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What is textual analysis 1

What is textual analYliis

Tedual anruYlis isa way for reseuchers to gather information about how other human heings make sen5e of the world it IS a methodshyology - it datagathering proOSS - for those relKarcIufS who want to umJerstand the yays in which members of various iulhlrex and suhcultures make senampe ot who they are and of hmgt they filt into the wmld in which live llexturu analysis is useful for researcners

ill cultural studuelI iludia studies in mass LOffimunkation and perhaps even in SOCiology and phflolophy

tets oplm with ltt straightforw~ml decriptiol1

Vhatis textual analysis

Vhen we perform textual anruysigt on It text we make an educated guess at some of the most likeI interpretationgt that might be made of that ten

Ie texts films television pmgrammes mlgalines adxcrshytisellJleuronts r clothes gra(fiti iibnd so on) tn order to try and obtain a sense of the ways in which in particular cu1turgte5 ilt particular times people make sense of the world Mound them And importantly by seeing the vadet of ays in which it is possible to interpret Ieality~

lAealso understand out own culnues better because we can start to see the limitations and adivantages of our mvn sense-makingpracticcs

Is that the only way to study texts

Of COIlfSC Im trying to make things simple here and nothing igt reuUy that simple This book only intrmluces one versioll of textual

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1 TEXTUAL AlgtillYSiS

analysis Academics who do textual analysls acmall prll-tise a huge range of methodologies -many of Which are mutually contradIlt1ory ltrnd Incompatible (for a Stllse of this range see Allen 1992) Thi

book explains a form of textuill analysis whereby we attempt to understand the likelyinterprelations cgtf~exts made by pe)p~e who consume them Tllis is liH~t the only coned methodology for gathering information about texts Other approadles nUl also pitlshyduce useful information no approach tdh us the tfllth about a culture Ws important to realize that different methodologies wm produce different kinds of information - elen iJ they are used for anmysing similar questions

For example suppose you were interested in what tbe responses of teleislon viewen to an lmpmted American progrwIlme the 1980s soap opera DytwitJi) have to ten us ubuut heml audiences make rgtense of the nation in which they ive You could try to llnd out this infmmation in ltI number of Wll~lS ~mfessor Jostlill (irlpsmd indudes two of these in his bcikll8 Dynasly lears (1 Ou the onelHlJla Cidpsrud draws on large~scale numerical surveys about l))Ira~~ty

viecrs He uses r4fltings informittitln for example to teU us how many people wiltdntl the pmgramme - fmdillg out that in Dcctmber 198-863 per cent of tIle women and 57 per cent of the men surveyed in his home Ountry of Noftjmy had SEell at least one episode of Dynasty in the season that had just run This ls useful inivrmation -Dutit doesnt tenus atl1hmg about the mrys in vhim viewers watch this pmgnilTIme It doesnt ten us nWl they interpreted itiihat they thought it was about what relationship they thought it had to their olIllives (Grlpsrua 1995 113) Gripsmd goes on to bwe5tigate other issues in this large-scale survey asking viewers what they disliked abmlt the progntmme Hepoilltlgt out that less than 25 per cent of llle peoplc surveyed thought that the programme was UUltillilgttilt for example Eie uses this evidence to suggest that the vit~wers of the programme are likely to he relating it to their own 1Ue 1n some way (loieL 116)

But this methodology stm doesnt produce any information about how these viewen might havt been watching fgt)naslj 1n order to prochlHClarge-sctle generaliUllble information it 11gt necessary to mm people Ilto numbers Theres no other r~y to handJ( the inforshymAtion So Gripnlld does t)lis He produces Gltcgories and he fit people into them hut thl$ information doesD1t us any liense of bow audience members actually use a programme To produce that kind of informataml would requirc a different kind of appmach different kinds of quesUons - a quite diffeR1lt methodolgy

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tHAT lS TEXnJAL ANALYSIS 3

Gripsrud quotes an intervtew with one viewer of 1)~FlTl1St The amount of detai and spedfidty about this one vh~ifer is amazing compared with hlf status in the official as I single unit

Thh ~ an iflteHigent bank emlkryee in ber thitlit-s _ he r hu~oond has a Nt more oolJc1ukm but far less incentel1i~en(e hff hJgthand tegu1M1r Deatl her MlIl hUllfliUaes her it lttrlos other INajl~ When leLling tb~ IIHi1VreWer ilb(ui hct sexual mj~ry tht~wUi (lell her cnvn InItiatii( gttatted talking abautDynltIlI) You Im quite romru~tky vnu see Whal I likt w tdl 00 televi5ion is DplliUt bull I drmiddotcam that Id like some tendetm$~ and compassion flbld~ 156)

In the methodology of lruge-ipoundcaRe surveygt pwcssed as such a viewer becomes HI per cent of tnt people vho dont thInk that Dynasty IS unrealistic Using that methodology the simHarity of her to that of other viewers is emphaized But In aninterltieV iike thi~ it is the lmiquenlaquosfo of her situation that becornes obvious - the individual ways In whhch her own Ufe experishyence informs the use she makes of this teievIsion programme md the intetprehUons she produces nf it

These nVQ different methodologies produce qUite different l1it1ures of television vlewrs and tbeirint-cpretatrvE practices lhlll is because the questions that you ak have l1n effect on the InfmrnaHon that you fmdL Different methodologies produce different kinds of answers

This is an important point Tillere isnt lOne true answer to the question of how viewers watch tlTIs tdevi$ionprogramme Depending on hOl you gather Ytllr infurmatioll you will find different answers And you cant fit these ditrenmt pieltt1gt of information together like a jigsaw to produce the truth abnut how vievers watch Dymlil) You can know in detail hm a small nUlnber of people watch a programme or you can know in a more abstract way Imw lots of people watdl But you cant really know both at once If we simply interviewed everyone of the millions of Norwegian fJrlI(isty viewers in this way we stiU wouldnt end up with it pedectly lcmnrte pidmc of how they interpret thIs text QUite apart flOm the inCQllshyceivable cmt of such a project at some point it would be necelgtztry to boH down me information to look for patttrmj to reduce viewers experiences to the things that they have in common in order to produce an account that wasnt tVcnty minion words long As soon as the information is hoiled down into categorles it presents a different type of picture to that whid1 emerges rom the indiVidual nteflltiew shybut no less of a true one Ditlerent methodologies produce dhIferent kinds of information - the might not tVcn he C()mpiltiblt~

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4 TEXTUAL ANALVSS

What is ~ text

If textual analsis Imrolves anaiystng texts theJ1 - hat exalttly Ii a text An$wer wheuever we produce-an Interpretation of som(~tu meaHillg 11 book television programme tUm magazine or-shirt or kitt pIece of furniture or ornament - ve trelit it as ill text l text l something that we make meaning from

Sawfly not just say book or film or whatever

We use the word tel oeGliLIse it flaB- particular implications There are no twoeuct synonyms in the English language - words always have slightly different meanings amI connotations The word text has post-stnlduraHst impliOltions for thinking about the production of mtgtaning

And that woutd mean exactly bull1

Different adturEs make sense of the worM in very different ways Times Books international publishes a series of books to help travUen visiting other rounutrles The series is caLit(iCulture Shock (Craig 1979 Hurand HUT 11993 Roces and Roces 1985) The books are not just tourist guidCs they are attempts to help the visitor a their tithe gtuggfst~ - overcome (ullme shock the experience of visiting another culture thats different not noly in language but in its whoie way of making sense of the world fn their hook on the Philippines Alfredo and (~race Hoees use this exampLe ttl explain how dlfferent another cultures ways of making smiddoteme of the world can be

Alter 110 yeilt~ in the JgttliHpplnes IDe G Brampdioro an Anterkafl h~ace Corps VQlImeer wrote to ()lle of his ~(IUell~s I reiUere bet how quickly dilCOWred that people dtdnt tmdersland me Tbe ~lmphe~H things to me eemed not itJmHiar to themampt all I triedl e~ptdflr but Ihl fll~l1et 1 gOI il1iOAt1 explafliHiO1 Ibe ~mier 1 looked tllddenly i felt liill1ermilled the motlllgttr prenlistgt values alld understandings were of IO help to me for these iJfldetstandlllgtli and Wll of dOing ilnd SetIlS thlngs iUSl dhlnt i1ILr even Theft was a big gapiltnces and Roces 1985 amp3 Cll1phltuls 111 ofigliHli

Studying other cuhures Inukes dear that ~lt many levels the ays of making sense of the world employed can be quite different The

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WHIgtT gt HXHJAI ANAlYStS 5

Western visitor to the lhUippine~] finds he is talking the same Janguage but not communkating ilt all he rskJis in ltIn entirely different middotviHld (ibid 1) lhese differences operate at a varlet) of levels from the 1110poundt superfkial to thos~ lilhieh chlIlIenge our very fmmdttioIlS for thinking about what relJUy 15 and how it works

Dlffer(ocfs in value judgements At the simplest level tldture5 maY~lscrihe different Itveh of aIm to things around them iiur exal11pie ever tli1ture includes people who have more body fat thdn others Elut there is no universal agreement about whether having more body fat than your feHem dtizeus is a good thing or a boo thing In Western countries a mmiJinathm of medical lthnd aestiufic discourses insist that being larger is not a good thing it is mUher attractive nor healthy we are forevr being told lwVe aremnstantlymiddot surrounded by reminders that this is the case by people who might fm example buy a T-shlrt Umt says No fat chicks [Enter it roomlbar or evtl1t and let fat (hicks know your Isk) not antrested [sic] Shirtgoo 2()02 luckily you can avoid such people by wEaring a [middotshirt yourself that s~tys No morol15who cant spell

And mch valuejudgemmb arenl natural nor are they lmiversill In other cultures completely different ~tmlldarlli apply in the African country of Niger helng targer is a posItive quality and something to be sought after

Fat Is fhe beattty idea for women In Niger especiany in the vilta of Mfltl~dl where they lake fgtUf(lids to gain bu tk piUs it gth~tilell

and f~n ingcgtt feed or vlimmins Ilkantfot anlinalgt many compete to Drtome Ilitaviist and rain for beMlty COi1tests g()tgtng ot1poundood Oulishi 2001 4

The idea that different cultures make difftrent Vltllle Judgements about things is common sense - we already knmv this Sut the differences in seosf-mniing in various cultures go mud further th1ID this

Differences In tM eidstence of abitract things In books about CTO$s-rultural communication YOll utten find phragtes like it has not been pOIkgtible to find satisfactory Iingli$h translatiOlu for these expressicH1sl0f Hungarian politeness and greetings fommlas ilnd kum$ of nddressj (Salaz ]985 1(3) or [Jln the Hopi languilge there i no word for time (iiuglesang 1982 40)

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6 TEXTUAL ANAlLYSI~

Abstract nouns describing things that dont have a f)hyskll existmiddot encebull vary mlrked]y from culture to culture We tall attempt to translate these from languagetoanguage but these transiations are often rough - tmying to find the closest equivwit1tlgt in 1 different sensemaking system lbut differing quite widely Hiya for exiLmpie is the foremost social value in the fhiUpptnes according to Culwrl Shack Lind can b roughly translated liS shame but It is rather it

difficult l middotord to defme because the range and scope of this concept tlnd the variety of ways in which it functions in FIliplno ndlture have no equivalent in English

II is a unlvetsal gtOctal sanctl~n creating ltl deegt tflliolional feltllHsI10n of fibiled to liVe ui 10 the ~tandald~ of $cl(ht Hliplrw employees tend not to a~K queslIDt1S of a upervisof even If they are not quite sure what tbeyshouM do bocliuse of tlla Ii nOgt1 may spend more than ~1ie clIn afford fOf a pany dttvcn by Illy lin emplo)ee dismissed frum hB roay react vloefltly becauS of hiyil (Roc(s and Roces 1985 30)

Some cultures have no words for round squaremiddot or triangular (fugtesang 1982 16) - these concepts arent useful for their ay of Ufe Others dont have wont for and dont use the concepts of abstradlons like speed or matter (Whorf quoted in FugJesang 1982 34) lhe way in lhieh tbey mLke sense of the woddis not built on these abstractions that tee so familiar to Westem culture Anthropologist rruglesang describes the culture of Swahili speakers in Africa and the wayiS in which they make scme of the world without the abstract nouns that Westerners are used to For examplt the iUIIS~ler to the question How big IS your house is I have house for my mcestor~ the iCe and God gave 1111 eigb1 dlildrel1 [Swamr With repeated questioning it tums out that the house is fifteen paces When aSKed Huw mong 1pound n pace the answer is The headuan Mr Viyambo dioes the pacing in the village BWllil1ia (quoted in Fugleslling 1982 34l In the Western world~view such armveurors dont make s~nse In Swahili because measurement Is not anabtract the answer is

meaningful - it teHs toe question Ill trhat the) need to know about Iww this mea$Ui~menll was done Fof the speaker this is the really important thing Similarly the absence oJ an rtbstrad time lead to different ways of making sense of exp~riencl When was your son born Mulenga M~ son was born two rliny seas(nts after the great drought (ibid 1982 3i-8 Asruglesang says time only exists wh~n it is experienced In the African vmage it is simp1) non-stmslcal to say HI do not have time (ihid38)

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Differences in the Existence of amcnto tl1irnp This is the difficult part Its possiblehl argtle that in different senseshymaking litructures even physical objects exist djfferently The G)mmonest example for this is the multiple words that Inuit languages have for describing Imnw VnereEnglish only has one An Inuit speaker (an describe call tlisUnguish hetween- eLm in a gtvay set - many different kimis of object in Ii snowy tandKape (dlfferCut kinds of snow) An English speake who doesnt have the (uJturc knowledge or expf1iience to distinguish between them wont see many different kinds of object Vor him or her there is only undiHcrentiatrd snow The different kinds of snow dont exist for the EngHsh spelker as diUerentiated objects Ibis is not simply a different value judgement on elements ot reality ifs seeing rtJdUy differently Objiects dont exist In the liamc way In the sememaktng pratctkes of dimmmt cuiturts Objects -1lnd even people - can be fltt~ into quite different G~tegorits til different ways of making rense of the world

111 western sncieties there is a trillQrttlie dliltisitlll of ltije groups into child ren yomigSIiefS [adolescents l atJd lti(hd11i - with an almost cultic soda attention (icorded to )cmUt and the OlIthful and )t)lle~elr a badly concealed contempt fflf old age In other suletiegt for example Bltinttl socleUei itl Africll the dvlslon~ h~Ii it diflfuitttlt ltatm enlpllitis and fo1ow different llnl~ - dlll(hll1 itduHs tMIf (Fugt~mg 77)

]here is no equivalent of elderin Vlestem culture Not all old peop]e ihre elders not all elders are old people It is a different kind of person - a Ylse peuon with a highociaI standing becllIuse of their l11owledge and experience - who doesnt exist in Westemruitures

Differences in ridatiomhips belwLen things Noting that it isnt possible to tfm~late ltI number of Hungarian lVOlfds

that are politeness and greetingsformwas and fonm of address into EJlgl1shRLlIliZi states that until the nineteEnth century Hungary had no general ~ord for you that didnt imply a socia relationship of inferlclkity and superiority to the speaker everyone had ttl establish such a relationship every time they spoke to each otber By contrast in Ollr modern senscmaJdng systems we dont need to place each other into a mition or inferiority or superiorit) when we to ~adl other Similarly the linguist Benjamin leE harf l1ottd that in the Native American language HopV it is not even possible to sa] my mom - theres no phrase in the hm1l11ge that equates to this

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8 TEXUAt ANAlYSIS

Hopi society does not reveal IIny indlrvidual proprietenhip ~ of moms (Vhorf 195620n So different sense-making systems demand or allow differlnt ays of thinking about the relatiomhips between people and things in EngUsh yuu eem own a room

Dfff(gtfeurortCl3 in remon and thinking 111euro way In which its possible to construct an argument in Western culture is commonly ba-ed on logical reasoning that we inhelit from clauicai Greece These undedie OUI mathematixa systems as well and we onen think of them as being the only corred way in gtrlkh ruch rei1soning middotcan li11lte place After all 2 T 2 4 But they are not the only correct forms of logic Agt John O narrow r~rofes5or of Astrnnmny at the Univcnity of Sussex argues Western semcnuldng works

IWitb~ ill tW(Hltlhl~d h)~k bull every shltlttntnt 1all hvoposlibie tnlth rdhle5~ it I elther IntI or false Ibut in I 1 non-Western uihrre hike that of the Jains in nChnt ndlabull one I~nd$ a tlll)re llttltude towards tb~ tmth statUgt ()f statements Ttle possibllit that a stal-emeot might be jlld~ennhlilt~ is admitted jltitlliln logJemdmHs Seven categories fota stateIltllt ~ (1) maybt~ It i$ (2) lll)ybe it is not (l~ maybe it ili but it iS not (4) n~l1Ibe it is indet(~rminab~ (S)maybc it is btlt it is inclctertnillare (6 L~lll)llle U Igt not bQt is indetetnllnil1e (7) maybe it Is and it is not aud i~ alS() indietert11illah We rmathe maHcians do ilot ltlach iIIlly dlamctet oi ilbsobi~ truth to aIrY pamntlat S)tICIl1 or ogle bull there exiSts more Hum one tOimaf

wh~~e lIlse as a Logic ill fea$llb~ and of these one may bt- more pleasin~~ or more comcHient than allother but H (tIl1flOt be ~ld that Dne is right and the other wtol1g t992 15 16)

DlffrmUlCf15 in seeing thing5 rerhaps the most sutprising differences come in eidence that people living in different sense-making systems can Iiterlt1Hy -e-l the world differently A subdiscipline (If psydlology looking at vtsual perc~l)shytion ha-s focused on optic iHwiiom in mder tn try to lmder$tand how our brains process visual information One of tiu~gte is the 50middot

called MuUer-1yertigure parallcl horiwntal Hnes of equal length the tnp one has an ilillTow-head at each end pointing outwards th( bottom one has an arrow head al each end pointing inwards

Most Eumpeansget taken in this optical illUSion and think that the top Une is shortef than the ixltiom line ecn though theyre both

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WHIIT IS TEXTIJl ANALYSIS 9

identical when measured rith a mler Hut people from non-European cultures it turns out showed much less Illusion effect (Coren and Girgus 1978 Robinson 1972 109) IndIgenous Austratians tor example llere ideddediy less susceptible to the Illusion thlln were Ull~ British sdentLsts administering the tests (i~romanl 197pound) $2)1n short psychology argues thal wlnrt Jl perwn sees is determined by hat he guesses he sees (ibict 59 ileople from different sense-maldng sysmiddot tems can literaHy see the world differently (Coren and Girgtts 1918 141 Robinson 1972 UO)

I can see that other cultures make SEn5ie of tne world very differently but perhaps they are wrong and my culture is corred

TrueIf llte acltept that different cultures have different sense-making pradices and that they see reality In a varlety flf dtfferent ways the next question hgt how do It judge those different ways of making sense of the world

1 think there ale bilSically three diflercnt re~pon~s to this qllestiom

A realist n~spnme m) culture hililgot it right_ It shnply describes reality Other cultures are wrong

A ~tTlI(tlrrillist response aH these culnues seem to be mIlking sengtpound of the orld differently but underneath have common structures rheyre not an that different people aerogtgt the world are baS1Cldly the same

bull A l)fJstslrmturalist approach aU these cultures do indeed make senlie oJ the wmld differently and it Is impossible to say that one is right and th~ others are wrong~ In a sense people from differshyent cultures experJeme reality differently

AU these positions exist in ClUrel1t Vlstem cultures and aU have histories tbat we can trace back to previotl centuries Some nineteentb-~entury British anthropologiSts for exampie thought that tJlt other cuatures studied were - as the title ofn key book by timiessor [tit Tytor puts it - Primitive Culture 1) lhey tbought these cultures weH~ it less evolvli-tl state of society and studying them could thro[w] light upon tbe earlier stages of ctlltlm~ of dVmlH~d pt~)ples Le British ptOplel (ibid 131) These anthropologists thought that their OWl1culture - their sense-making pHKHce~ shyslmpiy delicr~bgtd ho the world reaUy 1iI1i Other cultures were

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10 TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

interesting but we couldnt learn from them howta think diUerentir The anthropologists studied them in a sense because they were fascinated by just how wlcmg they were Ihis iswhtit I can a realist way of thinking about the diUerena between cultures thinking that one way of representing and making sen$t of reality ltan be the true one 50 aU others are necesrarily wrong

Other antbrofmlogists in the nlneteenth century studied other cultures - and particularly their religions - so they could fmd out what they had in cammon They tlied to look beyond superllciaI differences to find underlying stmtiULes the universal sphrit which evelY creed tries to emlmdyJ (Haddon 1910~ 137) These antbrn poogists looked for common images ill dlfferentlreligiom - Hke the figure of a sun 01 a moon god - lIud then found them in religiOUS texts of diffcrentmltmes even -hen they were not apparent to most observers lIS nne early account of this pracvic puts it certain (anthropologisb such as Ehrenreich) fOy ood Frobenius fmd the sun (111(1 moon gods in the most unlikeiyphices (ihid 142)

The third approam what j can ipo~t-1tfUcturalismi (although that word is a recent label for it can he traced back to the work of nineteenth-century pbHosophcifsUkeFrioorich Nlctzschc Nietzsdumiddots Wf)CK oum really addressed l)reiou5 philosophical writing rather than cultures gellCmHy but it is possIble to trace a hIstory that links his thinking to the kinds of cultural relativism that Im describing here (Cuff et aL 1998 239) He argued that Western mlture in particutmr

the phKpound of reason u the utimaleform of human thought and best way of organizing a was only one pos~ible approach to sen~eshymaking and not the ideal end poInt of humaneYoiuUol1ilalherthan seeing rational des(TIptlons of the world as simply describing the truth of rhe world post-structuralist approadws to sense-making see aU forms of language aU sense-making strategies - as lmvmg their Oivn advautages ltlnd limitations (Ibid 242)

As I saidabovt aU these p0itiouSo still exist in Western cultures And beiCause the question is ultimately n ph11osopbkaJ one about the nature of reality and our relationship to It its not possible to prove which is correct There no irrefutable argument that you can make to prove one OVLr the otheir

The position that Im talking in this book - the one that makes most sense to me - is the third ()ne~ the form of tultural relativIsm that I cali post~structuralism It seems t() me that we make sense of the reality tbut we live in throughOUT LUltufcs and th~lt different cultures (ltIn have Vi~ry different experiences of reality No single representation of reility mil be the only true om or the onlyoccmate

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WHIIT IS TEXTUAL ANALYSIS 11

one or tile only one thaitreflects reality because othEr cu)tures wiH always have alternltitive and equaUy valid fyays of representing and making seJlse of tbat part of el1ily As i say t cantpmve that this is (onect I think this way bec3ugte ( the kinds of information that Ive mention(11 above - ahout how very different the 5tgttlgte-making pracmiddot tices of other cultures are - and the fad tbat many U1 those cliltures seem to function I)eif(L11y ell even though their lImiclstandfng of reality is very different from mine It seems to mt dml it would be a

bit of a coincidence if I just happened to be born into the (mly mlture thats got it right The reason tbat I think like this might also be due to some pCf50mti experieme I -lttS horn-again Christian for many years tina did bdievie quite fmuly that myDY of making sense of the world IlS right and everybody elses as wrollg When I stopped being a Christian 1 J)tluted to be mspidous ot people wbo claimed that their way ofseeillg the wndd W3gt the only correct one

Its ~vorth noting that this kind of odturaUy relath1st pOlitmiddot structuralism isnt lust limited to academk5 110 Jive in iV0I) tmVlngt

and hllVe nothing to do with tile real wmld (to lise some common Inrults that aut oitt1I1i thrown at us - although Ive never actuaHy met an academic vho Uves in an tower and most of ns still do Ollr

shopping In the real wodd) More and more people are travelling internationally and business in particular ts ever InOl1ltf trlll1snationllL This means that even those people who are concerned with making mouey and so are often held up as the epitome of the real wurld (that is bmineispeople) increasingly acknowledge cultural relativism as a neDssary reanty of their work You do business rith people ryha are human beings l)eople Hurt you have to t1)flince persuade and seduclt to work with you (although there is some overlap in intermiddot nationai situations businessis Slightly different from gtar- you t~~IIlt

just kill your potentiat partners if they dont submit) This is one reason tlmt there has reCnUy been a nla~sive increase in research into crosHURuratcommunitatloll (Loveday 1985 31) AI] increasshying number of mlUlualsaimed at business people attempt to expliual just how different the ways of making senre of tht~world of various cultures are for exampie Garmon and Nman 2D02 Hendon et at 1996 Yamada 1992) 1t is important for Dusiness tOlJncierstand how colleagues in other (uiturcj make sense of tht wurld diJfirently

those differences and work with them PDr an fmencan busmiddot nessperson 1siting Japan for example~

At fim things In the cttiegt look pretty mudl ailke There art ~ad

hotels Theatres But preU) 001) the Am~d(jlll diS()yltcrs that

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12 TEXTUAL ANAlYSIS

Undelleatn the fMltlUlar exterIOr Ihere ~ Vitil dHlerencetVJhtl1 someone says res it ofren does 11 t meilJ ts at all and when 1Ie(l)ie sntile itdoeult always mean they are When the Anlfrkan visitor mak5 a helpfu1 gesture he mil) be when he hie to be frlendl~ hil[~ns Poople lellhhn thlllt they lt111 do thil1gsand donL Thi km~t he stays the more itflJgmat1c the ne COlmtty looks (Hallquoted in Adler 19amp7

The physical surroundingamp may look similar but the way in vdlch the wlture lnakes sense of them is very dHferlnt This is 11 post structuralist pmition to businesspeople as a necessary part of the very real concern of moneyinteEnltttionaUy Its not possible to prove that this is the corred way to understand the different ways that cultures interpret their realities but for me and fOT tnt5t intemationtll businSSptople its one th~d makes sense

rbis then is IIhy M use the word itexta~ well itlc being II conshyvenient term for aU the variolls elements of mitme that we use to produce interpretatiolu (indudlng as suggested above not books nlms magazines and tt~Ievhlon programmes but aiso dothshying furniture and so on) this term has been favoured by post-stmltturaiJst writers this word impiies 11 post-structuntlist appngtacn to culture - to work out how lLltures make sense of the world noisn we can judge them against our own culture sud not tu seek out deep truths aLTOSS witllres but to map out and try to Imaerstmd the variety of dlffcrent ays in which peoples can make sen~e of the world

It is also why bullre sometimes use the Ord read instetld of intershypret when were tlIking about t1Ilturc rather than writing how do people Interpret thlltl textwe use how do p~ople relld this lext Even iiits a film or a television programme we talk about rearling it Again the word bas post-sinHillralist implications

Whats all this got to do with textual analYSis

Depending on what approaCh you tlt1ke to jlldging different cultures sense-making pructkes- the dHferent ways they make sense of the world - you analyse texts in ditfmiddoterel1tways FlOm it realist pershyspedheuro you look for the single text that you think repregtelltigt reamy

most llCCllf3tely and all other texts agtliIlsl that one From a structuralist perspectfle you 100 for the structlues that arent actmdJ) appIDentiu the text hllt thlt you Cilfl fmd spedalized

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WHAT 15 nxrUAllINAUSIYI B

trainnng Prom II poststructumlist perspldhe you lOOK for the differences between texts without claiming thit one of them is me only correct one

Okay Fine Im convinced lut most of the texts that Im going to be analysing dont come from other cultures - theyre prodo(ed in my owncountJ) or in ones wittl very similar cultures - America Britain or Australia So how relevant is an this

YpoundadHional anthropology Wltk$ llbol1t studying exotic cuitures- the more different were tromWe1gttern ltultllle the more intercSUng they were (partkularlyindigenous African Amerilt~m and ustralian (ultures) But in the course of the ttentietn century anthropologist reilUzed that they (ould study their own natiom as well (Stocking 1982 xiii) These kinds of studies made it dear that ev~n witbin a single nation there exist a VaIlllty of different cultures As R~lph

Linton puts it in his 1936 louoduetion to anthropology While [cultural anthropologists] have been lI(custom~d to speak of bull

natlomtUties as though the)1 were the primlU) cuLtufft-Deafing units the total rnlture of Ii society of this type is really an aggll~gat~ of subshytuiturts (1936 That is to say ltIi national U~ture isnt made up of millions of identical people who all make sense of the world in exactly the same way Rather it consist of a mixture of many overlapping tllbcultun] For example anthropologists have identishyfied distinct sub)nllture~ - distinct groupings of people who make sense of the world in their ogtn ways - organlzetl mound hobbitS and Ufestyle choices (Irwin 1962) Iace (Kilano 1969) geogrnphilt~alloca tion (Morland 1971) the kinds or work people do rrurner 1911) ag~ illnd cultural (lIilusilt) preferences (Cohen 1972h ilnd semallty (Wotherspoon 1991) muong other factors And they found that these subcultures made sense of the gtoIlo in many different ways Not only their value judgements hut their abstralt1 syitellilli logic aud forms ot reasoning tOuJdVltuy remarkably even within oUe nation As ahove you Gill to this fact by dismi~ing othe subshycultures semc-maling prat1icrs is simply wrong comparecJ to your own - ltI Bot of early research cilUed these subcultures devbnt (hwin 1962) Rut you can also believe HUll these subcultures may have quite valid different ways of making sCl1Se of the 10dd Many 00$$shy

cultural communication guides now include two difft~rent kinds of information International cross-cultural commlmkatjon (betWtfIl

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nations and Intranational cross-nlltural communications (within nations) (see Bmnt and Fnntnger because Commtmkative misunderstandings conflicts and derailments can oeem not onI

betweell Ililtionall groups but aho between cultural groups within the same nation [ibld 119) Reseunhers hwe argued that althollbgttl tbe differences in sense-making betweu slIbcu It ures are 1101 as vast 8ltgt

those between rorexample IlrUisb ami Swahili cultures they are sun real And you hav to tike account of Ulese dUferemes if ym wInt to communicate ith people from different $llbltutture~ As one eros$shycultural guide it

W1HLfl adulTh 1alk wHh theil teellagellgt~ho91 the drug gt~ne the success of the discuStgtittl~ wiU tletJejld gtt~iJllIy()n tnt adult to WR axut druls in a Willy that cilitree$ mCltlnlng in terms of ldnlesctllt concem~ md expirjenc~j - and viice versa bull The dictionary mevmtng 13 of Hmitcd Wit 1 substance with nltdlI~a~ phYSiological eflt~IS H1gt dtws not tilbe illIt) acmunt m( fact tlllI adldts am1 kgten~ellgt briillj tbell own wadel of expedence and asl()ciaUon lmC) tile meaning of t11ltW01lt1

The meaning of thgt~ t~)ro Is determined fill lat~ INlEt by eadl per~onf cilaJactetilsHc fllll1tlpound oireferel1ft (SLaLaymd Fishf 1987 1(1)

lerfomung textual analysis then is an attempt to gather information ahoutsense-making practices - nnt only in culhllfl~s radically differshyent from our 011 but also within our own nations It allows us to see how similal or different the seme-making practices that different people usc call be And it is also po~jble that this can aliow us to better Ul1ciefltand the sense-making cultUre in which oW oursejvelgt live by $~il1g their limitations and posslble aitemutivcs to them

Of course if I pushed thfslhinking to its logical limit I could say that within RoUsh culture theres n 8riti~h youth UlltlII~ wHhin that a Black Hritish youth cultur-e liI Black male Rritish ymlth cultme Ii straight BIack male ilritish youth t-ulture ltl Northcm straight mack male British youth (ulture and so on urltil evelyhody would be ftduced to rheir own clIlturc with a mCIllbership of one Tlli$ 1s true but it shouldnt he a reaHzilid~u An or us reach a b~oad consensus aooutsense-making practices within the variety of nested culturcs in which we Hvc WhUe it is ultimatety true that nobody es~ sees 1verything about the world eXlcUy the same way that we do We

overlap enough to live together and to communicate llh other the consensus at thE level of the largest communiti - Hi) l national culture - is enough for us to make sense of it most of tne tiJlle but may orten jlr with OUT OWll practice sometimes wcU hear people lttho share a natioll with us saying things that just dont make any

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WHAT 15 TEXTUAL ANALYHS1 15

sense to us ecan understand how they ctJUJd possibly think thltit

way As the communities we are disclissing become SIThaUer md more spedaJized it is likely that the sense-making ccnuenSmi 11111 fit our own prtctiltesmore precisely

Youre writing a Sot about sense-making practices - but how can analysing texts help w to understand sense-making practices

Texts are the material traces that Me left of the prltldke of sensemiddot making - the empirical evidence we have of hmV other ptmiddotopie make sense of the world Jolm Hartley uses the metaphor of forensic sclence to dtlKribethis process fOrensic scientists never actually see a crime committed - by the time they arrive 011 the scene 1t has gone forever can nenf wind bilck time and witness it themselvEs tnd they can never bemiddot entirely certain about what happCneci8nt whllt Gin do is sift through the evidence that IS lett - the foremic evidence shylind make an educated aud tramed guess about middothat happened haed on that evIdence The fact that unlike physIcs bull this science i~ not repeatable - they Cillnt munier peapte them~eheS to see if it turns out exadly the same - doesnt stop them iLgt scientists using their training and expertise to attempt tn build up a picture of what happened luis cm standa~ a metaphor for hilt we do wben gtvcpedorm textual an~IVI~ we can neve] see nor reemer the actual praelice or senseshymaking All th1It we have is the eVldencethats left hehind of that practice - the text the material reauty lot texts) allows for th~ recovery lind critical inteuogation of disrursive politics in m

form ftexts] are neither scientific dlta nOJ historlcal documents out are literally forensic evidence (Hartley 1992

As Hartley say~ forensic scienL reUcs on dues This is how textual analysis also WOrk$ Ve can never know for certain how peop~e interpreted a particular text but w can look at the dues gather evidence about similar 5eme-muking pradkes (see Chltlpter and make educated guessegt

So were not analysing texts to ~ how accurate they are in their representation of reaUty

No this form of posl-Jitruduralist h~xtual ilnal)Sls is not about measshyuring medhil ~ext$ to see hmv RLCunltt they are But as I sald above

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16 TUTlIA ANAlY5$

this Is only one methodology that can be used in rultuTaistudies mroiu studies or mass communication studies Tilt realist mode of analysing texts described aboveis stillall important one within these disciplines This is piutkullrly the case in media studi~where many writers seek to me~lsure texts llgaimt FtalUy Indeed this is the most common public mode (If thinking about mediil texts It seems like common seflSf

lerucan he measured as being more or less ltJCCUrllW

Which is to sa) they em be mcasllco as to how accurately they tell the truth

bull Which tS to say they can be measured as to how Ilccurateiy they tell the truth about reality (Igtet Ellis 2000 13)

The diffI~-ulty with thIs approach fnnn it post-strtuturalist perspecshytive is that these terms dont recognize that people might nuKe sel1s~ of reality in quite different ways (as shown above) People tend to U~ these wmds in moralistic ways to insist that theres only om coned way ofmaklng sense of any situation and ats thfir way or doing H any other appromh is not just M alternative - it i~ necssarHy wrDng

Take the of the Christian Ministeil inten1ievicd on HH (Urrent affairs programme 4 Current Aniiir on the 7 November 200L The debate isabottt whether children should be caned in schoo A Parents and Citizens gmup is arguing that the Jaw shOllild stand as ~t

is children shouldnt be caned They present thelrreasons and their arguments [or this appromh TheMinister icS then intcniewedc He says It cant think of an) gmup of people who are less in touch with realIty than the 1~arentsJ and qHizens)

Is he right Do these people have no contact With fealtty Are til) ltIll qUite quite mad Of coune what he means is that he disagretgt$ with them They mLlkc sense of tll behaviour of chUdren the mle of schooling lind what would make a desirable sociCtyin ways that aTe so bizarre to him that the oulypoliiible explanation is that these people have no grasp on rcanty uld reality is the vay that he sees the world When the interviewer suggests that Thats not il very nice thing to say Youre meant to be 11 Christian bull the Minister replies Its the tIlith Being a cnristian is about telling the truth Thill is the truthc The pOSition put b those who Igtee the world differently from him is obviously not the truth Their deKription of the situation their interpretation af how lit should be dealit With is not the truth It may be Hes H may be madness but it IS not the truth Whitt is the truth rhe truth is the Minhh-rs perspective (for other exrunpEtS of

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WIiA 1$ TEXTUAl ANALyenSlS 17

this common ttndency poundeo Bantick 20tH Mcirory and 2001 7 BluUant 1986 153)

Another term which often gets pulled into ti1esereaJist forms of textual analysis ill biit - ll vord tbats used to claim ti1(lta text is not

accurate Sut as Slain Ellis points out When complaints of him are received [p]rodurers recognize that most cnargCli are madt in terms of peopies own subjective bias He providegt one of my favourite statistics Of aU com(Jiatms of bias television COYC1iaget rtCeived

after the 1975 tle(fiolLgt 412 said tbe [Australian Ilroadcasting (0[shy

pora~lonJ favoured Labor and 399 smd it twoured the coalition parties lthetwQ major sides In the election) (ElIis 1977 89) We tend to think that the terms truth and reality Me simple straightfoiWMd and obviow We ltssume without ever really thinking about it that ihert is only one possible truth bout any situatlltm 01 that everyone agrees on loat the r~alit of that situation t5 But in practice lin the real world) jf you lOOK lit how people upounde the word truth In their publi diSCUSSions YOli see that in fact use it to mean what m community thinks It li morai term we use it to make a d~lim about

people should thInk It doesnt matter if people disagree Vlth an opillion that we have - its just an opinion after rut But if the)l disagree -Uh something that we think is the truth - something that seems )mpletely obvious to us that it seems that nohody cCluld reasonably with- then we gd upset Despite tbe evidence around us eVeEY day that people from different Cllitures md 5ubshyculttJlessee different truthgt about ilny given situation we sun waru to believe that our cultures it right and everyone else is 1lllong

In poststructuraHst textual analyltis we dont make daims about lNhether texts are accurate tmtnful or show reality We lt10int simply dismiss them as imiCcurate or biased lhese claIms Me moral OiHS more than ~mything attempting to dose down other forms of representation without engaging villI thel11 Rather the methodology Im describing seeks to understltrnd the aysln whim these forms of representation take place the assumptions behind them and the kinds of senst-maklng about the world that they rcvltaL Different texts cm prE5ent the same event in different WilYS and aU of them can be as truthful and accurate as each Hahel If all le say of them js acclilIate or InaccunIte then we never get to the interesting pill1t of the analysis - how these texts ten their stories how they represent the world and hewgt they make S(~l1se of it

Tht follOWing headlines itll introduced stmilts in online newspapers about the death d n British girt fcom q D - the humlm form of BSf popularly called mild cow ur

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18 TEXTUAL ANAt (SI$

qn kUls gIrl 14 (Gucmllan Unijrn1ted 29 Odober lOOO)

MilHnns watched Zoes final hours (Ele-tnmic lelegmpi1 29 Qlttuber 20(0)

SSE safety controls drop~d (lndfpetultmt onUne 29 Odober iO(ro

To st tc the obvious these are different luudHnes for storiepound uverng the same event But none of them is inaccurate or fatse The first foregmundi the disease and the girls age the second personalizes her with a name and comments on her status aii national the third puts her into a context of government poaiey on disease control Illest are different pefipectives and different representatioDS_ We can say that all [hrfe are accurate but how far dx)es thltlt glgtt us an the analysis when they are obViously wurkingil1 very clifftfent ways

tf theres no single corred way Of making sense of any part of reality does that mean that anythlnggoes7 That anybody can make any claim and theyre att just as acceptable

Abmlutely noL This is a common attack made on post-strutturaUst thinking about culture but it l11tSSes the point Obviously some texts have very tittle connection to OUT normaJ ways of thinking about tiH~ world for examp~e if a headline for the above stOty was loe vas killed aliens inasion imminent very few people would think that it yenras aCCUfItt There imt a single true account of liny event but then alfe Limits Oil ~hat seems reasol1able in ill gtven culture at 11

given tame Ways of making sense of the world arent completely mbitirilry they doot change from moment to moment Theyre not infiniteand tnejre not completely individual Indeed weve got a wnrd for people whose sensc4naking practices are unicHue to themshyselves and bear nO relation to the Ieasonable ways of representing and interpfetingthe world in their home culhJrt we caU them mad and we lock them up for U fhats n(lit a cheap joke the historian MktHl ioucaults book Madness m1 CiviILtum shows that people have historkally bEen dampared mad and iocked up out of harm way when thelr ways of making sense of the world were radicaHy different from those of the culture around them (I)oucault 1967) Ihrt ltLI

cuUuresdlilnge so do their uncientandings of Whllt are feasonabh ways to mterpret the world lt~()l who are called mad in one culture - because their ways of Irulldng senst~ of the world are so out of t~p

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WHAT IS TDllUAl ANAll$Sl 19

wKth their feUows - can hecome geniuses for other cuttUDes for their comincinglnsights into the way tht world is organ i ztd Or one cultures mad people ean be perf1ctfy normal everyday people in ilInother (()ltexL In late nineteenth-century Britain records of lunatic asylums show that pltltienh induded tlIunarried mothen (PO11S2fJ02) and Edith L1master in 18~S was incaneraled in Ii

lunatic asylum by her parellls when she announced that she wanted to live in a free union [Ie not married) with a soeiillist railway deuk (Bartey 20tH) SorlUone who would flout the sodal convention that women should ahvays be married before they indulge in sexuaJ inteKomse wouLd no longer automatically be regarded as mad or locked up for iLlndeed in twenty-nrst-century AustraHa Britain or Inerica it would seem bannuiltmiddotto lock somoone up beGl11S~ they thought sex before mardage was OK The idea of slllgie motherhood is now reasonable enough that fur someone to propo~ it lti$ lin acceptable Ufestyle sn regarded as madness Similarly untH 1973 homosexuality ~middotl listed as a psychLatric Hlnes - a form of mildness - by the American Pschlatrk Assmiddotociation (Ai 2(lO2) Anybody who believed that it wtS possibBe that hto men or two women could have a happy fulliHing loving life together was necessarily mad Everyone knew that thigt wasnt the case A s1rong comeusus ot sense-making imisted that gar relationships weroe sick - that is~ literuUy unhealthy shyunl1atul~ iUld unworkable Onc~again in the twmty-liut cCotury when sitcoms based on g~y characters show the leads of lAtill (111pound1

Gmce not only as friends but as both equillly deserving of I happy relat[onshipwith a man practices of sense-making have changed so much thar you wouldnt be denOlUHed as mad it you suggested that homosexual reiatiOllIihips ran be as stable and fulfilling as heterosexual ones

Not lter~one would agr~ wid1 this point of course debates are always ongoing about sense-making with differing pers~1ives

competing to be ~eu as the most reil~ouahlE and smne people stiU think that gay men and lesbians ltlire sick and immond A variety of perspective edst but there is a finite number or sense-making posishytions available within II given tuhure at a dIfferent tfime~ $0 past structuralist teA1ual analysis doesnt insist that anything goes that any representation is as acceptable as any otner or that any intershypretation makes as mwh sense as any other In the opposite seems to me to be mOIre the case - the reason we analyse 15 telis [s to tind out vhatl1ltre and what (lre the reasonahlE sense-milking pracshytices of cultures rather than iust repeating (lur own lnterprCtatJon lind calling it reality

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But surely there must be some elements of reality that all cultures can agree on

SometImegt 1 + 1= 0 liWlence M Tltr~lIi~~ fmiesMlf of (hy~ics Olse ReSgtfrr~Westetn Ullirlty

This 1s another common claim by write~s who favours feallst mode of thinking about sense-making They insist that there must be somt elements of expelience that everybody makes sense of in tbe rame way Two favourUe eXltllnpes are gtufferlng lmd death Because after an you cant stop death just by making ~nse of it differenUYi and

you Clmt avoid pain just by pretending it Isntilere Its odd that these arguments are repeated so often as they are not

really terribly ctlnvincingvnen you look into them 101[ how peopte make 5ejl5~ of [Jilin and suffering or of death are vitally important to their experience of them 111 fart tht cases of deuth lind $uffeling present are 50me of the strongest arguments for the varIety and importance of sense-making prndices

So challeugen say you cant iust interpret violence dlffenmtly to make it alright Ill punch you in the face and you Uln Just interpret that i~wily Nobody after is going to disagree that torture is undesirable Nobody going to ~uggest that torture might be nke are they

Are tbey How many of us have not 1vonciered while watching an old Will tilm or reading about the heroines of the [irench re~istmce how well we ouicl bave stood up nndfx torture -hether we would have at aU (Schramm-EnllS 1995 137) Thus begins the 1otmshydudion to Sadomiddotmasochism 1n the How 10 handbook Makifr~ (Jilt

711lt Book of Jesiia1l Sex and Sexuality BeGiUSe violence - or more importanUy om experience of violence - is illl falci modulated by ho~v einterpret it bow we make sense of it

How we e~pttience 1)11n lIl aireeted wxualuuLisal - the kirld of pliin experutillCed duringilH SM S12cnc beregt~ Uttle tel~ltion to wh~lt I Vliit to lw dentilst 1Iugllit provlde Durllng seoual exeihl11cnt our tolerance tf pain hHreaSgtfS cnotmougtty allll ampt the point of otgMflll it barell be fell at all lEIilen wamen not lnrerclited Pt expedemed 1n may Wt~1l have elljl)lCd bitten dating ~ or having their nipplei Squeezed barder than usuaL sensat(Il$ would be highl unpleosant and unacceptabe Ottside the IIeX scene but within it they add a ch~ttge of cxdrenlent (ibid 137)

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WHAT IS TEXTUAL IIINALvHS 21

VIolence and pain milly bt pleasmalble in the right sUuation in the right cultural context Indeed this guide suggests its not just that we might interpret the pain differently but that In different it

mtght not evenexlSI at all Sometimes pain isnt pain at an - Us pleasure

$uffering mnre broadly - nOljust violence- isnt always had Por some harsh but not tmusual philosophies of Hfe luffering is useful or een desirnhle rh~it which dt~es not kill us malkl$ us stronger The Bible sUgfeurosts that sutiering may be understood as divine dbcipline or ioclstruction (Waters 19 28) and S3Faul was made to suffer by God so that (he learned to depend upon Gods grace mther tban his 01111 strength (ibid 30) for after aU suffering plays an ifnportallt role in ones piety (Ibid We have to learn from our mistakes and have the right to make them And so on In thelH seme~making

practice5 pain may bt desirable for Its reassunmce thit (od cares

What about death though

Death can)t be denied simpy by interpretation its an experience that you cant escape Just by lmerpreting It dIfferently Nobody could disagree wben somebody is dead for example either are or they arent Surely

Again sadly the world is not that simple Tiu eumples ~ gave above showed that value yudgenlents about depend on scnsemiddot tmiking practices - lvbelher iJi aelSirllble or nol whether pain is pleasurabJe or not The gt3me arbllment can be made about death Different sense-maldng cultures dbagree over whether death i~ I

desirable or an undesirable experjence~ DeaHl of the body doesnt neceliSarily mean death of the person It need not be something to be feared It may quite reasonably be seen as desirable

Of (nurse hen it c()mcs to those 1110 hilve died we hiWC uo Idea what their experienes are may be identiioll - that is nothingat all iack of existenCf~ Or they rna) be quite different - some if heaven sittang with God SOlIlC in HeHslnni11g witb Satan Bul we know that for thoR who are dying anafm the people who are left behind death c4In mean very different things Take the case of Christianity Know~ng hoth that God control$ eIrery aspect of Ufe and thai there is an afterlife Nith H~m its not surprising that for mmy Christiam death is a velY positive ex~rjeJlce indeed it can be a healing

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22 HXTUAL ANALYSIS

A ft1t~lld of mine WlllS m(~rtjllly HlZllld WikS gletl sL~ months to five His wife was ellCOutaged ~ to pm with her hlilshklnd daily and to her hands upon hitT) for heaiJng Itt diIl altllo5~ six month [tater] [and) his wife asludwDat hedlng he bad retIived bull Sbe eomb1ded that his occeptatKe of the deStlfiF of luunlnenl death [waL the he bad rtcfdve(L (IJolklngholfie iil Waltts 1996 50)

it can 1IE50 be a fmm God (ibid 57) Om death as something we velcome There is OJ $c[ea timing that should b~ honoured in the ending of omihres (ibid 58) This is ()IU way of making sense of death )~m other senstgt-making comlnunilies deith is

undesirable and mut be avoided (ltUh an extreme case being those whofreeu their bodies cryogenkallyf()r rtviVl1 when sdence has progressed

And again like pain its not just a qUlestaon of different value judgements because different ways of making sense of the world in fact disagrtl about when someone is actually dead or where the line is between things that are alive and things that are not

Take scientists For the non-scientists among us it might seem obVious that some are allve (people animaUs plants) and that other things arent stones cars pieces of paper These definitiouli work very well as generalizations in OUT eVeryday lives to the pOint that we get atTog~mt and start to believe that things really are tlHlt simple and this is a description of that everybody must tlgree with But sdentists lvho deal with theuncrgtrtaln edges where thjl1g~~ arent so dezu- makt~ sense of the world differently

J1rofessor imne Simon - l-iCad of the Department middotof Biochemistry at the University of Massadlusetts - knows thtt the everyday conshysensus about tife and death is not the- simple truth but a rough gener~ization that works fine so long as you dont think abOll~ it too hard She knmS this hecause her own research 1s into viruses shyspecifically turnlp crinkle vIruses wit she IS very much in iovl and they dmlt lit into slIdl black and whitt Viruses she says Ire simply a m of genes on the prowl

students often ask mil if viruses are nlive I like to ulswer this question with the qliegtt~ofl How do you ddlne He OccilStonally tllis pmIllpts the follow-up -Vhy do YOll aligtl3)ll OlIllgtwer a with il luestion To thi5 in smndatt re~pongte is no H Sint~ thi~ geitj~Uy hads h1 11111111 stare~ I jSSlt~ the reassuring stalmenl that entire books imve been written rryiflg ~o eMplilin tlle SCientifl meLlnlng of Ufe ~Si1ll(m 1999 86

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WHAT 1$ TEXTUAL ANALYSIS 23

It shouldnt surprise us thfll that death is like lny other part of the lorld- sense-making about death have changed over time and differ behvetmiddotjj) rultures

Determining when death uttlJfS has 1111111goo Oller Hme ThroughtHlt the nineteentll Liiltur and much of the iWtfltidh death wru clelined in terms of the hearl and lungs A jletson was not dftlat~t dead iill1H tilt ph)llii1cian verhned Hm lile htart and JungsIIere no 100gt t fuoctlOling Yet over the lYtSt few d(tlrh~ adval1(~s In medielne created an ifnusutl an~1linp1IXC~i1itmiddotd situilHol1With the aid of drugs Vllttltms invasiw tethnIqu~~s elctric11 ih~Kk to the hellft and a respirator tht heart lind could keep gnU1g after a persnns baln was delid Th1Il fiDiSd a ltniqlle qlllestJotl(ould ~n indlidu~1 wlthouf a fufKHm~ing brain but whose he~rt afid lungcorHhll1ld to work wlrtl1 tneald of machine-B be eOCislileroo allv~ Or eVt~1l a I)N~Olff (Waters 1996 I)

The gtame situation In diifferent centuries would mean that you were dead in one but just ivalting to be revIved (still alive or stiH potenshytially aliive) in another And the debates between different sememiddot making go an Under cmrent condUlons t a person igt not pronounced dead until the enUre brain has ceas(~d to function There are proposals to denfle death as the cessation of higher or cognitive bradn activity (ibht 9)

There is no 1lt111 of reality that we canpotnt tO and say iEveryom~ can agree on this All cultures Iill make the same interpretation ()f this part of the Odd Nobody muld disagree that this is how things are l~(r every areaof experience has multiple seme~making practices assoonttd with it lteven thuslte that might initially ~em as incontroshyertible a~ suffering and dfath

OK no single text is simply the accurate representation of reality but surely some texts must be better than others

Detter for what iJthough its 11 common everydar formulation to sltly that this is a good 111m or that Willi a bad programrn~ this 15 his best novel or th1t l5 a great painting these kind of judgements arent relevant for the kind of post-structuralist tfXtuai analysis Im describing here For this mahodoloY you have to knmv what question youre asking before you can answer it (sec Chapter ltjs true that aesthetic judgements of value (thill is goodJgreltltJrnaIotedull his best fllm) iUC one kind oJ textual analysis and one that is stU

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taught inmmy Uterature Departments and Film Department But thi$ is a realist approach- this h really the best text that is an objective claim you tarmot disagree with that - and it doesnt fit in with the 1nelhoaolc)g described cn this book

i lNOllid 53y that there ue twn main uses I)l these aesthetic linds of judgement lind they tend to avedap lgt1nmgly I~ipoundst we usemiddot terms like good great masterpiece as synonyms faf I liked that (reali) liked tiH~t and I really reall)f liked that respectively As journalist Dominique Jackson puts it TalkillgMovies host Tom Brookes is an informed and open-minded but demanding critic He offers crisp unbiased and intellectual analysis In other lrord he agrees with me (2002

5t~Ond tnere is 3 tradition of aesthetic judgement fOf analysing orks of ilrt and literature where a set of established criteria are used to judge a text including coberencilt intensity of effe(1oomplex it) and orlginltlllty (Bordwell and Thompson 199~ 5~-4 ThesI cr~teria supposedly produce iobjective (Jbid~ 53) interpretations of texts rather than justindwidual [fsponse but are stHl only one possible interpretiLtlon or them Ihii h the sensemiddotmakil1g pmctice of an educated culture one that has decided thal qualities like commiddot pie1tity are a good thing in a tect whereas other CUltures might think that simplldty Is mOHo important Ultimatedy tllis way of intershypreting texts still comes bllck to penonal preferences (ie Ihey Me no more obJectlve than simply saillg I Ilketbis)

This tradition of aesthetic judgement can be very usefulllS niltund capital it can be useful to know which films have been regaridtd as masterpieces by cultural cdtks because that kind of knowiedge ha$ its own value As ~he fUm magmil1t Empire puts it in its monthly seLiion The Bare Necessities Never seen a FelUni film Cant m bothered trying to understand the random mumbHngs of Marlon Brando No pobleml J~i$t read om cut-out-and-keep gUides to bullshyshitting your way through any awkward socIal events with the blackshyturtleneck laUe brigade (Empire 20m 11)

Us good for OlU social mobility to have (Uama capital - to know the history of which films hooks paintings ilnd teievision programmegt are regarded as the best (see Bourdteu 1984) In order to be in the trendy crowd for example you must have cftain kinds of knowledge (about rums regarded as mastelplece) md iJ you dont have that knowledge dratlaUng in a particular class of people 1iIIiH he awkward And so the Empire series tells us for exampit what is the reputation of great films (regarded by many as 11 landmark in AmeriClln filmmaking (Empire 2002~ 13n Why is it so good

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(what feally makes it stand out i~ the glQrious lise Of colour ampnd attention to detail (cmpire 2002h 11)) What to say at dinner parties (Argento takes you to the darkest corner ot your mind the plates you dont even admit to yOUnH~W (poundrlPire 2001 ll) and hat not to (The ballet Keneis fantastk ObidU)) Kilowlshy

of the trarutlon of aesthetic judgements can be useful but as Empire shows you dont have to tiKe it seriously tu make use of it

AU lnaHaesti1etk judgements ot texts - whIch are good J1nich ue bad which are masterpiecesmiddot andwhich are failures can be eery useful for a number of cultural pllrpO$eS but they shouldnt be taken at tace value as obJective claims about worth lind theyre not part of a poststruduraiist form of textual analysis

If theres no $lngk correct way to make sense of the world isnt this book just OM possible approach

Ah Yes - youve Ctmght mt out This book i~ sclf-consistt111 and it tries to eplrun one methodology in detaiLl3ut its not the only iiij to think l~bOut the ~~mductjon of meaning or ilboutnow texts function sl noted aba~ realist motes of textual aJullyses remain important in media studieS (uaural studies and JllltlSS communicashytion studies 10pound exampe some polHical economy approlCiles to texts insirt that legislation industries and economicsltlre tl1e material reality of culturf Other realist forms of textual anaiysis see the process of interpretation as much more straightforward than post strmturaHst textual analysts - iiampgtumlng that the inteIpretation that the researcher makes vrill baSically he the gtarne as the interppoundlftilHon that other people make Structuralist approadHS which see dlep structures across the sense-111lttking pmctlces of varlougt cultures are still also an important element of much work in our U~~liH Marxist approacbes for cxampie 5iee the rclaUon to the means of production in cultures as iI ba~ic material rea1lty that is who gets to take the profits tmmpeoples work by dint or owning the m3cnineb) or nehITorks that allow things to be made lind distrllmted) P5ychoshyanaiysis sees the formation of the pyche - hmvour mind work - in

childhood liS a bask reality that must he taken accollnt of in writing about culture

There is a history to this kind of textual analysis (see Turner 1997 and Hartley 20(2) It comes from a certain tradition and can only anlgtwer L-ertllin questions It Gin never do thilt with absolute cershytainty nor can italwaYli produce itathtics to IHtck up i1$ dtimgt (see

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26 UXTUAl ANAtYSIS

Chapter There are certainly other WlS to deaYiith tens bllt post~

structuraUst textual lti1l1ysis is [ think one usefLd way to ansIer questiom about meallingmaklng

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NHAT IS TEXTUAL INAUSS 27

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28 UXHh1 ANALYSIS

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Each chapter or thIs book ends with three it(middottions The first And the main points tgatn is II summiilry of the arguments presented in the chapler (he second Questions and exercises gives you rome work to do to deveiop and expand on the pOints made and allow for a bit of active learning The thlrd Textual ill1alysis pmjecl leads you through a (omplete w(rk of textual arudysisin the course of the book in simple step-bf-step sttgesin each chapter

And the main points again

1 AU Glltllres and subcultures hme different ways of making sense of the wodd from the most extremely dintrent Ondigmous Australtan and British for example) to tntgt most subtly dirfferent (men and women for example)

2 We can respond to thhi fact either by insisting thtt mtf own sense-maldng practicfs are the only correct ones (3 reaiLt or Ltiltmai chauvinist approach) by looking for the common d~ep stmctures that ulldediie these different systems of sense-making (a structuralist approach) or by lt1C1epting that other cultwes do e(periellce reality dIfferently (11 post-structuralist ox cultural relativist approach)

3 If we are interested in 110 culture~ and sutR-ulture1i make sense of u~anty differently we can gather egtideme for this by malystng texts

Text are things that we make meaning from from books to television prognunmes to items of dothing to bllildings~

5 No text is the vnly accurate trUE unbiased reallstic representalion of any part of the world there are alwaygt alternative representashytions thilt are equally mcmate true unbiased llnd realistic

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