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1982 1: 24Clothing and Textiles Research JournalL.R. Sibley and K.A. Jakes

Textile Fabric Pseudomorphs, A Fossilized Form of Textile Evidence  

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24

Textile Fabric Pseudomorphs,A Fossilized Form of Textile Evidence

L. R. Sibley K.A. Jakes

Authors’ address: Department of Clothing, Tex-tiles and Interiors, University of Georgia,Athens, GA 30602.

Acknowledgments: The authors are indebted toDr. J. H. Howard, Department of Geology,University of Georgia, for reading the manu-script and offering advice; to Dr. J. Shrum, De-partment of Science Education, University ofGeorgia, for taking the photomicrographs; andto the Museum of Anthropology, University ofMissouri, for loan of the bronze weapon studied.

An examination o f the few published reports o f the phenomenon o f textile fabric pseudomorphism reveals that textile pseudomorphs have been found on bronze and brassobjects and probably on iron objects. Consideration of these reports indicates that there isinconsistency in the methodology used to identify a fabric pseudomorph and in applicationof the resulting information to a reconstruction of textile fabrication behavior. An evaluationof the theoretical chemical equilibria involved in the interaction of a metallic object andtextile fiber system provides the following in formation: (1) a stagnant damp environment isrequired, (2) the metal object in contact with the textile must be buried in soil, (3) the type ofsoil must be conducive to slow fiber degradation and metal corrosion, and (4) the depth ofthe effective area ofpseudomorph formation will be the depth of the effective area ofweathering of ore deposits.

Key Words: Textile Pseudomorph,Bronze, Brass, Iron, Shang Dynasty,Eh, Ph, Mineral Replacement,Fabrication Behavior, CorrosionProducts, Petrifaction.

Introduction

In the study of archaeological tex-tile fabrics, the analyst will, upon oc-casion, encounter fabric-like struc-tures embedded in the corrosion

products of metals. Subsequent test-ing reveals no evidence of an organiccompound, and yet the physical shapeof the structures suggests fibers,yarns, and even discernible fabricformations. Biek (1963) applied theterm &dquo;pseudomorph&dquo; to these en-

tities, since they are somewhat akin tothe fossils observed in geology, that is,mineral compounds have replaced theorganic compounds of the fabric.

The mineralization of fabrics in di-rect association with metal artifacts

provides an opportunity to study thephysical structures of these formerlyorganic textiles. Where no textile fab-rics survive and fabric pseudomorphsare formed, the latter can be used toinfer behavior concerning use of tex-tiles while in the systemic context.The purposes of this article are (1)

to examine the process of fabric pseu-domorph formation and (2) to pro-pose implications for archaeologicaltextile research. Since very little in-

formation exists about the pseudo-morph formation process, all pub-lished reports of the occurrence of itwill be reviewed. Subsequent workwill address (1) the mechanism of fab-ric pseudomorph formation, (2) theappropriate methodology for analysisof fabric pseudomorphs, (3) the use offabric pseudomorphs as evidence oftextile fabric structure, and (4) appli-cation of that evidence in reconstruct-

ing human behavior of the past.Textile pseudomorph formation

may be defined as a petrifaction pro-cess in which mineral compounds re-place completely the organic com-pounds of the fiber, assuming thephysical configuration of the fiber inthe process. These fabric pseudo-

morphs form under certain conditionsin close association with a metal, forexample, iron, or metal alloys, such asbronze. If mineralized fiber is not

present, evidence of fabric or fabric

pseudomorphs may be seen as an im-pression in the corrosion products ofthe metal.The very nature of the above defini-

tion assumes that no organic com-pounds remain in the pseudomorph,that the physical configurations of afiber, yarn, or fabric are present, andthat the pseudomorph resides on ametal artifact. No attempt will bemade by the authors to detail othertypes of fabric-like evidence, for

example fabric-impressed pottery(Kuttruff, 1980) or carbonized fabrics(Mellaart,1967).

Reported Occurrences of FabricPseudomorphism

Of the five published reports of fab-ric pseudomorph formation, three(Sylwan, 1937; Vollmer, 1974; andSibley, Korslund, and Rowlett, 1978)are concerned with evidence of silkfound on Shang Dynasty (1750B.C.-1100 B.C.) or Han Dynasty(206 B.C.-A.D. 220) bronze artifacts.One report (Carroll, 1973) contains

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information about the occurrence offlax on an Etruscan bronze bowl (c.500 B.C.), and the remaining report(Biek, 1963) contains comments onthe discovery of fiber clinging to aMedieval Period brass ring recoveredat Chertsey Abbey near London.Rowlett and Sibley (in preparation)raise the possibility of fabric pseudo-morphism for fabric-like structureadhering to a La Tene la (480-400B.C.) iron scabbard from Connantre,Marne, France.The first reported examination of

fabric pseudomorphs occurred in1937 when Sylwan analyzed evidenceof fabrics found on a bronze axe and abronze chi or urn. Both objects arefrom An-Yang, Honan Province,China, and have been established ascoming from the Yin (Shang)Dynasty. Sylwan assumed that thefabric structures were still fabrics, al-though very fragile ones, and she con-centrated upon weave and yarn in-formation rather than upon the natureof the formation. Since no fabrics sur-vive from the Shang Dynasty, her ob-servations aid in reconstructing theearly use of silk in China. BecauseSylwan did not test the formations todiscover whether they were organic,one cannot be absolutely certain thather findings describe fabric pseudo-morphs. Nevertheless, a comparisonof her description with that of theothers, noted above, shows that it is

unlikely that the fabric-like structuresshe analyzed were still organic. Herfocus and assumptions concerning thestructure precluded recording infor-mation useful to investigation of themas pseudomorphs. For example, shedid not mention the color or colors ofthe formations or of the patina, nordid she specify an exact archaeologi-cal context.

Vollmer’s examination of earlyChinese fabric pseudomorphs in 1974benefited from work of Biek and Car-roll as well as that of Sylwan. From theRoyal Ontario Museum’s collectionof 2,500 bronzes, Vollmer studied854 for evidence of fabric pseudo-morphs. He was able to identify 74occurrences of it. Like Sylwan, he

used the formations as if they werefragile textiles as he studied the textileindustry of the Shang people. UnlikeSylwan, he defined fabric pseudo-morphs as &dquo;mineralogical phenomenain which crystals consisting of onemineral take the form proper toanother&dquo; (Vollmer, 1974: 170).Vollmer added to the knowledge ofthe phenomenon by stipulating twokinds of pseudomorphs based uponthe way in which the replacement pro-ceeds. The first of these, a positive ortrue pseudomorph, occurs when thecorrosion products replace the or-

ganic fiber. The second type, a nega-tive pseudomorph, results from sur-rounding the organic fiber by corro-sion. If, according to Vollmer, a nega-tive pseudomorph preserves an or-ganic entity by its proximity, then itconforms to the definition presentedin this paper of the impression of themineralized fiber in the corrosion

products. Both positive and negativetypes are apparently present in thefabric pseudomorphs on the RoyalOntario Museum bronzes.Vollmer noted his procedure for

study of the structures, but again theprocedure focuses on the textile in-formation derived from the pseudo-morphs, not on how they wereformed. He did not record informa-tion on color of the formations. In-

deed, no information is yet availableabout the provenience of the bronzeweapons and vessels.

1

The third and most recent report(Sibley, Korslund, and Rowlett,1978) concerning fabric pseudo-morphs on Shang Dynasty bronzesalso benefited from the earlier work.

Considered by the authors as a pre-liminary investigation, the work re-cords data obtained from the exami-nation of two ko halberds and one

spear point (c. 1300 B.C.) in theMuseum of Anthropology at the Uni-versity of Missouri-Columbia. Noth-ing is known about the weapons’provenience, although their prov-enance is China. The authors’ pro-cedure and findings demonstrate aninterest in the structures as fabric

pseudomorphs and as evidence for the

use of silk textiles by the Shangpeople. Neutron radiography test re-sults established that no organic com-pounds were present on the objects,and microscopic examination re-vealed a physical structure of theyarns, which was typical of silk. Theauthors, however, did not note thecolors of fabric pseudomorphs.

Carroll (1973), in reporting herwork with fabric pseudomorphs on abronze Etruscan bowl, also demon-strated interest in the pseudomorphphenomenon and in the application ofthe information. Dated c. 500-400

B.C., the bronze bowl with attachedpseudomorphs found at Veii is a partof the Newark Museum’s collection.Carroll described the pseudomorph asbeing a &dquo;cream-colored textile em-bedded in corrosion (1973: 334).&dquo;Tests used by Carroll included micro-scopy with polarizing and scanningelectron microscopes, x-ray fluores-cence, and x-ray diffraction. The re-sults indicated that no organic mate-rial survived, and the fabric pseudo-morph probably consisted of flax be-fore its mineralization. She notes the

presence of pseudostalactitic forms at40x magnification. Microscopy alsosupported the identification of physi-cal properties of yarn and fabric fromwhich she inferred Etruscan textile

behavior.Biek (1963: 106) commented that

a &dquo; ’brass’&dquo; ring from the medieval

Chertsey Abbey displayed a lumpwith a fabric-like structure at one

place on its surface. Subsequentanalysis by E. Crawford revealed noorganic compounds remaining, be-cause the ring &dquo;crumbled&dquo; duringanalysis. Biek labeled the mineraliza-tion replacement process as pseudo-morphic and found evidence of partialpetrifaction on the Chertsey ring. Hecorrelated the phenomenon with fos-sils of geologic age &dquo;where replace-ment can take place literally moleculefor molecule&dquo; (1963: 122). Since partof the fabric pseudomorph crumbledwhile being readied for microscopy,no attempt was made to test it further,nor was it described further. AlthoughBiek did not apply the pseudomorphic

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26

evidence to an understanding of tex-tiles in the Medieval Period of Britain,he pointed in his book to the impor-tance of this type of evidence for re-construction of the past. His concernwas that the scientist needs to under-stand the phenomenon to use accu-rately the information gained. He cau-tions that

For a systemic study one would needto know, apart from the significantproperties of the fibres, everythingabout the condition of burial-soil,metal and corrosion products, andany other materials present, as well assome index of the soils’ cellulose-de-

grading activity... (pp. 121-122).

Using secondary evidence in theform of black-and-white photographsand drawings for two La Tene frag-ments, Rowlett and Sibley (in prepa-ration) report that a textile from Con-nantre and dated to La Tene 1 a ex-

hibits the visual appearance of a fabric

pseudomorph. No tests have beenperformed on the fragment itself, and

so it must be considered only margin-ally a pseudomorph. If pseudomor-phic, the fragment is the only one re-ported on iron. Since other evidenceobserved suggests that the fiber is

probably wool, the fragment is alsothe only pseudomorph documentedthat was formerly wool. One hopesthat further examination and testingcan be done to settle the point.Another point is relevant here. Biek(1963) confirmed the presence of furfibers attached to an iron sword from

Bedfordshire as organic and identifi-ably protein despite its 1300 year age.Conditions for pseudomorphism ofprotein fibers on iron appear to bevery different from that of bronze.

Reported occurrences of fabricpseudomorphism are restricted to

bronze, brass, and perhaps iron ar-tifacts. It is difficult to determine justhow widespread the phenomenon is,because few have studied it in any de-tail. Also, the practice of scrubbing orcleaning metal objects may be de-

...,,..

TABLE 1. Tests Conducted on Fabric Pseudomorphs

TABLE 2. Summary of Data Concerning Occurrences of Fabric Pseudomorphs

stroying pseudomorph formations.Other fabric pseudomorphs may beobserved in the future as analysts be-come aware of the possibility of thistype of evidence. For those few whohave studied the phenomenon, thereare some differences in the

methodological procedures. A sum-mary of the differences in

methodological processes is pre-sented in Table 1.

Although Vollmer noted the pres-ence of both positive and negativepseudomorphs, he did not indicate themanner in which he discovered thesedata. Carroll’s observation of &dquo;un-

filled cavities with microscopic pseu-dostalactitic growth&dquo; (1973: 334)using a microscope at 40x magnifica-tion may reflect extra-fiber ratherthan inter-fiber formations, since sheperformed no cross-sectional analysisof the pseudomorph samples.

Table 2 contains a summary of theoccurrences of fabric pseudomorphsas reported and reviewed above.Other instances of textile fabric pseu-domorphism would aid our under-standing of the phenomenon, but untilthose are identified, the process ofpseudomorph formation must be con-sidered in theory. Such speculationcan be grounded, however, byanalysis of one of the known and re-ported occurrences of mineralizedfabric formations on a Shang Dynastybronze halberd.

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27

Description of FabricPseudomorph on an Artifact

Currently on loan from theMuseum of Anthropology, Universityof Missouri-Columbia, to one of theauthors of this work are the three

Shang Dynasty bronze weapons ini-tially examined in 1978 (Sibley,1978). Although their provenience isunknown, general information aboutShang Dynasty burials does revealthat the dead were placed in filled soilgraves rather than in tombs or con-structed chambers (Vollmer, 1974).Furthermore, the soil used for the

graves probably was loessial and veryalkaline, a factor contributing to thecorrosion of bronze. Other microen-vironmental factors influencing thatchange include variation in tempera-ture, variation in rainfall, and thepresence of ground water (Collins,1931).One of the three weapons, the Un-

numbered Halberd, was chosen forfurther study. The halberd is 23.8 cmlong and is 5.8 cm wide at the cross-piece (Figure 1). Photomicrographsof selected locations on the objectwere obtained at the following levelsof magnification: 1X, 2X, 4X, 8X16X, 20X, and 20.4X. The colors ofthe corrosion over the blade are

mainly green and blue-green. Thereare some blue, red-orange, and whiteareas that become more clearly de-fined at higher levels of magnification.Mineralized yarn or fiber stuctures forthe most part appear green and prob-ably are composed of malachite. Anarea near the blade edge in which thecorrosion is chipped away is red,probably due to cuprite. Red-orangespots in the blue-green corrosion arethought to be iron oxide, but one can-not be certain until the mineral com-

position of the structures is deter-

mined.

Pseudomorph formations are

clearly visible in the raised portion ofthe Unnumbered Halberd, section

E-12 in Figure 1. Previous investiga-tion of the halberd revealed the pres-ence of fabric pseudomorph on onlyone side of the blade and crosspiece

FIGURE 1. The Unnumbered Halberd

FIGURE 2. Silk Fabric Pseudomorph

(Sibley, et al., 1978). Identification ofthe pseudomorphs as former fabricsstems from observation of evidencefor the physical structure of fiber,yarn, or fabric. The pseudomorphsdisplay two characteristics typical ofsilk fibers. These are (1) the presenceof bave-like units composed of twobrin-like units and (2) the lack ofhighly twisted yarns. Upon secretionfrom the silk larva, two filaments(brins) of protein surrounded by asecond protein solidify as a singlebave unit. The long filament structuredoes not require twisting to form ayarn. Filaments are woven into fabric,

and the second protein, which is watersoluble, is removed. Thus, the yarns ofa silk fabric, when magnified, can beseen to be composed of two filaments.

In Figure 2, multiple bave unitsforming a fabric structure are evident.At a higher level of magnification(Figure 3), the two filaments used asone yarn are more apparent and theinteraction of the yarns also can beseen. Such interaction or interlacingof sets of yarns identifies the pseudo-morph as fabric.A grid-like configuration of a

woven fabric is shown in the back-

ground of Figure 4. A series of some-

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FIGURE 3. Silk Filament Pseudomorph

, ..., - ~, = e ~ < !r-M~~

FIGURE 4. Silk Fabric Pseudomorphs

what larger yarns that span at leastfour yarns of the grid system also canbe seen. One of these yams is promin-ant in the lower half of the black-and-white photograph, running at anangle of approximately 45° from thebase of the photograph. The otherfloat yarns that run parallel to thisyarn are more apparent in a color pho-tograph than in a black-and-white oneand are indicated by black lines inFigure 5. A yarn that spans more than

one other yarn before being caught byan interlacing suggests either a wovenfabric construction formed with floatssuch as twill or satin or some type ofembroidery decorating the fabric sur-face.

Process of PseudomorphFormation

The process of pseudomorph for-mation can be described by consider-

ing the corrosion of the metal object,the decay of the organic fiber, and theconditions between the textile-cov-ered metal object and the materialthat surrounds it.

Metal objects buried in soil corrodeby direct chemical attack and by elec-trochemical action (Collins, 1931).Metals are chemically attacked byoxygen or by hydrogen sulfide, pro-ducing a thin film or patina that inhib-its further deterioration. Water con-

taining dissolved oxygen, carbondioxide, or salt will corrode metal sur-faces by a chemical process. Metals incontact with other metals, as well asmetal alloys that have a heterogene-ous structure additionally corrode byan electrochemical process. By thisprocess, metal cations dissolve in an

aqueous solution, leaving a negativecharge on the metal. If a second metal,which is less negatively charged, is

added to the system, the electrons willflow from the first metal (the anode)to the second (the cathode) (Millerand King, 1975). Dissolved cationssubsequently react with anions in so-lution, such as chloride ions or hy-droxyl ions, producing insolubleproducts (salts or hydroxides) thatdeposit on the cathode or anode. In ametal alloy such as bronze, theheterogenous structure produces lo-calized small cathodic and anodic

points and the oxidation products aredeposited over the whole surface(Collins, 1931).The preceding scheme is based on

the presence of water. In a dry envi-ronment, metals corrode slowly, pro-ducing only a thin patina of oxidation.Water speeds the rates of corrosionreactions and holds substances thatcan further react with the dissolvedmetal ions. Not only is the quantity ofwater present significant but also themovement of that water. In an envi-ronment of moving water, the systemis unstable, but in a stagnant environ-ment, an equilibrium can be estab-lished between the metal and its

aqueous surroundings. The effectivezone of corrosion of metals in an ar-

chaeological site would be equivalentto the effective zone in which mineral

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ore deposits are decayed. This is thedepth to which air and water pene-trate and circulate. Below the water

table, ore deposits remain unaffecteddue to the lack of access of oxygen andcarbon dioxide (Krauskopf, 1967).

If a decaying textile fabric is addedto the system under consideration, thereactions that occur are complicatedby the addition of the fiber degrada-tion products to the solution. Textilefibers are organic materials that de-teriorate on exposure to the elementsin a number of complex ways. Thetypes of reactions that occur in thedegradation of the natural fibers cot-ton, flax, wool, and silk have beenreviewed with attention focused onthose reactions applicable to the ar-chaeological context (Jakes and Sib-ley, in press; Sibley and Jakes, in re-view). The products of the degrada-tion depend on the elements of themicroenvironment including temper-ature, moisture, pH, oxidizing-reduc-ing potential (Eh), and salinity. In amoist environment with oxygen ac-

cessibility, as is required for corrosionof metals, organic fibers decay to pro-duce both acidic products and prod-ucts of a reducing nature. Nonspecificacidic oxidative attack of cellulosic

fibers, such as cotton or flax, yieldsreducing oxycellulose fragments. Thecellulose polymer is broken into ran-dom lengths. The end groups formedare aldehyde groups, which aretermed &dquo;reducing&dquo; because they canbe further oxidized into carboxylicacids simultaneously reducing someother compound in the system. Theacids decompose, by microbiologicalattack for instance, into carbondioxide and water. Acidic attack of

protein fibers, such as wool or silk,yields the component amino acids ofwhich the protein was made. Thesecan further oxidize to yield carbondioxide and ammonia and, from wool,hydrogen sulfide.

The process by which minerals re-place organic structures can be specu-lated to be as follows. Addition of thefiber degradation products to theaqueous environment of the metal ob-

j ect alters the acidity and the oxidizing

FIGURE 5. Silk Fabric Pseudomorph, Float Yarn Detail

potential of the system. The solubilityof the mineral ions in the water will be

changed. Concomitantly, reaction be-tween the metal ions and other mate-rials in the water may form productsthat are insoluble in water of that Ehand pH and which will precipitate inor on the decaying fiber structure. Inthe corrosion of bronze, for example,the dissolved copper ions can reactwith oxygen to form cuprite (Cu20),with dissolved chlorides to form nan-

tokite (CuCI), and with carbondioxide and water to producemalachite or basic copper carbonate

(CUC03-3 Cu(OH)2-H20). All ofthese products are not soluble in

water and will precipitate as they areproduced (Gettens, 1951).A comparable model of mineral

deposition in organic structures is as-sumed in discussions of the petrifac-tion process of fossilization. Dunbarand Waage (1969) stated that theoriginal substance of a living organismmay be dissolved in undergroundwater and that mineralizing fluids re-place the molecules of the structure.The gross form of the object is pre-served, although the internal struc-ture is not. Some texts have reported amolecule for molecule replacement inthe petrifaction of fossils (Tasch,

1973), but this is not generally agreedupon. The chemical equations in-volved in the petrifaction processhave not been delineated due to the

complex nature of the decompositionof organic substances and the numberof possible replacing minerals. Thereplacing minerals that are generallydiscussed in petrifaction are calcite,silica, pyrite, and hematite (Goldring,1965), although many other mineralreplacements have been reported(Tasch, 1973). Textile pseudomorphformation on iron objects corre-sponds to hematite (iron oxide) re-placement in petrifaction. On bronzeobjects, pseudomorphs form in theoutermost corrosion layer of basiccopper carbonate (Gettens, 1951).

It appears that there are selective

conditions in the vicinity of the fabricand metal that favor pseudomorphformation. The pseudomorphs on theUMC Unnumbered Halberd are onone side only, while those reported byCarroll (1973) were under the feet ofthe bronze bowl. Thus it appears thatthere is a condition of contact be-tween the metal object and the textilethat allows enough moisture to pene-trate without allowing the dissolvedminerals to flow away. Perhaps thehalberds, wrapped in fabric in some

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30

manner, were laid on another object,the body of the buried person, for in-stance, and then covered with soil.The loose soil covering would allowwater to percolate past the fabricwrapped halberd at a much greaterrate than the space between the hal-berd pressed against the figure be-neath. The conditions of stagnantwater and contact between metal andfiber establish a microchemical sys-tem in which dissolved minerals areheld in the location, to be altered bythe microenvironment as the fiber de-

cays, and then to be deposited in or onthe fiber structure.

Summary

Although a more in-depth evalua-tion of the chemical equilibria in-

volved in the metallic object and tex-tile fiber system currently is beingstudied, this overview indicates muchinformation that aids the ar-

chaeologist in anticipating the pres-ence of textile pseudomorphs. (1)Textile pseudomorphs are known toform on bronze, brass, and probablyiron articles. (2) A stagnant damp en-vironment is required. Moving waterwill remove dissolved minerals ratherthan let them deposit in the locus inwhich they were dissolved. (3) Themetal object in contact with the textilemust be buried in soil. No pseudo-morphs have been found on textile-wrapped metal artifacts in tombs. (4)The type of soil must be conducive toslow fiber degradation and metal cor-rosion. For instance, the loessial al-kaline soil of China provided the ap-propriate conditions for pseudo-morph formation on Shang Dynastybronze objects. (5) The depth of the

effective area of pseudomorph forma-tion will be the depth of the effectivearea of weathering of ore deposits,that is the depth of air and water circu-lation. Consideration may be given insite reports to the level of the watertable and to rainfall conditions.The few published reports of the

phenomenon of fabric pseudomor-phism indicate that the process doesoccur and can be used to study thetextile fabrication behavior of people.There is inconsistency in methodol-ogy used to identify a fabric pseudo-morph and in application of the result-ing information. The length of timerequired for the process to be com-pleted is not mentioned in the litera-ture. The &dquo;youngest&dquo; fabric pseudo-morph (that adhering to the &dquo;brass&dquo;

ring from Chertsey Abbey) was notsubjected to analysis capable of indi-cating presence of organic com-pounds. That a formation &dquo;crumbled&dquo;does not demonstrate mineralized

remains, because a degraded fiberalso can produce such evidence. Onthe other hand, other data observedbut not reported may have contrib-uted to the identification ofmineralized fiber formations on thebrass ring. It is evident that we need toobtain more information about the

process of fabric pseudomorph forma-tion as well as the analysis of the pseu-domorphs themselves to aid in recon-struction of the cultural use of theseartifacts in intimate association with

people.

Footnote1 "Provenience" is defined herein as the

exact archeological context or site, whereas"provenance" refers to a general cultural re-gion.

References

Biek, L. Archaeology and the Microscope.London: Butterworth, 1963.

Carroll, D. L. Etruscan textile in Newark.American Journal ofArchaeology, 1973, 77,334-336.

Collins, W. F. The corrosion of early Chinesebronzes. Journal of the Institute of Metals,1931, 45, 23-55.

Dunbar, C. O. and Waage, K. M. Historical

Geology. New York: Wiley, 1969.Gettens, R. J. The corrosion products of an

ancient Chinese bronze. Journal of ChemicalEducation, 1951, 28, 67-71.

Goldring, W. Handbook of Paleontology forBeginners and Amateurs. New York: Paleon-tological Research Institution, 1965.

Jakes, K. A. and Sibley, L. R. The survival ofcellulosic fibers in archaeological contexts.Science and Archaeology, in press.

Kuttruff, J. T. Prehistoric textiles revealed bypotsherds. Shuttle, Spindle and Dyepot,1980, 11, 40-41, 80.

Krauskopf, K. B. Introduction to Geochemis-try. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Mellaart, J. Catal Huyuk. London: Thames andHudson,1967.

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Lovelock (Eds.), Microbial Aspects of theDeterioration of Materials. London:Academic Press, 1975.

Rowlett, R. M. and Sibley, L. R. Two La T&eacute;ne 1 a fabric fragments. (In preparation.)

Sibley, L. R. and Jakes, K. A. The survival ofprotein fibers in archaeological contexts. Sci-ence and Archaeology, in review.

Sibley, L. R., Korslund, L. and Rowlett, R. M.Silk pseudomorphs on Shang Dynasty bronzeartifacts&mdash;a preliminary investigation. In

Combined Proceedings: Association of Col-lege Professors of Textiles and Clothing. SaltLake City: Brigham Young University Press,1978.

Sylwan, V. Silk from the Yin Dynasty. Museumof Far Eastern Antiquities Bulletin, 1937, 9,119-126.

Tasch, P. Paleobiology of the Invertebrates.New York: Wiley, 1973.

Vollmer, J. Textile pseudomorphs on Chinesebronzes. In Proceedings, Irene EmeryRoundtable on Museum Textiles. Washing-ton, D.C.: The Textile Museum, 1974.

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