Territorial Cults as a Paradigm of Place in Tibet

Dr John

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territorial cults as a Paradigm of Place in tibet

John Studley

Historically, territorial cults were common in the three regions of tibet (chol khar gsum) and epitomised association with a particular locality and formed an important part of religious

life and tibetan identity. They have, however, acquired new significance in contemporary tibet and ‘play a role in affirming identity’ (karmay 1998, 447). They are one of the main ways in which place comes to have a direct bearing on the identity of individuals and communities. This appears to be equally true of a single place or as a common reference for all tibetan people (Buffetrille and diemberger 2002).

territorial cults are not protected under chinese law and would be considered a despised form of ‘superstition’. However, as a spontaneously recovered folk practice they lie outside the scope of state control (Schwartz 1994) and parallel the revival of folk religion in rural china (lai 2003). This phenomenon is illustrated in this chapter from cognitive research the author conducted in eastern kham and provides evidence that place attachment is not only important to most tibetans but that territorial cults are an integral part of place reclaiming in the face of the civilising propensities of outsiders.

introduction

attachment to place is profound, ongoing and dynamic … initiatives related to cultural landscapes offer an invaluable opportunity to address issues relating to social, spiritual and ecological alienation and disenfranchisement, both in urban and rural areas, and both among emplaced and displaced peoples.

(PaP, n.d.)

Specific qualities of landscape infuse a site with a sense of place that has been forged and main-tained out of a very intimate relationship and place-attachment between indigenous people and their ‘topocosm’ (gaster 1961, 17). as a complex multidimensional phenomenon, sense of place has not been holistically defined in the literature (Jorgensen and Stedman 2006). There is some agreement, however, that sense of place addresses:

• ‘Relations, perceptions, attitudes, values, and a world view that affectively attaches people and place’ (yan Xu 1995);

• ‘Experiential, toponymic, numinous and narrative’ elements (Raffan 1992, 379);• ‘Biophysical, psychological, socio-cultural, political and economic’ dimensions (Ardoin

2006, 112);• ‘Cognitive, affective (emotional) and conative (behavioural)’ components (Casakin and

Billig 2009, 821).

220 cultural landscapes

There is also agreement that any loss of sense of place can result in ‘humiliation, distress, aliena-tion and rootlessness’ (yan Xu 1995). Place attachment is integral to sense of place (cajete 1995) and the literature places an emphasis on place attachment in the following contexts:

• Where national or group identity is bound to the environment, either specific forests or landscapes or idealised or imagined ones (gupta and ferguson 1997);

• As part of a post-modern turn to ‘other’ forest values that recognises attachment to place and may be linked to local wisdom (feld and Basso 1996);

• Where peoples, their cultures or environments are threatened or their identity deterritorialised (Mackenzie 2002);

• In response to research in conservation psychology (Bott et al 2003).

The focus of this chapter1 is primarily on place attachment among tibetans in the face of land-scape expropriation and attachment to numinous (spiritual/supernatural) territories. The intro-duction of natural resource interventions and land occupation affect not only local attitudes but also levels of place identity and attachment. This is because of strong ‘territorial’ implica-tions when interventions are imposed by ‘outsiders’ and a perceived lack of local ‘control’ and ‘discontinuity’ (Bonaiuto et al 2002, 639). local people respond in a number of different ways; some will manifest negative attitudes and opposition towards the authorities, especially if there is a perceived political threat to local identity, which may lead to violence or the breakdown of society (turnbull 1984). others, however, are able to react, as a coping strategy, by increasing their level of identification with their own group and by increasing group cohesion, sense of place and place attachment.

it is important, in the context of this chapter, to understand the distinction between place and location. despite their mobility, migratory peoples often have a strong sense of place. The placement of tibetan tents in a yul can create a sense of constant place-orientation at multiple locations (langer 1953), and it would appear that ‘place-bonding’ (Proshansky 1978) emerges primarily from an interaction of cultural and natural setting and may function ‘transpatially’ (feldman 1990) with loyalty to types of place or ‘place congruity’ (Hull 1992).

Whilst the tibetan peoples have had a strong sense of national and cultural identity throughout much of their history (karmay 1996a; 1996b), what bound them together were certain common-alties of culture, religion and identity.

tibetan farmers and nomads have had to continually remake place and maintain belonging in the face of exogenous forces that have attempted to assimilate their beliefs and culture. This process began with the arrival of tibetan Buddhism and was exacerbated by ‘confucianisation’, ‘Hanification’, communism, and the ‘Socialist market economy’.

the Basis of tibetan identity

during the imperial Period (circa 7th–9th centuries ad), tibetans had a strong sense of national and cultural identity which was eulogised in the literature celebrating tibet’s topographic location,

1 an unabridged version of this chapter is available from: http://issuu.com/drjohn/docs/ter_cults?mode=a_p.

territorial cults as a Paradigm of Place in tibet 221

its natural beauty, purity and wildness as an abode of the gods and its centrality in relationship to india, iran, turkistan and Han china (karmay 1994). The customs associated with territorial numina (yul lha) were an essential element in tibetan life and are place-based. They were funda-mental for maintaining ‘sense of place’ and collective identity expressed in cultural, economic and political behaviour (Blondeau 2003) and a spiritually based ecological mind-set.

Throughout much of their history what bound lay tibetans together were certain commonali-ties of culture, religion and ‘tibetanness’ (anand 2000, 271), which formed the basis of tibetan ‘ethnie’ (Hutchinson and Smith 1996, 6). in terms of commonalities of culture, participation in territorial (yul lha) cults was always important. These cults epitomise association with a partic-ular place and form an important part of the religious life of most tibetan communities. The powerful sense of local belonging and identity, engendered by belonging to a ‘cult’, has to be manufactured and maintained on a regular basis (ramble 1997).

The yul lha are protective deities associated with specific clans who come under their protec-tion, and who bestow honour and blessing on the territory, people and political leadership (diemberger 2002). They are numinous divinities who inhabit biophysical features of the land-scape and are ‘controlled’ by a lha pa (shaman). The lha pa are responsible for maintaining harmony between humanity, the spirit world and nature. if the harmony is broken, the yul lha will allow malevolent numina to harm humankind with illness, floods or crop failure.

The rites associated with yul lha do not involve Buddhist clergy, and represent a supremely important element underlying tibetan identity. The yul lha is worshipped as an ancestral and territorial divinity to ensure personal protection, the security of territory and abundance of

fig 18.1. tibetan nomads living in the obala Valley in eastern kham.


resources. Yul lha rituals take place daily at home and during communal mountain rituals which usually take place annually and are in sharp contrast to the Buddhist veneration of specific holy mountains. Yul lha worship attracts tibetan lay people and is concerned with the immanent world through the use of rituals.

typically during the communal rituals the yul lha are honoured and appeased through the building of wooden or stone cairns (see fig 18.2) on mountain or hillsides which are annually constructed in ceremonies varying according to the lunar calendar. The rituals include fumiga-tion offerings, the scattering of wind horses, the planting of prayer flags or arrows and prayer to the yul lha. Through invocation, geospatially discrete territory is

• evoked by the geographically ordered naming of land deities• ‘renuminised’ (Martins 2002, 99) linking sacred and political territory with physical

correlates (Bauer 2009).

The aim of the ritual is to restore the relationship between the community and the yul lha and consists of both offerings and requests. The worshippers call on the yul lha for personal protec-tion, the realisation of ambitions and fortune, the subduing of enemies, success in hunting and forgiveness for environmental degradation (gross 1997). They regard the yul lha as a provider of blessing, glory, honour, fame, prosperity, progeny and power for the people and their political and religious leadership. during the year the yul-lha circumnavigates the territory defining the community’s boundaries and resources.

Participation in such a ritual implies total integration into the community, which in turn implies inherited social and political obligations, moral and individual responsibility, and an affirmation of communal solidarity in the face of external aggression. in lay tibetan culture, community is tied to a definite geospatial territory (Bauer 2009).

fig 18.2. a la-btsas where yul-lha are honoured and territory numinised.


cultural threat and revitalisation

Throughout the history of tibet there have been three main ‘civilising’ projects, Buddhism, confucianism and communism, which have undermined place attachment and identity and have prompted lay tibetans to repeatedly reclaim place.

The emergence of a powerful centralised tibetan monarchy patronising Buddhist monasti-cism dates from the 7th century ad. during the course of 200 years, this monarchy expanded the frontiers of tibet from western china to kashmir and northward into central asia, but often to the detriment of indigenous culture and folk religion. This ongoing process of ‘Buddhisation’ (Buffetrille 1998, 18–34) resulted in the:

• unseating of nobles and adherents of indigenous animistic beliefs• ‘taming’ of indigenous divinities• cultural assimilation of animistic peoples• transformation of gender constructs• cultural transformation of nature• ‘denuminisation’ of mountains and forests• loss of god and soul• loss of national identity and any sense of belonging• deterritorialising and displacement of yul lha• undermining of Tibetan selfhood

Buddhisation has been augmented by official Han discourse which has further undermined indigenous culture and folk religion (Studley 2005). it was not until the 1980s, possibly as a result of the failures of assimilation, that official discourse provided some space for the recovery of folk practices.

as a result many ethnic traditions, clan systems and customs were revitalised and celebrated (Harrell 2001) and a profound nativisation of culture began to take place. revitalisation became significant not only as cultural and religious expressions, but as a way to contest the atheist ideology and technocratic ‘place-making’ strategies of the chinese state.

We find evidence (Studley 2005) of cultural revival among the tibetans expressed in Buddhism, visionary movements, Millennialism, animism/Shamanism, territorial cults and epic literature (Barnett and akiner 1994). The revival of yul lha cults took on additional mean-ings as a way to reclaim places as ‘tibetan’ (kolas 2004).

The evidence of cultural revival is not only documented in the literature but, as the following case study demonstrates, when manifest through territorial cults it ‘exhibits historic continuity of ritual performance, provides a platform for reinventing place and enhancing identity, provides an exemplar of explicit bio-cultural sustainability and … provides a means of defiance and ritual protest against oppression’ (Studley 2005).

the case of eastern kham

kham is one of the most unique biological regions on earth. it is situated at the eastern end of the Himalaya between Qinghai-tibetan plateau and china, and comprises one of the three major regions of tibet. The region constitutes about 4 per cent of china’s land area, includes seven mountain ranges and comprises Western and eastern kham (see fig 18.3).

kham’s north–south mountain ridges, sandwiched between deep river gorges, contain the

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most diverse vascular plant flora of any region of comparable size in the temperate zone, and almost half of china’s flowering plant species. elevations range from 1000m to over 7556m with a mean of 3500m. four of asia’s largest rivers, which originate on the 5000m-high Qinghai-tibetan plateau and are of great economic importance, flow through the region. external impact on the region is increasing and poses a threat to the biocultural diversity which defines the area.

The region bears the strong imprint of tibetan Buddhism and folk religion, evident in the large temple complexes, prayer flags, festivals, shaman (see fig 18.4) and numina associated with sacred landscape features. Sacred mountains punctuate the landscape and they are unique in that their forests have not been logged.

Peoples of eastern kham

of the nearly 5 million ‘tibetans’ living in china, approximately 2 million speak kham, which is quite distinct from the kham spoken in mid-western nepal. The khambas inhabit a vast area but are primarily concentrated in western Sichuan Province, eastern tibet autonomous region (tar), southern Qinghai Province and northwestern yunnan. The eastern kham language is by far the most significant of the kham varieties with possibly 1.2 million speakers.

There are also about 250,000 Qiangic-speaking peoples and 400,000 nosu (yi) peoples in eastern kham. The Qiangic-speaking peoples are classified as ‘tibetan’ because of their culture, customs and beliefs. in common with the khamba they are animistic/shamanistic as well as

fig 18.4. a Mosuo daba near lugu lake in South-eastern kham.


tibetan Buddhist, and burn incense and honour mountain gods at yearly festivals. They may speak khamba as a second or third language, and are often matrilineal.

The region’s inhospitable topography, altitude, weather and aggressive population have always united to deny entry to foreigners. There are few accurate maps that define its contours and record its villages and the secret routes of its nomads. to the europeans, chinese and lhasa tibetans, kham is a vast no-man’s-land. to the south, it is bounded by the Himalaya and the Bramaputra, to the north the amne Machin range and the tibetan region of amdo, and to the east the Sichuan Basin.

Throughout their history there is evidence of a nascent sense of unique identity and place attachment among the khamba peoples (epstein 2002; Samuel 1993) which continues to this day.

Methodology

The significance of place attachment and identity is presented below against the background of a much larger study of ethno-forestry paradigms. The only research methods that appeared to be germane were from the fields of cognitive anthropology typified by colby (1996) and predicated on cognitive mapping.

for cognitive mapping, a candidate list of pertinent forest-related variables was developed with the stakeholders and a psychometric survey was conducted among local nomads and farmers. The resulting scaled data were input into a multidimensional scaling programme for analysis and each variable was represented as a point on a cognitive ‘map’.

results

Cognitive MappingSeventeen forest-related variables (table 18.1) were identified as most apposite for the psycho-metric scaling survey, which was conducted at 57 sites throughout eastern kham.

table 18.1. forest-related variables

local values local conservation, Blessing, tibetan Buddhism, yul lha, natural environmental function, forest Products, natural Hydrological function

objects of value forest, Wildlifeactors Men, Women, Selfinterventions State conservation, Hunting, industrial forestation, Socialismother This Place, ganzi town2

The people of kham (fig 18.5) make sense of forest-related stimuli on the basis of four cognitive domains:

1 socio-economic2 psycho-cultural3 bio-physical4 environmental and subsistence services

2 ganzi is an important town in kham and was added to provide comparison with ‘this place’.


domain 4 has some resonance with Bird-david’s concept of a ‘giving environment’ and domains 2 and 4 (together) of his concept of ‘cosmic economies of sharing’ (1992). i think, however, that ‘cosmic cycles of reciprocity’ better describes the interface of the two domains.

in terms of this chapter it should be noted that the nexus of variables coalescing around ‘this place’ and ‘Self ’ includes ‘tibetan Buddhism’, ‘yul lha’, ‘Blessing’ and ‘conservation’. This highlights the importance of spiritual belief in general and the yul lha cults in particular as a foundational element for khamba ‘self-hood’ (anand 2000, 282) or identity, place attachment and conservation.

during fieldwork it was noted that young people with some education appeared to be alien-ated from place and local culture. This is a fairly common phenomenon among indigenous people and is supported by the data. young people (fig 18.6) appear to identify more closely with ‘socialism’ than ‘place’ and appear to be alienated from ‘yul lha’, ‘tibetan Buddhism’ and ‘Blessing’. given the ‘colonising’ propensities of the state this result was anticipated.

in comparison, old people (fig 18.7) identify strongly with ‘place’ and traditional values (‘yul lha’, ‘tibetan Buddhism’, ‘Blessing’) and closely associate ‘place’ with ‘yul lha’ and ‘tibetan Buddhism’.

The people of kham do not appear to identify with ‘the forest’ because it is culturally and socially constructed as a place and as a category (lye 2005; nightingale 2006). it is not the physical or material aspects of the forest or wildlife that are important to the khambas but their ‘cycles of cosmic reciprocity’ are important and render the resource apparent. This is reflected in the close proximity and overlap between the psycho-cultural and environmental and subsistence service domains (fig 18.5).

fig 18.5. cognitive map of forest-related variables in eastern kham.


fig 18.6. cognitive map of young (16-25) respondents.

fig 18.7. cognitive map old (51+) respondents.


discussion

reference is deliberately made to the tibetan toponym &};-":-#=v1k of chol khar gsum to describe the three main regions of tibet because china only recognises one (ie The tibetan autonomous region), and tibetans do not use ‘greater tibet’. The ongoing process of Hanifica-tion has either rendered tibetan place names defunct or replaced them with Han chinese ones that on occasion speak of conquest.

The khambas did not volunteer ‘place attachment’ or ‘identity’ as forest values during field-work, but they were included because of their importance in the literature (epstein 2002).

it is evident from the research and literature that the indigenous peoples of tibet have become emotionally attached to places and place features, such as yul lha locales, and these attachments have become integral to their sense of place. in this respect they are typical of indigenous people in that they have become so completely identified with a place that they reflect ‘its very entrails, its insides, its soul’ (lachapelle 1992, 1). Their sense of place and ‘ensoulment’ (cajete 1994, 83) have been established as a result of long-term ties and intensity of experience over multiple lifetimes and generations and has become a ‘reflection of their very souls’ (cajete 2000, 187).

it is important to understand, however, that ‘sense of place’ for rural tibetans is predicated on indigenous epistemologies, native science (cajete 2000) and ethno-economics (cavalcanti 2002). Their ‘ways of knowing’ and economies of reciprocity may not resonate with the worldview or epistemology of non-indigenous people, earth-care professionals or the nation state (Posey 1999).

indigenous epistemology is grounded in the self, the spirit and the unknown. an under-standing of place and place-making assumes there is a ‘spirit of place’, which for lay tibetans is embodied by a yul lha with human personality (Blondeau et al 1998). knowledge and sense of place and its re-making is audited through ‘the stream of the inner space in unison with all instruments of knowing’ (ermine 1999, 108).

Many of these trans-rational altered states of consciousness are not considered valid processes for accessing knowledge by Western science. Sense of place and place attachment are main-tained not only through auditing and rituals but subsistence activities. These activities connect indigenous people to their own spirits, the spirits of the land, the animals, plants and other entities. Through hunting and tracking indigenous people learn (from the animals) the virtues of patience, courage, fortitude, humility and honesty (cajete 1994; 2000) under the aegis of ‘economies of reciprocity’ (delgardo et al 1998, 28).

tibetan epistemologies and ethno-economies are a challenge for the chinese state, paradig-mically and semantically. The religious paradigm it has adopted fails to address the validity of indigenous religious practice or folk beliefs. Semantically:

• The term for ‘religion’ is zongjiao, which is applied to foreign or foreign-influenced religious.• The ubiquitous cultural practices of ancestor and local god worship, geomancy, divination,

qigong and taboos elude designation within the official rubrics.• Animism and shamanism are pejoratively labelled mixin, or superstitious, and not worthy

of academic research (lai 2003).

as a result it is not unusual to be told that the chinese do not have a ‘religion’.The alienation of youth from place and culture is a fairly typical phenomenon among indig-

enous people. given the Han chinese’s disparaging depiction of minority culture and local place (Studley 2005), it is not surprising that young khambas who have received some state education


have limited ‘place attachment’ and ‘despise’ traditional values. This might be an indicator of the impact of Sinicisation or Hanification, Socialism or modernity, although any attribution would require more research.

as a phenomenon it is a typical response to the negative influences of ‘formal’ education, development, agriculture, building, tourism, films and tv and resonates with similar processes of alienation among young tibetans in ladakh (norberg-Hodge 1992). Paradoxically this process appears to be counterbalanced by a cultural revival that provides a platform for defiance and protest against the chinese (Barnett and akiner 1994; Schwartz 1994).

conclusions

There is cognitive evidence of the importance of place attachment to the rural peoples of kham and that the yul lha cult constitutes a spontaneously recovered folk practice for place remaking and ensuring ‘topocosmic’ harmony (gaster 1961, 17). cognitive mapping provides a statistically robust instrument to elicit the relative importance of place attachment and identity.

The peoples of tibet, in spite of external pressure, are continuing to reclaim place through prayer, the building of cairns, fumigation offerings, throwing of wind horses, planting arrows, invocation of land deities, the renuminisation of territory and going to the lha pa to make resti-tution and ensure topocosmic harmony. it does appear that for the tibetan peoples territorial cults do provide:

• a coping strategy (Bonaiuto et al 2002), for increasing their level of identification with their own group, social cohesion, and place attachment;

• a ritual means of protest and defiance against their oppressors (Barnett and Akiner 1994; Schwartz 1994);

• an exemplar of explicit bio-cultural sustainability and explicit nature conservation (Studley 2005);

• a continuity of ritual performance impacting social, economic and political life that pre-dates the imperial Period, the arrival of Buddhism in tibet, and any territorial claims of their oppressors.

in common with other indigenous peoples in china (oakes 1993), the khambas are continually reconstructing localised identity and place from the space made available by the broader systems of political economy and in common with indigenous peoples globally.

although place attachment does not appear to be recognised in forestry or development policy in china, it is beginning to gain currency in occidental natural resource management and policy (norton and Hannon 1997). There is recognition that the inclusion of place attachment in forestry or natural resource policies represents an about-face and it will take time to educate and to re-work laws and institutions and build local responsibility. This, however, appears to be the only route toward a democratically supportable approach (norton and Hannon 1999) to sustainable use of resources that is predicated on the needs of people who live most intimately with place and natural resources.


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Territorial Cults as a Paradigm of Place in Tibet