the 1820's in the Himalayas and Southern India, and in the 1880's in British

* Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184

192 S. SHIRASAKA

Malaya that they felt they could escape from the intolerable tropical climate by travelling to the local hills. Similarly in 1886 Alexander C. SHOW, who was a British missionary, opened

Karuizawa as a summer resort. Karuizawa is now the most famous summer resort in Japan.

P. K. VOON and S. H. KHOO (1980) remarked on the upland settlements in Malaysia, as follows:

"Two types of land utilization have character

ized the highland areas of Malaysia. Certain areas are the habitats of a few indigenous communities who have freely evolved their distinctive way of life in a natural setting. As nomadic

and semi-nomadic communities of hunters,

gatherers and agriculturists they possess varying levels of cultural and social attainment. They differ ethnographically and in many other aspects from some and have affinities with others among the groups. They comprise the 'autochthonous' inhabitants of some of the upland areas of the country. Some areas have been developed as artificial settlements to accommodate a population largely alien to the setting. A number of the original inhabitants might have been driven away even as some others might have

gravitated towards these areas. In the context of modern day development of the uplands, involving 'non-autochthonous' peoples, the single most fundamental attribute of such an environment is the adiabatic effect of altitude which produces an average daily temperature significantly lower than in the lowlands to exert a discernible effect on settlement and development. It is this climate attribute which provided the initial impetus to the development of 'hill stations' in Peninsular Malaysia. This second type of upland development has widened in scope since then though the participants and the functions have changed."

The mid-latitude vegetable growing gradually developed in the cool mountain climate parallel to the growth of the summer resorts. There are already some research papers about the development of hill stations and mid-latitude vegetable

growing, that is, for Karuizawa in Central Japan by T. ICHIKAWA (1966); the central mountains in

subtropical Taiwan by I. SAITOH and H. M. CHEN (1984); Baguio in the Philippines by R. REED (1976); Brastagi in Sumatra, Indonesia by W. WITHINGTON (1961) and I. SAITOH (1987); the

Cameron Highlands in Central Malaysia by J. CLARKSON (1968); Genting Highland in Malaysia by R. REED (1979) and so on.

In this paper, the author discusses the significance of the development of hill stations in

Southeast Asia through analyzing the land use and characteristics of the mid-latitude vegetable

growing in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia.This paper deals principally with the Cameron

Highlands as a case study of highland settlements, land use and the development of highland

vegetable cultivation.The Cameron Highlands lie in the Main Range

of central Peninsular Malaysia in the State of Pahang (Fig. 1). However, because of its location, entry to the Cameron Highlands by road is through the state of Perak.

Settlements in the Cameron Highlands were largely developed after 1920 and they produce roughly the same types of highland vegetables as found in Japan. This produce of the Cameron Highlands is distributed throughout Penin

sular Malaysia, and quite a substantial amount is exported to Singapore.

Today, the settlements in the Cameron Highlands lie roughly between 1,000 meters above sea level at Bertam Valley and 1,600 meters above sea level at Kea Farm (Fig. 2). The settlements in this area are also mainly located along a road which runs roughly in a north-south direction. The furthest settlement at the end of this road is the Blue Valley, which lies at an altitude of roughly 1,500 meters. No further road exists be

yond the Blue Valley.The soil in this area is largely clay from

weathered granite, yellowish in color, with a pH value of 4.5 to 6.5. Although the physical conditions of the Cameron Highlands are not that highly favorable for the cultivation of vegetables, the farmers have utilized the cool temperate climate of the area to turn it into the most productive highland vegetable producing area in the

peninsula.

Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 193

Figure 1. Location, Relief and Land Use of the Cameron Highlands* The author used the One Inch to a Mile (1:63,360) map published by the Director of National Mapping,

Malaysia, and vegetable cultivated areas are indicated from the author's observation, Sept., 1985.

194 S. SHIRASAKA

•œ Settlements established before World War II•›

Settlements established after World War II*

The highest growing limit of mid-latitude vegetables

Figure 2. Location of Settlements in the Cameron Highlands

II. Population and Settlements in the Cameron Highlands

1. Growth of Settlements

Though the Cameron Highlands were discovered by William CAMERON, a government surveyor, in 1885, this area had always been settled by the Orang Ashi (aboriginal tribes) who practiced shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering.

A study of the growth and development of the Cameron Highlands has to be linked with a study of the growth and development of hill stations and rest houses in the Himalayan foothills of India in the 1820's by the British (BUTCHER, J., 1979). After all, both these countries have for long periods of time been influenced by British colonialism. Hill stations were largely developed for the enjoyment and rejuvenation of the British, who found the lowland too hot and humid for prolonged periods of stay.

The first such hill station developed in the then Malay States was in Maxwell Hill which lies to the east of Taiping, Perak. It was here in 1884 that the first bungalows were built, which,

together with those at Bukit Kutu, were modelled after those resort rest houses found in Simla,

Ootacamund and Kodaikonal in India.From 1900 onwards the population of Euro

peans, principally British, greatly increased, and in consequence there was an increased demand for hill stations. Thus, soon after the establish

ment of Maxwell Hill and Bukit Kutu (Teacher's Hill), the hill stations of Gunung Kledang (near Ipoh) and Gunung Angsi (near Seremban) were opened up, but these stations were not able to develop extensively, because they were established on the top or edge of mountains.

However, the British in Malaya were then not only concerned with just building bungalows and using them as resort houses for their expatriates; they were also very interested in developing the hill stations agriculturally, as was done in India.

With such a background, the prime mover for the developing of Fraser's Hill, Sir George MAXWELL, proposed in 1925 the development of the Cameron Highlands into a bigger hill station than that in Fraser's Hill. Thus, in March 1925, Sir George MAXWELL set up a research team to study the soil, climate and other related aspects of the Cameron Highlands. The result of this study was incorporated in a report in 1926 and the Cameron Highlands Hill Station was established by the govermnent. At the same time, the


Federal Agricultural Experimental Station was established at Tanah Rata, Cameron Highlands,

(1,400 meters above sea level) on a 140 acre site.By 1931, the road to Tanah Rata from Tapah

was opened,1) tea cultivation had already begun operation and the hotel business established. Private bungalows were also being built.2) The sup

ply of vegetables to this growing population in the Cameron Highlands took on greater importance. Thus during the 1930's, there was an in

creased use of state land, especially by Chinese farmers, for the cultivation of vegetables. These

Chinese were originally brought in by the Europeans, initially that is, as laborers. As a result of this there emerged a typically Chinese style of vegetable cultivating population.

Besides those people involved with the private

bungalows and the hotels, most of the other peo

ple who were involved with the agricultural businesses were people from amongst those who first entered the Bertam Valley in 1934 (CLARKSON, J., 1968). The area around the confluence of the Bertam and Ringlet Rivers was settled initially by six Cantonese families.3) Between 1934 and 1938, the population of this area had grown to 200 families, mostly involved in agriculture.

Thus, it is clear that the form of settlement in the Cameron Highlands was already established before World War II. The earliest area to be set

tled was Ringlet, and we can still see the original shop buildings which were built during the 1930's. On the other hand, Chinese farmers in Brinchang walked to Kea Farm for cultivating, and they established a new agricultural settlement before World War II. Other Chinese settled in Tringkap as well in those days.4)

The relatively newer settlements of Kampong Raja, 49 Miles and Kuala Terla were all established after World War II. Kuala Terla was established during the early half of the 1950's and 49 Miles was settled between the end of the 1950's and the 1960's.5)

The settlement of Kampong Raja was established after the transfer of 129 families from Lubok Temang, which was flooded by the waters of the Sultan Abu Bakar Dam in 1961. Work on this dam began in 1958. The government's plan was to move the entire 129 families to Kampong Raja (ex. 53 Miles), but 50 of these families decided to settle in Bertam Valley. As a result,

only 79 families were moved to Kampong Raja. The 50 families that went to Bertam Valley formed the nucleus of the settlement of New Bertam Valley. Of the 79 families that went to Kam

pong Raja, most belong to the Teochiew clan of Chinese.

Today, the Cameron Highlands, centered at Tanah Rata and Brinchang, which altogether has 55 hotels, is Malaysia's best known hill resort. Most of these hotels began operations during the 1960's. The majority of these hotels are relatively small operations run by individual families. Only the Merlin Hotel carried on a profitable business from the 1960's, while it was the 1970's before the small hotels began to pay their way.

In Brinchang town, the west side shop buildings were built in 1965, and the east side ones in 1966. The major hotels in Brinchang town, e. g. Kowloon and Brinchang Hotels, were all established after 1965, as were all the newer shop buildings and the road. Most of these hotels are about four stories high. Whilst the central settlements in the Cameron Highlands, as well as the main centers of highland vegetable cultivation, were all established prior to World War II, those established after the 1950's have different characteristics. The settlements, businesses and population have endowed the Cameron Highlands' vast vegetable production area with its own

peculiar characteristics.

2. Population Growth and Population Structure

Table 1 shows the population changes that have occurred in the Cameron Highlands. The

population structure of post-World War II shows that 59.2 per cent of the population is Chinese, 26.7 per cent Indians and 7.6 per cent Malays and other related races (CLARKSON, J. D., 1968). It is stated that in 1957 quite a large number of the Chinese aged 30 and above in Pahang State were born in China. However, the present Chinese population in the Cameron Highlands are in the main locally born.

The Indians, on the other hand, are mostly estate workers in the tea estates, though quite a significant number of Indians in Tanah Rata and Brinchang are engaged in businesses of various types.

Population growth in the Cameron Highlands

196 S. SHIRASAKA

Table 1 Population Changes in the Cameron Highlands

Sources: * After the Population Census of Malaysia.

** Data from District Office of the Cameron Highlands .

varies largely between each racial group and be

tween age levels. Of the Chinese population, the

proportion of the population between the ages

of 0-4 is getting smaller and it is not anticipat

ed that there will be any significant growth in the

future. On the other hand, most of the Malay

population between the ages of 15 to 19 leave the

Cameron Highlands for one reason or other,

principally employment or education. This can

be assumed to be a pattern of the population

growth in the Cameron Highlands.

According to the research of the Malaysian

Agricultural Research and Development Institute

(DING, T. H., VIMALA, P. and YUSOH, S., 1981),

the majority of the vegetable farmers are Chinese

(81.1%), followed by Indians (17.8%) and Ma

lays (1.1%).

III. Climate and Vegetable Production

in the Cameron Highlands

1. Relationship Between Climatic Characteris

tics and Crop Production

The various settlements in the Cameron High

lands mostly lie above 1,000 meters above sea

level, and are in one of the few really temperate

climatic locations in Malaysia (Fig. 3). The

highest monthly average temperature (between

April and May) is 18.4•Ž, and the lowest month

ly average temperature (December) is 16.9•Ž,

thus giving an annual range of 1.5•Ž. Daily tem

peratures, on the other hand, range between

23.0•Ž and 13.7•Ž, thus giving a diurnal range

of 9.3•Ž. Such ranges are the exception rather

than the rule in Malaysia.

The total annual rainfall in the Cameron High

lands is around 2,545mm. They receive the heav

iest rainfall especially during the months of

April-May and October-November, when the

effects of the monsoons are particularly felt,

similarly as in the northern portion of the east

coast. This also affects vegetable production in

the country. The number of days with rain is in

the region of 223, and Malaysia is amongst the

countries with a high rainfall, and as a conse

quence, the number of hours of sunshine is reduced.

The Cameron Highlands has a climate which

roughly corresponds to the highland vegetable

growing areas of Central Japan. Thus under these climatic conditions, it is not surprising to

find the same types of vegetables here that are

also grown in Japan, Taiwan and China.

The lowest limit of the production area of tem

perate vegetables in the Cameron Highlands oc

Figure 3. Climate of the Cameron Highlands* Data observed in Tanah Rata , 1,476.6 meters above sea level.


curs mainly around 1,000 meters above sea level, though the farmers have stated that it is possible to produce the same crops at around 800 meters above sea level, which thus stretches the

growing limit close to the border of lowland rain forests (750 meters) and lower mountain forests. On the other hand, the highest growing limit of mid-latitude vegetables in the Cameron Highlands is about 1,770 meters above sea level, halfway up Mt. Brinchang, according to the author's observations.

One of the fruit crops found in the Cameron Highlands, i.e. citrus (sweet Mandarin oranges) can be grown up to a limit of around 1,800 meters. However, commercial production is best around the 1,200 meters altitude. Therefore, in the Cameron Highlands, this citrus production can be found in Ringlet, 49 Miles and Kampong Raja, but not in Brinchang.

Whilst it is generally assumed that the higher limits for the growing of pineapple, mango, banana, sugar cane and papaya are in the Cameron Highlands, the author found from his field observations that commercial production of

pineapple, mango, banana and sugar cane does not occur beyond 300 meters above sea level, and

papaya beyond an altitude of 500 meters. However, coconuts, which are generally cultivated around 200 meters above sea level, can still be found at an altitude of 900 meters. On the other hand, whilst it is said that durians which local people grow for marketing are not to be found beyond an altitude of 500 meters, the Orang Ashi of the Cameron Highlands are still harvesting them around 800-900 meters above sea level.

2. Farmers and Characteristics of Vegetable Production

From a survey conducted by the Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association in 1981, the total number of households in the Cameron Highlands numbered 4,189, out of which 1,490 (35.6%) were vegetable farming households. When we include the laborers in the tea estates (mostly Indian) and the 30 households which are involved almost exclusively in the

growing of flowers, then altogether some 50 per cent of the population in the Cameron Highlands is involved in agriculture.

Of the settlements in the Cameron Highlands,

Table 2 Number of Farms and Farm Size by Area in the Cameron Highlands (1981)

* Including Bharat and Gunung Mas Tea Estates.

Source: Based on the data from the Cameron Highlands' Agri-business Holding Sdh. Bhd.

198 S. SHIRASAKA

the largest vegetable growing areas are to be

found in Tringkap (381.80 acres), Kampong Raja

(334.54 acres), and Bertam Valley (315.55 acres).

These three settlements are the main vegetable

growing areas, because they lie on comparative

ly flat land.

Some 90 per cent of the farmers in the Came

ron Highlands (Table 2) have land areas of 2.0

acres or less. In these highlands, it is quite pos

sible for farmers to work successfully on about

an acre of land. About 47.1 per cent of the farms

have areas of less than 1.0 acre, and these are

principally worked by shop-keepers, some pub

lic servants, and the like who do not depend en

tirely on their farms for their livelihoods.

However, the majority of those who work such

small plots are the Indian laborers from the tea

estates. These people work on their plots of land

during their spare time, and utilize mainly fami

ly labor. Some of these have become quite suc

cessful farmers to the extent that they own small

plots of land distributed over a settlement.

From interviews with the farmers, the author

has found that in the Cameron Highlands most

of the farms do not use paid labor, but depend

on family labor. In fact, the majority of the

farms are cultivated by husband and wife teams,

and normally between the two of them they cul

tivate around 1.5 acres of land.

Most of the farm land in the Cameron High

lands is state land6) and the farmers in the main

rent their land from the state government under

a "temporary occupation license (TOL)", a

license which is renewable annually. The present

rental for a temporary occupation license is

M$150.00 (about \15,000) per annum for every

two acres of land leased in 1985.

Since such licenses are rather difficult to ob

tain, and also since the farmers are not the real

owners of the land they cultivate, the author feels

that the TOL system has in many ways contribut

ed to the rather over-intensified use of the land,

as well as the cultivation of slopes way above a

gradient of 30•‹(Plate 1). The author has ob

served cultivated slopes of around 45•‹, and has

heard from some reliable sources that it is not

uncommon for slopes of around 50•‹ to be uti

lized for cultivation. Owing to such intensified

use of land and the rather careless land conser

vation practices of the farmers, land erosion is

common. Besides the usual loss of soil fertility, such erosion has also led to problems at the Sultan Abu Bakar Reservoir, since the amount of silt brought down by rivers has reduced the volume and thus the amount of water available for the generation of electricity. Owing to this

problem, the state govermnent has stopped granting new TOLs for farmers in the catchment area of the dam except in the newer areas on the east of Bertam Valley and 49 Miles in another valley where there are plans for new agricultural areas to be opened up. However, although the

plans were introduced in 1978, in 1985 they were still not complete, and in many instances have not been started.

In the Cameron highlands, the farms are actually converted jungle land. In many instances, the first step in the opening up of the jungle is by calling in some Orang Ashi to cut down the trees and then to burn them. To clear an acre of land in this way takes approximately two weeks. During the year, such clearings usually occur during the dry seasons of January and between June and August.

Once the land is cleared, it is now usual practice to use bulldozers to level the land for cultivation. The top soil is not preserved in any way, and in fact may be carted away. It has been found here that the use of the top soil for cultivation very rapidly attracts plant pests and diseases. This discarding of the top soil and its careless dumping results in its being washed down to the Sultan Abu Bakar Reservoir.

After the land has been leveled, "hand tractors" are normally used to plough and loosen the soil, which is then prepared into beds for the cultivation of vegetables. It is at this time that enormous quantities of fertilizers are used. A characteristic feature of vegetable farming here is the use of chicken dung as the main fertilizer

(Table 3). On the many steep slopes of the Cameron Highlands, which are also cultivated, the

clearing of the jungle is usually done by human labor, including the leveling of the land and the building of vegetable beds. The normal implement used for such work is the changkal or hoe.

On such cleared jungle land, some 25 types of vegetables are grown today. However, the more important crops cultivated in the Cameron Highlands are English cabbage, Chinese cabbage and


Plate 1 Vegetable farms on the slopes of Kea Farm* Water cress is cultivated in the foreground (Taken by the author , Sept., 1985).

tomatoes.

However, there are no precise statistics on the

total acreage of vegetables grown in the Came

ron Highlands. Table 4 is reproduced from a

study made by students of the Department of Ge

ography, University of Malaya, of 82 farm fa

milies in Brinchang, Kea Farm, Green Cow,

Tringkap and Kuala Terla during 1982. This

study revealed that on the average, a family cul

tivates around 2.05 acres of land, and these farm

200 S . SHIRASAKA

Table 3 Method of Land Preparation in the Cameron Highlands

Source: After DING, T. H. et al. (1981).

Table 4 Kinds of Vegetables and Cultivated Area (1982)

* Different types of spinach .** Different types of chilli .Source: After HUSSAIN, F. et al. (1982).

families are all full-time farmers. During the

study, it was found that 23.6 per cent of the land was planted with English cabbage, 12.4 per cent

with tomato, 12.1 per cent with Chinese cabbage

and another 12.1 per cent with some kind of

spinach. Thus, English cabbage, Chinese cabbage and tomatoes occupy 48.1 per cent of the total area cultivated.

The author, through interviews with the Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association, found that for 1984 of the total vegetable

production, in terms of sales, Chinese cabbage accounted for 20.0 per cent of production, English cabbage 18.0 per cent, tomatoes 18.0 per cent, lettuce 5.0 per cent, spinach 4.0 per cent, spring onion 4.0 per cent, water cress 3.0 per cent, kow-kee 3.0 per cent, and tong-hoe

(garland chrysanthemum) 3.0 per cent. Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes together contributed 56.0 per cent of the total value of all vegetables sold.

Ethnic grounds may account for the fact that Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes form the bulk of vegetable production in the Cameron Highlands since they are popular with all races in the country, while lettuce and spinach are more popular with the Chinese and European commmities. Water cress, kow-kee and

garland chrysanthemum are highly popular with the Chinese.

The fact that the Cameron Highlands have become the most important vegetable producing area in Malaysia can be largely attributed to the improvements in road transport to the highlands from the main urban areas, especially during the 1950's. Prior to World War II, the main settlements in the Cameron Highlands were Tanah Rata and Brinchang. Between 1960 and the 1970's Tringkap also grew as an important vegetable growing settlement and the 1980's can be said to be the period for the emergence of Kampong Raja as a settlement of the same type. All this opening and development of new settlements in the Cameron Highlands, especially towards the interior, is the result of the expan


sion of the road from Brinchang. As a conse

quence of this, more and more people are attracted to the newly opened areas, since the older settlements are quite crowded. However,

from what the people are saying, ever since the

road has been extended and more land opened

up, there has been a gradual rise in temperatures

over the last twenty years. But, since 1965, with

the opening of this land for farming purposes, malaria has been largely eradicated.

The greatest influx of population into the

Cameron Highlands was during the 1950's and

1960's. These newcomers are largely from the

west coast states of Perak and Penang in Penin

sular Malaysia.7) As expected, most of these

migrants were originally farmers in their previ

ous areas of residence, though it is not uncom

mon to find amongst these people some former

fishermen or tin mine workers.

Fig. 4 shows vegetable production in the Came

ron Highlands, particularly for Chinese cabbage,

and illustrates the difficulties encountered, e. g.

Figure 4. Monthly Sales of Chinese Cabbage from the Cameron Highlands

* Source: FAMA Office in Brinchang.

the fact that vegetable production in this area is largely influenced and controlled by market forces in the major urban areas.

Table 5 illustrates the growing length and

production cost for some of the vegetables grown in these highlands; e. g. for Chinese cabbage, the

growing period is 60days and harvesting takes around 10days. Thus the cycle of growth and harvest for Chinese cabbage is around 70days; for English cabbage it is around 80days, and for tomatoes around 100days. Thus,it is possible for Chinese cabbage and English cabbage to be cultivated four times a year and tomatoes thrice. However, the farmers here, though to a large extent concentrating on these three crops mentioned above, also grow other vegetable types in rotation, as shown in Table 4. Normally, none of these three major vegetable types is grown more than twice per annum by the same farmer on the same plot of land.

While the climatic conditions ideal for the cultivation of temperate vegetables exist in the Cameron Highlands, their cultivation is actually governed by market conditions especially in terms of price, and it is possible to see that prices vary as much as 1.5 times.

However, it is not true that vegetable production in the Cameron Highlands is totally in

fl uenced by market conditions: production conditions also play their part in price fluctuations. For example, during the dry months of January and February, there is generally an insufficiency of water, and it is also during these months that most of the pests and wild grasses fl ourish. Therefore, this is the low season in vegetable producing. On the other hand, during the wet periods of April-May and October-November, conditions are also not that ideal for

vegetable production.One characteristic of vegetable cultivation in

the Cameron Highlands is the widespread use of insecticides and fungicides (LIM, K. P., 1972). For example, in the cultivation of Chinese cabbage, which lasts about 90days from cultivation in the nursery to harvesting, insecticides and fun

gicides are applied roughly once every three days. It is also the same for English cabbage.

Another major characteristic of vegetable

production in the Cameron Highlands is the extensive use of chicken dung as a fertilizer (Table

202 S . SHIRASAKA

Table 5 Growing Term and Production Cost of Main Vegetables (1985)

Source: Based on the author's interviews, Sept. and Nov. H: higher price

A: average price

L: lower price

Table 6 Type of Fertilizers Used by Farmers in the Cameron Highlands

Source: After DING, T. H. et al. (1981).

6). The chicken occupies a special place in the diet of Malaysians, for eating its meat does not contravene any religious rule, and thus the chicken is reared almost everywhere throughout the country. Thus it is quite possible to obtain chicken dung from most parts of the country. Most,

if not all, of the chicken dung is sent to the vegetable farms in the country by trucks which bring the vegetables produced to the markets on their return trips.

A 50kg. bag of chicken dung costs M$5.00, and an acre of vegetable farm land needs on


average three to five tons (60-100 bags) per annum. According to the farmers, land which has been fertilized annually with between three and five tons of chicken dung becomes very good land after ten years.8) Though prawn dust is

generally utilized for the cultivation of leaf vegetables, the present-day difficulties in obtaining regular supplies of it in sufficient quantities have rendered its use insignificant.

Another characteristic of vegetable farming in the Cameron Highlands is the influence of rainfall, since it lies in the tropics. The influence of such rainfall is especially felt during the months of November and December during the period of the Northeast Monsoon, when the heavy rains to a large extent damage the vegetables on the

ground, thus necessitating the use of vinyl covers to protect the plants (Plate 2). While such protection is not generally used for the three main crops of Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes, it is generally used for such crops as spinach, tong-hoe (garland chrysanthemum), bell

pepper, celery (including Chinese celery), and

cauliflower.

In the construction of such protective cover,

small rectangular or square timber poles are used

to build the framework, which is then covered

with clear vinyl sheets. The cost of constructing

such cover per acre of vegetable land is in the

region of M$10,000.00. Out of this sum,

M$2,000.00 is for the vinyl sheets, which must

be changed once every two to three years. Whilst

during the early part of the 1960's water had to

be distributed by farmers to plants during the dry

season, today, a sprinkler system is widely used

in the vegetable farms. The cost to set up such

a system, including the piping, is around

M$20,000.00 per acre.

Fig. 5. shows the distribution of the various

vegetable types grown in the Cameron Highlands

according to height above sea level. The best ele

vation for the cultivation of Chinese cabbage and

English cabbage is around 1,500 meters (•}300

meters). This is also ideal for tomatoes. Thus,

Plate 2 Fields with vinyl covers on a steep slope near Tanah Rata(Taken by the author, Nov., 1985)

204 S. SHIRASAKA

Figure 5. Vegetable Producting Areas by Altitude in the Cameron Highlands* Source: The Author's interviews and observations.

in the Cameron Highlands, the cultivation of Chinese cabbage and English cabbage is expanding except in Ringlet and Bertam Valley. In Kea Farm, Kuala Terla and Blue Valley, some 60 per cent of the land cultivated is devoted to the cultivation of Chinese cabbage and English cabbage. From the author's interviews with the farmers in the Cameron Highlands it is claimed that tomatoes are ideal in areas situated over 1,300 meters above sea level. The areas of straw

berry cultivation here are found at heights of over 1,400 meters. Therefore, in Ringlet and Bertam Valley, they cannot cultivate strawberries. On the other hand, should water be readily available, the cultivation of water cress is also possible. Therefore, within these highlands, it is

possible to utilize the land productively throughout.

Besides the cultivation of vegetables in the Cameron Highlands there are also 30 flower

farms with 270 acres producing chrysanthemum

(including pon-pon, a type of chrysanthemum producing very much smaller flowers), roses and carnations (TAN, T. M., 1970). From the author's interviews and observations, it was found that flower production is done on a fairly large scale. The biggest single farm occupies an area of 30 acres, and another five farms occupy around 20 acres each. The average farm size for these flower farms is between 3 and 4 acres each.

In general, large amounts of capital are re

quired to start a flower farm, which includes the necessity to build rain covers to protect the plants from the heavy rains, and also the use of large

amounts of labor to care for the plants. It has been found that while the more able farmers (including those with greater amounts of capital available) are devoting more and more of their efforts to flower production, there are, on the other hand, also farmers who will only grow

fl owers when the prices are favorable (or estimated to become favorable) and revert to the cultivation of vegetables when the reverse is true.

Recently, i.e. from 1979 onwards, the price of flowers has not been all that attractive, and it has been estimated that in 1984, some 50 per cent of flower growing land was utilized for the cultivation of vegetables.9)

However, in these highlands, mixed farming of flowers and vegetables is not seen. It may be

possibly due to the fact that flowers need to be sprayed with insecticides daily and require more human labor to tend them.

In flower cultivation it is a basic necessity to build shelters, not only to protect them from the often heavy rains but also to shield them from direct sunlight. Also, for flower growing to be economically viable, it is necessary to have large areas of relatively level land available. Thus, in the Cameron Highlands, most of the flower farms are to be found in Ringlet, Bertam Valley, Kampong Raja, and Blue Valley. In terms of height above sea level, chrysanthemums are to be found mostly in Ringlet and Bertam Valley, while in Kampong Raja and Blue Valley the cultivation of carnations is more popular. However, in general, most cultivators grow chrysanthemums, pon-pons and roses together


so as to be able to supply the markets all year

round.

As said earlier, it is absolutely necessary to

have protective covers in order to grow flowers

in the Cameron Highlands, and in quite a num

ber of instances it is not uncommon to find

flower growers switching over to the cultivation

of vegetables on flower land when prices for

vegetables are good. The converse is also true.

T. H. DING, P. VIMALA and S. YUSOH (1981)

remarked on the difficulties and problems faced

by vegetable farmers in the Cameron Highlands,

the biggest of which are problems associated with

marketing, pests and plant diseases.

Generally, the majority of the vegetable grow

ers in the Cameron Highlands have no clear idea

as to the price of the vegetables they grow when

sold in the market. Mostly they just depend on

the wholesalers, and mutual trust is hence im

portant as these wholesalers are the ones who are

concerned with the real marketing of the vegeta

bles produced. This marketing problem was

brought to the attention of the Cameron High

lands Vegetable Growers' Association in 1980

and discussions have followed as to how to over

come this problem so as to ensure the farmers

a fair price for their produce.

Though soil erosion is an important problem,

the farmers do not seem to be too concerned. In

these highlands, the rule is that no cultivation is

allowed on slopes of more than 20•‹, but culti

vation is so intensive here it has become a charac

teristic of the Cameron Highlands that

cultivation is carried out on slopes very much

steeper than 20•‹. In the tea estates, soil erosion

is carefully controlled, so much so that it has

been said that it is not a problem at all.

Even though the government has agencies in

these highlands to instruct the farmers on soil

conservation methods, most farmers just seem

to be ignorant of them. As discussed earlier, the

land here does not belong to the farmers them

selves, but is leased from the state govermnent.

Since this lease has to be renewed annually, it

has become a matter of great concern to the

farmers, for if the land is deemed to be required

by the govermnent, then the TOL may not be

renewed at all. The land leased to each individual

farmer is usually not more than two acres. Since

each farmer then tries to obtain the maximum

* Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority

Figure 6. Routes of the Vegetables Shipped from the

Cameron Highlands* Source: The author's interviews, Sept., 1985.

results from his piece of leased land, he is not

too concerned with land conservation and the consequent soil erosion that takes place.

Fig. 6 shows the route whereby the vegetables

produced in the Cameron Highlands are distributed. From what has been gathered through interviews, some 75 per cent passes through the central route. The Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority (FAMA) initially tried to monitor the market for vegetables, and to buy when the

prices for such products were low so as to guarantee the farmers a steady market, but for one reason or another, principally because of the insufficiency of storage space and cold room, this

practice has practically ceased. Today, FAMA markets only about 5 per cent of the produce from the Cameron Highlands.

The marketing of the vegetables produced in

the Cameron Highlands is shown in Table 7. Kuala Lumpur is the largest market for the produce, followed by Ipoh and Singapore.10) The author estimates that the vegetables shipped from the Cameron Highlands supply some 50 per cent of all the vegetable consumption in Kuala Lumpur.

The vegetables are marketed in round bamboo

baskets of 70cm diameter and 70cm depth. These baskets are generally made in the foothills

206 S. SHIRASAKA

Table 7 Average Supply of Vegetables per Day from the Cameron Highlands Absorbed by Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (1982)

Source: Data from the Office of FAMA, Negeri Perak.

of the Cameron Highlands near Tapah11) and adjacent to the road to the highlands. These baskets are transported to the farmers by the trucks that have taken the vegetables to the markets and are returning with loads of fertilizers and other goods required up in the hills.

IV. Farm Management in the Cameron Highlands

Farm sizes in the Cameron Highlands are normally between one and two acres each and therefore, the agricultural activities carried on here can be considered to be on a small scale. On the whole, each vegetable farm utilizes a minimum of labor, and on most farms the labor is provided by the head of the household and his wife. Such labor is generally sufficient to run a farm of around 1.5 acres.

The vegetable beds are normally raised beds of about 90cm in width. Some of these beds act as nurseries for seedlings which are transplanted when they have reached the appropriate size. In most instances, spinach, spring onions and

garland chrysanthemum are planted straight into the beds without going through a nursery stage. On the other hand, Chinese cabbage, English cabbage, tomatoes, lettuces, bell peppers, mustard green, parsley and celery are normally transplanted crops. In some instances, two different vegetables are grown on the same bed through the practice of intercropping, i.e. two different crops are planted simultaneously on the same bed at the same time, but harvested at different times.

Prior to the late 1960's, when the use of piping and sprinkler systems to bring water to the beds became common, water had to be carried to the fields with human labor. Most of the water available here is from springs and rivers, or else rainwater collected in tanks.

The principal fertilizer used here is chicken dung, and though artificial fertilizers are used, it is not that common, for it is believed that use

of such fertilizers makes the soil hard. In fact, many of the farmers do not use artificial fertilizers at all.

The main crops are Chinese cabbage and English cabbage in the Cameron Highlands. Which

crop is grown at any given time is largely determined by market forces. Whilst some three or four crops are grown on any one farm at any one

time, there is no fixed rotation of crops as is

practiced in Japan. Each individual farmer plants what he feels like planting, though he will most often not plant the same crop on the same plot of land twice running.

Figs. 7 and 8 show the actual conditions as

practiced by farmers in these highlands. Fig. 7 is of a farm run by a Chinese family in the southern

part of Kampong Raja (1,290 meters above sea level). This farm family consists of a 70-year-old farmer, his 36-year-old son and 33-year-old daughter-in-law. The young couple have four children of their own, all aged under 8. The old farmer was formerly a tin mine laborer from the state of Kedah in northern Peninsular Malaysia. The son and wife moved first to the Cameron Highlands in 1980, and the old farmer followed in 1983 to live with them when he left his old job.

This 1.5 acre piece of land was taken over from another farmer in 1983 for M$25,000.00. Of course, the land is under the TOL status, and the license fee is M$45.00 per annum. Therefore, M$25,000.00 is the price for the transfer of the right of using the land under cultivation. The

piping system to bring water to the field costs M$15,000.00. The labor to work this farm is

provided by the three principal occupants, though during harvesting period, some casual labor may be called in.

For 1985, Field A of the farm was planted with

Chinese cabbage, followed by lettuce, tomatoes, celery and Chinese cabbage again, in that order; Field B was planted with tomatoes, Chinese


Figure 7. Land Use of a Farm in Kampong Raja* Source: The author's observations.

cabbage, celery, spring onions and tomatoes

again, in that order; while Field C was planted

with snow peas, celry, tomatoes, Chinese cab

bage and snow peas again, in that order. An im

portant aspect of this farm's crop calendar is to be able to harvest a crop of Chinese cabbage

around the Chinese New Year, which falls be

tween mid January and mid February each year,

as this vegetable is very popular with the people

then, and thus fetches better prices. This farm

er's management can be said to be typical of

farms found in the Cameron Highlands.

Fig. 8 is of a farm run by a Chinese family in

Bertam Valley lying about 1,005 meters above

sea level. The farm labor is provided by a young

man aged 28 and his wife aged 26. Occasionally

they call in casual labor, usually Indian, to help

them for a day or two. The total area of this farm

is around 3.0 acres, and a Benassi 3 hp. "hand

tractor" made in Italy is used to till the land. The main crop on this farm is English cabbage. Since 1980, one-quarter of the total farm is under

cover, and here the young couple cultivate the more delicate vegetables such as spinach, pak

choy (a kind of Chinese cabbage), and garland chrysanthemums. This is one of the bigger farms found in the Cameron Highlands.

V. Concluding Remarks

In this paper, the author considers the development of hill stations through the analysis of the land use and the temperate vegetable growing in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. As a result, the author shows several facts as follows:

1. The development of the Cameron Highlands took off only after 1926, though it was discovered by, and named after, William CAMERON in

208 S. SHIRASAKA

1885. By the early 1930's the road linking Ring

let to Tanah Rata was already completed, and

once the lines of communication were improved,

it led to the beginning of hotel and private bun

galow building here. Today, the Cameron Highlands is the best known hill resort in Malaysia

and Singapore.2. Almost simultaneous with the opening of the

Cameron Highlands as a hill resort was the

growth and development of vegetable farming by farmers of Chinese origin. The earliest such

vegetable farming settlement was Bertam Valley, which was already settled by 1934.

The other major settlements of Ringlet, Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Kea Farm, and Tringkap are also pre-World War II settlements. However, Kampong Raja, 49 Miles and Kuala Terla are all relatively new vegetable farming settlements developed after World War II.

Whilst some 47 per cent of the population in the Cameron Highlands is Chinese, the workers in the tea estates here are nearly all of Indians

Figure 8. Land Use of a Farm in Bertam Valley* Source: The author's observations.


origin. The Malay population here has been steadily increasing over the last decade or so.

3. Throughout the year, the Cameron Highlands possesses a climate which is not dissimilar

to Japan's Karuizawa's summer, and therefore it is possible to grow about the same types of vegetables as are found in Japan, Taiwan and Mainland China. However, the temperate vegetables in the Cameron Highlands are mostly to be found above 1,000 meters above sea lev

el. The highest point where cultivation is

practiced is around the middle portion of Mt. (Gunung) Brinchang at 1,770 meters above sea level.

The three main vegetables grown in the Cameron Highlands are Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes. These three crops are mainly to be found in the higher areas of the Cameron Highlands such as Kea Farm, Kuala Terla and Blue Valley. Today, the vegetable seeds are

almost all imported from Japan.4. In 1981, there were 1,490 vegetable farm

ing households in the Cameron Highlands, mostly to be found at Tringkap, Kampong Raja and Bertam Valley. In general, these are the areas with more relatively level land than to be found in other areas of the Cameron Highlands. Some 25 types of vegetables are cultivated here, though

as stated, the main crops are Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes, which are popular with most of the people in Malaysia. The majority of the vegetable farmers are Chinese, followed by Indians; and Malays are very few.

5. Farm labor, on the farms which average between one and two acres in area, is normally family labor. One of the main characteristics of farming in the Cameron Highlands is the very intensive nature of it. Large amounts of chick

en dung are used as fertilizers here while the use of artificial fertilizers is minimal. Crops such as spinach, bell peppers, and celery are grown under cover to protect them from the rather heavy rains that fall around here. Water for the crops is normally piped to the fields. Each farmer

grows between five and six different crops per annum, and what farmers grow at any one time depends on how they react to the market conditions. Each farmer follows his own judgement in the choice of crop to grow, and while crop rotation is practiced, in that no two crops of the

same vegetable are grown on the same plot of

land consecutively, there is no predetermined cy

cle of crops.

6. Whilst generally cultivation of vegetables in

the Cameron Highlands is done on slopes of

around 20•‹, it is not uncommon to find cultiva

tion being carried out on slopes of more than

40•‹. Such land use has resulted in the very seri

ous problem of soil erosion. Since the farm land

is only leased from the state govermnent on a

year to year basis, the farmers are only keen to

obtain as much as they can on their plot of land

and are not too worried about the soil erosion.

7. Most of the vegetables produced in the

Cameron Highlands are consumed within Malay

sia, but some 25-30 per cent of the crops is ex

ported to Singapore. Transportation of the

vegetables is by large trucks.

Acknowledgement

The author expresses his gratitude to his academic ad

viser, Prof. Dr. VOON Phin Keong of the Department of

Geography, University of Malaya, as well as Mr. LAI

Poh Heong of Lember Pantai Teachers' Training Col

lege, for their kind advice and help in this research and

writing this paper. In addition, the assistance of the

Managing Director of the Cameron Highlands Vegeta

ble Growers' Association, Mr. CHAY Ee Mong, in

providing invaluable information, is also deeply ap

preciated.

The author takes this opportunity to thank the Japan

Society for the Promotion of Science, as well as Vice

- Chancellors' Council of the University of Malaya and

Socio-Economic Research Unit, Prime Minister's Depart

ment, who has helped him in one way or the other. Fi

nally, the assistance of Prof. Emeritus, Dr. and Mrs. Karl

A. SINNHUBER, Wirtschaftuniversitat Wien, in providing

invaluable critical comments during the preparation of

the manuscript is also deeply appreciated.

(Received July 12, 1988)

(Accepted Sep. 25, 1988)

Notes

1) This road was built principally, with the benefits to

the British in mind, by Tamil labor. That the Chinese

were also involved in the road construction was in

cidental. After J. D. CLARKSON (1968): The Cultural

Ecology of A Chinese Village: Cameron Highlands,

Malaysia. The University of Chicago, pp. 63-64.

2) The author found records in the National Archives,

Malaysia, that permits for the building of private

bungalows and other hotels were issued from after

1938.

210 S. SHIRASAKA

3) The majority of the Chinese in the Cameron Highlands today are Cantonese.

4) Through interviews with local Chinese Malaysian residents.

5) Same as Note 4.6) The land system as practiced in Pahang was in

troduced into the state by William MAXWELL in 1891 from Selangor. This was the Torrens System, as named after the Governor of South Australia. Two main features of this Torrens System are that land can only be granted to an individual in the name of the state's ruler, i.e. the Sultan, and all such grants must be registered with the state's Land Office, the copy of the register being kept by farmer. However, in the Cameron Highlands, land is generally leased to the farmers under temporary occupation lease.

7) As obtained from the Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association, there are 950 members of this association, of which 150 are relatively new migrants to the Cameron Highlands and these are

mainly to be found in Kuala Terla and Kampong Raja.

8) Since the use of artificial fertilizers renders the soil hard after some time, the principal fertilizer among the most farmers is chicken dung.

9) From conversations with flower cultivators, in November, 1985.

10) From conversations with the Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association, it is gathered that

out of the annual production exported from the Cameron Highlands, 25-30 per cent goes to Singa

pore, 40 per cent to Kuala Lumpur, 25 per cent to Ipoh and 5 per cent to other towns, for example, towns on the east coast of the Peninsular Malaysia.

11) Five baskets can be made within an hour. This industry began in 1955. Today, each basket costs

M$2.00 and is paid for by the farmers themselves.

References

BUTCHER, J. (1979): The British in Malaya, 1880-1941: The social history of a European community in colonial South-East Asia. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 68-166.

CLARKSON, J. D. (1968): The Cultural Ecology of a Chinese Village: Cameron Highlands, Malaysia.

Department of Geography Research Paper (University of Chicago), No. 114, Illinois, U. S. A., 174p.

DING, T. H., P. VIMALA and S. YUSOH (1981): A Special Report on An Agro-Economic Study of Vegetable Farming in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI

(Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute), Kuala Lumpur, pp. 123-139.

HUSSAIN, F., R. IBRAHIM, G. Ch., TEOH, Sw. K. ONG and Z. IBARAHIM (1982): The development of the vegetable gardening activities in the Cameron Highlands. Graduation thesis, Department of Geography, University of Malaya, 20p. (in Malay and unpublished)

ICHIKAWA, T. (1966): Koreichi no Chirigaku (Geography of Highlands in Japan). Reibun-sha, Nagano, Japan, pp. 209-232.

LIM, K. P. (1972): Vegetable production in Cameron Highlands - An economic study. Malayan Agriculturist, Vol. 10, pp. 14-23.

REED, R. (1976): Remarks on the colonial genesis of the hill station in Southeast Asia with special reference to

the cities of Buitenzorg and Baguio. Asian Profile, 4, pp. 545-591.

REED, R. (1979): The colonial genesis of hill stations: The Genting exception. Geographical Review, 79-4, pp. 463-468.

SAITOH, I. and H. M. CHEN (1984): Development of the cultivation of temperate deciduous fruits and midlatitude vegetables in the Central Mountains, subtropical Taiwan. Tsukuba Studies in Human Geography, Institute of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, 8, pp. 141-180.

SAITOH, I. (1987): Hill resorts and mid-latitude vegetable cultivation. Chiri (Geography), 32-8, pp. 70-74. (J)

SPENCER, J. and W. THOMAS (1948): The hill stations and summer resorts of the Orient. Geographical Review, 38, pp. 637-651.

TAN, T. M. (1970): Floriculture in the Cameron Highlands. Geographical Journal (Geographical Society, Nanyang University, Singapore), No. 3, pp. 51-64.

VOON, P. K. and S. H. KHOO (1980): Upland development and settlement in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol. 1, pp. 43-56.

WITHINGTON, W. (1961): Upland resorts and tourism in Indonesia: Some recent trends. Geographical Review, 51, pp. 418-423.


熱帯アジアのHill Stationにおける農業的発展

-マレーシア,カメロンハイランドの事例-

白坂蕃*

東南アジアの熱帯や亜熱帯に属する地域には,一般に

hill stationと呼ばれる山地集落がある。これらは, 19

世紀に植民地活動をしたイギリス人やオランダ人が熱帯

の暑い気候環境から逃れるために開発した集落であり,

元来,地元の人々が開発したものではない。日本でも

6-9月は暑さの厳しい気候であるが,かつてのイギリス

領マラヤやオランダ領東インドなどでは, 1年を通して

そのような気候の下にある。

マレーシアでは,このような植民地起源のhill station

としてカメロンハイランド(the Cameron Highlands)

が最も良く知られている。カメロンハイランドは,マレ

ーシア半島中部の中央山地にあり,標高は1,000～1,500

mに広がる高原である。今日では, summer resortで

あると同時に,その冷涼な気候を利用して,一大温帯蔬

菜生産地域となっている。筆者はカメロンハイランドに

おける農業的土地利用や温帯蔬菜栽培の特色を分析し,

熱帯アジアにおけるhill stationのもつ今日的意義を考

える。

カメロンハイランドは, 1885年William CAMERON

によって発見されたが, hill resortとしての開発は1926

年以降のことである。カメロンハイランドではhill re

sortとしての開発と同時に,華人による温帯蔬菜の栽培

が始まった。また第二次大戦後の蔬菜栽培発展に伴い,

新しい集落が形成されている。

カメロンハイランドにおける人口(24,068人, 1894年)

の約50パーセントは華人(中国系マレーシア人)で,彼

らが蔬菜栽培の中心となっている。カメロンハイランド

における温帯蔬菜の栽培は,標高1,000m以上の地域に

みられる。この地域では,こんにち,約25種にのぼる温

帯蔬菜が栽培されているが,白菜,キャベツ,そしてト

マトが三大蔬菜となっている。これら蔬菜の種子は,そ

の殆どが日本から供給されている。

蔬菜栽培農家における労働力は,殆どが家族のみであ

る。また蔬菜栽培には大量の鶏糞が使用されており,耕

作はきわめて労働集約的である。また,ほうれんそう,

ピーマン,セルリなどの蔬菜には,雨除け栽培がおこな

われている。どのような蔬菜を栽培するかは,市場価格

を念頭において,個々の農家が選択するために,明確な

輪作体系は存在しない。

こんにち,カメロンハイランドで生産される蔬菜は,

マレーシア半島の主要都市に大型のトラックで輸送され

ているが,総生産量の25～30パーセントは,シンガポー

ルに輸出されている。

* 〒184東京都小金井市東京学芸大学教育学部

Documents

The Agricultural Development of Hill Stations in Tropical