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Testing a CommunicationTheory-Method-Message-Behavior Complex for theInvestigation of PublicsGabriel M. Vasquez
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To cite this article: Gabriel M. Vasquez (1994): Testing a CommunicationTheory-Method-Message-Behavior Complex for the Investigation of Publics,Journal of Public Relations Research, 6:4, 267-291
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JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH. 6(4), 267-291 Copyright O 1994, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Testing a Communication Theory-Method-Message-Behavior
Complex for the Investigation of Publics
Gabriel M. Vasquez Department of Communication, LAEB
Purdue Universitv
This article is an operational continuation of a theoretical model to investigate organizational publics. A test of the model was conducted as proprietary re- search in an actual public relations campaign. Major aspects of the model were supported; however, refinements were indicated. Application of the model resulted in theory-based recommendations for the organization, identified theo- retical implications, and allowed for additional discussion of a Homo Narrans paradigm for public relations. This research effort conceptually and operation- ally establishes a communication theory-method-message-behavior complex and makes this model available for use by practitioners and researchers alike.
In recent years, some progress has been made in the development of a commu- nication-centered perspective to public relations research. Botan and Hazleton (1989) explicated metatheoretical issues, relevant theories, and the application of theories to public relations research. Toth and Heath (1992) illustrated the application of rhetorical theory and critical perspectives to explain public relations practice. Grunig et al. (1992) established an agenda for excellence in public relations and communication management. The principal advantage of a communication-centered perspective is the application of theoretical models and social science research tools for understanding the public relations activi- ties of organizations and publics (Botan, 1989; Botan & Hazleton, 1989; Vasquez, 1993).
Vasquez (1993) conceptualized a Homo Narrans paradigm as one example of a communication-centered perspective to public relations that utilizes meta- theoretical, theoretical, and respective methodological tools to examine mes-
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sages between an organization and its publics. Specifically, Vasquez argued for the combination of Bormann's Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT) and Grunig's Situational Theory of Publics (STP) as a communication theory method-message-behavior complex (herein referred to as a theory -behavior complex) for the investigation of organizations and publics. Vasquez ex- plicated a communication theory-behavior complex as an interdependent in- vestigative approach to communication phenomena based on a theoretical explanation, associated methodological tools, and theory-based data to design targeted messages for segmented publics. Theory-driven messages are targeted to publics based on the probabilities and intensities of the publics' informa- tion-processing and information-seeking communication behaviors.
This article is a continuation of previous efforts to conceptualize a theory - behavior complex. As such, I report on findings from research undertaken to apply, test, and refine a theory-behavior complex for public relations research and practice. This investigation was conducted as proprietary research for a not-for-profit, private school. Per prior agreement with the Board of Directors, the identity of the school is masked to respect and protect the concerns of the school's students, families, and staff. I begin with a brief review of a theory behavior complex, move to a report of method and results. and conclude with a discussion of theoretical and paradigmatic implications.
A HOMO NARRANS PARADIGM: A COMMUNICATION THEORY-BEHAVIOR COMPLEX
A Homo Narrans paradigm for public relations (Vasquez, 1993) views the exchange of messages between an organization and its publics as forms of stories. In this paradigm, messages, and the exchange of messages between an organization and its publics, create a symbolic reality in which both the organi- zation and public are active participants. Through the combination of SCT and STP, a communication theory-behavior complex is conceptualized to investigate messages that comprise an organization-public symbolic reality. In this section, I begin with a brief overview of a theory--behavior complex for public relations, then provide a problem statement with research questions (for a complete review of the literature, see Vasquez, 1993).
A Homo Narrans paradigm for public relations has its roots in Fisher's (1984, 198%. 198%) explication of the narrative paradigm. In essence, the narrative paradigm is a philosophical view of human communication that focuses on human beings as social storytellers (Fisher, 1984). Narratives func- tion to interpret and give order to human experience and account for meaning as a matter of history, culture, character, linguistic convention, and interani- mation (Fisher, 1984, 1985a. 198%).
Bormann's SCT is one approach to human communication as Homo Nar-
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lNVESTIGATlON OF PUBLICS 269
rans (Bormann, 1985; Fisher, 1984). SCT was inductively developed using ethnographics, Q-methodology, and survey techniques over the last 20 years (Cragan & Shields, 1992). SCT assumes that human beings are social storytell- ers that share "fantasies" to build group consciousness and create a social symbolic reality (Bormann, 1983, 1985). Fantasy is a technical term that refers to shared interpretations of events that result from collectives of people sharing narratives to account for their experiences, hopes, or fears (Bonnann, 1983, 1985; Cragan & Shields, 1992). Fantasy themes are dramatizing comments that tell a narrative about an event and are the basic unit of analysis in SCT (Cragan & Shields, 1992). Fantasy themes occur in oral, mediated, and print forms of communication (Bormann, 1983).
SCT provides a theory-method-message complex to investigate human communication. Poole, Seihold, and McPhee (1985) called the point at which method ties into the process of scientific reasoning as a theory-method com- plex: a characteristic mode of explanation used by the theory, a characteristic mode of inquiry or research strategy, and methodological techniques. A the- ory-method complex acts as "an interdependent whole in which method shapes theory and vice versa" (Poole, 1990, p. 238). As described by Poole et al. (1985), an analysis based on SCT that uses fantasy theme analysis as a method of investigation comprises a theory-method complex. Moreover, an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis results in theory-based and theory-driven data that can he utilized to design and manage theory-based messages for a respective audience. Thus, an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis comprises a theory-method-message complex: a communication theory-SCT-mani- fested through a research methodology-fantasy theme analysis-resulting in theory-based messages that reflect the symbolic reality of a group of people. Although SCT's theory-method-message complex results in empirically veri- fied, theory-based data for designing message content, the theory-method- message complex does not identify or segment relevant publics to target a message.
Grunig (1978, 1989b) developed a situational theory of the communication behaviors of publics and the consequent communication of an organization to the publics. Grunig's STP is a segmentation theory of public relations based on the belief that a mass population has segments or publics embedded within and that the best means to segment a population of people into publics is the extent to which people actively or passively communicate about an issue and behave in a way that supports or constrains an organization's activities (Gru- nig, 1989b; Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Grunig & Repper, 1992).
STP segments a population into eight publics. Grunig (1978, 1982, 1989b) cited Dewey (1927) to conceptualize a public as a group of people that face a similar problematic situation, recognize the problem, and organize to do some- thing about the problem. Three independent variables-problem recognition, level of involvement, and constraint recognition-explain when individuals
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will engage in two kinds of communication behavior, information processing and information seeking (Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Grunig & Repper, 1992). Differential responses to the three independent variables explain the informa- tion-processing and information-seeking behaviors of a public (Grunig & Rep- per, 1992). According to Grunig, organizations should develop messages and communication campaigns for individuals or publics engaged in information- processing and information-seeking behaviors, a message-behavior complex.
STP is, therefore, a communication theory of publics that provides for the precise identification of the number and percentages of relevant publics within a population. the probabilities of information-processing and information- seeking behaviors per identified public, and the intensity or likelihood of information-processing and information-seeking communication behaviors per identified public. Although STP identifies relevant publics and when mes- sages should be directed to the publics, STP does not identify actual message content.
If SCT and STP can combine as a theory-behavior complex, then SCT's theory-method-message complex can be used in tandem with STP's message- behavior complex to design and target theory-based messages for segmented publics, based on the publics' probability and intensity for information pro- cessing and information seeking. For SCT and STP to be combined, SCT research must provide a conceptual link to STP research on publics. Further. to operationalize the linkage as a theory-behavior complex, SCT and STP must account for the segmentation of publics and the corresponding messages to target for each public.
Problem Statement
Dewey (1927) and Grunig (1978, 1982. 1989b) defined a public as individuals that face a similar situation, recognize a problem, and act to solve the prob- lem. In SCT terminology, a public represents individuals that have created, raised, and sustained a group consciousness around a problematic situation. SCT assumes that group consciousness is created through the sharing and eventual "chaining out" of group fantasy themes. Chaining out is a technical term used in SCT to describe the human communication activity of partici- pation in a group's symbolic reality (Bormann, 1972, 1983; Cragan & Shields, 1981. 1990, 1992). Fantasy theme chaining often begins in small group discussions and spreads to larger collectives of people. The process of fantasy theme chaining occurs as people initiate, configure, reconfigure, and evolve an explanation of an event or issue (Cragan & Shields, in press). The process of configuring and reconfiguring provides for the symbolic conver- gence of meaning about the event or issue. As people evolve and build a shared view of the event or issue, they symbolically order the world around them-they create a symbolic reality.
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SCT, further, assumes that three master analogues-righteous, social, and pragmatic-compete as alternative explanations of symbolic reality. Master analogues provide a deep structure explanation for an individual's participa- tion in a symbolic reality (Cragan & Shields, in press). Master analogues are based on James's (1890) principles of psychology about the self. Briefly, James identified material, social, and spiritual personae in human beings that com- pete within a person to make sense out of life experiences. Cragan and Shields (1990) reconceptualized the personae as righteous, social, and pragmatic; "we inductively came to these terms after conducting a number of proprietary market segmentation studies for agri-business and after studying the political rhetoric of a number of political campaigns" (p. 2). A righteous persona is concerned with the right way of doing things without regard for personal friendships or financial costs; the social persona is keyed to interpersonal relations, trust, and friendship; and the pragmatic persona stresses efficiency and practicality (Cragan & Shields, 1992). For a review of studies that empiri- cally verified the existence of master analogues, see Cragan and Shields (1977, 1981, 1990), Endres (1989), and McFarland (1985).
Thus, from an SCT perspective, a public represents individuals that, through the process of configuring, reconfiguring, and evolving an explanation of a problematic event, have created, raised, and sustained a group conscious- ness around the problematic event or issue. The public's view of the event represents the public's symbolic reality and provides a deep structure explana- tion of the event.
In the case of organization and publics, I assert that messages and the exchange of messages between an organization and public is the equivalent of the SCT fantasy theme chaining process. That is, organizations and publics use messages, defined as fantasy themes in SCT terminology, to configure, recon- figure, and evolve (Cragan & Shields, in press) an explanation of a problematic situation. As organization and public evolve chaining fantasy theme explana- tions of the problematic situation, the totality of chaining fantasy themes comprise the symbolic reality of the problematic situation. In essence, chaining fantasy themes symbolically link organization and public as each participates in evolving an explanation of the problematic situation. If chaining fantasy themes link an organization and public, then a conceptual basis exists to connect SCT research to the concept of publics and for the eventual combina- tion of SCT and STP as a theory-behavior complex.
Research Question 1: Do chaining fantasy themes link an organization and its publics?
An SCT-based fantasy theme analysis of the messages exchanged between organizations and publics is an investigation of the organization-public sym- bolic reality. The chaining fantasy themes between organization and public
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would link organization and public, given their participation in creating a symbolic reality for the problematic event or issue. SCT assumes that master analogue fantasy themes compete to explain an event or issue. In addition to competing fantasy themes, the symbolic reality of a problematic event would contain shared fantasy themes indicative of a common-as opposed to com- peting-symbolic reality between organization and public. A shared symbolic reality is relevant for examination because organizations and publics are not always in competition to evolve explanations for a problematic situation. Organizations and publics also agree on problematic situations or aspects of the situation. A shared symbolic reality, moreover, provides additional evi- dence for fantasy themes as a link between organization and public.
Research Question 2: Do organizations and publics share a common symbolic reality?
If fantasy themes link an organization and public, and the organization and public share a common symbolic reality, then SCT's theory-method-message complex can be used to investigate the organization-public competing and shared symbolic reality. If an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis included STP questions for segmenting publics, then the number and percentages of relevant publics within a population could be segmented. Further, the corresponding fantasy themes that comprise the symbolic reality of each public could be identified and explicated. SCT and STP, in tandem, would account for the organization-public symbolic reality, the segmentation of publics, and the corresponding messages to target for each public. SCT, thus, should be able to combine with STP to result in a communication theory-behavior complex for the investigation of publics.
Research Question 3: Can SCT and STP combine as a theory-behavior complex for the investigation of publics?
A theory-behavior complex for the investigation of publics seeks to study messages exchanged between organizations and publics. SCT's theory-meth- od-message complex examines messages as fantasy themes that symbolically link organization and public as each participates in evolving an explanation of a problematic situation. STP's message-behavior complex is utilized to seg- ment a population into relevant publics and to determine when messages should be sent to publics that are processing and seeking information about the problematic situation. The SCT-STP theoretical model is conditioned on chaining fantasy themes that link organization and public as a conceptual association between SCT and STP research on publics, the segmentation of publics utilizing STP questions, and the identification of specific fantasy themes that link organization and segmented public.
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METHOD
Subjects
Stockman (1990) argued that schools and other educational institutions should pay greater attention to the basic and finer details of public relations. Beta Academy (identity masked) is a private, not-for-profit school that offers pro- grams for preschool through the sixth grade based on the Corsini Four-R (C4R) School System. The C4R School System is an alternative-education system based in democratic philosophy, humanistic psychological principles, and contemporary learning principles as originated by Raymond J. Corsini, a clinical psychologist and educator. Beta Academy has been operating for the past 7 years and is presently considering long-range planning and developing long-range goals. An SCT-based fantasy theme analysis of Beta Academy and its publics would assist Beta Academy's Board of Directors in making deci- sions about present objectives, future goals, and relationships with their signifi- cant publics. For the researcher, Beta Academy offers an applied and realistic domain for investigation that allows for "pure research carried out in an applied setting" (Miller & Sunnafrank, 1984, p. 256). Actual subjects for this investigation were students, faculty, administrative staff, and parents of chil- dren attending Beta Academy.
Procedures
Cragan and Shields (1990) provided a refined and detailed account of a five- step method to conduct an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis. The five steps include (a) a literature review to identify written narratives, (b) dramatistic- based personal and focus-group interviews to identify oral narratives, (c) building a research instrument that depicts the competing nature of fantasy themes, (d) collecting and analyzing quantitative data that capture the sym- bolic reality of the audience, and (e) creating the appropriate narratives cor- relating for the audience. These steps were implemented in the present study as follows.
Literature review. A literature review of all internal and external commu- nication (i.e., brochures, pamphlets, newsletters, parent handbook) for the purpose of discovering and identifying current issues in Beta Academy's rela- tionship with its parent population and the associated righteous, social, and pragmatic fantasy themes competing to explain the issues.
Dramatistic-based personal and focus-group interviews. Interviews were conducted to identify fantasy themes that chain out. Shields (1981) out- lined the procedures for conducting dramatistic-based personal and focus-
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group interviews. The purpose in this particular step is not only to identify chaining fantasies but also to allow participants to configure and reconfigure the chaining fantasies to allow for the convergence of symbolic reality (Cragan & Shields, 1981). Analysis of tape-recorded interviews revealed salient fantasy themes for here-and-now issues that chained out by individuals participating in the drama of the fantasy. As described by Cragan and Shields (1981, 1990, 1992), an example of the chaining nature of fantasy themes that demonstrates participation in a symbolic reality is a fantasy about whether parents can see the C4R philosophy affecting their child:
Researcher: "I've heard some parents say that they can see the C4R philosophy affecting their child."
Parent 1: "Oh definitely!" Parent 2: "Yeah." Parent 3: "Well, it's not something that happens right away, but you
start to see it in the way they respond to you and the things they do."
Parent 5: "Yeah, nothing's off limits in terms of what they can pur- sue. Our son made a mud solar system on the patio deck in the middle of winter. You know, he's in an environment and he brings it home with him."
Parent 7: "Yeah, you just kind of get out of the way and let them learn."
Parent 4: "By reinforcing the way Beta Academy chooses to disci- pline children I can see my child think about the conse- quences to his actions."
Parent 3: "I even see it affecting myself and my husband." Parent 6: "Uh-huh, and it keeps us growing too because they don't let
you fall into an I'm the mom and I say so trap" (with this comment the group laughs and chains out a fantasy about 'I'm the parent and I say so' stories).
Instrument development. Several SCT-based proprietary studies have recently designed and implemented pragmatic adaptations of Q-sort method- ology as a 9-point Likert-style survey instrument (Cragan & Shields, in press). This pragmatic approach to Q-sort methodology was utilized in the develop- ment of a research instrument to quantify the convergence of fantasy themes. Chaining fantasy themes identified in Step 2 served as content for the survey instrument. It is important to realize that fantasy themes included in the survey instrument were discovered, tested, and refined through a qualitative analysis of Beta Academy messages, in the form of a literature review, individual interviews, and focus-group interviews, prior to inclusion in the survey instru- ment. Use of this pragmatic approach to Q-sort methodology also allowed for
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the inclusion of the 5-question STP format for identifying types of publics and demo/psycho/sociographics. The final instrument was reviewed and approved by Beta Academy's executive director and by a scholar well versed in SCT- based research.
Conducting the research. The survey was administered via phone-survey techniques and had a response rate of 86% (N = 63). The target population was either parent of the child currently attending Beta Academy. The survey instrument asked respondents to indicate their subjective agreement with fan- tasy themes on a scale of 1 to 9, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (9). Agreement with a fantasy theme indicates participation in the drama and symbolic reality of the fantasy theme.
RESULTS
Research Question 1: Do Fantasy Themes Link an Organization and Its Publics?
The qualitative analysis process began with an SCT-based fantasy theme anal- ysis of all Beta Academy communication exchanged with its parent popula- tion. An SCT-based fantasy theme analysis seeks to identify dramatizing messages, theoretically and technically defined as fantasy themes, as the basic unit of communication analysis for SCT (Bormann, 1972; Cragan & Shields, 1981, 1990, 1992, in press). Messages exchanged by Beta Academy and its parent population were manifest in organizational documents, including, but not limited to, brochures, pamphlets, monthly newsletters, parent training sessions, minutes of Board meetings, and the parent handbook.
From this analysis, dominant fantasy themes were identified as content for the dramatistic-based personal and focus-group interviews. Parent interviews were conducted to identify chaining fantasies and to provide parents an oppor- tunity to configure and reconfigure (Cragan & Shields, in press) chaining fantasies so as to allow for the convergence of symbollc reality (Cragan & Shields, 1981). Fifteen dominant chaining fantasy themes (5 righteous, 5 social, and 5 pragmatic) were identified and included in the survey instrument. (The reader should note these 15 dominant fantasy themes represent the reconfigu- ration of a fantasy theme message that originated with Beta Academy commu- nication to the parent population.) Prior to administration of the survey instrument, face validity was used to determine their righteous, social, or pragmatic theoretical nature. For example, a righteous fantasy theme is, "I am willing to pay for the quality of education my child gets at Beta Academy." A social fantasy theme is, "If the class size gets too small, then my child won't get the peer socialization that we want him to get." A pragmatic fantasy theme
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is, "The decision to send my child to Beta Academy is a year-to-year decision based on a lot of different factors." In addition, expert agreement by a scholar well versed in SCT-based research confirmed the face validity (100% agree- ment). Moreover, Beta's executive director was utilized to further test reliabil- ity of the coded master analogues (90% agreement). The final survey instrument was reviewed and approved by both Beta's executive director and the expert researcher.
SCT assumes that righteous, social, and pragmatic fantasy tbemes are "at war" with one another as they compete for the prevailing perspective of current issues. To capture the competing nature of fantasy themes, survey responses to the 15 dominant fantasy themes were analyzed to identify their mean scores. Mean scores were reviewed and the two lowest mean scores in each master analogue were dropped for the purpose of maximizing competi- tion. The remaining nine fantasy themes were then grouped by their righ- teous, social, and pragmatic nature to form righteous, social, and pragmatic classifications of statements (Q-classifications have reference to intra-individ- ual differences between statements; see Stephenson, 1953). Based on SCT's assumption of competition between master analogue fantasy themes, one would expect the mean scores of fantasy tbemes by righteous, social, and pragmatic classifications to depict the competition between master ana- logues. For example, a righteous fantasy theme would produce the highest mean score from the righteous classification, a social fantasy theme would produce the highest mean score from the social classification, and a prag- matic fantasy theme would produce the highest mean score from the prag- matic classification.
Table 1 depicts the nine remaining dominant fantasy themes (three righ- teous, three social, and three pragmatic) with their corresponding mean scores by righteous, social, and pragmatic classifications. A means-centered approach was utilized to determine significance and to interpret mean scores. A means- centered approach to determine significance of mean scores in Q-based re- search was advocated by Stephenson (1953). This approach utilizes a difference of 3 0 in mean scores to determine the chance subjects have in sorting state- ments in a highly similar way. Brown (1980) provided a more practical guide to understanding the theoretical and mechanical aspects of Q-technique and means-centered significance. Cragan and Shields (1981, in press) determined the reliability and validity of using a pragmatic adaption of Q-sort methodol- ogy and a difference of .SO in mean scores to determine significance. Thus, one can be fairly confident that intra-individual differences between statements, as captured by a difference of .50 mean scores, would indicate genuinely similar outlook by classifications, because the likelihood that subjects would sort this by accident is remote.
Mean scores of the nine dominant fantasy themes depict the competing nature of master analogue fantasy theme classifications and provide evidence
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TABLE 1 Dominant Fantasy Themes By Righteous, Social. and
Pragmatic Classifications
Population Mean
I am willing to pay for the quality of education my child gets at Beta Academy. (R)
I leave the parenting classes feeling inspired and rededicated. (R)
Children are individuals that learn at their own pace and in their own style. (R)
If the class sire gets too small then my child won't get the peer socialization that slhe needs. (S)
Beta Academy provides a high-quality family learning environment. (S)
Responsiveness means concern for others. (S)
The decision to send my child to Beta Academy is a year-to-year decision based on a lot of different factors. (P)
If Beta Academy wants to coruinue growing then it should be run like a business. (P)
Responsibility means do what you can for yourself. (PI
Social Pragmatic
Note. N = 63. Numbers in bold indicate the highest mean s o r e for a dominant fantasy theme. R = righteous master analogue fantasy theme: S = social master analogue fantasy theme; P = pragmatic master analogue fantasy theme.
of the link between the parent population and Beta Academy. For example, the righteous fantasy theme, "I am willing to pay for the quality of education my child gets at Beta Academy," has a population mean score of 8.0794 and righteous, social, and pragmatic classifications mean scores of 8.5122, 7.3571, and 7.1250, respectively. The competing nature of righteous, social, and prag- matic classifications to explain why a parent should pay for the quality of education at Beta Academy is captured by a difference of 3 0 in the mean scores of the righteous classification with the social and pragmatic classifications. This righteous fantasy theme about paying for the quality of education at Beta Academy is best explained by a righteous classification concern for doing the right thing rather than a social classification concern for interpersonal rela- tions or a pragmatic classification concern for practicality. For this fantasy theme, parent respondents participated in a righteous symbolic reality and are linked to Beta Academy through participation in the symbolic reality of the
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chaining fantasy theme message. Similarly, each of the remaining fantasy themes provided an explanation for a current issue and linked the parent population to Beta Academy through participation in the chaining fantasy themes.
In the case of Beta Academy and its parent population, messages, as fan- tasy themes, originated from Beta and were communicated to the parent population through organizational documents. An SCT-based fantasy theme analysis identified the manifest content of these messages and then tested the messages in personal and focus-group interviews with parents to determine chaining fantasies, allow for reconfiguration of the fantasies, and facilitate the convergence of symbolic reality. A survey of the parent popu- lation resulted in master analogue classifications and mean score examina- tion of significance and provided evidence for the link between the parent population and Beta Academy. Participation by the parent population in chaining fantasy theme messages designed and distributed by Beta provided evidence of the symbolic link between the parent population and Beta. Based on the qualitative analysis process of identifying and testing chaining fantasy themes originating from Beta Academy and the quantitative analy- sis process of quantifying the competing nature of master analogue fantasy themes through mean scores, this study concludes that fantasy themes link an organization and its publics.
Research Question 2: Do Organizations and Publics Share a Common Symbolic Reality?
According to SCT, master analogue classifications compete for the prevailing perspective of an event or issue. The symbolic reality of a problematic event. however, also contains shared fantasy themes. A shared fantasy theme indi- cates a common, as opposed to competing, view of the problematic situation or aspects of the situation. A difference, then, of less than 3 0 across master analogue mean scores would indicate participation in a shared symbolic real- ity. Whereas Table I depicts the examination of fantasy theme mean scores for their competing nature, Table 2 depicts the examination of fantasy theme mean scores for instances of shared or common symbolic reality across righ- teous, social, and pragmatic classifications.
Table 2 provides an example of six chaining fantasy themes with the cor- responding mean scores of the population and righteous, social, and prag- matic classifications. Mean scores of the six chaining fantasies depict the shared nature of master analogue fantasy theme classifications and provide evidence for a common symbolic reality between the parent population and Beta Academy. For example, the social fantasy theme, "Respect means an appreciation for the worth of others and self," has a population mean score of 8.6508 and righteous, social, and pragmatic mean scores of 8.7073,
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TABLE 2 Mean Scares of Shared Fantasv Themes bv Righteous. Social, and
Pragmatic Classifications
Fonlasy Theme Population
Mean
Respect means an appreciation for the worth of others and self. (S)
Beta Academy provides a high-quality family learning experience. (S)
Resourcefulness means take any situation and figure out what works. (P)
Beta Academy is a child-centered private school committed ta the C4R philosophy of education. (P)
I want more parent-teacher conferences (R)
Being actively involved in my child's education is very important to me. (R)
Righleous Sociol Pragmatic
Nore. N = 63. S = social master analogue fantasy theme: P = pragmatic master analogue fantasy theme: R = righteous master analogue fantasy theme.
8.5714, and 8.5000, respectively. SCT would assume a social fantasy theme about respecting the worth of others is best explained by the social classifi- cation concern for interpersonal relations rather than the righteous classifi- cation concern for domg the right thing or a pragmatic classification concern for practicality. The shared nature of righteous, social, and prag- matic classifications, however, is captured by the commonality of mean scores, a difference of less than 3 0 in mean scores from the social classifica- tion to the righteous and pragmatic classifications. An instance, such as de- picted in Table 2, where mean scores are less than 5 0 across master analogue classifications indicates a shared symbolic reality.
Survey results provided evidence of numerous chaining fantasy themes that had common mean scores across righteous, social, and pragmatic classifica- tions for the parent population. (The reader is reminded that all fantasy themes included in the survey instrument were generated by the organization, identi- fied in organizational literature through qualitative analysis, tested in focus- group interviews, and quantified for public agreement by the survey instrument.) According to SCT, Table 1 provides evidence for participation in a competing symbolic reality, and Table 2 provides evidence for participation in a shared symbolic reality. Based on the data from Table 2, which exemplifies the shared symbolic reality across righteous, social, and pragmatic mean score classifications, this study concludes that organizations and publics share a common symbolic reality.
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Research Question 3: Can SCT and STP Combine a s a Theory-Behavior Complex for the Investigation of Publics?
STP required the inclusion of five survey questions to obtain the number and percentages of relevant publics, the probabilities of information-processing and information-seeking behaviors, and the intensity or likelihood of infoma- tion-processing and information-seeking communication behaviors. The three independent variables, problem recognition, constraint recognition, and level of involvement, with high and low combinations of each, identified the number and percentages of relevant publics. A Likert-type scale from 1 to 10, with 1 to 5 being low and 6 to 10 being high, was utilized to identify low-high responses. This scale was chosen for consistency and ease of comparison across survey questions (Grunig, 1978, reported on the use of a 10-point ordinal scale; Grunig & Hunt, 1984, a 4-point scale; and Grunig, 1989b, a 6-point scale). The questions read as follows (Grunig & Hunt, 1984): How often do you stop to think about your child's education at Beta Academy (problem recognitionp How much can you personally do to make a difference in your child's educa- tion at Beta Academy (constraint recognition)? How personally involved are you in your child's education at Beta Academy (level of involvement)?
Table 3 illustrates the frequency of respondents whose high-low combina- tion of scores on the variables of problem recognition, constraint recognition. and level of involvement determine the percentage and type of public from the population. For example, the active public consists of 46 (N = 63) individuals who scored high in problem recognition, low in constraint recognition, and high in level of involvement with their child's education at Beta Academy. In comparison, anone-publicscoredlow in problem recognition, high inconstraint recognition, and low involvement with their child's education at Beta Academy.
TABLE 3 Frequency. Percentage, and Type of Public
HPR, LCR, HLI 46 73.0 Active HPR, HCR, HLI 4 6.3 Aware active LPR, LCR, HLI 0 0.0 Reinforcing LPR, HCR, HLI 0 0.0 Latent HPR, LCR, LLI 6 9.5 Aware-(in)activc HPR, HCR, LLI 3 4.8 Latent aware LPR, LCR, LLI 3 4.8 Nonellatent LPR, HCR, LLI 1 1.6 None
Nore N = 63. HPR = high in problem recognition; LCR = low in constraint recognition; HLI = high in level of involvement; HCR = high in constraint recognition: LPR = low in problem recognition: LLI = low in level of involvement.
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STP also accounts for the probability of information-processing and infor- mation-seeking communication behaviors for each identified public. The prob- ability for information processing was determined by identifying the number of respondents per public indicating a score of greater than or equal to 6, on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 to 5 being low and 6 to 10 being high, when asked how likely they would be to read an article about Beta Academy if they came across the article while reading the paper (Grunig, 1978). The probability of informa- tion seeking was determined by identifying the number of respondents per public indicating a score of greater than or equal to 6, on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 to 5 being low and 6 to 10 being high, when asked how likely they would be to buy a newspaper with an article about Beta Academy on the front page (Grunig, 1989b).
Table 4 provides the probabilities of information-processing and informa- tion-seeking communication behaviors for each of the publics in the parent population. For example. in the active public, 43 of the 46 respondents (93%) indicated a high probability for processing information about Beta Academy if they routinely became aware of the information. Additionally, all the active public respondents (10046) indicated a high probability for actively seeking information about Beta Academy. As a whole, each of the publics in the parent population indicated high probabilities for information-processing and infor- mation-seeking behaviors. In the case of publics defined by low levels of involvement (aware-(in)active, latent, and nonpublics), these respondents were just as likely to process and seek information as actively as publics with high levels of involvement-a point I shall consider in the Discussion section.
STP further accounts for the intensity of information-processing and infor- mation-seeking communication behaviors per each identified public. Intensity of both information-processing and information-seeking behaviors is deter-
TABLE 4 Probability of Information-Processing and
Informationdeeking Behaviors for the Parent Population
Type of Public -
Active Awaresaclive Reinforcing Latent Aware-(injactive Latent-aware Nonellatent None
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mined by computing the mean score from responses to the STP infonnation- processing and information-seeking questions per public.
Table 5 illustrates information processing and information seeking mean scores of total respondents per identified public. For example, the mean score of the 46 respondents in the active public to the STP information-processing and information-seeking questions are 9.45 and 9.78, respectively. Each of the identified publics has a high intensity for processing and seeking information about Beta Academy. Publics low in involvement have comparable or higher levels of intensity for processing and seeking information than publics high in involvement, seemingly to compensate for their low involvement. (In a post- survey interview with a parent low in involvement, she stated, "I take my child to school, 1 pick her up, and I read the newsletters and everything else she brings home so I can stay involved. I just don't have the time keep up with everything.")
To this point, publics embedded in the parent population have been seg- mented and the corresponding tables constructed to reflect the frequency and types of publics as well as the probabilities and intensities for processing and seeking infonnation. The purpose of this point of analysis, however, is to determine if SCT can combine with STP. To that end, Table 6 depicts a two-way table of master analogue fantasy themes, defined by SCT, and pub- lics, defined by STP.
Table 6 depicts the frequency and percentage of respondents by their corre- sponding participation in a master analogue classification per each identified public. Further, the representative percentage of righteous, social, and prag- matic classifications is indicated per public and of the total population. For example, the active public is comprised of 46 respondents who indicated high problem recognition, low constraint recognition, and high involvement. Of those 46 respondents, 32 (69.6% of the active public) are righteous, 8 (17.4% of the active public) are social, and 6 (13.0% of the active public) are pragmatic symbolic participants, respectively, in the active public. The righteous-active
TABLE 5 Likelihood of Information-Processing and
Informaliondeeking Behaviors for the Parent Population
Active 9.45 9.78 Aware-active 9.50 4.15 Reinforcing 0 0 Latent 0 0 Aware-(inkactive 1.30 9.83 Latent aware 9.60 10.0 Nonellatent 10.0 10.0 None 10.0 10.0
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TABLE 6 Public by Master Analogue Classifications
Public Righrevur Social Pragmoric Frequency/%
Active
Aware-active
Reinforcing
Latent
Aware-(in)active
Latent-aware
Nonellatent
None
Total
public constitutes 78% of the total righteous classification, the social-active public 57.1% of the total social classification, and the pragmatic-active public 75% of the total pragmatic classification. For the total parent population, 65.1% are righteous, 22.2% are social, and 12.7% are pragmatic participants, in the symbolic reality of Beta Academy. Almost 80% of all respondents are active or aware-active publics, with the other 20% primarily aware-inactive.
The two-way table of SCT-based righteous, social, and pragmatic classifica- tions with STP-based types of publics allows for the use of theory-based data to design targeted messages for segmented publics. The two-way table of righteous, social, and pragmatic classifications with types of publics allows a researcher or practitioner to identify publics and their corresponding partici- pation in the symbolic reality of an organization, including the precise fantasy themes that link an organization and public. Organizations and publics are linked through the publics' participation in the symbolic reality of an issue or problematicevent. Specifically, the link is through participation in a competing
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symbolic reality of the issue (Research Question 1) or a shared symbolic reality with the organization (Research Question 2). Based on the qualitative analysis process of identifying, refining, and testing chaining fantasy themes generated by the organization and the quantitative analysis process of quantifying the competing and shared symbolic realities of respondents, the clear identification of the number and percentages of publics, and the ability to two-way table publics and master analogue classifications; this study concludes that Bor- mann's SCT and Grunig's STP can combine as a communication theory- behavior complex for the investigation of publics.
DISCUSSION
This research etfort was undertaken to operationalize and test a communica- tion theory-behavior complex for the investigation of publics through the combination of Bomann's SCT and Gmnig's STP. To determine the utility of this communication complex, an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis was uti- lized to conduct an investigation of an organization-public symbolic relation- ship. The benefit of the fantasy theme analysis was a research process that enabled the use of qualitative techniques in terms of a literature review of internallexternal communication, personal interviews, and focus-group inter- views, as well as quantitative techniques in the form of a survey instrument and statistical analysis. The results of this research effort, as reported earlier. identified theoretical implications for SCT, STP, and the theory- behavior complex and allowed for additional discussion of a Homo Narrans paradigm for public relations research.
Theoretical Implications
Both SCT and STP benefit from the combination of the two theories. For SCT. this effort represents the scholarly extension of SCT-based research to the field of public relations through (a) an examination of messages and the exchange of messages, as fantasy themes, between an organization and its publics; (b) an explication of the symbolic reality of an organization- public relationship; and (c) a reconceptualization of publics. Messages, as fantasy themes, and the exchange of messages between an organization and public, serve to link orga- nization and public as each participates in creating a shared or competing symbolic reality. This symbolic reality can he examined through an SCT-based fantasy theme analysis that identifies the precise fantasy themes that comprise the organization-public symbolic relationship. Utilizing SCT terminology, Vasquez (1993) conceptualized a public as
individuals that create, raise, and sustain a group consciousness around a common problematic situation and act to solve the situation. . . . The public is
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analogous to a rhetorical community. . . . The behavior of the rhetorical community, as public, to the organization would determine if the rhetorical community is, in Grunig's terms, active, latent, constrained or a non-public. (pp. 209-210)
This research effort lends support for Vasquez's conceptualization of publics. SCT also benefits from STP's message-behavior complex of identifying, seg- menting, and determining the probability and intensity of information-pro- cessing and information-seeking behaviors of publics as they participate in the symbolic reality of organizations.
For STP, this research effort represents an intension of STP-based research. Theory development by intension involves the examination of "current areas of understanding in more depth to tease out new insights of understandings so it is somewhat analogous to using a microscope for detailed and minute examination" (Botan, 1989, p. 105). STP benefits from SCT's theory-method- message complex by allowing for the "microsegmentation" of publics and by providing for the design of theory-based messages for segmented publics. Grunig (1989a) developed a nested approach to classify segmentation con- cepts. The innermost nest contained variables that target and predict individ- ual communication behaviors and effects. Segmentation concepts progress outwardly from specific individual behaviors to more general variables (i.e., communities, psychographics and lifestyles, geodemographics, and demo- graphics) that define but do not isolate individual communication behaviors and effects. Grunig stated, "[Allthough the variables identified in the first (innermost) nest could allow planners to target individuals for communication campaigns, such microsegmentation is seldom possible" (p. 213). The mi- crosegmentation of publics by individual communication behaviors and effects is made possible through the combination of SCT and STP. The SCT-STP theory-behavior complex allows for the microsegmentation of publics in that master analogue fantasy themes represent individual participation in the meaning, emotion, and motivation of a problematic situation and associated symbolic reality. As depicted in Table 6, classifications of master analogue fantasy themes, in essence, further segment the STP segmented publics by respondents' symbolic participation in the symbolic reality of the organiza- tion-public relationship. Master analogues, demographics, psychographics, and sociographics provided composite profiles of the microsegmented publics for Beta Academy. Additionally, the theory-behavior complex resulted in theory-based, empirically verified data, as actual message content, for strategic communication with the microsegmented parent publics.
The theory-behavior complex results in an alternative interpretation of STP. The situational theory is based on the consequences of organizational behaviors or behavioral relationships between an organization and public. Problem recognition, constraint recognition, and level of involvement are
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functions of an individual's perception of the consequences of organizational behavior. These variables result in the motivation to process or seek informa- tion. Through the use of STP, organizations would identify publics processing and seeking information and design messages for the publics that reflect the problem those publics recognize. Messages would not be sent to a public unless problem recognition and level of involvement are high and constraint recogni- tion is low. Thus, according to STP, when the behaviors of organizations and publics affect each other they have reason to communicate.
The SCT-STP theory-behavior model, however, suggests an alternative, symbolically oriented interpretation of STP. In the theory-behavior complex, STP is utilized to segment relevant publics that are seeking and processing information based on their problem recognition, constraint recognition, and level of involvement. Publics are then microsegmented by individual participa- tion in competing or shared fantasy themes that specifically link organization and public. Participation in competing or shared master analogue fantasy themes specifies the symbolic reality type and the actual, theory-based content of messages. Messages, as fantasy themes, reflect the symbolic relationship between organization and public and provide meaning, emotion, and motive for action. In other words, theory-derived symbolic characteristics are thought to shape and segment publics more than behavioral properties. The meaning of organizational words and actions is interpreted symbolically through the mutuality of relations over time. In the view of the theory-behavior complex, individuals respond to organizations based on their understanding of what the organization's words and actions mean. Research is needed to further identify and possibly reconceptualize theoretical terms and linkages between the two theories.
A Homo Narrans Paradigm for Public Relations: Additional Conceptualization
The conjoining of SCT and STP provides a communication theory- behavior complex for the investigation of publics: a characteristic SCT-based meta- theoretical and theoretical mode of explanation and characteristic research strategies and methodological techniques in the form of fantasy theme analy- sis. This results in theory-based and theory-derived message content for popu- lations and their publics, as well as clear identification of the number and percentages of relevant publics, the probability of information-processing and information-seeking behaviors by the public to the organization, the likelihood of information-processing and information-seeking behaviors from the public to the organization, and the microsegmentation of individual participation in master analogue fantasy themes, as communication behaviors, by segmented publics.
This communication theory-behavior complex, as a Homo Narrans para-
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d i p for public relations research, provides a scholarly foundation for advanc- ing public relations as a communication-centered applied social science. One of the benefits of a theory-behavior complex is the interdependent nature of metatheory, theory, methodological and research techniques, theory-based messages, and individual communication behaviors to guide the process of scientific reasoning and the practice of public relations. Scholars of public relations can use the theory-behavior complex to move beyond the combina- tion of SCT and STP to develop an original theory of public relations through further conceptualization and reconceptualization of terms and theoretical linkages.
For practitioners, the theory-behavior complex meets the five necessary properties of practical relevance or usefulness of research for practitioners as discussed by Thomas and Tymon (1982). Thomas and Tymon argued that the usefulness of research for practitioners was contingent on the adherence to five necessary properties: descriptive relevance, useful outcomes, operational valid- ity, nonohviousness, and timeliness. Adapted to public relations, the first characteristic is for the research to have descriptive relevance or that the research incorporate phenomena encountered by practitioners. Beta Academy was deliberating market position, long-range goals, and relationships with the parent population. The theory-behavior complex allowed for pure research in an applied setting and, thus, examined actual public relations phenomena experienced by practitioners.
Usefulness of research refers to the correspondence of theoretical outcomes to variables practitioners wish to influence. The usefulness of combining and applying two theories of communication to investigate the messages and ex- change of messages between Beta Academy and its parent population had several benefits for Beta Academy. First, publics in the parent population were identified, segmented, and the respective probabilities and intensities of infor- mation-processing and information-seeking behaviors were determined. Sec- ond, a composite profile of publics was established based on the use of a two-way table of publics with master analogues, demographics, psychograph- ics, and sociographics. Although the demo/psycholsociographic information may be useful, the more important information is the master analogue fantasy themes that specifically link Beta Academy and its parent population. For example, Table 6 indicates that the majority of parents are participants in the active public and participate in righteous fantasy themes. Pragmatic messages to this public would be ineffective as the pragmatic messages would be incon- sistent with the righteous symbolic reality of the public. All in all, the master analogue fantasy themes specify the symbolic type and content of messages to use and avoid for each public. Third, the information-processing and informa- tion-seeking results from Tables 3 and 4 informed Beta Academy that the parent population is actively processing and seeking information about the Academy. It was recommended that Beta should identify success stories with
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righteous fantasy themes about the organimtion or its students and make them available to the publics. Further, Beta Academy was advised to provide. maintain, and sustain active channels of communication to its parents with specific recommendations for channels of communication. Fourth, this investi- gation provided a baseline of master analogue fantasy themes, demographics. psychograpbics, sociograpbics, and mediagraphics for Beta Academy to assess current goals and future directions. Nine specific recommendations, with strategies and tactics for implementation, were made to address current issues and facilitate strategic decisions about long-range goals, market position, and relationships with the parent population.
The third characteristic, operational validity, refers to the ability of practi- tioners to implement the theory. This perhaps is the most debatable character- istic. Practitioner ability will depend on education levels and the technical or professional practice of public reiations by an organization (Grunig & Hunt, 1984: Grunig et al., 1992; Grunig & Repper. 1992).
Nonobviousness, the fourth characteristic, means that useful research must exceed the common sense, everyday knowledge of practitioners. Individual communication behaviors and effects represent the innermost nest of segmenta- tion concepts to identify relevant publics for public relations activities (Grunig. 1989a). The theory-behavior complex results in theory-based data to design messages and address specific individual communication behaviors per seg- mented public. In the case of Beta Academy, the strategic implications were substantial. Equipped with themaster analogue fantasy themes that link organi- zation and public, Beta Academy discovered the fantasy themes that create, develop, sustain, and provide meaning, emotion, and motivation for the Beta Academy-parent population relationship; and identified the dominant and unique fantasy themes to be communicated to the parent population through message design and graphic logos, thus enhancing marketing position and differentiation. This research effort provided Beta Academy's Board of Direc- tors with conclusive, statistically verifiable, and qualitatively rich theory-based information to make decisions about current issues, future goals, market posi- tion, and how to strategically manage relationshipswith their significant publics. The theory -behavior complex thus can match the common-sense knowledge of practitioners through in-depth qualitative analysis and exceed practitioner knowledge through quantitative analysis of SCT and STP variables.
Finally, relevant research must be timely or available for practitioners to solve current public relations problems. This research effort establishes that a theory-behavior complex is conceptually and operationally possible and avail- able for use by practitioners and researchers alike. Additionally, because the theory-behavior complex directly relates individual communication behaviors and publics, public relations activities can potentially provide accountability and return on investment analyses for upper management or clients who seek to strategically manage relationships with publics.
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Although results of the study are very promising, limitations of the study are the size of the organization and its publics. Post hoc intuition would lead one to believe that the organization's being a small private school where parents hear the financial burden for their children's attendance may contribute to the high information-processing and information-seeking scores and that the size of the school may also explain the existence of a predominantly righteous symbolic reality and righteous fantasy themes as the organization seeks to sustain its existence. Knowledge of the size of the organization and its publics, however, could not have intuitively predicted the specific chaining fantasy themes that comprise the competing and shared symbolic reality between organization and public. Further, this investigation represented an examination of the entire parent population-notjust alimited sample-eliminatingconcerns for sample bias as all 73 parent units were surveyed, with 63 units included in the data analysis (N = 63,86% of the parent population).
Future researchers should identify medium to larger organizations with diverse individuals, numerically larger publics for statistical purposes, and, perhaps, organizations with multiple populations. The microsegmentation of publics, through the use of master analogues, demographics, psychographics, and sociographics, and the use of master analogues to design theory-based messages, should receive additional research. Given the initial indications of support for Vasquez's (1993) definition of the public, this concept should be examined as a communication phenomenon. Finally, scholars should conduct research to conceptualize theoretical terms and linkages underlying the model in the hope of evolving a unique theory of public relations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Carl Botan of Purdue University for review of earlier drafts, John Cragan of Illinois State University for discussion and support of this research effort, three blind reviewers for their insightful comments, and the editors of the Journal of Public Relutions Research.
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