TennesseeNaturalistProgram

TennesseeReptilesandAmphibiansScutes,Scales,andSkin

EnhancedStudyGuide

7/2018

TennesseeNaturalistProgramwww.tnnaturalist.org

InspiringthedesiretolearnandshareTennessee’snature

Thesestudy guidesare designedto reflect and reinforcetheTennesseeNaturalist Program’scoursecurriculumoutline,developedandapprovedby the TNPBoardofDirectors, for use byTNP instructorstoplanandorganizeclassroomdiscussionandfieldworkcomponents andbystudentsasameaningfulresourcetoreviewandenhanceclassinstruction.

ThisguidewascompiledspecificallyfortheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandreviewedbyexpertsinthesedisciplines.Itmaycontaincopyrightedworkfromotherauthorsandpublishers,usedherebypermission.

NopartofthisdocumentmaybereproducedorsharedwithoutconsentoftheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandappropriatecopyrightholders.

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TennesseeReptilesandAmphibiansScutes,Scales,andSkin

ObjectivesPresentanoverviewofreptilesandamphibiansincludingcharacteristicsparticulartothesetwoclassesofanimals.Exploretheirbehavior,physiology,andecology,relatingthesetohabitatneeds,environmentaladaptations,andecosystemroles,includinghumaninteractions.Introducecommonspecies,theirdistinguishingcharacteristicsanddistribution.

TimeMinimum4hours–2inclass,2infield

SuggestedMaterials(*recommendedbutnotrequired;**TNPflashdrive)• ReptilesandAmphibiansEastern/CentralNorthAmerica,ThirdEditionExpanded

(PetersonFieldGuides),RogerConantandJosephT.Collins*• “VocalizationsofTennesseeFrogsandToads,”CD,TAMP(availablefreeuponrequest)• Tennessee’sReptilesandAmphibiansEnhancedStudyGuide,TNP**

ExpectedOutcomesStudentswillgainabasicunderstandingof1. generalcharacteristicsofanddifferencesbetweenreptilesandamphibians2. lifecycle3. breeding,juvenile,andadulthabitsandhabitats4. evolutionarydevelopmentandecosystemroles5. amphibiansasbioindicators6. frogsandtoadsofTennessee7. salamandersofTennessee8. lizards,turtles,andsnakesofTennessee9. rarespecies;threatsandconservationissues

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ReptilesandAmphibiansCurriculumOutline

I. ReptileandAmphibianCharacteristics A. Eggdifferences B. Skindifferences C. Claws D. Ectothermic

II. Amphibianlifecycleandassociatedhabitats A. Eggmasses B. Larvaeandjuvenilestages C. Adults,hibernationandmigration D. Communicationandbreeding 1. amplexusinfrogsandtoads 2. salamanderfertilization E. Evolutionarydevelopmentofsalamanders F. Amphibianecologicalroles 1. bioindicators

III. AmphibiansofTennessee-ClassAmphibia:GeneralCharacteristicsandIdentification A. OrderAnura(notail)-FrogsandToads(voiceID) 1. FamilyBufonidae-truetoads 2. FamilyPelobatidae-spadefoottoads 3. FamilyHylidae-treefrogs 4. FamilyMicrohylidae-narrowmouthtoads 5. FamilyRanidae-truefrogs B. OrderCaudata(tail)-Salamanders 1. FamilyAmbystomatidae-cupmouths 2. FamilySalamandridae-newts 3. FamilyPlethodontidae-lungless 4. FamiliesCryptobranchidae,Proteidae,Amphiumidae,Sirenidae-giants

IV. ReptileLifeCycleandAssociatedHabitats A. Eggsandlivebirth B. Adults,breeding,shedding,hibernation(hibernacula) C. Ecologicalroles

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V. ReptilesofTennessee-ClassReptilia:GeneralCharacteristicsandIdentification A. OrderTestudines-Turtles 1. FamilyChelydridae-snappingturtles 2. FamilyKinosternidae-muskandmudturtles 3. FamilyEmydidae-boxandwaterturtles 4. FamilyTrionychidae-softshellturtles B. OrderSquamata,SuborderLacertilia-Lizards 1. FamilyPolychridae-anoles 2. FamilyScincidae-skinks 3. FamilyPhrynosomatidea,GenusSceloporus-spinylizards 4. FamilyTeiidae-whiptails 5. FamilyAnguidae-glasslizards C. OrderSquamata,SuborderSerpentes-Snakes 1. FamilyColubridae-colubrids,typicalsnakes(non-venomous) 2. FamilyViperidae,SubfamilyCrotalinae-pitvipers(venomous)

VI.ConservationIssues A. Habitatloss B. Commercialexploitation C. Pollution D. Disease 1. Chytridfungus 2.Ranavirus E. Humanmisperception

VII.Resources A.Publications B. Organizations C. Internet

VIII.ReviewQuestions

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TennesseeReptilesandAmphibians

Tennesseehasarichherpetofauna.Herpetofaunaaretheamphibiansandreptilesthatoccurin anarea.ThewordherpetofaunacomesfromtheGreekwordherpetonmeaning“creepinganimal.”Tennessee’samphibiansarethefrogs,toadsandsalamanders.Otheramphibiansincludecaeciliansbuttheyarefoundonlyinthetropics.Ourstate’sreptilesarethelizards,turtlesandsnakes.Otherreptilesincludealligators,crocodilesandtuataras.AChecklistofTennesseeAmphibiansandReptilesisinAppendixA.Hereisalistofthenumbersofspeciesof“herps”thatoccurinourstate.

FrogsandToads–21Salamanders–54Lizards–9Turtles–15Snakes–32

I. ReptileandAmphibianCharacteristics

Differencesbetweenamphibiansandreptilesareasfollows.

Amphibians ReptilesHavemoistskinwithoutscales DryskincoveredinscalesEggsaregelatinous EggshavealeatheryshellNoclawsontoes Whenfeetarepresent,toeshaveclawsBothamphibiansandreptilesareectothermic(cold-blooded)meaningthattheirbodytemperatureisdeterminedbythetemperatureoftheirenvironment.Theyarealsobothvertebrates.

IIandIII.Amphibians--OrderAnura,FrogsandToads

Afrogisanamphibian,ananimalthatlivespartofitslifeinwaterandpartofitslifeonland.Frogsandtoadsaremembersofagroupofanimalscalledanurans.InLatinthismeans“a”(no)and“nuran”(tail).Thus,theybelongtoanorderwhichmeans"notail."AnothernamefortheirorderisSalientiawhichmeans“toleap.”

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EggsandTadpoles Amphibiansareborninthewaterandhatchfromgelatinouseggsintotadpolesorpollywogs.Theeggsofamphibiansareconsideredbyscientiststobeanevolutionaryprecursortothelandadequatereptilianegg.However,theamphibianeggisamarvelinitself.Oncelaidandfertilized,theamphibianeggtakesinwaterandenlarges.Theouterenvelopesealsthegelatinouscontentsinside.Theenclosedfluidsperformasagreenhousecapturingthewarmthofthesunandprotectingtheinnercontents.Theprogenyhaveabufferfromdehydrationwhileeggs.Puddlesmaydryuparoundeggmassesbutifitrainssoontheembryoswillsurvive. Oncetadpoles,theyarenotallottedthisluxury.Ifapuddledries,tadpolesdrownintheterrestrialair,nothavingthelungstotakeinatmosphericoxygen.Iftheycanremainwet,thetransformationfromtadpoletofrogismagical,andthatiswhythattransformationiscalledmetamorphosis.ALatinwordwhichmeans“magicalchange.”Tadpolesappeartobeallheadandtail.Thewordtadpolecomesfromtwowords--"tad"whichmeanstoadand"poll"whichmeanshead.Inotherwords,atoadthatisallhead. Tadpolesseemtobeatotallydifferentcreaturesthanthefrogortoadtheyaretobecome.Theybreathewithgills.Forthemostpart,theyarevegetarianseatingwithscrapingmouthpartsthatscourthesurfacesofrocksandvegetationforalgae.Inrelationtotheirsize,theirintestinaltractsareverylongtobeabletodigestcellulose.Astimegoeson,theydeveloplegs.Backlegsfirstandthenfront,resultinginafourleggedcreature.Theirintestinesshrink.Theirgillstransformintolungs.Theirmouthpartsbecomeequippedtoeatmeat.Thisincludestheirincrediblylong,fastaction,fly-snatchingtongue.Thetimerequiredfortheseeventstooccurdependsonthespeciesoffrog,temperature,foodavailability,etc.Ittakesatleastoneyearandsometimestwoyearsforbullfrogtadpolestometamorphose.Spadefoottoadsontheotherhandcantransforminlessthanamonth. Aftermetamorphosis,thetadpolesbecomefroglets,tinyreplicasoftheiradultparents,whoinmostcasesleftthepondafterthebreedingseasonandegglayingwerecomplete.Oncemetamorphosed,manyfrogspeciesleavethepondortemporarybodyofwaterinwhichtheywereborn.Oftentimes,frogletsortoadletsleavethepondinamassexodusduringorimmediatelyfollowingaraingivingtheappearanceofitrainingfrogs,asfolksoncebelieved.Somespeciesaremorepermanentlyaquaticandspendmostoftheirlivesinoraroundthewater.Bullfrogsandgreenfrogsarethebestexamplesofaquaticfrogspecies.

CourtshipandBreeding Asadults,thefrogsandtoadsfeedandgrow,returningtothewaterannuallytobreedandlayeggs.Malesarriveatthebreedingpoolsfirstandbegintheiradvertisementcall.Frogsmaketheirvocalizationsbypassingairfromtheirlungsoverthevocalchordstothevocalsac,whichresonatestomakethesoundlouder.Males’vocalchordsarelargerandmoredevelopedthanthoseoffemales.Eachspeciesoffrogortoadhasauniqueadvertisementcall.Onlymalessingthiscourtshipsong.Souniquearethesecallsthatjustasbirderscanidentifyabirdspeciesbyitssong,froggerscanidentifyfrogspeciesbytheircalls.Hence,youcanknowwhichspeciesoffrogsliveatyourpondwithouthavingtoseethem.

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Onceapairhaveagreedtobreed,maleandfemalefrogsenterthematingposition.Thispositioniscalledamplexus.Themaleclaspsthefemalefrombehind.Heplaceshisfrontarmsaroundherbodyandclaspsherbehindherfrontlegs.Maleswilloftenhaveswollenthumbssothattheycanbettergripthefemale.Theyremaininthispositionsometimesforseveralhours.Thefemalereleasestheeggsandthemalebathestheeggswithsemen.Bothmaleandfemalesexandurinaryorgansarecombinedinonebodypartcalledthecloaca.Fertilizationisexternal.Theprocesssoundssexierthanitreallyis. Theeggsarelaid.Somefrogspecieslaysingulareggs,somelaysmallmassesofeggs,othershavelargeeggmasses,andstillotherslaytheireggsinafilmacrossthewater’ssurface.Theeggshatch.Againthistakesdifferentamountsoftimedependingonthespeciesoffrogortoad.

Communication Frogsandtoadsgiveothercallsoutsidecourtship.Aggressivecallsareterritorialmessagesthataresometimesabrupt,single,loudnoteslikethebullfrogemitsortheycanbeslurredtrillslikethespringpeepergives.Aggressivecallssendthemessagetocompetingmalesthattheyarecrossingturfboundaries.Onecanunderstandhowtheconfusionamongmalefrogscouldarisesinceaspringpeeper’sterritoryisonly11/2squarefeet.Maletreefrogsmustdefendprimeperchingrealestate.Aclearperchexactlyacertainheightdirectlyoverthewaterisn'teasytocomeby,andfemalesknowwhatthey'relookingfor.Sometimesmalegreytreefrogssettleforasatellitepositioninproximitytoaprimelocation.Theywillwaituntilthealphamaleisbusywithapartnerandthenmoveintosettletheterritoryatanopportunemoment,whilethedominantmaleisinamplexus(thematingposition)withafemale.Besides,howisthenextfemaletocomealonggoingtoknowthathedidn’tgettherefirst? Othercallsincludethedistresscallgivenwheneverafrogortoadisbeingpreyedupon.Thiscallisparticularlydisturbingwhenafrogisbeingeatenfeetfirst.Anothertypeofvocalizationis areleasecall.Releasecallsindicatethatwhoeverhasbeengrabbedwantstobesetfree.Sometimesthisisinthesituationofamaleclaspingafemalefrogtobreedwhenthefemaleisn'treadyandsometimesthereleasecallisemittedwhenamalefrogclaspsanothermalefrog.Afrogwillalsoemitareleasecallifapersonpicksitup.Toadswillalsowetonyouwhenyoupickthemupwhichservesthesamepurpose.Thetoadissaying,"Putmedown!"FrogsversusToads "Whatisthedifferencebetweenafrogandatoad?"Thishasbeenthemostaskedquestionsincetheearlydaysofherpetologicalstudy.WhenherpetologybeganinEurope(theUSAdidn'texistyet)theclassificationofanimalswasafledglingpractice.Europeanherpetologistsstartedcategorizinganuransbyplacingthemintotwocategoriesbasedontwocreatures.OneofthoseanimalswasatoadBufobufotheotherwasafrogRanatemporaria,afrogverysimilartoourleopardfrog.Thoseweretheonlytwocategoriesthatexistedatthetime,andasyoucanimagine,somefrogsdidn’tfitintoeithercategoryperfectly,contributingtotheconfusionoffrogsandtoads. Therearesomedifferencesthatyoucantakestockin.TruetoadsarenowinthegenusAnaxyrus.Theyarethedry,wartyanuransthathavelargeparotoidorpoisonglandsontheir

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shoulders.Theylookliketheyarewearingshoulderpads.Theseanuransaremoreterrestrialthanmostfrogs.However,thereareotheranuranswhosecommonnamessuggesttoads,e.g.,narrow-mouthedtoadsandspadefoottoads,thatareconsideredfrogs.ThesefrogsarenottruetoadsofthegenusAnaxyrus,buttheydopossesssomeofthetraitsthatarecharacteristicoftoads.Liketoads,theyhaveshortlegsandthushopversusleap.Theyalsohaveshort"squatty"bodieswithplumpbellies.Keepinmindthisisjustahuman-thingoftryingtomaketheuniversefitintooursystemsoforganization.Thefrogscouldn’tcareless.

TheFrogsandToadsofTennessee

Therearefivefamilies,sevengenera,and21speciesoffrogsandtoadsinTennessee.

Family Genera

Pelobatidae(Spadefoots) Scaphiopus(Spadefoot)

Bufonidae(TrueToads) Anaxyrus(NorthAmericanToads)

Hylidae(Treefrogs) Acris(CricketFrogs),Hyla(Treefrogs),Pseudacris(ChorusFrogs)

Microhylidae(Narrow-mouthedToads) Gastrophryne(Narrow-mouthedToad)

Ranidae(TrueFrogs) Lithobates(TrueFrogs)

YoumaybewonderingwhathappenedtothetoadgenusBufoandthefroggenusRana.Taxonomyistheclassificationoforganismsbasedonnaturalrelationships.Taxonomistsarescientistswhocontinuetoarrangeandrearrangetheorderoforganismsasmoreisdiscoveredaboutthem.TaxonomistshavedeterminedthatNorthAmericantoadsbelongtothegenusAnaxyrus(GreekforChieforKing)andNorthAmericanfrogsbelongtothegenusLithobates.LithobatesisGreek;lithomeans"astone,"batesmeans"onethatwalksorhaunts."ThusLithobatesmeans"rockwalker."

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FamilyBufonidae--TrueToads

ToadsareinthefamilyBufonidaethatincludes25generaand339speciesworldwide.ThefamilyiscosmopolitanexceptforAntarctica,Greenland,NewGuinea,Madagascar,AustraliaandNewZealand.AnaxyrusistheonlygenusofthisfamilythatoccursinNorthAmericawhereitisrepresentedby21speciesandseveralsubspecies.Texashasmoretoadsthananyotherstate.Tennesseehastwospeciesoftoads--Anaxyrusamericanus,theAmericanToadandAnaxyrusfowleri,Fowler’sToad.Bothspecieshavemanycolloquialnamesincludinggardentoad,hoptoadandtoadfrog. AlltruetoadsintheU.S.arenowinthegenusAnaxyrusandhavethefollowingcharacteristics:

• Twoparotoidglands--largepoisonglandsontheshoulders,• Cranialcrests--raisedridgesonthebackofthehead,• Horizontalpupils,• Scantwebbingonthehindfeetand• Onelargeandonesmallspadeontherearfeetfordigging.

OnecouldconfuseEasternSpadefootToads(Scaphiopusholbrookii)withthetruetoads.However,theyhaveverticalpupils,onlyonelargespadeoneachrearfoot,smoother,darkerskinandmuchlessdevelopedparotoidglands. TodistinguishtoadsinTennessee,lookatthenumberofwartsperdorsalspot,therelationshipofthecranialcreststotheparotoidgland,thedevelopmentofthecranialcrestandifthereareenlargedwartsonthethigh.

AmericanToad--AnaxyrusamericanusVoice:CallisalonghightrillthatcanbeheardFebruarythroughthesummermonths,particularlyathigherelevations.HabitatandHabits:Backyards,Gardens,Fields.Oftenbreedsintemporarypoolsofwater,i.e.puddles.Description:Size2.0-3.5inches,(record4.4inches)A.americanusisamedium-sizedbrown,tanorreddishtoadwithprominentparotoidglandsbehindtheeyes.Paratoidglandsdonottouchcranialcrestorareconnectedonlybyaspur.Americantoadshaveoneortwowartsineachdarkspot.Theireggsarelaidinahelicalstring.

FowlersToad--AnaxyrusfowleriVoice:Callisaraspy“Waaaaaa”thatsoundsalittlelikeababycrying.ThecalloftheFowler’stoadmakesitseemlikethetoadisfartherawaythanitreallyis.CallingusuallybeginsinMayandcontinuesintothesummer.

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HabitatandHabits:Fowlerstoadoftenfrequentssandyfloodplainsandriverbottomsbutoccursinalmosteveryterrestrialhabitat,includingroadsides,backyards,fields,pasturesandgardens.Itbreedsinmorepermanentwaters,i.e.ponds,lakes,streams.Description:Size2.5-3.0inches(record3.7)Mediumsizedtan,brownorreddishbrowntoadwithdrywartyskin.Thelargeparotoidglandstouchthecranialcrests.Therearemorethantwowartsineachdarkspotonitsskin.

ThefollowingcomparisonchartshouldreinforcethedifferencesbetweenAmericanToadsandFowler’sToads.

American Toad Fowler’s Toad

1-2 warts per dorsal spot 3 or more warts per dorsal spot

cranial crests do not touch parotoid glands, or if so, by a spur

cranial crests touch parotoid glands

parotoid glands kidney shaped parotoid glands oblong

cranial crests prominent cranial crests slight

chest and underparts mottled underparts clear except for on central breast spot

long musical trill short harsh cry

enlarged warts on tibias no enlarged warts on tibias

typically breeds in March typically breed April-July

Often breeds in temporary water, e.g., puddles

breeds in more permanent waters, e.g., ponds, lakes, streams

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FamilyHylidae--Treefrogs ThefamilyHylidaeincludestreefrogs,chorusfrogsandcricketfrogs.Itconsistsof37generacontaining637species.Membersoccurintropicalandtemperateregionsworldwide.TheyaremorecommoninCentralandSouthAmericaandseemtohaveoriginatedinthetropicsandspreadnorthwardandsouthwardtowardthetemperateregions. TherearefivegeneraofHylidsinNorthAmerica--Hyla(Treefrogs),Osteopilus(CubanTreefrog),Smilisca(MexicanTreefrog),Acris(CricketFrogs),andPseudacris(ChorusFrogs).RepresentativeslivethroughoutNorthAmericaexceptforthemostariddesertsandthemostfrozenarctic.TherearereportsofUplandChorusFrogslivingattheArcticCircle.ThesmallestHylidinNorthAmericaistheLeastTreeFrogmeasuring5/8inch.ThelargestistheCubanTreefrogreachingupto51/2inches.FemaleHylidsarelargerthanmales.Acris,HylaandPseudacrisarethethreegeneraofHylidsinTennessee.Thesegeneraarerepresentedbythefollowing10speciesinTennessee.

Acrisgryllus--SouthernCricketFrogAcriscrepitans--NorthernCricketFrogHylaavivoca--Bird-voicedTreefrogHylachrysoscelis--Cope’sGrayTreefrogHylacinerea--GreenTreefrogHylagratiosa--BarkingTreefrogHylaversicolor--GrayTreefrogPseudacrisbrachyphona--MountainChorusFrogPseudacriscrucifer--SpringPeeperPseudacrisferiarum--SoutheasternChorusFrog

AllNorthAmericanHylidshaveanintercalarydisc--ashortextracartilagebetweenthetoepadandthelastboneofthefingersandtoes.Thisextracartilageallowsthetoepadstoswivelandbeplacedflatagainstverticalsurfacesforclimbing.MostTreefrogs(Hyla)areslenderwaistedwithlonglegs.TheChorusFrogs(Pseudacris)andCricketFrogs(Acris),howeveraremoreterrestrialwithshorterlegs.TreefrogsalsohavelargertoepadsthantheChorusFrogsandCricketFrogs.ScientistsbelievethatallmembersoftheHylidaefamilyoriginatedastreedwellersbutthroughevolutionsomelosttheirtoepadsandbecameterrestrial. ManyHylidshaveflashcolorsthathelpprotectthemfrompredators.Flashcolorsareboldpatternsonthebacksofthefrog’sthighandinthegroinregion.TheflashcolorsoftheGrayTreefrogsareapricotorangewithdark,worm-likevermiculations.Whenthefrogissitting,thefoldsofthelegsconcealtheflashcolors.Thecombinationofbrightcolorsandboldpatternssuddenlyflashwhenthefroglengthensitslegstoleapfromdanger.Thisbolddisplaycatchesthepredator'seyecreatingastrikingsearchimageforthehunter.Whenthefroglandsinasittingposition,thelegsagainconcealthebrightcolors.Searchingfortheblatantcolor

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patterns,thepredatorloosessightofitsprey,fallingvictimtoafalsesearchimagegeneratedbythefrog’sprotectiveflashcolors. Camouflagealsoaidsinthefrogescapingdetection.Mostofthetime,Hylidsarethesamecolorastheirsurroundings.GrayTreefrogscanbethecoloroflichencoveredbark.CricketFrogscanbethebrightgreenofaduckweedcoveredpondorthesandybrownofacreekbank.SeveralspeciesofHylidsseemtobeabletochangecoloratwill.Temperature,humidity,lightandeventhemoodofthefrogmayaffectitscolor.

GenusAcris--CricketFrogs AcrismeanscricketinLatin.ThefrogsofthisgenusaretheCricketFrogs.Theyaresmalllikecrickets,usuallymeasuringlessthanoneinchfromtheirsnouttotheirvent.Theircallsaresimilartothemechanicalsoundsofcricketsbutsoundmoreliketappingchertpebblestogether.Whatismostcricket-likeaboutthesefrogsisthe“popping”soundthattheymakewhentheyjumpandlandindryleavesorgrasses.WealwayslookwhenwehearthissoundhopingforaCricketFrogbutusuallyfindingagrasshopperorcricket.However,onetimewefollowedoneofthosepopsandfoundaNorthernCricketFroginJanuary. CricketFrogsmaybeoverlookedfortheirsize,buttheircolorsareoutstanding.Theydonmetalliccolorsthatmakethemlooklikeglimmeringjewels.Yet,theyremainbeautifullycamouflagedbecausetheyareoftenthesamecolorastheirenvironment.Theyarebrightgreeninapondcoveredwithduckweedorsiennaandtanagainsttheleaflitterofamoistbottomlandforest.Theirbackgroundcolorscanbebrown,tan,gray,greenorblack.Theyhaveastripedowntheirbackthatrangesfromtan,yellow,green,burnt-orangetobrown.Theytypicallyhaveadarktriangleonthebackoftheirhead.Theapexofthetrianglepointsdowntheback.ThedorsalstripeandthistriangleoftenformaY.Thereisablackhorizontalstripeonthebackoftheirthigh.However,youmustcapturethefrogtoseethis,andthatisnoteasy. CricketFrogsescapedanger,ortheinquisitiveherpetologist,byleaping.CricketFrogscanleapverticallyuptothreefeetandhorizontallyfordistancesofuptofourfeet!Theyoftendiveintonearbywaterandhidebeneathdebris.Sometimestheyspringerraticallyoutofreach.Onoccasion,theyleapintothewater,reversetheirdirectionandreturntothebankwheretheystarted.Thisleavesyoupeeringintothedistancefindingonlyemptyleavesandbarebanksjustasfooledasthepredatorsthousandsofyearsbeforeyou. CricketFrogsleadaterrestriallife.Therefore,theyhavelosttheclimbingparaphernalia,suchastheexpandedtoepads,oftheirTreefrogcousins.BothCricketFrogspeciesinTennesseearesometimescalledSwampCricketFrogs.Bothspeciesoccurinbottomlandwetlandsorswamps.Theyalsolivealongwoodedstreams,lakesandponds.Theypreferaquatichabitatsthatareexposedtothesunpartofthedayandhaveemergentplantsthatprovidecover.Theybreedinthewarmermonthsoftheyear.SingingtypicallystartsinAprilorMay.Theysingbothdayandnightandhaveastrangehabitofcrankingupachorusinresponse toloud,vibratingnoisessuchasaplaneflyingoverortherumbleofapassingtrain.

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SimilarSpecies:ItiseasytodistinguishCricketFrogs(Acris)fromtheTreefrogs(Hyla)becauseCricketFrogslacktheexpandedtoepadsoftheTreefrogs.ToseparateCricketFrogsfromChorusFrogs(Pseudacris)usethecharacteristicsinthefollowingchart.

Acris (Cricket Frogs) Pseudacris (Chorus Frogs)

pointed snout rounded snout

small warts on body no warts

no webbing on fingers but broadly-webbed toes

no webbing on fingers or toes

well-defined dark triangle on back of head

if dark triangle occurs on back of head, it is not well defined

black horizontal stripe on back of thigh no black stripe on back of thigh

NorthernCricketFrog--AcriscrepitansVoice:Callsoundsliketwostonesbeingtappedtogether.Thetempoofthetappingsoundsspeedupduringthecallthenslowsbackdown.ThecallingusuallybeginsinlateMarchorearlyAprilandcontinuesintothesummer.HabitatandHabits:A.crepitanscanbefoundatpondmarginsandstreamborders.Description:Size0.6-1.2inchesCricketfrogsarethesmallestfrogsinTennessee.Haveadarktrianglebetweeneyesandusuallyadorsalstripe.Morethan½oflongesttoeonrearfootwebbedManycolorvariations

SouthernCricketFrog--AcrisgryllusVoice:Callsoundsliketwostonesbeingtappedtogether.ThecalloftheSouthernCricketFroghasaheavierinflectionthantheNorthernCricketFrog.Alsothetempoofthetappingsoundsdoesnotspeedup,itremainsconstant.CallingusuallybeginsinlateMarchorearlyAprilandcontinuesintothesummer.HabitatandHabits:A.gryllusoccursattheedgesofpermanentponds,lakesandslowmovingstreams.OnlyoccursinsouthwestcornerofTennessee.Description:Size0.6-1.2inches,CricketfrogsarethesmallestfrogsinTennessee.Asmallfrogwithadarktrianglebetweentheeyesandusuallyadorsalstripe.Therearemanycolorvariationstothisfrogwiththefrogoftenmimickingthecolorschemeoftheenvironmentwheretheylive.Lessthan½oflongesttoeonrearfootiswebbed.

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Distinguishingcharacteristicsofthetwocricketfrogspeciesarecomparedinthechartbelow.

Acris gryllus Acris crepitans

pointed snout bluntly pointed snout

1st rear toe partially webbed, 4th rear toe (longest) with 3 joints free

1st rear toe completely webbed, 4th rear toe (longest) with only 1.5 to 2 joints free

smooth dark stripe on rear of thigh ragged dark stripe on rear of thigh

when rear leg is extended alongside body, the heel surpasses the snout

when rear leg extended thusly, heel does not surpass the snout

no prominent pair of anal warts prominent pair of anal warts

usually found in temporary pools near permanent water

usually found on shore of permanent water

typically occurs in southwest corner of Tennessee

occurs nearly statewide

TherestrictedrangeoftheSouthernCricketFrogandtheamountoftoewebbingaretheeasiestwaystodistinguishthesetwospecies.Becauseoftheirsmallsize,onemightconfusethecricketfrogswiththechorusfrogs,butthelatterhaveawhitestripeacrosstheirupperjawandnowebbingontheirrearfeet.

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GenusPseudacris–ChorusFrogs ThechorusfroggenuswasonceChorophilusfromtheGreekwordschoro,abandofdancersorsingers(achorus)andphileo,love--loverofthechorus.OnthefirstwarmeveningsofFebruaryafterthepre-springrainsitiseasytounderstandtheoriginofthisname.Thechorusfrogassembliesaresoloudandwellattendedthattheyheraldtheimminentarrivalofspring,eventhoughtheremaybesixmoreweeksofwinter.PseudacrisiscombinestheGreekpseudes,false,andakris,alocust.Thisgenericnamereferstothesimilarityofthechorusfrogs(Pseudacris)tothecricketfrogs(Acris).Therearethreesimilarspecies.

Pseudacrisbrachyphona Pseudacrisferiarum Pseudacriscrucifer

backwardsparenthesisonback 3 broken stripes on back cross on back

call: fast, short “reek-rake” finger down comb teeth loud peep

dark mask like Wood Frog no dark mask no dark mask

MountainChorusFrog--PseudacrisbrachyphonaVoice:Callisshort,raspyandrisesinpitch.ThecallissimilartocallofUplandChorusFrogbutfasterandshorter.CallcanbeheardFebruarythroughAugust.PeakcallingFebruaryandMarch.HabitatandHabits:FoundinwoodedhabitatsatthehigherelevationsofCumberlandPlateauandtheeasternmountains.MountainChorusFrogsbreedinfloodedroadsideditches,poolsalongstreamsandwheelrutsingravelroads.Eggsarelaidonthepetioleofaleafinshallowwater.Description:Size1.0-1.2inches,(record1.5inches)Asmallchorusfrogmarkedinshadesoftanandblack.“ReverseParentheses”onback,maskbehindeye,whitelineoverlip.ThisfrogresemblesaminiatureWoodFrog.

SoutheasternChorusFrog--PseudacrisferiarumVoice:Callisshort,raspyandrisesinpitch.Thecallsoundslikesomeonedraggingtheirthumbnailovertheteethofacomb.FullbreedingchorusesstartinDecemberandcontinuingthroughthewinterintospringandsummer.Isolatedindividualscallfromthetreesduringthefall.Thesecallsareknownasraincalls.HabitatandHabitats:P.feriarumbreedinfloodedfieldsandditches.Eggmassisapproximately1-1/2incheslong,andembryosareapproximately1/16inchindiameter.Eggsaretypicallyattachedtobladesofgrassandothervegetation.Description:Size0.7–1.4inches.Asmall,tantolightbrownfrogwiththreedarkerstripes(sometimesbroken)runningdownitsback.Adarktriangleoccursbetweentheeyes.

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SpringPeeper--PseudacriscruciferVoice:Callisashort,highexuberant“peep”thatrisesslightlyattheend–ahighpiping“whistle.”Intheeasternmountainshavebeenheardeverymonthoftheyear.FullbreedingchorusesusuallybegininlateJanuaryandcontinuewellintothesummer.Isolatedindividualscallfromthetreesduringthefall.HabitatandHabits:Wetfieldsborderedbytrees.Description:Size0.7-1.2inches,(record1.5inches).P.cruciferisasmall,tantolightorange-brownfrog.Stripesformacrossonitsback.Thereisadarklinebetweentheeyes.Toepadsareslightlyenlarged.

GenusHyla--Treefrogs ThegenusHylacontainsthetruetreefrogs,frogsadaptedforlifeinthetrees.Theseadaptationsincludepronouncedstickytoepadsthathelpthemclingtotreetrunksandbranches andanobviousintercalarydiscthatallowsthetoepadstoswivelforbettercontactwithverticalsurfaces.Theyalsohavelonglegsforclimbing.Theirfingersaresomewhatwebbedandtheirskinisgranular.Manyspeciesevenuselooseskinontheirbelliestohelpthemsticktoslicksurfaces.PeoplehavereportedspeciesofHylaclingingtowindowswhilehuntinginsectsattractedtoindoorlights.ManyHylaspeciesareadeptatchangingcolor,hencenamessuchasversicolor.Thesecolorchangesmaydependonlight,moisture,temperature,stress,oractivity.Duringtheiremergence,manyHylafrogletsdonasolid,brightgreenliverythatcamouflagesthemamidstgrassandothervegetationsurroundingbreedingpools.Manymembersofthisgenusonlycomedowntothegroundtobreed.Afterwards,theyreturntotheshrubsandtreesofswamps,moistwoods,andthickets.MembersofHylaoccurthroughouttherangeoftheHylidaefamily,exceptforAustraliaandNewGuinea.WehavefivespeciesinthegenusHylainTennessee:

Hylaavivoca--Bird-voicedTreefrogHylachrysoscelis--Cope’sGrayTreefrogHylacinerea--GreenTreefrogHylagratiosa--BarkingTreefrogHylaversicolor--GrayTreefrog

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GrayTreefrogComplex--HylachrysoscelisandHylaversicolorNote:Cope’sGrayTreefrogcannotbedistinguishedfromtheGrayTreefrogvisually.Theymustbeidentifiedbyanalyzingthepulserateofthecallatastandardtemperature.Voice:Callisashortraspytrill.Recordingthecallandambienttemperatureallowscomputeranalysistotellspecies.CallingusuallybeginsinMarchandcontinuesthroughoutthesummer.HabitatandHabits:Breedinwetlandsandsmallpools.Thisspeciesisarborealoutsideofbreedingseason.Description:Size1.2-2.0inches(record2.4)GrayTreefrogsaresmallgreentogray-greentreefrogswithenlargedtoepads.Thereisawhiterectanglebeneatheye.Thebackismottled.Thebacksofthethighsarewashedinorangeflashcolors.

BirdvoicedTreefrog--HylaavivocaVoice:Callisaseriesofshortbirdlikewhistles.CallingusuallybeginsinlateMayandJuneandcontinuesthroughoutthesummer.HabitatandHabits:H.avivocabreedsinwetlandsandsloughs.Thisspeciesisarborealoutsideofbreedingseason.Description:Size1.2-1.7inches(record2.1)BirdvoicedTreefrogsaresmallgreentogray-greentreefrogswithenlargedtoepads.Thereisawhiterectanglebeneatheye.Thebackismottled.Theflashcolorsonthighsarelighttransparentgreen.

SimilarSpecies:GrayTreefrogsandBirdvoicedTreefrogscanbedistinguishedbytheflashcolors.GrayTreefrogshavebright,apricotorangeflashcolors.BirdvoicedTreefrogshavelight,transparentgreenflashcolors.

BarkingTreefrog--HylagratiosaVoice:Callisashorthollow-soundingbarkthatsoundslikeabeagleonthetrailofarabbitthatcanbeheardfromJunethroughAugust.Alsomakesashortraspycallfromthetreecanopy.Oneofourlatestfrogstobreed–requireshigherambienttemperatures.HabitatandHabits:Varietyofhabitatsfromcypressorsweetgumpondstofloodedcultivatedfields.Description:Size2.0-2.6inches(record2.7).H.gratiosaisourlargesttreefrog.Theyarebrightgreenwithyellowstripeonsideswithlargetoepads.Mayormaynothavedarkspotsonback.Notecoarsegranulationofskinonback–comparetogranulationonbelly.

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GreenTreefrog--HylacinereaVoice:Callisashortnasal“quonk.”CallfromMaytoAugust.HabitatandHabits:Preferthepermanentwatersofcypressswamps,marshesandriversloughs.Thisspeciesisexpandingintootherhabitatsacrossthestate.Description:Size1.2-2.2inches(record2.5)H.cinereaisabrightgreentreefrogwithyellowishstripedowntheside.Notetoepads.Notefinegranulationofskinonback–comparetocoarsergranulationonbelly

SimilarSpecies:ThefrogmostsimilartotheGreenTreefrog,Hylacinerea,inTennesseeistheBarkingTreefrog,Hylagratiosa.Thesetwospeciescanbesosimilarthattheyhavebeenconfusedinpastliteraturereports.Preservedspecimenshaveevenbeenmisidentifiedandlabeledastheotherspeciesinmuseumcollections.Theyarebothlarge,greentreefrogsbuttherearedifferencesintheirphysicalappearances,habitatsandhabits. TheBarkingTreefrogisthelarger(23/4inches)ofthetwobutthisisdifficulttodeterminewithoutthetwospeciessidebyside.TheBarkingTreefrogcanalsohaveconspicuousround,darkspotsbutthespotsareoftenindistinct.TheGreenTreefrogneverhasdarkroundspotsontheback.ThesidestripeofH.cinereaismoresharplydefinedcomparedtothemorebrokenandirregularstripeofH.gratiosa. Thebestwaytoseparatethesespecieshowever,istocomparethedegreeofgranulationonthebellytothatoftheback.Hylagratiosa’sbackhasthesameamountofgranulationasitsbelly.Boththebackandbellyappearpebbly.Hylacinerea’sbackismuchsmootherthanitsbelly. Theyalsoseemtopreferdifferenthabitats.SometimestherangesofthesetwospeciesoverlapbutmuchofthetimeHylacinereaoccursinareaswhereH.gratiosaisrarelyseensuchasriverswampsandpermanentlakes. BarkingTreefrogsalsooccurinmuchsmallerbreedingchorusesthanGreenTreefrogsandmostlybreedinsinkpondsthatcaneitherbepermanentortemporary.Theirbreedingbehaviorsarealsodifferent.MalesofHylacinereaemitthematingcallfromoutofthewateronoverhangingbranchesandshrubswhereasHylagratiosamalesgivethiscallwhilefloatinginthewater.

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FamilyMicrohylidae--Narrow-mouthedToads

Thisfamilycontains55generaandincludes215species.IntheUnitedStates,thisgroupisrepresentedbytwogeneraandthreespecies.iGastrophrynecarolinensis,theEasternNarrow-mouthedToad,istheonlyspeciesofMicrohylidaeinTennessee.TheoldgenericnameforthisgroupwasEngystomatidae;meaningcontractedorconstrictedmouthreferringtothefrogs’narrowmouths.Theupperjawofthisgroupistoothless.Thereisnowebbingonthetoesandthetympanumishidden.TheGastrophrynegenusiscloselyrelatedtothegenusHypopachus–theSheepFrogs.Mostmembersofthisfamilyarefossorialmeaningthattheyspendmostoftheirtimeinburrows,underrocksorlogs.Theyhaveenlargedtuberclesontheirhindfeetfordigging.Theyaresmallandplumpwithanarrowpointedhead.Theyhaveshortlegsthatmakethemhopinsteadofleap.ThiscombinedwiththeirplumpphysiqueiswhytheyarecalledtoadseventhoughtheyarenotmembersofthegenusAnaxyrus.Theyhaveacharacteristicfoldofskinacrossthebackoftheirheadthatcanbepulledforwardtoprotecttheireyesfromtheirfavoritefood,ants. OthermembersofthefamilyoccurinMexico,CentralandSouthAmerica,Africa,Asia,theIndo-AustralianarchipelagoandNorthernAustralia.ThefamilyapparentlyoriginatedinSoutheastAsiaandhasspreadtoNewGuinea,Africa,MadagascarandtheAmericas.

EasternNarrow-mouthedToad--GastrophrynecarolinensisVoice:Callisalongdrawn-out,high-pitched,nasalinsect-like“Beeeeeeee.”ManylikenthecalltothecryofnewbornlambsorNewYear’sEvepartyhorns.CallfromApriltoOctober.HabitatandHabits:Narrow-mouthedToadsliveinavarietyofhabitatsincludingoldfieldsandcedarglades.Breedingareasaretemporarilyfloodedfieldsandditches.Description:Size0.9-1.2inches(record1.5)G.carolinensisisasmallpotbelliedanuranwithatinyturtle-likeheadandapointedsnout.ThisistheonlyfrogortoadinTennesseethathasroundpupils.Afoldofskinrunsbehindtheeyesandcanbepulledovertheeyeswhileeatingdangerouspreysuchants.Colorsaretanandbrownwithgraybelly.

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FamilyPelobatidae--SpadefootToads ThenamePelobatidaecomesfromtheGreekwordpelosthatmeansearthandtheLatinwordbatillummeaningshovel.Membersofthisfamilyliveamostlyfossorialorundergroundexistence.Theyburythemselvesintotheearthbackwardswithasharpspadeontheirrearfeet.Spadefootsarewellsuitedforaridenvironments.Theyareexplosivebreederswithshortlarvalperiods,bothadaptationsforscarcerainsandephemeralbreedingpools.Spadefootscomeabovegroundtobreedafterheavyrainsoftenassociatedwithviolentweathersuchastornadoes.Amplexusisinguinalmeaningthatthemalegraspsthefemaleinfrontofthehindlegsinsteadofbehindthefrontlegslikeotherfrogsofourarea.Spadefootsaretrulynocturnalandthushaveverticalpupilsgivingthemanotherworldlylook. Membersofthisfamilyareoftencalledspadefoottoads.Theyhavesmallerversionsofparotoidglandsliketoadsbuttheyhavemostlysmoothskinandteethintheirupperjaw,whichisverydifferentfromtoads.Spadefootsalsohaveonlyonespadewhereastoadshavetwospadesontheirbackfeet. ThefamilyPelobatidaeisdividedintotwofamilies,theMegophrinaeandthePelobatinae.TheMegophrinaeonlyoccursintheFarEastandincludessuchbizarrecreaturesastheAsiaticHornedFrogofIndonesia.Eachuppereyelidofthisfrogextendsforwardandupwardtoformalong,thinpointed“horn”andthereisalong,flexibleprojectionofthesnout,thustheanimalappearstohavethreehorns.ThespadefootsofEurope,NorthAfrica,andNorthAmericamakeupthesecondsubfamily,Pelobatinae.Thissubfamilyincludesthegenusofourspadefoots,Scaphiopus. ScaphiopusistheonlygenusofPelobatidaeinNorthAmericaandincludesfivespecies.ThenameScaphiopuscomesfromscaphi–spadeandopus–foot.TheEasternSpadefootScaphiopusholbrookiiistheonlyspeciesofthisgenuseastoftheMississippiRiver.

EasternSpadefoot--ScaphiopusholbrookiiVoice:Callisastrangesoundingdownwardslurred“errrrrgh.”Callsoundssomewhatlikeayoungcrow.HabitatandHabits:EasternSpadefootsaresubterranean,comingabovegroundinwetweathertobreedandforage.Breedingareasaretemporarypoolsformedbywarmweatherthunderstormsandisusuallyofshortduration.EasternSpadefootsburrowbybackingtheirwayintothehole,makingsweepingdiggingmovementswiththeirrearfeet.Description:Size1.7-2.2inches(record2.8)Notetheplump-bellied,humpbackedlook.SpadefootToadsaretoad-likeinshapebutsmoother-skinned.Theskinisdarkwithredwartssometimeswithalightlyreshapeontheback.Smallparotoidglandsarepresent.Thesearenotnearaslargeastheparotodiglandsoftruetoads.SpadefootToadsareTennessee’sonlyanuranswithverticalpupilsthatappeardiamondshaped.Thereis1spadeontheundersideoftheirrearfeet.

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FamilyRanidae–TrueFrogs

TherearesevenRanidsinTennessee.TheyareallcurrentlyinthegenusLithobates.

Lithobatesareolata–NorthernCrawfishFrogLithobatescapito–GopherFrogLithobatescatesbeiana–BullfrogLithobatesclamitans–GreenFrogLithobatespalustris–PickerelFrogLithobatessphenocephalautricularius–SouthernLeopardFrogLithobatessylvatica–WoodFrog

Intheunrestricteduseoftheword,allfrogsandtoadsare“frogs.”However,speciesinthegenusLithobatesareconsidered“truefrogs.”Thesearethelongleggedfrogswithanarrowwaistandsmoothskin.Thehindtoesarewebbed.AglandularfoldofskinextendsdowneachsideofthebackonallspeciesexcepttheBullfrog.Theupperjawcontainsteeth.Theseareourlargestfrogs,theBullfrogbeingourlargestnativeNorthAmericananuran,outsizedonlybytheintroducedMarineToad.TheBullfroghasbeenthelabfrogusedfordissectioninthepast.Thewebbingofleopardfrogfeethasbeenusedinphysiologylabexperimentstodemonstrateforcedmovement.Today,leopardfrogsarethechoicespeciesforfrogdissection.BullfrogsaretheonlyfrogslegallyhuntedinTennesseefortheediblefroglegs.

AmericanBullfrog--LithobatescatesbeianaVoice:Callisadeep“jug-a-rum.”CallsusuallybegininMarchandcontinuethroughAugust.HabitatandHabits:Permanentpondsandotherbodiesofwater.Description:Size3.5-6.0inches(record8.0).BullfrogsarethelargestfrogsinTennessee.Thedorsolateralridgecurvesaroundthetympanumbutdoesnotextenddownback.Maleshaveyellowthroatsduringbreedingseason.Thesizeofthetympanumrelativetotheeyeindicatessex.Ifthetympanumisequaltothesizeoftheeyetheindividualisafemale.Ifthetympanumislargerthantheeyetheindividualisamale.

GreenFrog--LithobatesclamitansVoice:CallsoundsLikealoosebanjostringbeingplucked–ashort,explosive“glunk!”Thiscallcanbegivensinglyorinaseriesoftwotofivenotes.CallsMarchthroughSeptember.HabitatandHabits:Occursinpermanentbodiesofwaterincludingcreeks,rivers,springs,sloughs,reservoirsandponds.

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Description:Size2.2-3.5inches(record4.2)Thedorsolateralridgeextendsdownthebackandaroundthetympanum.Maleshaveayellowthroatduringthebreedingseason.LikeBullfrogs,iftympanumislargerthaneyethesexismale.Iftympanumisaboutequaltoeyethesexisfemale.Someindividualscanbeabronzecolorallover

SouthernLeopardFrog--LithobatessphenocephalusVoice:Callisaseriesofclucksinterspersedwithgroansthatsoundlikeahandbeingrubbedoveraballoon.Thecallsoundslikelaughteratadistance.L.sphenocephaluscallsfromJanuaryintothesummermonths,andagaininthefall.Eggmassescanbefoundinbothspringandfall.HabitatandHabits:SouthernLeopardFrogsliveinpondsandsloughs.Theyaresometimescalledgrassfrogsbecausetheyventurefarfromwaterinwetgrassyareas.Description:Size2.0-3.5inches,(record5.0inches)Thesearemedium-sizedgreenorbrownfrograndomlyspottedwithdarkspots.Notethelightspotinthecenterofthetympanum.

PickerelFrog--LithobatespalustrisVoice:TheadvertisementcallofthePickerelFrogisalong,descendingsnore“yeeeeoooow”thatcanbeheardMarchthroughApril,withapeakinearlyApril.HabitatandHabits:Pondswithdensevegetationandcover.Thisfrogcanoftenbefoundinthetwilightzoneofcavesandthecoolwaterofsprings.Description:Size1.7-3.0inches,(record3.5inches)ThePickerelFrogisoneofthemostbeautifulfrogsinTennessee,withanarrayofrectangularspotsonitsbronzetotanback.Apricotorangeflashcolorsonthegroinareconcealedbythethighswhenthefrogisatrest.Notethatthereisnowhitespotinthetympanumoreardrum.

WoodFrog--LithobatessylvaticaVoice:CallisaseriesofcluckssimilartoSouthernLeopardFrog,butmorerandomindeliverywithlittlecarryingpower.HabitatandHabits:Uplanddeciduouswoods.Breedingtakesplaceinwoodlandponds,ruts inwoodlandroadsandroadsideditches.Breedsexplosivelyearlyintheyear,assoonasthefirstwarmrainsinJanuary.BreedingcanextendintoFebruary.Eggmassescanbefoundinlargeclustersduringthewintermonths.Red-spottedNewtsareamongthepredatorsthatpreyontheeggs.

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Description:Size1.4-2.7inches,(record3.2inches).L.sylvaticaisamedium-sizedtantodarkbrownfrogwithadarkmaskbehindtheeyeandawhitelineoverthelip.Flashcolorsonthegroinareapaleyellow-orange.Thebodyismostlyunmarked.

CrawfishFrog--LithobatesareolatusVoice:Callisdeep,snoring“Waaaa”withtremendouscarryingpower.BreedingchorusesstartinlateFebruaryandcontinueintoMarch.HabitatandHabits:Inhabitscrawfishburrowsandtheburrowsofsmallanimals.Breedsinsmallpondsandwater-filledborrowpits.Description:Size2.2-3inches,(record3.6inches).Thisisabulky,ratherstrangelookingfrog.Skincolorvariesfromcreamcoloredtodarkbrown,withdarkbrownspotsencircledbyawhiteborder.Thedorsolateralridgesareveryprominent.Thebellyiswhitish.

GopherFrog--LithobatescapitoVoice:Callisadeep,drawnoutsnoreorgrowl.Oftencallsfromunderwater.HasnotbeenheardcallinginTennessee.HabitatandHabits:PoorlyknowninTennessee.R.capitoisknownfromonlyonewetlandnearTullahoma.Whenpickedupoftenplacesitshandsoveritseyes.Description:Size2.5-3.5inches,(record3.9inches).Thisisamedium-sizedstout-lookingfrogwithveryprominentdorsolateralridgesandapronouncedsacralhump.Thethroatandbellyaremottled,unliketheCrawfishFrog.

ConservationConcerns Frogsandtoadsaredecliningworldwideandtherearemanyreasonsforthis.Diseaseisamajorfactorinthedisappearanceofentirepopulationsoffrogsinthetropics.ThemainculpritsaretheChytridfungusandRanavirus.However,inTennesseethenumberonecauseforallwildlifedeclinesishabitatloss.Thelossofwetlandsiscriticalforamphibians.Weshouldmakeeveryopportunitypossibletoconservewetlandsandotheraquatichabitatsacrossthestate.

AmphibiansasBio-indicators Amphibianslivinginwetlands,ponds,orstreamsarecompletelybathedinthemediumoftheirenvironment.Theyabsorbwaterandbreathethroughtheirskinandcloaca.Frogs,toadsandsalamandersaresensitivetofactorsthatdegradetheenvironment.Silt,pesticides,herbicides,fungicides,hormonemimics,pathogensandparasitesnegativelyaffectamphibians.Larger,widespreadissuessuchasclimatechangeandultravioletradiationexposurecanweakentheimmunityofamphibiansmakingthemmoresusceptibletosuchharmful

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environmentalfactors.Becauseofthisintimateconnectionwiththeirenvironment,amphibiansmakeexcellentindicatorsoftheintegrityofaquaticecosystems. Here’sanexample.Poisonssuchaspesticidescanenterthebloodstreamofamphibiansdirectlythroughtheirskin.Insectrepellantsthathumansspray,douseandlatherallovertheirbodiesaredeadlytofrogsandsalamanders.Thisiswhyamphibians,muchlikethecanaryinthemineshaft,canindicatetoxicconditionsinaquatichabitatslongbeforehumanswouldbeawareofanydanger.Ifamphibiansinanareaperish,aredeformedorcannotreproducesuccessfullythisshouldserveasawarningthattheenvironsareunhealthy.

Sources:Souder,William.2000.APlagueofFrogs,TheHorrifyingTrueStory.Hyperion,NewYork.Pp.299.

ImagesandCalls ToseeandhearTennessee’s21speciesoffrogsandtoads,visitwww.leaps.ms.

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IIandIII.Amphibians--OrderCaudata,Salamanders

ThesalamanderssectionofthisguidewastakenfromapapertitledSpringLizardsinTennesseeor“WhattheHeckisaDesmognathusfuscus?”compiledbyPeteWyatt,EastTennesseeTWRANongame/EndangeredSpeciesCoordinatorwithpermissionforusebytheTennesseeNaturalistProgram.

Salamandersareamphibiansandlizardsarereptiles.Inatopographicsenseonemightresembletheother.Eachusuallyhasfourlegs,anoticeabletorso,andadistincttail.Lizards,thereptiles,haveexternalearopenings,dryscalyskinandclawsontheirtoes.Salamanders,theamphibians,donothaveexternalearopeningsanddonothavedryskinbutsmooth,rubberytexturedmoistskinandnoclawsontheirtoes.Lizardslayshelledeggsdepositedinanestwithincubationbeingdonebythesun.Salamanderslaytheireggseitherinthewaterorinamoistcavityshelteredfromthesun,andinmanyspeciesthefemaleprovidessomecareoftheeggsandlarvae,butnotrueincubationbythefemaleoccurs. Almostallsalamandersarevoiceless.Thechemicalmessengers(pheromones)secretedbyhedonicglandsevokecourtshipandspawningbehavior.Fertilizationisexternalinthehellbenderandthesiren.Inallotherspeciesitisinternal.Themaledepositsapacketofspermonagelatinousstalk(spermatophore),andthefemaleclaspsitwithhercloaca.Thespermremaininhercloacainblindsacs(spermathecae)untiltheextrusionoftheeggsfromherovaries,whichbringsthespermandeggcellstogetherintheoviducts.ThistypeoffertilizationisfoundinallspeciesofTennesseesalamandersexceptthehellbenderandsiren.Inthesespecies,themalecoverstheeggswithseminalfluidaftertheyarelaid. Femalesalamandersdeposittheireggsinavarietyofarrangementsandlocations.Theeggsmaybedepositedsingly,orinaclusterheldtogetherbygelatinousenvelopes,orinmasses.Locationsincludeundergroundburrows,rottenlogs,sandstonecrevices,orcaverns,sphagnumbogs,ponds,seepages,andstreamsidedebrisortunnels. Salamanderstypicallyundergoanaquaticlarvalstagelastingfromafewdaystoseveralyears,butintheterrestrialplethodontidsthelarvalstageiscompletedwithintheeggmembranepriortohatching.Thelarvaestageendswithmetamorphosis,aseriesofdefinitivechangesinstructureandlifecycle.Adultsofsomespeciesretainnumerouslarvalfeatures;thesirenandmudpuppiesareclassicalexamples,eachretainingtheirgills. Somespeciesofsalamandersaretotallyaquatic,somesalamandersliveinmoistplacesonlandbutgointothewatertobreed,andothersarecompletelyterrestrial.Surprisingly,fewarearboreal,possiblythathabitatistoohostilealthoughintheAppalachiansofeastTennesseerainfallishigherthanotherpartsofthestateandthetinypigmysalamanderisasemi-treedweller.Mostarenocturnalandremainhiddenunderlogsandrocksorintheirburrowsduringtheday.

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Muchvariationinrespirationoccurs.Somespecieshavelungsbutretaingillsthroughoutlife(sirenandmudpuppies),otherswithlungsonlyretainthegillslits(hellbenderandamphiuma),andstillothers(FamilyPlethodontidae)lackbothgillsandlungsandrespiremainlyviatheskin. Mostsalamandersfeedonallsmall,movingorganismsavailableintheirhabitats.Theirfoodusuallyconsistsofsmallworms,insectsandotherinvertebratesbutsomeshowstrongpreferencesforvertebrateprey,liketheSpringSalamanderwhichshowsapreferenceforsmallersalamanders. InTennessee,7Familiesofsalamandersarerepresentedwith14Generaand45species(Redmondetal.1990).Theyrangeinsizefromthehellbender,whichgrowsto29inches,tothe pigmysalamanderwhichmayonlyreach2inches.

FamilyCryptobranchidae Thisfamilycontainstwogeneraoflarge,permanentlyaquaticsalamanders,oneofwhichoccursintheOrientandtheotherintheEasternUnitedStates.TheorientalgenusAndrias,hastwospecies,thelargestofwhichattainsalengthofnearly5feetandistheworld’slargestsalamander.Adultsofthisfamilylackeyelids,haveapairofopengillslits,externalfertilization,andawrinkledfleshyfoldofskinalongeachsidebetweentheforeandhindlimbs(GreenandPauley,1987).

Hellbender--Cryptobranchusalleganiensis Greek:kryptos,hidden;branchis,gill;alleganiensis,oftheAlleghenyMountainsDescription:Ugly,slimyandlargebestdescribesthisgrayishbrownsalamander.Theflatheadbearssmall,lidlesseyes.Thelegsareshortandstoutandalargewrinkledfoldofskinextendsalongthesideofthebody.Adultslackgillsbuthaveagillslitoneachsideofthethroat.Averageadultsrangeinsizefrom12-29inchesinlength(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatsandHabits:Hellbendersliveinmediumtolargefree-flowingstreamsintheTennesseeandCumberlandRiverdrainages(Redmond,etal.1990).Theyaremorefrequentlyfoundincool,clearmountainstreamssuchasthoseoftheAppalachians.Theyspendmuchoftheirtimeunderflatrocksinriverbedsandemergeatnighttoforageforfood(GreenandPauley,1987).TerritorialityhasbeenreportedfromthisspeciesbyHillisandBellis(1971)inthattheywilldefendanareaundertheircoverrocksagainstotherHellbenders.Theymayoccasionallybeseenmovingslowlyonriverandcreekbottoms.Studieshaveshownthattheyprimarilyfeedoncrayfish.ThematingseasonbeginsthelastofAugustandcontinuesforabout2weekswithegglayingtakingplacefromlateAugusttoearlyNovember.Themaleexcavatesanestunderrocksorlogsinthestreambedwherethefemalelaysmarblesizedeggswhichareconnectedinastringlikebeads.Shemaydepositmorethan400eggs.Themalecoversthe

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eggswithseminalfluid.Theeggscompletedevelopmentineightweeks,dependinguponthetemperatureofthewater.Hatchlingsresembletheparentsexcepttheyhavegills.Whentheyoungreachabout5inchesinlengthtowardthesecondyear,thegillsareabsorbed.SexualmaturityisattainedwhentheHellbendersareapproximately13½inchesinlengthandarethreetofouryearsold(GreenandPauley,1987).

FamilyAmbystomatidae–MoleSalamanders Thisfamilycontainsmediumsizedterrestrialsalamandersthatspendmostoftheirtimeinundergroundburrows,andasaconsequence,arerarelyseenoutsidethebreedingseason.Theyarepredominantlyblackordarkbrownincolorbutmayhavemarkingsofsilver,yellow,orbluishgray.Theirprominenteyeshavelids.Theirtrunkbearsdistinctcostalgrooves,andtheroundedsnoutlacksnasolabialgrooves.Mostspeciesemergeinthespring,migrateinlargenumberstospawningpoolsanddepositclustersofgelatinouscoatedeggs.Somedepositeggsinthefallonland.Thisfamilycontainstwolivinggenera,oneofwhichoccursintheUnitedStates(GreenandPauley,1987). Theprincipalgenus,Ambystoma,occursthroughouttherangeofthefamily.FamilyAmbystomatidaerangesfromthesoutherncornerofAlaska,JamesBay,andsouthernLabradorsouthtosouthernborderoftheMexicanPlateauandthenorthernhalfofFlorida,butisapparentlyabsentinnorthernMexicoandmostofthesouthwesternUnitedStates(GreenandPauley,1987). ThegenusAmbystomahas26speciesandfiveoftheseoccurinTennessee.Thegilledlarvaepassthroughanaquaticphasebeforetransformingintotheadultstage.

SpottedSalamander--Ambystomamaculatum Greek:ambyx,theroundedtopofacup;maculatum,spottedDescription:Brightyellowroundspotsintwoirregularrowsonadarkbackgroundidentifythisstout-bodiedspecies.Thespottedsalamanderisalargeburrowingspecieswithadultsreaching6-10inchesinlength(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Thespottedsalamanderoccursstatewideandismostoftenfoundinhardwoodormixedpine-hardwoodforestsnearbothpermanentandtemporarypools(Redmond,1985).Theyavoidbottomlandssubjecttoregularfloodingandpermanentpondscontainingfish(Martof,etal.1980).Thesesalamandersmaybeseenwanderingovertheforestfloorduringrainynights.Theyarediggers,andmostoftheirlifeisspentunderground.Theymaybefoundunderlogs,pilesofdampleaves,ortrash,orinnewlyplowedfields.Mostoftheirabovegroundactivityislimitedtothebreedingseasoninthespringmonths.Theyeatavarietyofinvertebratessuchasearthworms,snails,slugs,pillbugs,crustaceans,insects,andinsectlarvae(GreenandPauley,1987).

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BreedingtakesplaceusuallyinFebruaryorMarchwhenclimaticconditionsareoptimal–airtemperaturearound55degreesF.,rain,disappearanceofsnow,groundsurfacethawed,etc.(GreenandPauley,1987). Duringwarm,rainynights,bothsexesofSpottedSalamandersmigrateenmassetothebreedingpoolswheretheyswingvigorouslybackandforthrubbingandnosingeachother.SpottedSalamandersmaybeobservedaroundthebordersofthebreedingpoolsorcrossinghighwaysenroutetosuchpools.Duringbreeding,themalesdepositspermatophoresonweedstems,grass,leaves,andotherdebrisinthewater.Thefemalespinchoffthespermcapofthespermatophorewiththeircloacallips.Theeggsarethenfertilizedastheypassthroughthecloaca.Theyaredepositedinirregularmasses,roundedorovalinshapeandmeasuring2-4inchesindiameter,whichadheretovegetationinthewater.Eachmassmaycontainfrom12-250eggs(GreenandPauley,1987). Agreensinglecelledalgae(Oophila)isusuallyfoundintheeggclumpsofSpottedSalamanders,aswellasothersalamanderspecies.Thealgaprovideoxygentotheembryosduringthedayandthedevelopinglarvaeprovidecarbondioxideandwasteproductsthatcanbeusedbythealgae,anexampleofsymbiosis(Johnson,1987). Thegilledlarvaehatchinaboutonemonthandaverageabout½inchesinlength.Theyremaininthewatertofeedanddevelopuntiltheendofthesummer.Somelarvaemayoverwinterinthepondandmetamorphoseduringthenextsummer.SpottedSalamanderstake2yearstoreachmaturity.Individualsmayreturntothesamepondtobreedyearafteryear(Johnson,1987).

MarbledSalamander--Ambystomaopacum Latin:opacus,shadeddarkDescription:TheMarbledSalamanderisashort,stout-bodiedsalamanderwhichmayattainatotallengthof5inches.Thedorsalpatternconsistsofalternatinglightanddarkcrossbandsdowntheback.Thelighterbandsaresilveryinmalesandgrayishinfemales.Thesecrossbands areusuallynarrowonthebackandbroaderonthesidesforminganhourglasspattern.Thebellyisblack.Thereare12costalgrooves(GreenandPauley,1987). HabitatandHabits:TheMarbledSalamanderissecretive.Itspendsmostofitstimeunderrocks,logsorforestdebris.Itprefersforestedareasbutisknownfromawidevarietyofhabitatsfrombottomlandhardwoodforeststorelativelydryuplandpineforests.ItisthoughttooccurstatewidealthoughdistributionrecordsarelackingfromnortheastTennessee(Redmond,1985). Unlikemostspeciesofthisgenus,MarbledSalamandersbreedintheautumnandtheycourtonland(Martof,etal.1980).BreedingtakesplacetowardtheendofSeptemberwhenbothmalesandfemalesmigratetowardadriedpondoroxbowareadestinedtobefilledwithwaterfromautumnandwinterrains.Malesinitiatecourtshipbynudgingandpushingeachotherwiththeirsnouts.Followingthisactivity,thefemaleshavingsecuredthespermatophoresdepositedbythemalesonvegetationanddebrisaroundthebreedingarea,seekanestingsite.Inmany

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cases,soilaroundthebasesofBlackWillows(Salixnigra)attheedgeofthepondisselectedforthenests.Thenestisusuallyasmalldepressioninthegroundbeneathashelteringobjectsuchasdriftdebrisalongthemarginofawoodlandstreamorleafmound,logs,bark,orpiecesofwoodonthedrypondbottom(GreenandPauley,1987). Femaleshavebeenfoundtoavoidnestingsitesintheshallowestordeepestendsofapondbecausetheshallowestareaarequicktodryupandthedeepestareamayreceiveenoughrainfallfortheeggstohatchbut,unlessthereisasecondrainfall,notenoughtosupportthelarvae(PetrankaandPetranka,1981).Eachfemaledeposits50-150eggs.Thefemaleguardstheeggsuntiltherisingpondwaterscoverthem(Martof,etal.,1980). Theeggshatchinthefallorearlywinter.Whentheyhatch,theembryosarelessthan1inchinlength.Thenewlyhatchedlarvaearerelativelyinactiveuntilthetemperatureofthewaterwarmsandmorefoodbecomesavailable.Larvaemayremainactivethroughoutthespringfeedingonfairyshrimpandotherinvertebratesaswellasotherlarvaeandtadpoles,especiallythoseofSpringPeepersandWoodFrogs.Atthetimeoftransformation,thelarvaerangeinlengthfrom27/16inchesto27/8inches.RecentlytransformedjuvenileshavebeencollectedfromdriedswampsandotherbreedingsitesinJulyandAugust(GreenandPauley,1987).

MoleSalamander--Ambystomatalpoideum talpa–moleDescription:Thisgray,brown,ordarkbrownsalamanderhasalargehead,ashortstockybodyandrelativelylargelegs.TheMoleSalamanderisthesmallestmemberofthegenusandadultsaverage4-4½inchesinlength.Scatteredbluishwhiteflecksarepresentonthebackandsides.Thebellyisbluishgraywithlightflecks,exceptinrecentlytransformedyoungwhichhaveadarkmedianstripe,aremnantofthelarvalpattern(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:MoleSalamandersoccupyundergroundburrowsinforestedandshrubbyswampsfromtheMississippiRiverValley,LoessPlain,CoastalPlainUplands,northernportionsoftheHighlandRim,CumberlandPlateauwestoftheSequatchieValleyandextremesouthernendoftheBlueRidgeMountains(Redmond,etal.1990). AdultMoleSalamandersarenotoftenencounteredexceptduringthebreedingseason,normallyinJanuaryorFebruary,whentheycongregateinshallowwoodlandponds.Thelarvaetransforminsummerandfallbutmayoverwinter.Neotenyoccursonsomepopulations.Neotenyistheproductionofoffspringbyanorganisminitslarvalorjuvenileform;the

eliminationoftheadultphaseofthelifecycle.Thenewlytransformedyoungare2-2½incheslong(Martof,etal.1980).

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SmallmouthSalamander--AmbystomatexanumStreamsideSalamander--Ambystomabarbouri Onceuponatime,StreamsideSalamandersandSmall-mouthedSalamanderswerethoughttobethesamespecies(A.texanum)inTennessee.Itwasn’tuntil1997thatA.barbouriwaslistedasanewspeciesforthestate.Itwasthediscoveryofthedifferentbreedinghabitsandhabitatsthatseparatedthetwo.ItwasalwaysknownthatSmall-mouthedSalamandersbredandmetamorphedinpondsandseasonalpools.ButitwaslaterdiscoveredthatasalamandercloselyresemblingSmall-mouthedSalamandersbredanddevelopedinfirstandsecondorderstreams.Small-mouthedSalamanderslayeggsinsmallclustersonthestemsofaquaticplantsinthestillwaterofpondsorpools.StreamsideSalamanders,ontheotherhand,layeggsinflowingwaterunderneathlarge,flatrocks.A.barbourfemalesdothisbycrawlingbeneaththerock,clingingupsidedownanddepositingtheireggsinsinglerowsontheundersideoftherock.StreamsideSalamandersbreedinwinter.Small-mouthedSalamandersbreedinwinterandearlyspring.Bothspeciesliveundergroundinhardwoodforestsafterthebreedingseason.Distributionistheotherdifferencebetweenthetwo.A.barbouionlyoccursintheCentralBasinofTennessee.A.texanumoccursinthewesternhalfofthestate.Botharemostlygrey,4-5½inchambystomidsbutStreamsideSalamandershaveashort,wideandroundedmouthwhereasSmall-mouthedSalamandershaveanoticeablysmallheadandnarrowermouth(MitchellandGibbons,2010)

Ambystomatexanum,A.barbouriSource:Mitchell,JoeandWhitGibbons.2010.SalamandersoftheSoutheast.UniversityofGeorgiaPress,Athens,GA.Pp.324.

EasternTigerSalamander--Ambystomatigrinum tigrinimreferstothetiger-likestripesonthesidesDescription:TheTigerSalamanderisthelargestAmbystomidspeciesinTennessee.Adultsrangeinlengthfrom7to8¼inches.Irregularlyshapedyellowspotsorblotchesonagraytoblackbackgroundlookalmostlikethe“tigerstripes”fromwhencethecommonnameisderived.Thecostalgroovecountyistypically12-13(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Thisspeciesreportedly.occurswidelythroughoutthestate,butisapparentlyabsentfromtheBlueRidgeMountainsandalargeareaofnortheasternTennessee(Redmond,etal.1990).EasternTigerSalamandersareusuallyfoundnearponds,swamps,andfloodedwoodlanddepressions(Redmond,etal.1990)andmaysometimesbefoundinwells,basements,androotcellars.Theyspendmostoftheirinburrows,underlogsandrocksandareactiveonlyatnight(Johnson,1987). Preyofthisspeciesincludesanyanimalsmallenoughforthemtoswallow.Commonfoodsincludeearthworms,insects,spiders,slugsandsnails(Johnson,1987). EasternTigerSalamandersbecomemigratoryduringautumnrains,movingtopondswherebreedingwilltakeplace(Johnson,1987).BreedinghabitatsinTennesseeincludeflooded

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woodlands,farmponds,shallow,temporarypondsandalimestonequarrypond(OwenandYeatman,1954). Awinterandearlyspringbreeder(ConantandCollins,1991),malescanbeobservedmigratingtofishlesspondsormarshesduringrainyweather.Femalesmayalsocongregateduringfallandearlyspring.Courtshipandegg-layingtakeplaceinthewater.Courtshipusuallyinvolvesmalesandfemalesrubbingtogether,withmuchtailthrashingandsomenipping.Eventuallythemalemovesawayandthefemalefollows,keepingherheadclosetothecloacaofthemale.Hethendepositsaspermatophoreonthebottomwhichisquicklypickedupbythefemale’scloacaandhereggsarefertilizedastheypassthroughthecloaca(Johnson,1987).Theloose,globular,oroblongeggclustercontainsabout50eggs(Martofetal.1980)buteachfemalemaylayasmanyas1,000eggs(Collins,1982)andisattachedtostemsinshallowponds.Theeggshatchinafewweeksintoapondtypegilledlarvaefeedingonavarietyofaquaticinvertebrates(Johnson,1987).Thelarvaetransforminthelatespringorsummeratanaveragetotallengthof5-7inches.(Martofetal.1980).Thelarvaeofthisspeciesareoftencalledwaterdogs.

FamilyAmphiumidae

ThisstrictlyNorthAmericanfamilyisrepresentedbyonlyonegenus,Amphium,consistingofthreerecognizedspecies,theone-toedamphiuma(Amphiumapholeter),thetwo-toedamphiuma(A.means)andthethree-toedamphiuma(A.triadactylum).Ingeneral,amphiumasarethelongestsalamanderinNorthAmerica,andhavebeenknowntoreachover45inches.Theyhavetinyalmostuselesslegs,smalleyes(whichlackeyelids)andsmoothskin(Johnson,1987).

Three-toedAmphiuma–Amphiumatriadactylym Description:Acompletelyaquaticsalamandershapedlikealongcylinderwithasomewhatpointedhead;ithastinygrayeyes,andverysmallfrontandhindlimbs.Eachlimbhasthreeverysmalltoes.Dorsalcolorisdarkbrownorblack;thebellyislighterbrownorgray.Adultsdonothavegillsbutagillslitispresentoneachsideofthehead.Amphiumashavelungsandmustbreatheairatthesurfaceofthewater.Adultsattainatotalbodylengthof18-30inches(Johnson,1987). HabitatandHabits:Three-toedamphiumasspendthedaylighthoursburiedinsiltorhidingundersubmergedroots,debris,oraquaticplants.Theirheadsandnecksmaybeexposed,andperiodicallytheymustcometothesurfaceforair.Theyventureforthatnightinsearchofsmallfish,crayfish,tadpoles,snails,aquaticinsects,earthworms,andotheraquaticanimals(Johnson,1987).

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Thissalamandermakesitshomeinstillwatersuchasslough,sluggishCoastalPlainstreams,oxbowlakesandfloodedditchesinMississippiRiverdrainagesinwestTennessee.AsightrecordfromtheTennesseeRiverdrainageinBentonCountyin1948isquestionable(Redmond,1985). Theseanimalsaredifficulttocollectinthewildbecausetheyarealert,fast,slipperyandmaybiteviciously.Thewesternmudsnake(Faranciaabacura)isknowntopreyonamphiumas(Johnson,1987). Verylittleisknownaboutthebreedinghabitsofthethree-toedamphiumainTennessee.InareaswhereithasbeenstudiedinourstatebySalthe(1973)itisknowntobreedinlatesummerandearlyfall.Afemalelaysanaverageof200eggs.Theeggsarelaidonland,usuallyunderarottenlognearwater.Oncewaterfromautumnrainscoverstheeggs,theycompletedevelopmentandhatch.Larvaehavegillsandarebetween2½to3incheslong.Localscallthissalamandercongoeel,congereel,lampereel,ditcheelandblueeel.

FamilyProteidae[Necturidae]--MudpuppiesandWaterdogs

Themembersofthisfamilyretaincertainlarvalcharacteristicspermanentlyincludingthreepairsofbushyexternalgillsandreducedeyeswithnoeyelids.Twogeneraarerecognized.Thefirst,Proteus,containsonlyonespecies,theEuropeanolm.TheEuropeanolmisaslender,white,blindcavesalamander.Thisspecieshasbrightredgillsandthreetoesoneachofitsfourlimbs.Itinhabitscavestreams(Johnson,1987).

Mudpuppy–Necturusmaculosus Gr.nekton,swimming;L.macula,spottedDescription:Themudpuppyisacompletelyaquaticspecies.Ithasagray-brownbackandpalegraybelly.Mostofthebodyhasnumeroussmall,irregulardarkbrownspots,whichsometimesappearonthebelly.Behindtheheadareplumesofredgills.Thesegillsvaryinsize,dependingontheoxygencontentofthewater.Therearefourtoesonboththefrontandhindlimbs.Theeyesaresmallandlackeyelids.AllNecturusareneotenicgilledadults(Johnson,1987).Adultmudpuppiesrangeinlengthfrom8-13inches(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:InTennessee,thisspeciesisfoundinlargecreeks,riversorreservoirs.Mudpuppiesareinactiveduringtheday.Theyusuallyremainhiddenindeeppoolsundersubmergedlogs,rocksortreeroots.Mudpuppiesareknowntoremainactivethroughouttheyear.Theyfeedatnightonanyaquaticanimalsmallenoughtobecapturedandswallowedincludingcrayfish,mollusks,smallfish,wormsandaquaticinsectsandtheirlarvae(Johnson,1987). Matingtakesplaceinthefall.Fertilizationisinternalbuttheeggsarenotlaiduntilthefollowingspringorsummer.Seventy-fivetoonehundredeggsarelaidbyeachfemaleandare

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attachedtotheundersideofsubmergedrocks.Thefemaleremainswiththeeggsuntilhatchingoccurswhichmaytakefromafewweekstomorethan30days.Theaveragelengthofthelarvaeathatchingis7/8inches.Mudpuppylarvaehavegills,atailfinormediumheight,adarkbrownmid-dorsalstripewhichisborderedbypaleyellowlinesandabroad,darkbrownstripeoneachsidefromtheheadtothetipofthetail.Sexualmaturityisreachedin4-6years(Johnson,1987). Mudpuppiesaretheonlyhostforthelarvaeofthesalamandermussel(Simpsonaiasambigus).Thesmall,darklarvaecallglochidiaattachthemselvestothemudpuppy’sgillsasexternalparasites.Thefreshwatermusselaverages1-1½inchesinlength(Johnson,1987). Mudpuppiesareharmlesstohumansandtonaturalfishpopulations.Fishermenoftencatchthisspeciesonbaitedhook-and-lineorinminnowtraps.Individualscanlivefor20yearsormore.

FamilyPlethodontidae--LunglessSalamanders

Thisisthelargestandmostsuccessfulfamilyofsalamandersintheworld.Ofthe380totalspeciesofsalamanders,230belongtothisgroup.Thereare18generaand80speciesoflunglesssalamandersthatoccurintheUnitedStatesandCanada.InTennesseethisfamilyisrepresentedby8generaand46forms(thisincludesspeciesandsubspecies). Alladultslacklungsandmostlackgills.Theoxygentheyrequireistakeninfromtheenvironmentthroughtheirskinandthemucousmembraneofthemouth.Onecharacteristicexclusivetothisfamilyisthepresenceofagrooveintheskinrunningfromthenostrildowntothelip.Insomespecies,associatedwiththisgroove(calledthenasolabialgroove)isaprojectionofskinwhichextendsthegroovebelowthelowerlip.Theseprojectionsarecalledcirriandaremorepronouncedonadultmales.Thecirriandgroovesmaybeassociatedwiththesenseofsmell(Johnson,1987).Maleshaveamentalglandontheirchin,andduringbreedingseason,theareasurroundingtheirvent(cloaca)isenlarged. ThefamilyprobablyoriginatedintheSouthernAppalachians.Thislackoflungsisanancestraladaptationtolifeinmountainstreams,wheresomespeciesstarted.Lungsarebuoyant,makingitdifficultforsalamanderstoholdfastinrushingwater. Lunglesssalamandersarefoundinawidevarietyofmoisthabitats.Woodlands,springs,coldstreams,seepages,rockoutcroppings,spruce-firmountaintopsatelevationsoveramilehigh,andcavesandtheirsubterraneanwatersareallhabitatscommonlyassociatedwiththisgroup.

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GreenSalamander–Aneidesaeneus Gr.aneides,shapeless;L.aeneus,bronzeorcopperyThisgenusisknownastheclimbingsalamandersand5speciesarefoundwithintheUnitedStates.ThegreensalamanderistheonlyspeciesfoundeastoftheMississippiRiver. Description:Adultsofthisspeciesaverage3-5½inchesinlength.Toetipsareexpandedtoformadhesivediscs.Thisdorsoventrallyflattenedsalamanderhasgreenoryellowish-greenlichen-likepatchesonabackgroundofdarkbrownorgray(Redmond,1985).Theflattenedheadandbodyandtheexpandedtoetipsaremodificationsforitsmodeoflife. HabitatandHabits:ThegreensalamanderwasfirstdescribedbythefamousherpetologistsEdwardDrinkerCopeandA.S.Packard,Jr.in1881fromtheFaunaofNickajackCave(Amer.Nat.15:877-82).Itisgenerallyfoundinhabitingcrevicesinsandstoneclifffaces,butithasalsobeenreportedunderbarkstripsoffallenlogs,limestonesolutionpockets,andingranitecrevices.Itisevidentthatthegreensalamander’soptimumhabitatiscrevicesinrockfaces,thenatureoftherockformationbeingimmaterial.Intheabsenceofsuchhabitat,thesalamanderwillliveunderbarkontrees,inrottinglogsandsoforth.Inhabitedrockfacesareusuallywellshadedandmoist,butnotwet.Althoughtheymaybeseenoncloudydays,thesalamandersaremostactiveatnightwhentheyemergefromthecrevicesandclimbovertherocksurfacesinsearchoffood.Theyliewiththeirheadsatthemouthofthecrevicesbutretreatrapidlywhendisturbed.Itisdifficulttoextractonefromacrevice.Malestendtobeterritorialtowardsothermales(GreenandPauley,1987). Foodforthegreensalamanderconsistsofsnails,slugs,spidersandsmallinsects.Insectsarethepredominantfood(GreenandPauley,1987). ThedistributioninTennesseeincludestheCumberlandMountains,CumberlandPlateau,andEasternHighlandRim.PopulationshavealsobeenreportedfromtheAppalachianRidgeandValleyinAnderson,Claiborne,Grainger,Hawkins,andSullivancounties,theCentralBasininWilsonCountyandtheBlueRidgeMountainsinSevierCounty(Redmond,etal.1990). Inlatespringorearlysummer,femalesdepositclustersof10-20unpigmentedeggsheldtogetherandattachedontheupperwallsofcrevicesbystrandsofmucous.Thefemalesremainwiththeeggsthroughoutthedevelopmentperiodfrom84-91days.Hatchingoccursinthelatesummerorearlyfall.Thenewlyhatchedyoungarelessthananinchlongandareminiaturereplicasoftheadults.Thesesalamandershibernateinanastomosing(amulti-branchednetwork)crevicesfromNovemberthroughlateMarch(Martofetal.1980).

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GenusDesmognathus–DuskySalamanders Gr.desma,bandorligament;Gr.gnathos,jaw.Thenameofthisgenusendsin–gnathusbecausethelowerjawsofthesesalamandersareheldinpositionbyligamentsjoiningittotheupperpartofthebackbone.Thelowerjawisrelativelyimmovablethusstiffeningtheforwardportionofthebodysotheanimalcanmorereadilyforceitswayunderthings.Thesalamanderopensitsmouthinlargepartbyliftingtheupperjawandhead.Asaresultthejawisopenedbyraisingtheupperjawaswellastheskull(Goin,etal.1978).Thisarrangementproduceslargejawmuscleswhichareobviousinsideview,atraitfrequentlyusedinidentifyingthisgenus.Otherkeycharacteristicsincludealightlinefromtheeyetotheangleofthejawandhindlegsthatarenoticeablylargerthanthefrontones(GreenandPauley,1987). MembersofthegenusDesmognathuscontainmanyperplexingforms.Individualsvarywidelyincolorationandpattern.AquotefromConantandCollins(1991),“Identifyingthesesalamandersislikeworkingwithfallwarblers–onlyworse!” Note–NotallspeciesofDesmognathuswillbecoveredhere.ForafulldescriptionofallspeciesinTennesseeseeMattNiemiller’sAmphibiansofTennessee.

NorthernDuskySalamander–Desmognathusfuscus L.fuscus,brownDescription:Theduskysalamanderisamedium-sizedsalamanderthatexhibitsextremelyvariablecolorpatterns(Redmond,1985).Adultsaveragebetween2-5inchesinlength.Alightlineextendsfromjustbehindtheeyetotheangleofthejaw.Hindlimbsarenoticeablylargerthanforelimbs.Thetailincrosssectionistriangularandmoderatelykeeled.Thejawlineofmatureindividualsisslightlysinuous.Darkfrictionpadsontoesareabsent.Jawteethhavebluntcrowns.Thedorsalgroundcolorrangesfromlightgraytodarkbrown.Dorsaldarkmarkingsmaybeindistinct,randomlyarrangedorconsistofseverallighttan,yellowishorredpairsofdorsalspotsborderedbywavyorsometimesstraightdarkdorsolateralstripes.Youngduskysalamandersusuallyhave5-8pairsofbuffcolored,yelloworreddishorangedorsalspots.Olderspecimensaredarkerandtendtobemelanistic.Thebellyisusuallymottledlightlywithgrayorbrown(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Duskysalamandersareabundantinstreams,springs,seepages,androck-strewnwoodlandcreeksupto5,300feetinelevation.Likemostsalamanders,theyaremoreactiveatnightandduringthedaytheywillseekshelterindampareasunderleaves,rocks,andlogsalongstreammargins.Theyarequick,agileanddifficulttocaptureandtheirslimycoveringoftenenablesthemtoeludethegraspofawould-becaptor.Theyareactiveburrowersanddigtunnelsinthesoftsoilofthestreambankintowhichtheymayescape.Theyalsoclimbwellandatnightmaybefoundonthesidesofrocksandinlowvegetation.Duskysalamanderswillalsobefoundinbedsofpracticallydrystreamsindeepravines(GreenandPauley,1987). Foodfortheduskysalamanderincludesearthworms,snails,slugs,soft-bodiedinsects,beetlelarvae,mites,spiders,aswellassomesalamandersandtheirlarvae(GreenandPauley,

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Breedinghasbeenreportedinthefallaswellasthespring.Incourtshipthemaleappliesthesnout,cheeksandmentalglandtothesnoutofthefemale,whousuallyrespondsbypickingupthespermatophore.Femaleslayaclusterof10to20paleyellow,pigmentedeggs,heldtogetherbytheirthinoutermembranes.Theindividualeggsareabout3mmindiameterandhavethreeenvelopes,thefirstofclearjellyandfairlythick,thesecondthinandtheouterthin,tough,andelasticandwithatotaldiameterofabout4.5mm.Theeggsareusuallyattendedbythefemaleandarefrequentlylyinginthecoilofherbody.Femalesrarelyleavebeforetheeggshatch,evenwhendisturbedrepeatedly.Thenestsaregenerallylocatedincavitiesunderdebris,logs,androcksclosetoasmallwoodlandstream.EgglayingoccursfromJunetoearlyAugustwithhatchingtakingplaceinlatesummerorearlyfall.Seventy-fivepercentofthedepositedeggshatch,althoughfemaleswillabandonthesenestswhendisturbedpriortoovipositing.Theattendantfemalesmaintainphysicalcontactwiththeeggsandlarvae.Thehatchlinglarvaewillclusteronthefemalesbackwhichprobablydecreasesdesiccationoftheclutch.Thenewlyhatchedlarvaemaketheirwayintothestreambyfollowingtunnelsorcrevicesinthesoiluntiltheyreachthewaterlevel.Usuallytheeggmassissituatedsothatthehatchlingsdropintothewaterastheyemergefrotheeggenvelope.Throughouttheirlarvalperiod,approximatelyoneyear,theyswiminshallowpoolsorliebeneathflatrocksandleavesinwoodlandstreams.Transformationmaytakeplaceinlatespringorearlysummerdependingupontemperature,availabilityoffoodandotherfactors.Malesmatureattwoyearsofageandfemalesatthreeyears.Homingbehavior,foodfindingabilityandcourtshipdependsheavilyonolfaction(GreenandPauley,1987).TheduskysalamanderistheonlyspeciesofsalamanderthattheTennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyallowstobeusedasfishbait.

PigmySalamander–Desmognathuswrighti Description:ThepigmysalamanderisTennessee’ssmallestsalamanderwithadultsbeingfrom1¾-2¼inchesinlength.Alightlineextendsfromtheeyetotheangleofthejaw.Thehindlegsarenoticeablylargerthantheforelegs.Thetailisroundincrosssectionandisnotkeeled.Dorsalcolorrangesfrombrowntolightgray.Dorsalmarkingstypicallyconsistofnarrowdarklinesformingaherringbonepatternandamedianseriesofchevron-likemarks.Silverypigmentoccursonthelowersidesofthebody.Thebellylackspigmentandthetailisshort.Thesnoutandeyelidsappearrugose(rough).ThementalglandofthemalepigmysalamanderisU-shaped. HabitatandHabits:Thepigmysalamanderisaspeciescharacteristicofspruce-firforests.ItoccursinhighelevationmoistforestsintheBlueRidgeMountains.Theyhavebeenreportedatelevationsfrom2,750to6,500feet(ConantandCollins,1991).LocalitiesareknownfromCarter,Unicoi,Greene,Cocke,andSeviercounties(Redmond,et.al.1990). Pigmysalamandersliveundermoss,leaflitter,rottinglogs,barkonstumps,orrocksinspruce-firforestsorinmoisthardwoodforests.Inwinter,thesediminutivedenizenswillmoveintoseepageareas.Atnight,especiallyinfoggyorrainyweather,itmaybecome“arboreal”ascendingtrunksoftreesasmuchas6or7feetaboveground(ConantandCollins,1991).The

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pigmysalamanderisthemostterrestrialofallDesmognathusspeciesandmayoccuragreatdistancefromseepageandstreams(Redmond,1985). Inlatesummer,thefemaledepositsaclusterofabout10eggsinanundergroundcavitynearaseepageorstream.Thehatchlingshaveconspicuousspotsbutotherwiseresembletheadults(Martof,etal.1980).Thereisnoaquaticlarvalstage.Transformationofthelarvaetakeplacewithintheegg(ConantandCollins,1991).

GenusEurycea–BrookSalamanders Thesearethesalamandersofsmallbrooks,springs,seepageareasandothersmallbodiesofwaterwherefishareabsentorataminimum.Theyarethe“yellowspringlizards”socalleddue totheyellowpigmentfoundinmostofthem,atleastontheundersurfaces.Othercharacteristicsincludeatonguethatisfreeatthemargins,separatevomerineandparasphenoidteeth,aslenderbodyandmaleswithswollensnoutsthatmayhavecirri.Thereisanaquaticlarvalstage(GreenandPauley,1987).Thegenuscontains12species,6ofwhicharefoundinTennessee.We’lldiscuss3here.

SouthernTwo-linedSalamander–Euryceacirrigea Gr.eurys,widecirrigea,withcirriDescription:Adultsrangeinlengthfrom2½to3inches.Aslendersalamanderwithayellowtoreddishorangedorsalbandwithblackdots,spotsorflecks.Adarkdorsolateralstripeextendstoatleastmid-tail.Inthemountainstheposteriorofthetailstripemaybebrokenintospots.Thebellyisyellowtoreddishorange.Breedingmaleshaveslendercirrusextendingdownwardfromeachnostril.Two-linedsalamandershave5toesoneachhindfoot(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Two-linedsalamandersliveinornearsprings,seepagesandstreamsinhardwoodforests.Asecretivesalamander,hidingbeneathalltypesofshelterobjectsincludingmassesofwetleavesincreeksorriverswamps(GreenandPauley,1987).TheSoutherntwo-linedsalamanderisfoundfrombottomlandhabitatsinwestTennesseetotheeasternedgeoftheRidgeandValley(Redmond,etal.1990).Courtshipoccursinthefall,andtheeggsarelaidinthewinterandspring.Thefemaledepositsaflatclusterofeggsontheundersurfacesofarockorlog,usuallyinrunningwater.Sheremainswiththeeggsuntiltheyhatchintoaquaticlarvae(Martofetal.1980).

LongtailSalamander–Eurycealongicauda L.longus,longL.cauda,tailDescription:Thisisaslenderyellowtoreddishorangespecieswithabundantroundblackspotsonthesidesandbackandverticaldarkbarsonthesidesofthetail.Thebellyisunmarked.The

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tailmaybenearlytwo-thirdsthetotallengthoftheofthebodyinlargeadults,whichaverages3½to8inches(Martofetal.1980). HabitatandHabits:ThelongtailsalamanderrangesfromtheWesternHighlandRimeastwardtoapproximatelytheTennessee-NorthCarolinaborderandhasbeenreportedfromtheMississippiRiverbluffsjusteastofReelfootLakeinnorthwesternTennessee(Redmondet.al.1990).Overmostitsrangeitisassociatedwithlimestoneandshalesubstratesandisfoundalongrockystreamsandbottomlandsandcommonlyindampcaves.Theyfeedonsmallterrestrialinsects,mites,centipedesandearthworms(Martofetal.1980). Eggsaverageabout90perclutchandarelaidunderground.Inminesandcavestheeggsareattachedtorocksorboardsinorsuspendedabovethewater.Larvaehatchinwinteratlessthan20mminlengthandtransformationoccursbyearlysummerat40to50mm.Sexualmaturityisattainedthenextsummer(Martofetal.1980).

CaveSalamander–Eurycealucifuga L.lucis,light;L.fugio,tofleeDescription:Thecavesalamanderisamediumsizedsalamanderwhichmayattainalengthof4-6inches.Thebodyisslenderandthetailmayaccountforover60%ofthebodylengthinadults.Theheadisbroadandflatandtheeyesarewelldeveloped.Thedorsalcolormayvaryfromshadesoforangetored.Distinctdarkbrownorblackspotscovermuchofthedorsalsurfaceofthehead,backandtail.Costalgroovesnumberfrom14-15.Cirrimaybepresentinbothsexesbutaremorepronouncedinmales(GreenandPauley,1987). Cavesalamandersarefrequentlyconfusedwithlongtailsalamandersbutmaybeeasilytoldapartbycolor(thelongtailisyellowishandthecavereddish)andbytailpattern,whichinthelongtailalwaysconsistsofwavyverticalbarsthatformachevronorherringbonepattern.Inthe cavesalamandertheblackdotsarescatteredoverthetailandnotmergeintoanyformorpattern(GreenandPauley,1987). HabitatandHabits:Virtuallyrestrictedtolimestoneregions,thisspeciesispartialtothetwilightzoneofcaves,andclimbswellondampwallsandledgesbutisnotatruetroglobite.Duringwetperiodsitmayoccurnearspringsandalongrockybrooksunderlogsandrocks.Heleomyzidfliesmakeupalargepartofthedietofthecavesalamander(Hutchison,1958)aswellasmites,ticks,lepidopteransandpseudoscorpions.Cavesalamandersfeedbyflickingtheirtonguestocatchpreyasdoesotherterrestrialsalamandersandfrogsandtoads(GreenandPauley,1987). FemaleslayeggsfromSeptembertoJanuary.About60eggsaredepositedinrimstonepoolsonthefloorofcaves.Larvaeremaininthepoolsuntilwinterandearlyspringwhenthepoolsbegintooverflow.Thesmallstreamsthusformedcarrythelarvaeintolargerstreamswheretheyremainuntiltransformation(Green,et.al.1967).

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GenusGyrinophilus GenusGyrinophilusarethespringsalamanders.Thesearelargesalamandersthatmaybepinkish,reddishorbrownishincolor.Theyaresemi-aquaticoraquaticandareassociatedwithcoolsprings,caves,orrapidlyflowingmountainsprings.Thegenusisdefinedbyacombinationofcharactersthatincludethetonguefreeallaround,vomerineandparasphenoidteethcontinuous,alightlinebetweentheeyeandnostrilsandanaquaticlarvalstage.Threespeciesarerecognized.TwoarerepresentedinTennessee.

TennesseeCaveSalamander–Gyrinophiluspalleucus Gr.gyrinos,tadpole;philos,loving;palleucus,paleDescription:TheTennesseecavesalamanderisneotenic(attainingsexualmaturitywhileretaininglarvalform)troglobites(cavedwellers)foundinthesubterraneanwatersofcavesandsinkholes.Thesesalamandersspendtheirentireexistencebeneaththegroundinwater.Theyhave3pairsofbrightredexternalgills,lackeyelidsandhaveverysmalleyes.Theheadisbroadandflattened.Atailfinispresent.Thereare16-19costalgroovesandthetotallengthmaybeupto9inches. Thisspeciesrequirespermanentstreamsandpoolsinlimestonecaves.Foodconsistsofarthropodsandothercavedwellinginvertebrates,earthwormsandothersalamanders.

NorthernSpringSalamander–Gyrinophilusporphyriticus Gr.porphyros,purpleDescription:Thisisalargesalamanderfrom4.5-8inchesinlength.Ithasastoutbody,abroadlytruncatesnoutand18costalgrooves.Thebackislightbrownishorangeorsalmon,oftenwithsmalldarkspotsorflecks.Alightlineborderedbelowbyadarklineextendsfromtheeyetothenostril.Thebellyisflesh-coloredandthethroatmaybefleckedwithblack.Springsalamandersresembleredsalamandersbutaremoreagileandhaveabroaderandflattersnout. HabitatsandHabits:Springsalamandersinhabitspringsandsmalltomedium,free-flowingstreams,boggyareasandcaves.Duringthedaytheyhideunderstones,logsanddampleavesneartheedgesofstreams.Theyareneverfoundfarfromwater.Dietincludesothersalamanders,largeinsectsandworms. Femalesattach20-60eggstothelowersurfaceofsubmergedrockusuallyinJulyorAugust.Theeggsareattendedbythefemaleandhatchinabout90days.Thelarvaehaveapurplishcolorthatmaypersistforabout3years.Femalesareabout5yearsoldatreproductivematurity.

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Four-toedSalamander–Hemidactyliumscutatum Gr.hemi,half;Gr.daktylos,finger,toe;scutum,scalelikeThegenuscontainsonlyonespecies.Thelifecycleincludesafreeswimminglarvawithaconspicuousdorsalfinandaterrestrialadult.Therearefourtoesoneachhindfoot.Thetongueisattachedinfrontandthevomerineandparasphenoidteethareseparated. Description:Thisisasmallsalamanderwhichmayattainalengthof4inches.Thedorsalcolorisrustybrown.Thebellyisenamelwhitewithmanyscatteredblackmarksthatextendontothetail.Thereisadistinctconstrictionatthebaseofthetailandthehindfeethave4toesinsteadofthestandard. Athatching,thelarvaeareonehalfinchinlengthwithbroadheads,bluntlypointedsnoutsandstronglycompressedtrunkandtails.Gillsareslenderandtippedinorange.Theheadistingedwithyelloworgreen(Echternacht,1980). HabitatandHabits:Adultsliveinhardwoodforestswheretheyseekshelterunderlogs,rocksandleaflitter.Othermossyareasmaybeutilizedifenoughmoistureisavailable(GreenandPauley,1987).Johnson(1987)findsthisspeciesinMissouriinareaswithmossesalongheavilyforestedspring-fedcreeksassociatedwithigneous(Precambrian)rockandalsoinandnearsinkholeponds. Whendisturbedorexposedthefour-toedsalamanderthrowsitselfintoatightcoil,dorsalsideuppermost.Withabackgroundofsimilarrustybrowncolor,theposturecouldbeprotective.Theconstrictionatthebaseofthetailcouldalsoservetheanimalasaprotectivedevice.Thetailisreadilyseveredwhentheanimalisunderstress. Four-toedsalamandersbreedinautumn.Spermarestoredinachamber(spermatheca)insidethecloacaofthefemales(Johnson,1987).Duringspring,startinginearlyMarch,females migratetosphagnumbogs,seepagesorshallowpondswithmoss-coveredlogs,rootsandgrassclumpsoverquietwater(Martof,etal.1980).Theeggsarefertilizedastheypassthroughthefemale’scloaca.About30eggsarelaidinaprotectedpocketofmoss,usuallyoverhangingthewater.Theeggsareusuallyattachedtostrandsorrootsofmosses(Bishop,1943).Afewnestshavebeenobservedonmoundsofpineneedlesinsidelogsandunderbark(GreenandPauley,1987).Thefemalewillremainwiththeeggsandprotectthemfromothersalamanders.Shewillalsoeateggsthatspoil.Thepresenceofafemaleattendingaclusterofeggsincreasesembryonicsurvival(HarrisandGill,1980). Communalnestingmayoccurespeciallywheretherearefewidealnestingsites(Johnson,1987).EggshatchinMay,theincubationperiodisfrom38-60days(Echternacht,1980).Uponhatchingthegilledlarvaefindtheirwaytowaterwheretheyremainforupto2months.Aftermetamorphosis,thejuvenilesthataverage3-4inchesbecometerrestrial.Theymaytakeover2yearstoreachsexualmaturity(Bishop,1943).

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EasternZigzagSalamander–Plethodondorsalis Gr.pleth,tobefull;L.odon,ofteethdorsalis,backDescription:Thissmallsalamanderisfrom2.5-4.5inchesintotallength.Ithasareddish-orangetoreddish-browndorsalbandwithwavyorzigzagedgesatleastontheanteriorhalf.Thebellyisheavilymottledwithblack,whiteandreddish-orange. HabitatandHabits:Zigzagsalamandersareusuallyassociatedwithseepagesnearrockoutcropsonslopesinmixedhardwooduplandsandliveunderleaflitter,rocksandrottenlogs(Martof,1980). Littleisknownaboutthenaturalhistoryofthisspecies.Mostsurfaceactivityoccursintheearlyspring.Individualsbecomeincreasinglyscarceandaredifficulttofindatothertimes.

SlimySalamander–Plethodonglutinosus L.glutinosus,viscous,stickyDescription:Adultslimysalamandersrangeinlengthfrom4¾-6¾inches(Johnson,1987)withtherecordmeasuring81/8inches(ConantandCollins,1991).Theslimysalamanderisblackwithwhiteorcreamflecksscatteredoverthesidesorsometimesonthebackandlimbs(Martofetal.1980).Theshinandbellyaredarkgrayincolor.Malescanbedistinguishedfromfemalesbythepresenceofalightcolored,swollenmentalglandunderthechinduringthebreedingseason(Johnson,1987).Glandsintheskin,especiallyonthetail,exudeastickyprotectiveslimethatisdifficulttoremovefromthehands(Martofetal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Slimysalamandersareactivenearthesurfacefromspringtofallexceptduringdryperiodswhentheymoveunderground.Theyforageatnightandspendthedayinburrowsunderlogs,stonesandleaflitter(Martofetal.1980).Foodincludessmallarthropodsandworms(Johnson,1987). Eggsarelaidinorunderlogsandamongrootsbutarerarelyfound.Inthelowlands,eachfemalelayshereggsonlyeveryotherspring.AswithothermembersofthegenusPlethodon,femalesremainwiththeeggsduringtheincubationperiod.Hatchingprobablytakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyautumn.Thereisnoaquaticlarvalstage,aswithallPlethodonspecies,thehatchlingsresembleadultsbuthaveproportionatelyshortertails(Johnson,1987).

YonahlosseeSalamander–Plethodonyonahlossee NamedfortheoldYonahlosseeRoadonGrandfatherMountain,NorthCarolinaDescription:Plethodonyonahlosseeisalargeplethodontidspecies.Adultsreachtotallengthsrangingfrom4.5-7.5inches.Awideirregularlyshapeddorsalredstripeextendsfromneartheheadontothetail.Thisstripemaybepartiallyinterruptedbyblackspotsorblotches.Lateralsurfacesareheavilymarkedwithwhiteorlightgray.Thethroatislightincolor.Theventerisdarkgrayandusuallyhasnumerousscatteredlightspots(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Yonahlosseesalamandersinhabitmaturewoodlandsandpopulationsareknownfromelevationsrangingfrom732-1433metersinTennessee(Redmond,1985).

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Thisspeciesoccursfrommountainvalleysto1700metersinthemountainsofthesouthernBlueRidgeMountains.Itinhabitshillsidesandravinesoftenwhererockslidesarethicklycarpetedwithmossesandferns.Yonahlosseshaveavarieddietofarthropodsandmollusks.

GenusPseudotriton–RedSalamanders Membersofthisgenushavearobustbody,ashortkeeledtail,andshortsturdylegs.Theymayattainatotallengthof8inches.Theyarestrikinglycoloredrangingfrombrownishtoorangetobrightcoronaryredwithscatteredblackdots,butnootherpattern.Thetongueisfreeatitsmarginsandprotrusible.ThegenusisconfinedtoNorthAmericaeastoftheMississippiRiver(GreenandPauley,1987). TwospeciesofthegenusarerecognizedbothofwhicharefoundinTennessee.Thelarvalstageisaquaticandtheadultsareaquaticorterrestrial.

MudSalamander–Pseudotritonmontanus Gr.pseudes,false;Gr.triton,newt;L.mont,belongingtothemountainsDescription:Themudsalamanderisarelativelylargespecieswithaslenderbodyform.Adultsattaintotallengthof3-7.5inches(Redmond,1985).Dorsalandventralgroundcolormaybecoral-pink,redorreddishbrown.Afewwelldefinedroundedblackspotsareusuallypresentonthedorsum.Thebellyisusuallyunspotted(Redmond,1985).Theirisoftheeyeofmudsalamandersisbrown. HabitatandHabits:ExcludingthehighelevationsoftheBlueRidgeMountains,therangeofthemudsalamanderincludestheeasternone-halfofTennessee.Themudsalamanderinhabitsmuddyareasoffloodplains,woodlandstreams,swampsandseepageareas(Redmond,1985).Theymaybefoundinthefine,blackmuckbeneathlogsandrocksorinburrowsalongthebanks ofseepages,springs,brooksorboggyareas(Martofetal.1980). Courtshipoccursinearlyfall,spawninginDecemberandhatchinginFebruary(Martofetal.1980).Duringheavyrainsinearlyspringandfalltheymaybeseeninlargenumberscrossinghighwaysandalongstreambanks(GreenandPauley,1987). Theaveragefemalelaysabout127eggs(66-192)everyotheryear.Mostlarvaetransformin17monthsbutsomerequireanextrayear.Theaveragesnouttoventlengthathatchis10mmand36mmatmetamorphosis.Malesmaturein3years,femalesin4years(Martofetal.1980)

NorthernRedSalamander–Pseudotritonruber L.rubeo,toberedDescription:Theredsalamanderisalargestout-bodiedspeciesthatreachesadulttotallengthsof7-15cm.ThisspeciesisverysimilartoP.montanusbuthasastockierbodyandsmallerhead.Dorsalandventralgroundcolorrangesfrombrightredtodullpurplishbrown.Dorsalmarkings

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typicallyconsistofmanysmallirregularlyshapeddarkspotsthatmayfuseinolderindividuals.Theventralsurfaceofthechinmaybelightlyfleckedorheavilypigmentedwithblack.Theventermaybespottedwithdarkmarkingsunspotted(Redmond,1985).Theirisoftheeyeofredsalamandersisyellow. HabitatandHabits:Thissalamanderoccursnearmanywoodlandaquatichabitatsincludingcreeks,springsandspringrunsandseepageareas.Itmayoccasionallybefoundinmesictorelativelydrywoodlands(Redmond,1985). Adultsliveinleafaccumulationsinspringfedbrooksandnearbycrevicesandburrows.Theymayalsobefoundunderlogs,boards,rocksandleavesinmoreterrestrialhabitats.Earthworms,insectsandsmallersalamandersaretheirchieffood(Martofetal.1980). Courtshipoccursinsummer,spawninginOctoberandhatchinginearlyDecember.Anaverageclutchcontainsabout70eggs.Thelarvalperiodlastsabout32months.Theaveragenewlymetamorphosedanimalis70mmlong(Martofetal.1980).

FamilySalamandridae–“True”Salamanders

Themembersofthisfamilymetamorphosecompletelyandmostspendatleastpartoftheirlivesonland.Larvaeoftheeasternnewttypicallymetamorphoseintobrightredeftsthatmayliveonlandforaslongas7years,afterwhichtheyreturntothewaterandbecomesexuallymature.Newtshaverough,granularskin,lackcostalgroovesandpossesslungs(GreenandPauley,1987).Fewpredatorswilleatnewtsfortheirskin-glandsecretionsaretoxicoratleastirritatingtomucousmembranes(ConantandCollins1991).

Red-spottedNewt–Notophthalmusviridescens Gr.notos,theback;Gr.ophthalmos,theeye;L.viridescens,greenishDescription:Notophthalmusviridescenshasadistinctterrestriallarvalformandanaquaticadultform.Neitherformtypicallyhasexternalgills.Theterrestrialstagecommonlycalledaneftisbrightredororangewithdorsalredorblackspots.Totallengthrangesfrom1.5-3.5inches.The skinofeftsisveryspinoseorrough.Adultcolorationrangesfromyellowishgreentobrownwitheithernumerousredspotsborderedbyblackorwithonlysmallblackspots(Redmond,1985).Notophthalmusreferstothedorsaleyespotsofboththeeftandtheadultnewt. HabitatandHabits:Adultsinhabitponds,poolsalongandwithinstreams,oxbowsandfloodedditches.Eftsaremostoftenencounteredunderrocksandlogsinuplandwoodedhabitats(Redmond,1985). Anelaboratecourtshipoccursinthespringandfall.Thefemaledepositshereggssinglyonleavesofsubmergedplantsinpondsorlakesinlatewinter,springandearlysummer.Shemayfoldaleafaroundeachegg,effectivelyhidingitfromview.Hatchingoccursafteradevelopmentalperiodofupto35daysandthenewlyemergedlarvaeaverages7.5mlong.

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Transformationofthelarvalterrestrialeftstakesplaceinthesummerorfall.Newlytransformedyoungareabout36-41mmlong.Newtsfeedonavarietyofaquaticinvertebratesincludinginsects,crustaceansandmollusks.Theyalsoeattheeggsofothersalamanders(FauthandResetarits,1991)andfrogs.

FamilySirenidae–Sirens

ThisfamilyofcompletelyaquaticsalamandersisrestrictedtoNorthAmerica.Thereareonly3speciesrepresentedby2genera–Siren(2species)andPseudobranchus(1species).Allmembersofthisfamilyhaveexternalgills,aresomewhateel-likeinappearanceandhaveonlyfrontlegs.Thedwarfsirens(Pseudobranchus)aresmall,slendersalamandersfoundintheextremesoutheasternUnitedStates.ThelessersirenandthegreatersirenaremuchlargerthanPseudobranchusandarefoundthroughoutthesoutheastandsouthcentralUnitedStatesandtheGulfCoastofMexico.Thegreatersiren(Sirenlacerina)isoneofthelongestsalamandersintheUnitedStateswithamaximumlengthofover3feet(Johnson,1987).InTennessee,thefamilyisrepresentedbythewesternlessersiren(Sirenintermedianettingi).

WesternLesserSiren--Sirenintermedianettingi Description:Apermanentlyaquaticspeciesthatiseel-likeinappearance.S.intermediapossesswelldevelopedexternalgills.Adultsreachtotallengthsof7-27inches.Frontlimbsarepresent.Hindlimbsareabsent.Dorsalcolorationvariesfromgray,brownorblackandmayincludesmalldiffuselightspots.Lateralbodysurfacesandventermayhavelightcoloredflecks(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Thewesternlessersirenoccursinsluggishstreams,oxbowsandfloodedditchesintheMississippiRiverValley,LoessPlainandCoastalPlainUplandsofwestTennessee.ItisalsoknownfromseveralsitesalongthelowerCumberlandRiverbelowNashville(Redmondet.al.1990).Snyder(1972)noteditsoccurrenceinasmallimpoundmentadjacenttoBarkleyReservoirjustnorthoftheStewartCounty,Tennessee-TriggCounty,Kentuckyboundaryline. Bythedaythewesternlessersirenremainshiddenunderclumpsofaquaticplantsandsubmergedrootsorbranchesbutbecomesactiveatnighttosearchforfood.Itsdietincludessmallcrayfish,aquaticinsects,snailsandworms(Johnson,1987).Altig(1967)foundthatthisspeciescanapparentlyobtainfoodbyfilterfeedingthroughbottommaterialandinaquaticvegetation.Hereportedthatsmallcrustaceansmayaccountforupto87%ofthetotalnumberoffooditemseaten. Westernlessersirensareknowntoproduce2kindsofsoundswhichmaybeusedasmeansofcommunicationbetweenindividuals.Theseincludeclickingsoundsmadebyanindividualwhenapproachedbyanotherandayelpsoundmadewhencaptured(GehlbachandWalker,1970).

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Ifthepondorsloughwhereawesternlessersirenlivesbeginstodryup,theanimalwillburrowintothebottommud.Asthemudbeginstodryout,thesiren’sskinglandsproduceaparchment-likecocoonwhichcoversthewholebodyexceptthehead.Thecoveringpreventsthesalamanderfromdryingoutandallowsittoaestivate(summerdormancy)manymonthsuntilrainsagainfloodthepond(Gelbachetal.1973). Courtshipandmatinghavenotbeenobservedinthisspecies.Inthespringeachfemalelaysupto200eggsinasmallpocketinthebottommudofapondorditch.Theyoungathatchingareabout3/8inchesintotallength.Maturityisreachedafter2years.(Martof,1973).

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IVandV.Reptiles,TurtlesofTennessee

TheTurtlesofTennesseewascompiledbyR.L.PeterWyatt,TWRAUnicoiCountyWildlifeOfficer.ItisrevisedandusedbytheTennesseeNaturalistProgrambypermission.

Turtlesarethemostancientofalllivingreptiles.TheyhavechangedlittlesincetheiroriginearlyintheTriassicperiod,over200millionyearsago.Theseuniquevertebratespossessashell,aprotectivestructurecomposedofanupperpart,calledthecarapace,andalowerpart,theplastron.Theshellsofmostspeciesarebonyandcoveredwithhornyscutesmadeofaproteincalledkeratin,thesametypeoflivingtissuethatourfingernailsaremadeof.Unlikethoseofothervertebrates,thelimbgirdlesareenclosedinthegreatlyexpandedribcage.Inotherwords,turtlesaretheonlyvertebrateswiththeirshoulderbladesinsidetheirribcage!Thefeetoftheboxturtleareelephantineforaterrestrialexistence,andtheaquaticformshavewebbedfeet.Thejawslackteethandarecoveredbyahornybeak. Mostturtlesareomnivorousbutsomearecarnivorousandafewareherbivorous.Insomespecies,thejuvenilesarecarnivorousandbecomeherbivorousasadults.Allmustbreatheair.Twosetsofabdominalmusclescontractalternatelyforbreathing.Allexceptboxturtlesgointoastateofdormancyunderwater,someforfiveorsixmonths.Completelyburiedinmud,theygetoxygenfromthewaterthroughtheliningsofthemouth,throat,andposteriorendofthegutandinsoftshellturtles,throughtheskincoveringtheshellandbody. Mostspeciescourtandmateinthefallaswellasthespring.Allspeciesareoviparous(egglayers).Theeggsareusuallylaidinaholeduginthesoil.Aftertheeggsarelaidandcovered,thefemalesleavethenestsite.Theydonotincubatetheeggsorcarefortheyoung.Mostspeciesovipositinlatespringbutsomealsolayoneormoretimesinthesummer.Theeggsina clutchmayvaryfrom1-50dependingonthespecies.Itisnotalwayseasyformalestofindfemalesbutturtleshaveevolvedaremarkableabilitytostoreviablesperminthefemaleforaslongassevenyears.InTennessee,hatchingusuallytakesplaceinlatesummerorfallandtheyoungofseveralspeciesmayoverwinterinthenest. Maninteractswithturtlesinmanyways.Heeatstheirfleshandeggsandpreparesnumerousproductsfromtheirskins,shellsandbones.Liveturtles,especiallyhatchlings,onceconstitutedalucrativepartofthepettrade.Likemanyorganisms,turtlesareadverselyaffectedbyman’sgeneraldestructionofthehabitat:drainage,pollution,landclearing,andstripmining.Withoutadoubt,theautomobileisoneofthegreatestthreatstoturtlesandeachyearmanythousandsarekilledontheroads.Severalspeciesarethreatenedwithextinctionandonlyafewareprotectedbylaw. AppendixBillustratesidentifyingcharacteristicsofturtles.

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FamilyChelydridae--SnappingTurtles

CommonSnappingTurtle--Chelydraserpentina Otherlocalandcommonnamesforthisturtleis“turkle,”loggerheadandmudturtle.Thebigbrownishturtlesaremeanandaggressive.Sizerangesfrom8-18inchesandcanweighupto40pounds,therecordis18½inchesand57pounds.Thisturtlehasalargehead,longtaperingtailarmedabovewithlargescales;smallcrossshapedplastron;andcarapacewiththreelongitudinalkeelsprominentintheyoung.Inmales,thecloacaliesposteriortotheedgeoftheshell,infemalesanterior. Thecommonsnappingturtleisfoundstatewideexceptathigherelevationsalongtheextremeeasternborderorthestateandinhabitsvirtuallyanypermanentbodyofwater,natural orman-made.Snappingturtlespreferbodiesofwaterwithamudbottom,abundantaquaticvegetationandsubmergedlogsandsnags.Theytendtospendalotoftimehiddeninthemudinshallowwater.Theybecomemoreactiveatnightwhentheyforageforfood.Naturalfoodofthisspeciesincludesinsects,crayfish,fish,snails,earthworms,amphibians,snakes,smallmammals,birds,otherturtlesandaquaticvegetation.Upto36%ofasnappingturtle’sdietmayconsistofplantmaterial.Carrionisalsoconsumed. CourtshipandmatingmaytakeplaceanytimebetweenAprilandNovemberbutmostbreedingactivityoccursinlatespringandearlysummerwhenwatertemperaturesarewarm.Matingtakesplaceinthewater.Courtshipbetweenapairofsnappingturtlesusuallyinvolvesthetwoturtlesfacingeachotherandwavingtheirheadsfromsidetosideinoppositedirections.Actualmatingbeginswhenthemalemountsafemaleandgripshercarapacewithhisclaws.Themaletheninsertshispenisforspermtransmission.Likemanyspeciesofturtles,thefemalesnappingturtleisabletoretainviablespermforanumberofyears. Juneistheusualmonthforegglaying.Thefemaleselectsanareawithdeepsandorloosesoilwhereshewilldigoutanest4-7inchesdeepwithherhindlegs.Afemalemaylayfrom20-30eggs;morethanoneclutchmaybelaidperseason.Theeggsarecreamcoloredandaboutthesameshapeandsizeasping-pongballs.Hatchingwilloccurbetween55and125days aftertheeggsarelaiddependingonnesttemperatureandhumidity.Youngturtlesarefrom1-1½inchesincarapacelength.Malesreachsexualmaturityin4or5yearswhentheyattainaplastronlengthofapproximately6inches. ThecommonsnappingturtleisoneofthefeweconomicallyviablespeciesofturtlesinTennessee.Manypeopleactivelypursuethisspeciesfortheirmeat,whichcanmakeafinestew,anexcellentsoupandwhenfriedproperlyisdelicious.TheshellsandcarcassofthisspeciesareusedforNativeAmericancraftrattlesandcanbeseenatfleamarketsacrossthestate.Thedriedfeetoflargespecimensareusedtomakeknifehandles,theheadsadornwalkingsticksandshellsareformedintobowlsandsoldatMountainManRallies.Therefore,thisspeciesisbeingcommercializedwithinTennessee. Overtheyearsmanypeoplehavedevelopedanintensehatredofthisspeciesduemainlyfrommisinformationandlackofunderstanding.Fieldstudieshaveproventhatthisturtlewillnotharmgamefishpopulationsinnaturalbodiesofwater.Contrarytopopularbelief,snapping

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turtlesdonotcausesubstantialdamagetowaterfowlyoungundernaturalconditions(Lagler,K.F.1943.FoodhabitatsandeconomicrelationsoftheturtlesofMichiganwithspecialreferencetofishmanagement.AmericanMidlandNaturalist29:257-312).Howeverinartificialpondswherefishorwaterfowlproductionisenhanced,thisspeciesmaybecomeaseriousnuisanceandrequirecontrolmeasuressuchastrapping.

AlligatorSnappingTurtle--Macroclemystemminckii Thealligatorsnappingturtleisoneofthelargestfreshwaterturtlesintheworldwiththerecordweightbeing219pounds.ThestatusofthisspeciesisinquestionthroughoutitsrangeandislistedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceasapotentialcandidateforfutureadditiontotheFederallistofthreatenedandendangeredspecies.InTennessee,thisspeciesislistedas“InNeedofManagement”andisprotected. Thisisahugeaquaticspecieswithanoticeablylargehead.Thecarapacehasthreeprominentridges–onealongthecenterlineandoneoneitherside.Thelargeheadterminatesinasharp,stronglyhookedbeak.Theeyesarepositionedonthesideoftheheadandtheorbitscannotbeseenfromabove.Thetailislongandmuscular.Skinonthehead,neck,andfrontlegshasanumberoffleshyprojectionsortubercles.Theplastronisreducedinsizeandaffordslittleprotectiontotheventralarea.Adultshavedarkbrownheads,legs,andshells.Skinontheneckandotherareasmaybeyellowish-brown.Maleshavealongertailthanfemales. Adultalligatorsnappingturtlesrangeincarapacelengthfrom16-26incheswithweightrangesfrom35-100ormorepounds.Thealligatorsnappingturtleistotallyaquaticandseldomclimbsoutofthewaterontoobjectstobaskinthesun.Mostspecimensseenoutofthewaterareapparentlyfemalesinsearchofanegg-layingsite.Themajorityoftheirtimeisspentindeepwaterinmudandotherhidingplacessuchasrootsnags.Theyspenddaylighthoursinhidingandbecomeactiveatnight.Thisspeciesseldomattemptstoswim.Itnormallymovesaboutbyslowlywalkingonthebottom. ThisspeciesisuniqueamongNorthAmericanturtlesinhavingtheabilitytolurefishintoitsmouth.Thetongueofthisspecieshasaspecialappendageshapedlikeawormthatcanbemovedatwillbytheturtlewhileitlaysmotionlessonthebottomofariverorslough.Nearbyfishareattractedtothewriggling“worm”andarecapturedandeatenwhentheyventuretooclose. Preferredhabitatofthisspeciesincludesdeepsloughs,oxbowlakes,anddeepmuddypoolsoflargerivers.ThedistributioninTennesseeislimitedtotheMississippiRiverValleyandlowerTennesseeRiversystem.However,ithasbeenreportedfromtheStone’sRiverbelowPercyPriestDam. Courtshipandbreedingtakeplaceinthewater.Itispresumedtooccurinlatespring.FemalesemergefromthewaterduringMayandJunetodiganestandlayeggs.Afemalemaylayfrom16-50eggs.Theeggsareround,whiteandhardshelled.Hatchingtakesplaceinlatesummer,afteranincubationperiodof100-108days.Thereareindicationsthatsomefemales

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produceeggsonlyeveryotheryear.Hatchlingsaverage1¾inches,shellcolorisbrownorblackwithdarkgrayskin. Asinthecaseofmostspeciesofaquaticorwetlandecosystemsthealligatorsnappingturtlefacesmanyproblemscausingthedeclineofpopulations.Waterpollution,habitatalteration,areductioninegg-layingsitesandillegalharvesting,aswellasbeingharvestedasanon-target,areobstaclestoovercomeforthisspeciestohaveafutureinTennessee.

FamilyEmydidae--CommonWaterTurtles

PaintedTurtle--Chrysemyspicta ThisbrightlycoloredturtlehasthebroadestdistributionofallturtlesinNorthAmerica.InTennessee,3subspeciesarefound.Thecarapaceisflattened,smooth,andunkeeled.Itisblacktoolivebrownincolorandmarkedwithpatternsofredandyellow.Themarginalscalesalwaysbearredmarkings.Theplastronisunhingedandyellowandisjoinedwiththecarapacebyawidebonybridge.ThecarapaceoftheEasternformhaslightbordersacrossalignedseamsofrearlateralandcentrallaminee.Theplastronisunmarked.Themidlandformhasasmallcentralfigureontheplastron.Thesouthernformhasamedianlightlinedownthecarapacewiththeplastronunmarked.Tofurthercomplicatematterstheseformswillintergrade.Thefeetaremoderatelywebbed.Maleshaveelongatedclawsontheirforefeetandlongertailsthanfemales.Thereisapairofyellowspotsbehindtheeyes.Markingsonthelegsandothersoftpartsarered. Paintedturtlesarecommoninareaswherecreeks,rivers,sloughs,pondsandswampsprovideahabitatwithmudorsiltybottomandanabundanceofaquaticvegetation.Theyarefondofbaskingandaresometimesencounteredwanderingoverlandpresumablyinsearchofanewhabitatornestingsite.Estimatesofover200turtlesperacreofwaterhavebeenreportedfromNorthCarolina.Paintedturtlesareomnivorousfeederseatingavarietyofplantandanimalfood.Theyhibernateinthemudatthebottomofapondorotherquietbodyofwater,emerginginMarchorApril. Courtshiptakesplacesometimeafteremergencefromhibernation.Anelaborateritualtakesplace.Themaleswimsbackwardinfrontofthefemaleandvibrateshiselongateclawswhilestrokingherlores(sidesofherheadbetweentheeyesandnostrils).Thefemaleresponds bystrokingthemale’slimbs.Copulationfollows.Nestdiggingandegglayingtakeplacefrommid-MaytoJuly.Thefemalemaywanderseveralhundredyardsfromwaterinsearchforasuitableplacetodighernest.Theflaskshapedcavityisdugwithherhindfeet,usingfirstoneandthentheother.Inlateafternoon,shedropsfrom1-10eggsintothenest,arrangingthemwithoneofherhindfeet.Afterafinalwateringdownoftheareawiththecontentsofherurinarybladder,shefillstheneckofthenestwithaplugofmudandmovesbackandforthoverthenestwithherplastronuntilalltheevidenceofthenestisobliterated.Theaverage

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incubationperiodis77days.EvidencefromstudiesconductedinMinnesota,PennsylvaniaandConnecticutshowthatthenestlingsoverwinterinthenestandemergeinspring.

BogTurtle--Glyptemysmuhlenbergii Thisisoursmallestturtle.Ithasadarkbrowncarapaceandablackishplastron.Thebrightorangeoryellowblotchoneachsideoftheheadandneckmakesidentificationeasy.Sexualdimorphismisnotstriking.Thefemalehasashortertailthanthemaleandaflatterplastronwithawidenotchatitsposteriormargin. Bogturtlesinhabitdamp,grassyfields,boggyareas(actuallyfinns),withmuckymudbottomswithornearpermanentwater.Whendisturbedtheyquicklyburrowintothemudordebris.Bogturtleseatmostlyinsectsbutwillalsoeatworms,snails,amphibians,seeds,andcarrion.InJuneorJuly,onaveragethreeeggsarelaidinashallownestinmossofloosesoilwithinthebog.Theyhatchinabout55days.Hatchlingsarebarelyoneinchlongandaboutthecutestlittlelifeformsyou’veeverseen! ThebogturtleisathreatenedspeciesinTennesseeandassuchisaffordedthemostprotectionrelativetootherturtlesinthestate.TheU.S.FishandWildlifeServicesliststhisspeciesasaCategory2animalandthroughitsrangeitiscloselyscrutinizedwithconcernforitsmanagement.Onlytwosmall,separatebogs,lessthan5acrescombinedinJohnsonCountyare hometothisanimalintheVolunteerstate.Itisestimatedthatabout100BogTurtlesliveinthesetwobogs.Collectionforthepettradeisoneproblemthisspeciesfaces.Drainageofhabitat,nestpredationandpollutionarealsothreatstoitspopulations.

NorthernMapTurtle--Graptemysgeographica Themapturtleisafairlylargeturtleandmayattainacarapacelengthof11inches,malesaresmallerthanfemales.Averagelengthforadultmalesis4-6inchesandfemalesaverage7-10.5inches.Thecarapaceissomewhatflattenedwithadistinctdorsalkeelandaflared,serrateposterioredge.Theshelliscoveredwithanintricatedesignofyellowlinesonagreenishbackgroundthatresemblesthelinesonaroadmap.Theplastronisyellowishandgenerallyunmarked.Theheadisgreenishandstreakedwithnumerouslongitudinalyellowlines.Theheadpatternnearlyalwaysinvolvesalongitudinallyelongatespotbehindtheeye.Bothsexeshaveverybroad,smoothjawsurfacesandtheareaaroundthemouthispaleasif“lipstick”hasbeenapplied. Mapturtlesoccurinreservoirsandlarge,quietriversontheWesternHighlandRimandeastward.Itpreferslargewaterswithoutstrongcurrents.Itoftenbasksonlogsandsnagsbutiswaryandhardtoapproach.ItisactivefromMarchtoOctober.Foragingforfoodtakesplaceinearlymorningandlateevening.Rivers,sloughsandoxbowlakesarepreferredhabitatsformapturtles,providedthereisanabundanceofbaskingsites,amudbottom,andadequateaquaticvegetation.Mapturtleseatmollusks,snails,crayfishandsomeinsects. Courtshipandmatingtakesplaceinthewater,probablyfromlateMarchthroughMay.Thisspecieshasbeenobservedbreedinginautumninotherstates.Femalemapturtleswillleavethewaterandmaymoveaconsiderabledistancebeforelocatingasuitablesitetolaytheireggs.

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Nestsmaybedugalongtheedgeofplowedfields,inpatchesofsandorinclaybanks.EggsareproducedfromlateMaythroughearlyJuly.From10-16eggsmaybeproducedfromamaturefemale.Eggsareabout11/3incheslong,white,andelliptical.Hatchingtakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyfall,ortheyoungturtlesmaynothatchuntilthefollowingspring.Hatchlingsaverageabout1¼inchesinlength. OthermapturtlesincludetheOuachitaMapTurtle,FalseMapTurtle,andtheMississippiMapTurtle.

RiverCooter--Pseudemysconcinna RiverCootersarefoundinTennesseefromthewesternedgeoftheWesternHighlandRimwesttotheMississippiRiver.Adultcootersrangeincarapacelengthfrom9-13inches.Malescanbetoldapartfromfemalesbytheirlongforeclawsandlargetails. Theshellisbroadcompressedandhaslightdorsalmarkingsthatformapatternthatismoreirregularorconcentric,usuallywithalightC-shapedmarkonthefirstorsecondpleuralscute.Theplastronisnormallyyellow.Itmaybeeitherdevoidofmarkingsorhavegray-brownmarkingsalongscuteseams,especiallyanteriorly.Exposedskinmaybeolive-brownorblackwithyellowlines. Thisspeciesspendsaconsiderableamountoftimebaskingonlogsandwillquicklyslideintothewaterattheslightestdisturbance.Foragingisdoneduringearlymorningorlateafternoon.Thisspeciesisfoundinriversandsloughsbutwilltakeupresidenceinlargereservoirs. Cootersarepredominantlyvegetarian.Awidevarietyofaquaticplantsareconsumed.Mollusks,crayfish,andinsectshavealsobeenreportedinthefooditems. Courtshipandmatingtakeplaceinthewater.Themalewillswimabovethefemaleandoccasionallytitillatetheheadofthefemalewithrapidvibrationsofhislongforeclaws.Ifcopulationensues,thepairwillsinktothebottomandremainthereuntilcompletion.EgglayingispresumedtotakeplaceinMaythroughJune.Freshlylaideggsareelongatewithasoft,palepink,leatheryshell.Theeggsaverageabout19/16inchesinlength.Upto20eggsarelaidperfemale.HatchingnormallytakesplaceinlateAugustorSeptember.

EasternBoxTurtle--Terrapenecarolina OneofthebestknownandabundantreptilesinTennessee,theboxturtle,alsocalled“tar-pin”or“drylandtar-pin,”isfoundthroughoutthestate.Thiswellknownterrestrialturtleaverages4½to6½inchesincarapacelength.Thecarapaceisdomeshaped,variouslymottledwithyellowororangewithahingedplastronthatallowstheturtletowithdrawandencloseitshead,limbsandtailwithintheshell.Adultmaleshaveconcaveplastronsandoftenredeyes.Theeasternboxturtlelivesinforestedhabitatsthroughoutthestateuptoabout4,000feetintheAppalachians.Althoughtheseturtlesarelargelyterrestrial,theyoftenenterwaterduringhot,dryweather.Malesespeciallywillformaggregationsaroundcertainareascalled“loafingsites.”Intheearlymorningandafterrains,individualsfrequentlywanderacrossroadswhere

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manyarekilledbycars.Boxturtleseatavarietyofplantsandsmallanimalsespeciallyterrestrialgastropods(landsnails),andslugs.Severalkindsofpoisonousmushroomsareincludedintheirdiet,andcasesofsecondarypoisoningareknowninsomepersonswhohaveeatenthesereptiles.ZooarchaeologicalremainsoftheboxturtleinprehistoricIndiansettlementsitesthroughoutTennesseeshowittohavebeenanimportantelementinthedietofTennessee’searlysettlers.Motifsinpottery,artisticdesigninshellworkandsymbolicuseoftheturtleasareligiousentityshowtheboxturtlewasheldinhighesteembysomegroupsofNativeAmericans. BoxturtlesbecomeactivesoonafterthelastkillingfrostusuallybetweenthelateMarchandlateApril,dependingonthephysiographicregionofthestate.Theturtlesenteroverwinteringretreatsshortlyafterthefirstkillingfrostofautumn,frommid-SeptembertoearlyNovember.Theturtle’sinabilitytodigdeepenoughintotheleaflitterandsoilduringcoldwinterweathermaycauseahighincidenceofwintermortality.Althoughverysmallturtlesprobablymakeupasizableportionofapopulation,theirsecretivenesscausesthemtoseemscarce. Dailyactivitybeginswithaperiodfeedingfollowedbybaskinginthesuninanopenarea.Inwarmweather,boxturtleswillcrawlintoaclumpofdensegrassordeadleavesandrest.Earlyeveningactivityusuallyconsistsofsearchingforasuitableretreatforthenight.Homerangesforadultswillvaryfrom2-5acres. CourtshipandmatingoccursfromlateApriluntillateJuneorearlyJulybutmaybeobservedinlatesummer.Amaleboxturtlecourtsafemalebystandingafewinchesfromherholdinghisheadhighandpulsatinghisorangecoloredthroat.Whenthefemalemovesclosertohim,hebeginstostimulateherbymountinghershellwhilehescratcheswithallfourlegs.Hemaynipattheforwardpartofhershell,thenmovebackwardandresthiscarapaceontheground,atwhichtimebreedingtakesplace. InTennesseemostegglayingprobablytakesplacefrommid-MaytoearlyJuly.Afemalewillselectanelevatedopenpatchofloosesoilorsandanddiga3-4inchholewithherhindlegs.Thisusuallybeginsatduskandtheeggsarelaidatnight.Fromthreetoeightelongatedwhiteeggsmaybelaidbyafemale.Theeggsare13/16to19/16inchesinlength.Thebabyturtlewillhatchinabout3monthsbuteggslaidinlatesummerwillnothatchuntilthefollowingspring.Ahatchlingwillhaveacarapacelengthof13/16to1¼inches.Hatchlingboxturtleshaveaflattercarapacecomparedtoadultsandadistinctdorsalridge.Youngboxturtlesareunabletoclosetheirplastrontoprotectthemselves. Femaleboxturtleshavetheabilitytostoreviablespermandproducefertilizedeggsuptofouryearsaftermating. Boxturtlesandyoungarepreyeduponbyskunks,foxes,raccoons,opossums,andwildturkeys.Theprimarycausesofdeathofadultsareextremecoldandman.Thousandsofthesereptilesarekilledannually,someintentionally,whilecrossingroadsandhighways. ThepettortoisemarkethasvirtuallydriedupforcollectorsinEuropeandAsia,analternativeisthisomnivorousquietpetfromNorthAmerica.Indiancraftrattles,bowls,jewelryaswellas“tortoise”inlayingunstocksarebeingmadeandsoldfromthecarapaceofthese

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nativereptiles.BecauseofthesethreatstheEasternBoxTurtleislistedasaSpeciesofGreatestConservationNeedbytheTennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency.

PondSlider--Trachemysscripta Thepondslider,onceknownasthered-earedslider,isamedium-sizeturtlewithapatchofredoneachsideofthehead.Thecarapaceisolive-brownwithanumberofblackandyellowlines.Plastronisyellowwitheachscutenormallyhavingalargedarkbrownorblackblotch.Exposedskinisdarkgreenwithnarrowblackandyellowlines.Awideredororangestripeispresentoneachsideoftheheadbehindtheeye.Oldspecimenssometimeshaveanexcessofblackpigmentwhichobscuresmostoftheyellowstripesontheskinandshell,includingtheredstripebehindtheeye.Thisconditionisknownas“melanism”andisassociatedwitholdmales.Adultpondslidersrangeincarapacelengthfrom5-8inches.Adultmaleshavetheelongatedforeclawsasinmanyspeciesofbaskingturtles. ThisturtlebecomesactiveinMarch,whentheairtemperaturereaches50degreesFahrenheitorhigherandremainsactiveuntilmid-October.Foragingtakesplaceinearlymorningandlateafternoon.Onsunnydays,baskinginthesunonlogsorotherobjectsprojectingfromthewaterbeginsinmidmorningandgenerallylastsuntilmid-afternoon.Atnight,thesesliderswillsleepwhilerestingonthebottomorfloatingonthesurface.Bothaquaticplantsandanimalsareeaten. Theseslidersinhabitalmostanyrelativelyquiet,permanentbodyofwaterhavingamudbottomandabundantaquaticvegetation.Theywillbaskinaggregationsometimesstackingoneontopoftheother. Courtshipandmatingtakeplacebetweenmid-Marchandmid-June.Thecourtshipritualissimilartothatofthepaintedturtle.Femalesreadytolaytheireggsleavethewaterandsearchforasuitableegg-layingsite.Aclutchof4-20eggsarelaidperfemalebetweenAprilandmid-July.Somefemalesmaylaymorethanoneclutchduringaseason.Theeggsareovalwithawhite,granularshell,theyaverageabout11/3inchesinlength.Hatchingusuallytakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyautumnbutyoungturtlesmayoccasionallyoverwinterintheeggandhatchthefollowingspring.Newlyhatchedyoungaverageabout1½inchesinlength. Formanyyearspondslidersweresoldin“dimestores”forpets.Itwasnotuntil1970thatthispettradeceasedduetothepossibleSalmonellacontaminationwhichcouldbetransmittedtochildrenbyhandlingtheturtlesorthewaterinwhichtheywerekept.Literallymillionsofbabypondsliderseitherdiedduetolackofcareorweretakentothenearestbodyofwaterandreleasedwhentheywerenolongerwantedorbecamesick.QuestionsaboutgeneticmixingfromimportedturtlesaswellasrangeextensionofthisspeciesinTennesseehavenotbeenanswered.

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FamilyKinosternidae--MudandMuskTurtles

EasternMudTurtle--Kinosternumsubrubrum Thissmallturtleaveraging3-5inchesisappropriatelynamed,reflectingbothitscoloranditshabitat.ItdiffersfromtheEasternMuskTurtlebylackingstripesontheheadandthepectoralscutesmeetonlynarrowlyonthemidlineoftheplastron,whichishingedbothbeforeandaftertheabdominalscutes. Exceptforfastflowingstreams,mudturtlescanbefoundinmostaquatichabitats.Mudturtlesusuallyhidebydayandforageunderwateratnight.Insects,mollusks,carrion,andvegetationarethemajordietaryitems.Theseturtlesemergefromhibernationinearlytomid-Aprilandstayactiveuntilmid-October.Duringwarmermonthstheycanbeseenprowlingalongthebottomofcreeks,ditches,ponds,andlakes.Ifthehabitatdriesup,theturtlesmaymoveoverlandtoapermanentbodyofwaterorburrowintothemudandaestivate.Theyarefrequentlyseencrossingroadsmanyarekilleddoingso.Somemudturtlesaremildtemperedwhileothersarefeistyanddononothesitatetobite. Adultsbecomesexuallymatureat5-7yearsofage.Breedingtakesplacefrommid-ApriltoMay,sometimesaslateasOctober(multipleclutchesarepossible).Thefemaledigsanestinsoftsoilnearthewateranddeposits3-5ellipticaleggs.Hatchingoccursinabout100dayslaterbuttheyoungmayremainnestbounduntilthenextspring. Occasionallyfishermenwillcatchoneofthesesmallturtlesonhookandlinewhenusingminnows,worms,orcrayfishforbait.Duetotheirsmallsizethisturtleisprobablynevertakenforfoodbypeople.

StripeneckMuskTurtle--Sternotherusminor Thissmallturtleaverages3-4½inchesincarapacelength.Ithasdarkstripesontheheadandneck,arelativelyhighbrownorgraycarapacewithdarkmarkingsandayellowish,usuallyunspottedplastron.Thecarapaceofjuvenilesusuallybearsadistinctmid-dorsalkeelandtraces ofanadditionalkeeloneachside.Adultstypicallylackcarapacekeels.Therearetwobarbelsonthechinbutnoneonthethroat.TheEasternMudTurtleissimilarbutlackstheprominentwhitestripesontheheadandbarbelsonboththeheadandthroat. StripeneckMuskTurtlesarehighlyaquatic.Theypreferrivers,streams,andspringfedcreekswithmuddybottomsnearsubmergedlogsorotherobjects.InTennessee,theyarefoundfromtheCumberlandPlateaueastward. Thisactiveturtleisdiurnalandforagesmainlyduringthemorninghours.Theycanbefrequentlyseencrawlingalongthebottomamongrockssubmergedlogsandvegetation.Juvenilesfeedprimarilyoninsects,adultsareomnivorousbutpreferaquaticinsectsandsnails. Thenaturalhistoryofthisspeciesispoorlyknown.Itisthoughttolay1-4clutchesof2-3ellipticaleggsthataverage11/8inchinlength.Theydeposittheireggsinamoundabout5incheshighalongaspringrun.Theeggswhenfirstlaidhavebrittleporcelain-likeshellsandare

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translucentpink.Astheembryodevelopmentcontinuestheeggsturnopaquewhite.Incubationtakesabout13-16weeks. AswiththeEasternMudTurtle,thesesmallturtlesareoccasionallycaughtbyfishermenusingnaturalbait.Becauseoftheirpugnaciousattitudeandabilitytoexpelmusk,peoplearequicktoreleasethemfromtheirlinesandtheyarenotconsideredtablefare.

EasternMuskTurtle--Sternotherusodoratus OthernamesforthisturtleareStinkpot,StinkingJimandMuskTurtle.Thisdrablittleturtlehasanaveragecarapacelengthof3-5½inches.Thisturtleisnotedforitsmuskyodor,awarningtopredators.Whendisturbeditsecretesafoulsmelling,yellowishfluidfrom2pairsofmuskglandsundertheborderofthecarapace. Itsheadbearstwopairsofbarbelsonthechinandthroatandalightlineabovetheeyeandanotherbelowtheeye.Theselinesmaybeobscureorlostinoldmales.Theplastronissmallandthesuturebetweenthehumeralscutes(anteriorpair)isaboutaslongasthatbetweenthepectorals(secondpair).IntheMudTurtle,thepectoralsutureismuchshorterandthepectoralsaretriangular.IntheStinkpot,onlytheanteriorlobeoftheplastronishinged. Adultmalescanbedistinguishedfromfemalesbylonger,thickertailsendinginsmall,claw-likeprojectionsandbythepresenceofbroadfleshyareasalongthecenteroftheplastron. Thisturtleisfoundstatewide,inhabitingpermanentbodiesofwater,includingshallowmarginsofreservoirs,largeriversandsmallerfastflowingstreams.Highlyaquatic,stinkpotsrarelyleavethewaterbuttheywilloccasionallyclimbtreestobask.Inearlyspringitlikestobaskinshallowsoramidfloatingvegetationwiththecenterofitscarapaceexposedtothesun. TheactiveseasonfortheStinkpotprobablylastsfromMarchtoNovemberandtheyaremostactiveduringearlymorningandlateevening.Thefoodforthisspeciesincludesaquaticinsects,earthworms,crayfish,fisheggs,minnows,tadpoles,algaeanddeadanimals. CourtshipandmatingprobablytakeplacefromlateAprilthroughJune.EggsarelaidinlateJunethroughAugust.From2-5eggsarelaidperfemales.Theeggsarewhiteandellipticalaveragingaboutaninchlong.Theyhaveathickbrittleshell.Ittakestwotothreemonthsfortheeggstohatch.Athatchingtheyoungturtlesaveragelessthananinchlong. Thisturtleisalsocaughtbyanglersusingnaturalbait.Theseturtlesareaggressiveandbitereadily.Stinkpots’longneckscanbringitsjawsbackasfarasitshindlimbs.Duetoitbeingcalled“StinkingJim”itisdoubtfulthattheseguysendupinaskilletorpotveryoften.

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FamilyTrionychidae--SoftshellTurtles

SmoothSoftshell--Apalonemutica Thisisaratherplain-lookingmemberofthesoftshellgroup.Thefrontofthecarapacelackssmallbumpsorspinesandtheoverallshellisquitesmooth.Thecarapacemaybeolive-grayorbrown;malesandyoungmayhavefaintmarkingsintheformofdotsanddashes.Adultfemales haveamottledcarapacewithblotchesofgrayoroliveorbrown.Theplastroniscreamcoloredandlacksanymarkingsbuttheunderlyingbonesareusuallyvisible.Uppersurfacesoftheneckandlimbsareoliveorgray.Theundersideiscreamorlightgray.Alightlineborderedbyblackextendsbackwardfromeacheyealongsidesofthehead.Adultmalesaresmaller,havealonger,thickertailandlongerforeclawsthanfemales.Femaleshavelongerhindclaws.Adultfemalesrangeincarapacelengthfrom7-14inches,males’carapacelengthabout5-7inches. ThishighlyaquaticandseldomseeninhabitantofriversandlargestreamsmayrangeovernearlytheentirestatebutitsoccurrenceinextremeeasternTennesseehasnotbeenwelldocumented.Thespeciesfavorsbodiesofwaterwithmud,silt,orsandbottoms. TheSmoothSoftshellisactivefromearlyApriltomid-October.Itismoreaquaticthanothersoftshellsanddoesnotbaskinthesunasoftenasotherturtles.IfaSmoothSoftshellemergestobask,itwillusuallydosoonasandbarormudflat.Theslightestdisturbancewillcauseittodashintothewaterforprotection.Softshellsactivelysearchforfoodduringthemorningandlateevening.Whenrestingtheywillburythemselvesinsandormudinshallowwaterwithonlytheheadexposed.Airistakeninbyprotrudingthetipofthesnorkel-likesnoutoutofthewater.Inthisway,theturtlesareinconspicuous.Theseturtlescanalsoremainsubmergedandcarryongaseousexchangesfromthewaterbypumpingwaterinandoutofthemouthandcloaca.Softshellsprotectthemselvesfromfreezingweatherbyburyingthemselvesinthemudatthebottomofriverpools. Thisspeciesisprimarilycarnivorous.Itfeedsonfish,crayfish,salamanders,tadpoles,frogs,snails,andaquaticinsects.Althoughnearlyanyspeciesoffishmaybepreyeduponbysoftshells,thereisnoevidencetoshowthattheyharmafishpopulationinnaturalwaters. SmoothSoftshellsbreedinAprilandMay.Autumnbreedinghasalsobeenreported.Femalesaresexuallymatureatacarapacelengthof7½inchesattheageof6-7years.Thesmallermalesmatureatacarapacelengthof42/3inches.Duringthebreedingseasonamalewillrapidlyswimafterafemalewithhisneckextended.Hewilloccasionallyprobetheundersideofhershellwithhishead.Ifthefemaleisreceptive,shewillbecomestillandthemalewillmountherfromabove. EgglayingtakesplacefromlateMaythroughJune.Thenumberofeggsproduceddependsonthesizeofthefemale.Ithasbeenreportedthatfemaleslayfrom4-33eggs,withanaverageclutchof18-22eggs.Afemalewillselectasandbarorriverislandonwhichtodighernest,alwaysindirectsunlight.Theeggsmaytakeupto2½monthstohatch.Hatchlingsaverageabout1¼to1¾inchesincarapacelength.Youngofthisspeciesareolivewithdistinctdotsandshortlinescoveringthecarapace.

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Thisturtleanditsrelative,theSpinySoftshell,arebothcaughtasgameanimalsinTennessee.TheeaseofcleaningtheseturtlescomparedtotheCommonSnappingTurtlemakes themarealfind.InrecentyearssoftshellshavebeenonthedeclineinMidwesternstates.Channelizationofrivers,siltationandwaterpollutioncontributetoadecliningpopulationofthefastswimming,riverdwellingreptiles.

SpinySoftshell--Apalonespinifera TheSpinySoftshellisamediumtolargeturtlewithadultfemalesrangeincarapacelengthfrom7-18inches.Adultmalesaresmallerandhavecarapacesthatrangefrom5-9¼inches.Theseareverydistinctiveturtleswithflat,pancake-likeshellswithflexiblemargins.Thecarapaceisgrayorolivewithmanydarkeyespotsalongthefrontarea.Thesemarkingsarefewertowardtherear.Theanteriorareaofthecarapacehasnumeroussmallspinesor“ocelli”whichimpartarough,sandpapersurfacetotheshell.Theplastronissmall,cruciformandleavesmuchofthesoftunderpartexposed.Thefeetarestronglystreakedandspotted.Theheadislongwithapointedsnoutandthenostrilshavealateralridgeextendingfromtheseptum.Thereisadark-borderedlightstripeoneachsideofthehead.Anotherlightstriperunsfromtheangleofthejawontotheneck. InTennessee,thisturtlerangesovertheentirestate.Itinhabitslargestreams,rivers,lakesandpondswithamuddy,sandyorgravelbottom.Softshellsarestrictlyaquaticandarefoundonlandonlywhendepositingeggs.Theyareequallyathomeinshallowordeepwaterandtheirexcellentswimmingabilitymakesthemdifficulttocatch.Theymayoccasionallybefoundbaskingonlogsbuttheyprefertofloatonthesurfaceoflargebodiesofwater. TheSpinySoftshellisactivebetweenMarchandOctober.Dailyactivityincludesforagingforfoodinearlymorning,baskinginthesunonlogsoralongthebank,andrestinginshallowwaterwiththeshellcoveredwithmudorsandandonlytheirsnorkel-likesnoutstuckabovethesurface.Thereisashortperiodoffeedingtimeduringtheeveningthatmayextendintothenight.Spinysoftshellshaveahabitoffloatingnearthesurfaceofdeepwaterbutwilldivequicklywiththeslightestdisturbance. Theyaredifficultanimalstoholdbecauseoftheirshorttailsandlongclawswhichcanproducedeepscratches.Theirlongneckscanbeextendedsuddenlyandtheirsharpjawscaninflictapainfulwound.Theyareilltemperedandwilltrytobiteifcaptured. Toescapethecoldtemperaturesofwinter,thisspecieswilldigtwotofourinchesinthemudatthebottomofariverorlake.AdultsemergefromhibernationinMarchorApril.Matingoccursshortlyafteremergence.CourtshipbehaviorisprobablysimilartotheSmoothSoftshell.MaleSpinySoftshellsbecomesexuallymatureatacarapacelengthoffrom35/8–4inches.Femalesareprobablymaturewhentheircarapacereaches71/8to77/8inches. EggsarelaidfromlateMaytoJuly.Agravidfemalewillselectasandorgravelbarorasandyopeningnearwatertonest.From4-32round,whiteeggsmaybelaid,depositedinthebottomofaholeandcoveredwithsoil.Thisprocessisrepeateduntiltheclutchiscompleteandthecavityfilled.Thefemalepacksthesoildownandreentersthewater.Hatchingoccurs

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lateAugusttoOctoberbuthatchlingsmayremaininthenestuntilthefollowingspring.Theyoungturtlesareabout11/3inchesincarapacelengthathatching. SpinySoftshellsaremostlycarnivorous,eatinginsectadultsandlarvae,crayfish,worms,snails,fish,tadpolesandsalamanders.Somefoodstudieshaveshownthatafairamountofplantmaterialisconsumedintentionallyorincidentally. Thefleshofsoftshellsishighlyesteemedandaturtlehunterwillcatchthemby“noodling”or“grabbling”—creepingalongthebankandrunningtheirhandandarmupintotheundersideofthebankintoacreviceormuskratburrowhopingtograsptheturtlefrombehind.Thismethodisalsousedtocatchcatfishincertainpartsofthestate.

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IVandV.Reptiles,LizardsofTennessee

ThisportionofthecurriculumhasbeentakenfromAmphibiansandReptilesofTennesseeapublicationpreparedanddistributedbytheTennesseeGameandFishCommissioninAugust1965.TheLizardsofTennesseewasareprintedarticlebyRalphSinclairfromTheTennesseeConservationistmagazine.TheTennesseeNaturalistProgramreceivedpermissionfromTheTennesseeConservationisttoreviseandusethisarticleforourcurriculum.

ThereisawidegapbetweentheKing’sPalaceandadustyroadside,agapwhichfewbeggarscancross.Yettheubiquitouslizardisfoundinbothandvirtuallyallplacesbetween.ThewisemanSolomonmentionsinProverbsthatthelizardtakesholdandisfoundeveninpalaces.Suchaplaceisabitpretentiousevenforalizard,butregardless,lizardsmanytimesmaytakeupabodenearmanandeveninhishome. Lizardsarefoundinlargecities,invacantlots,gardens,railroadright-of-ways,andmanyotherplacesincludingofcoursewoodsandfields.Theyareratherwellfittedfortheirenvironmentevenifatfirstitseemsoutofplaceforthem.Thebrickwallofthemodernhomesubstitutesverywellforalimestonecliff.Inthetropics,lizardsarequiteoftenfoundinhomes.MostofthesearethenocturnalGeckoswhichhavepadsontheirfeetenablingthemtoclingtosmoothsurfaces,evenupsidedown.GeckosarenativetopartsoftheSouthwestandFlorida.TropicalGeckoshaveaccidentallyfoundtheirwayintothiscountryandhavebecomewellestablishedinafewcoastalcitiesintheSouth. Tennesseeonlyhas9lizardspecieswhereasCaliforniahasover50.Contrarytopopularbelief,noneofournativelizardsarepoisonous.Infact,theonlypoisonouslizardfoundinthiscountryistheGilamonsterthatisfoundinthedesertsoftheSouthwest. Tennesseelizardsaremostlyterrestrial.SomespendmuchoftheirtimeintreesandsomeliketheGroundSkinkasitsnameimplies,livesintheleaflitteroftheforestfloor.AlthoughnearlyalllizardsaregoodswimmersnoneintheUnitedStatesareaquatic.Anoccasionallizardiscaughtbyabasswhentakingtowater.Otherenemies,besidesman,includecats,hawks,owls,snakesandevenlargerlizards.Theirbestdefenseagainstenemiesistheirblendingcolorationandspeedandagility.The“Chameleon”hereaftercalledAnole,canchangecolorfrombrowntogreen.However,theAnoledoesnotalwaysmatchabrownorgreenbackground.Otherfactorssuchastemperatureandexcitemententerintocolorchanges.Probablythemostinterestingdefensemechanismis“taildropping.”Mostlizardsareabletoseverthetailvoluntarilyoratleasttopartwithitwhenthetailistouched.Thebreakoccursatthemiddleofthevertebraeandasphincterautomaticallycutsoffflowofbloodfromthecaudalartery.Thetailboundsandwigglesaboutasif“alive.”Whiletheenemyisattractedtothetailtheownerhasescaped.Manyalizardowesitslonglifetothisabilitytodistractanenemy.Curiouslyenoughsomelizardshavebeenknowntodroptheirowntailandtheneatit.Thetailsoonbeginstoregenerate,thoughitwillnotgrowtobeaslongnorwillitbecoveredwiththesamesizeandcolorscalesastheoriginal. Generally,ourlizardsareinsectivorous.Somewesternlizardseatflowersaswellasother

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vegetablematter.Smallinsectsandmillipedesarechewedmomentarilyandthenswallowedentirely.Ifthepreyistoolargetobeswallowedentirely,thelizardmayshakeitvigorouslyorteatitintosmallpieces.Becauseofthetremendousnumberofinsectseaten,lizardsshouldbeconsideredbeneficial. AllTennesseelizardslayeggs.TheHornedLizardbearsitsyoungalive.Severallizardsstaywiththeireggs,coilingaboutthemandevenkeepingthemtogether.Theeggsareusuallylaidunderlogsorstones.Mostlayoneclutchofeggsayearduringthesummerandtheyhatchoutbyfall. Themostcommonreptilesandamphibianstobeconfusedarethesalamandersandlizards.Buddingherpetologistsjustneedtorememberthatthelizardswillhavescalesandclawsontheendsoftheirtoes,whereas,salamanderswillhavesmooth,moistskinwithnoscalesandnoclaws.

FamilyPolychridae(Anoles)

GreenAnole--Anoliscarolinensis TheGreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensis)isfoundonlyinthesouthernpartoftheState.Thisisthelizardoncesoldinpetshopsandcarnivalsbythename“Chameleon.”Actually,theAnoleisnotaChameleon.TheGreenAnolewasoncethoughttobeveryrareinTennesseebutwearefindingitregularlyinHickmanCountyandplaceslikeBearHollowMountainandtheWallsofJerichoNaturalArea.Thislizardcanbegreenorbrown.ThetrueChameleonisfoundinpartsoftheOldWorld.Thelatterisapeculiarbeast.Besideschangingcolorithasaprehensiletailwhichitwrapsarounditsperch.Italsocanrotateeacheyeballindependentlyoftheother.The footisagraspingorganandshapedsomewhatlikeapairofpliersdividedintotwotoesononesideandthreeontheother.Inthepast,AnoleswerealsothoughttobeintheIguanafamily.

FamilyTeiidae(Whiptails)

Six-linedRacerunner--Aspidoscelissexlineata TheSix-linedRacerunnerisfoundinmanyhabitatsfromtheriverbottomsofWestTennesseetoanaltitudeof1200feetintheSmokyMountains.ItseemstopreferawelldrainedenvironmentandisquitecommoninthecedargladesofMiddleTennessee.Itisanassociatewiththerear-fangedsnake(Tantillacoronata).

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FamilyPhrynosomatidae(Earless,Spiny,Tree,Side-blotchedandHornedLizards)

EasternFenceLizard--Sceloporusundulates OncecalledtheFenceSwifttheEasternFenceLizardisfoundinallpartsofthestate.Itiseasilyidentifiedbytheroughscalescoveringitandbelongstoagroupoflizardscalledrough-scaledorspinylizards.Fencelizardsarebynomeansconfinedtorailfencesbutarefoundontreesandstonewallsaswellasontheground.Theyarefoundinwoodedareasandalsoinopenhabitats.NootherTennesseelizardshavesuchpronouncedsexuallydimorphism(malesandfemalescoloreddifferently).Botharebrownorgrayabovebutthemalehasintenseblueandblackflecks.Duringthematingseasonthemakestakesoutaparticularterritory.Upontheapproachofanothermaleheinflateshimselfandraisesonesidetoshowthebluecolor.Themalesarequiteaggressive,fightingwithoneanotherwhenonecomesintotheothers’territory.Inexperiments,whenthemale’scolorispaintedovertoresembleafemale,othermalesacceptitasafemale.

FamilyAnguidae(GlassLizardsandAlligatorLizards)

SlenderGlassLizard--Ophisaurusattenuatus TheGlassLizardsometimescalledthe“glasssnake”isactuallyaleglesslizard.Uponcloseexaminationitsmovableeyelidsandexternalearopeningsrevealittobealizardandnotasnake.Itisfairlyfragile,thelongtailbreakingoffeasily.Popularlegendhasitthat“thejointsnake”uponbeinghitbyastickwillbreakintopieces.Afterwardsthepieceswillseekeachotheroutandjointogetheragain.Asmuchashalfofthelizard’slengthcanbetail.Likealllizardsitwillregenerateanewtail,whichmayhavesomethingtodowiththeoriginofthistale.Glasslizardsareseldomfound.Thisisprobablyduetotheirsecretivenatureandnottotheirbeingrare.Theyoccasionallyarefoundinthecityinparksandyards.Theselizardsarepeculiartohavingalateralfolddowntheside.TheircloserelativesbelongingtothesamefamilyarefoundintheWesternUnitedStates.ThesearetheAlligatorLizards.AlligatorLizardshavethissamepeculiarfolddowneachside.However,theyhavefourlegs.GlassLizardsappeartobemuchlikesnakes.Theillusionstopsthereforsnakeshavemovableribswhichenablethemtomovetheirventralplates(bellyscales)inawellcoordinatedfashion.GlassLizardsdonothavethisarrangementandmustdependonmovingfromsidetosideinasnake-likefashion.Fromthisstandpointtheyareratherclumsy.Theyaremostlyinsectivorousbutalsoeatsmallsnakesandlizards.

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FamilyScincidae(Skinks)

TheskinksarethelargestgroupoflizardsfoundwithintheUnitedStates.Thisgroupmaybedistinguishedfromallothersbythepresenceofabsolutelysmooth,polishedscales;notgranularorroughasintheotherlegged-lizardsofTennessee.

LittleBrownSkink--Scincellalateralis TheLittleBrownSkinkuntilrecentlywascalledGroundSkink.Thisskinkisfoundstatewideinavarietyofhabitats,generallyinleaflitterontheforestfloor.Itisasmall(under4inches)brownlizardwhichrarelycomestotheattentionofanybutapersonfamiliarwiththeirhabits.Theyaresometimesfoundunderstonesbutarebestfoundbywalkingcarefullythroughthewoodslisteningintently.Whenstartledfromcovertheymakearustlingsoundthroughtheleaflitter.Itissurprisingsometimestohearthenoisethatoneofthesediminutivelizardscanmake.Iftheeyeissharpandthehandquick,theymaybeeasilylocatedandcaught.Adistinguishingfeaturethancanbeseeninthehandisthepresenceofalargesinglewindow-likescaleinthelowereyelid.ThislizardhasbeenfoundactiveinDecember,January,andearlyMarch.

CoalSkink--Plestiodonanthracinus TheCoalSkinkisrareinTennesseebeingfoundsofaronlyintheeasternmountainousarea.ItshouldbefoundinpartsofMiddleTennessee.Damphabitatsseemtobepreferredanditreadilytakestowatertoescapecapture.Itmaybedistinguishedfromothersmallskinksbythelightmid-dorsallinewhichifpresentdoesnotreachthehead.

CommonFive-linedSkink--PlestiodonfasciatusSoutheasternFive-linedSkink--PlestiodoninexpectatusBroad-headedSkink--Plestiodonlaticeps The“Blue-tailed”Skinksaredifficulttotellapartbythebeginner.Thisdifficultyarisesduetothefactthatallgothroughmuchthesamecolorpatternsfromyoungtoadult.Theyoungaregenerallyblackabovewithfiveyellowstripes(themiddleoneforkingtothehead)andthetailisbrightblue.Astheymaturetheylosethebrightcolorsandthestripesarelost.Themales haveabrightorangecoloronthesidesofthehead.Sincecolorisoflittlehelpintellingthese3speciesapart,scalecharacteristicsmustbereliedupon.Thiscanonlybedoneinthehand.Thesubcaudal(beneaththetail)scalesoftheFive-linedandBroad-headedSkinkhaveanenlargemiddlerowofscales.ThesubcaudalscalesoftheSoutheasternFive-linedSkinkareallaboutthesamesize.ToseparatetheFive-lineSkinkandtheBroad-headedSkinklookatthelabial(abovethelip)scales.Five-linedSkinkshave4labialscales.Broad-headedSkinkshave5labialscales.ThesecharacteristicscanbeseeninthePetersonFieldGuidebyRogerConantandJosephCollins(1991)onpages264and265.

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TheBroad-headedSkinkisthelargestofthe3,reachingnearlyafootinlength.Itisconsideredtobemoreofatreedwellerthantheother2.Thisskinkisfoundonstonewalls,trees,andevenhousewalls.Itisoccasionallyfoundwithitsheadstickingoutofanoldwoodpeckerhole.Becauseofitssizeandshapeandcolorofthehead,manybelieveittobepoisonous.Infactacommonnamebylocalpeopleisthename“Scorpion.”Skinkswillbiteifhandledbuttheskinisrarelybrokenbythebiteandthereisnopoison.Thebrightbluetailisalsoharmless.

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IVandV.Reptiles,SnakesofTennessee

ThisportionofthecurriculumhasbeentakenfromAmphibiansandReptilesofTennesseeapublicationpreparedanddistributedbytheTennesseeGameandFishCommissioninAugust1965.TennesseeSnakeswasareprintedarticlebyRalphSinclairfromTheTennesseeConservationistMagazine.TheTennesseeNaturalistProgramreceivedpermissionfromTheTennesseeConservationisttoreviseandusethisarticleforthiscurriculum.

Manypeoplerevoltateventhethoughtofsnakes.Becauseoflackofknowledgeaboutthesecreaturesmanyfalseideasaboutthemareearnestlybelieved.Peoplethatwouldnotthinkofgoingtothe“grannywoman”foraprescriptionstillbelieveallsortsofnonsenseaboutsnakes.Thosewhowillseekoutthetruefactsaboutsnakeswilllearnthatonlyaverysmallpercentageareactuallyvenomous(thesearenotoftenencountered)andthatsnakeshaveanimportantparttoplayinthecommunityoforganisms. Snakesareectothermic(coldblooded)limblessvertebrateslackingexternalearopeningsandeyelidsandcoveredwithscales.Theyaredefinitelynotslimy.Theymaybesmoothandpolished.Sincetheirtemperaturewillbeclosetothatofsurroundingobjects,theymaybecooltothetouch.BecauseoftheirbodyformtheyareveritableHoudinisevenescapingfromsnakeproofcages.Forthisreasonandthedangerinhandlingthem,venomoussnakesshouldnotbekeptbyamateurs.Thereisnoneedtoinvolveotherswithrisksyoumaybewillingtotakeyourself.Anyonewhohandlesvenomoussnakes,nomatterhowexpert,shouldrealizethattheriskofbeingbittenishigh,forseveralprofessionalherpetologistswithyearsofexperiencehavediedasaresultofhandlingvenomoussnakes.Theconsequencesofsuchabitearenevertobetakenlightly.Therearejustasmanyrewardsandmuchinformationtobegainedfromastudyofournativeharmlesssnakes,whichinvolvenorisks.

FamilyColubridae--ColubridSnakes

WaterandGarterSnakes PerhapsthemostcommonsnakesinTennesseebelongtothisgroup,thewatersnakes(Nerodia)andthegartersnakes(Thamnophis). Thewatersnakesaremoreaquaticthanthegarters.Springisthebesttimetolookforsnakesbutwatersnakesarefoundanytimeduringthewarmermonths.Largenumberscanbefoundturningoverstonesalongstreamsandponds.Theymayalsobefoundatnightbyusinga light.Watersnakesandgartersnakeslikemanyothersnakesarewellequippedwithmuskglands.Whendisturbedtheythrashaboutdischargingthismuskinlargeamounts.Thishabitmakesthemunpleasanttohandle.Watersnakesalsohavesharpteethwhichtheyusetogoodadvantage.

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TherearefivespeciesofNerodiainTennessee.ThemostubiquitousisperhapstheNorthernWatersnake(N.sipedon).Itisfoundinnearlyeverypartofthestate.Ithasdarkcrossbandsontheneckandthesebecomealternatingblotchesfurtherback.TheMississippiGreenWatersnake(N.cyclopean)isdarklycoloredwithlittleindicationofpatternandlightspotsorhalf-moonsonadarkbelly.N.cyclopeanisonlyfoundinNorthwestTennessee.TheDiamond-backedWatersnake(N.rhombifer)hasadarkchainlikepatternabovewithalightbellymarkedwithspotsofhalf-moons.N.rhombiferisfoundinthewesternhalfofthestate.ThePlain-belliedWatersnake(N.erythrogaster)isdarklycoloredabovewithnomarkingonthebelly.Thereare2subspeciesofN.erythrogaster,theCopperbellyWatersnakewithacopperish,orangish-pinkbellyandtheYellowbellyWatersnakewithasyoucanguessayellowbelly.Theyoungofthesesnakeshavedarkblotchesandbandsabove. Thewatersnakes(Nerodia)aregenerallyknownas“watermoccasins”whereastheWesternCottonmouth,avenomouspitviper,isreferredtoasthe“cottonmouthwatermoccasin.”Thesenamesareoflittlesignificanceandconfusepeople.Especiallyfearedisthecreaturecalledthe“stumptailedmoccasin.”Thismaybenothingmorethanoneofourcommonharmlesswatersnakeswithaportionoftailmissing.Theseareoftenfoundandareonlysnakesthathavebeendeprivedofapartoftheirtailbysometurtle,heron,orotherpredator.CertainlyanyonewhoisincottonmouthterritoryshouldlearntotelltheharmlessNerodiafromtheformer.Mostofthewatersnakeshaveahabitofsunningintreesandbushesoverhangingthewater(cottonmouthsmayalsodothis),anddroppinginwithasplashwhendisturbed.Thoughmuchoftheirfoodisfish,theydonotharmfishpopulations. Gartersnakesaregenerallyfoundclosetowaterandmaytakerefugeinitwhenalarmed.TheyarenotascloselyrestrictedtowaterastheNerodiahowever.TheCommonGarterSnake(Thamnophissirtalis),EasternRibbonSnake(Thamnophissauritus)andWesternRibbonSnake(Thamnophisproximus)havethreestripes.Usuallythestripesarelightcolored.Theyarehighlyvariableincolorandpattern.Comparedtotheribbon,thegartersnakeisheavybodied.Ribbonsnakeshaveamuchlongerandmoreslendertailwhichis¼to1/3ofthetotallength.Gartersnakesarefoundstatewide. AccordingtotheAtlasofReptilesinTennessee(http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/frames_file.htm),WesternRibbonSnakesarelimitedtofourcountiesintheextremewesternpartofthestate.TheEasternRibbonSnakeisknownfromWestTennesseeandfromseveralcountiesontheHighlandRiminsouthernandwesternMiddleTennessee. AllofthesnakesinthegeneraNerodiaandThamnophisareovoviviparous.Ovoviviparousmeansthattheyoungarebornalivebutthereisnoplacentalconnectionandtheunbornyoungarenourishedbyeggyolk.Commongartersnakes(Thamnophissirtalis)howeverareknowntoprovidealotofnutritiontotheirembryosanddisposeofembryonicwastesmakingthematleastviviparous-like.Viviparousbeinglivebirthwiththeoffspringnourishedviaaplacenta.

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GroundSnakes Becauseoftheirsecretivehabits,groundsnakesareseldomnoticedbytheaverageperson.Theymaybefoundundercoversuchaslogsandstones.Mostareburrowersandarewellmadeforthispurpose.Practicallyallsnakesinthisgroup,withtheexceptionoftheMudSnake,areusuallyunderafootinlengthandareratherinoffensive,notattemptingtobite.OfthisgrouptheBrownSnakesandEarthSnakesareovoviviparous.Therestareoviparous(femalelayseggs). TheMudSnake(Faranciaabacura)isourlargestburrowerandmayreachalengthoffivefeet.Itisalsocalledthe“hoopsnake”or“stingingsnake.”Itneitherrollsnorstings.Looselycoiledspecimensmayhavegivenrisetothehoopmyth.Asforthesting,thissnakeandanotherburrower,theWormSnake(Carphophisamoenus)haveasharpterminalscalewhichtheypressagainstoneshandwhenheld.Thisisnotstrongenoughtobreaktheskinandthespineisnotvenomous.TheWormSnakeisfoundstatewide,generallyinwoodedareasunderstonesandlogs.BothMudSnakesandWormSnakesaredarkabovewithapinkorredbelly.However,theMudSnakeismuchlargerthantheWormSnake. TheBrownSnake(Storeriadekayi)andtheRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculata)asthenamesimpliesaredarkabove.Theyarebothfoundstatewide.S.dekayiisplainbelow.Aboveithasapatternofdarknarrowcrosslines.TheRed-belliedSnakehaslightspotsatthebackoftheheadandaplainredbelly.Red-belliedSnakesarenotfoundasoftenasBrownSnakes. TheEarthSnakes(VirginiavaleriaeandV.striatula)aredarkabovewithplainlightcoloredbellies.TheSmoothEarthSnakehasbeenfoundacrossTennessee.TheRoughEarthSnake(striatula)isknownonlyfromafewcountiesinsouthwesternTennessee,withmostrecordscomingfromthemetropolitanMemphisarea. TheRing-neckedSnake(Diadophuspunctatus)iseasilyidentifiedbyitscolorandpattern–darkabove,yellowororangebelow,usuallywithblackdotswhichmayformrowsandaringaroundtheneckwhichmaybebroken.Whenfirsthandledtheysecreteandunpleasantmusk.Thesesnakeseagerlyeatwormsandsalamanders. TheCrownedSnake(Tantillacoronata)isarear-fangedsnake.Ithasgroovedfangsattherearoftheupperjaw,butawelldevelopedvenomsystemisabsent.Insomelocalitiesitisquiteabundant.Itiseasytoidentifybyitspattern–ablackheadcap,followedbyalightcollarattherearofthehead,andablackneckring.

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Racers,King,Bull,Rat,Green,HognosedandScarletSnakes Theseareourlargerlandsnakes.Somemayclimbtreesinsearchofnestlingbirdsoreggs.The“racers”haveabadreputationforchasinghelplesshumans.Whenthechasingisdone,itis alwaystheherpetologistchasingdownthepoorracerifhehopestocaptureit.Theseareourmostdefensivesnakesandifcorneredwillgenerallylungeforwardstrikingviciously.Thisseemstobethecaseparticularlyinearlyspringduringthematingseason. TheBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictor)isnotaconstrictor.Therat,king,andpinesnakesare.TheBlackRacerisalustroussatinyblackorblue-blackabovewithaslateorbluishbellyandawhitechinorthroat.Thesesatiny,flatscalesarecalledsmoothscales.Snakescalesareeithersmoothorkeeled.Keeledscaleshavearaisedridgeinthecenterofthescale.Smoothscalesdonot.TheCoachwhip(Coluberflagellum)isnotnearlyascommonastheracer.Thissnakeiseasytoidentifybecauseoftheuniquecolorpattern.Theyareblackordarkanteriorlybecominglightbrowntowardthetail. Kingsnakesareimmunetothevenomofournativepitvipers.Theirdietisnotconfinedtothesevenomoussnakesasismistakenlybelieved.Anysnakes,venomousornot,evenanotherkingsnakeisanopportunityforanothermeal.Thefactthatthevictimismuchlargermattersnot.Snakesareanimportantitemintheirdietbutsoareotheranimalssuchasrodents.TheCommonKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulus)isblackabovewithyellowspecksandyellowbelowwithblackmarkings.Theanalplateissingle.TheanalplateofBlackRacersisdivided. OthermemberofthegenusLampropeltisaretheMilksnakes.Thesearebeautifulsnakes.TheScarletKingsnake(Lampropeltistriangulumelapsoides)isremarkablysimilartotheCoralSnake,whichisnotfoundinTennessee.Thereareeasy-to-seedifferencesthough.TheScarletKingsnakehasaredsnout.TheCoralSnakehasablacksnout.AlsotheScarletKingsnake’sredringsareseparatedfromtheyellowbyblack.TheredandyellowringstouchontheCoralSnake.Asthesaygoes,“Redonyellow,killsafellow;redonblack,friendofJack.”TheEasternMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumtriangulum)andtheRedMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumsyspila)whenyoungaremarkedwithredsaddles.Withagetheseturntobrownintheeastern,whiletheredretainsthesamecolor. Forhelpingtocontrolrodentsaroundbarnsanddwellings,themilksnakeisusuallykilled.Toaddinsulttoinjury,itisrumoredthatthesnakehascometothebarntostealmilkfromthefarmer’scows.Whenpeopletell(inallsincerity)suchoutlandishtales,itisdifficulttokeepastraightface. ThePrairieKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligastercalligaster)andtheMoleKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligasterrhombomaculata)aremuchalikewhenyoung,beingspottedabove.Theprairieretainsthiswell-markedpatternofblotchesandthemolebecomesdarker. ThePineSnake(Pituophismelanoleucus)canputonashowwhenencountered.Itstrikesvigorously,vibratesitstailandmakesaloudhissingsoundbyexpellingair(thisapparentlyvibratestheepiglottis).Itisoftencalledagoosesnakeorbullsnakeduetothisloudnoise. TheRedCornsnake(Pantherophisguttata)hasredororangeblotchesabove.AnothernameforP.guttataisredratsnakebecausetheyareintheratsnakegenusPantherophis.Unlikeourotherratsnakes,theundersurfaceofthecornsnake’stailisstriped.Cornsnakesarenotas

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commoninthewildasGrayRatsnakes(Pantherophisspiloides).GrayRatsnakesareoftencalledchickensnakes.Thesesnakesareamongthemostwellknownbytheruraldweller,andinallfairnesstheydohaveanappetiteforchickeneggs.However,theydofarmoregoodthanillbecauseofthenumberofratsandmicethattheyconsume.Ratsnakesareveryadeptatclimbing,evengoingupsmoothbarkedtreesoflargediameter.Thesesnakesdischargelargeamountsofmuskifhandled. TheRoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivus)haskeeledscalesandspendsmuchtimeintreesandshrubs.Thesesnakesaregreenaboveandlightbelow.Thisisaverycommonsnakebutitisrarelyseenbecauseitblendssowellwithitssurroundings.Greensnakesareveryslenderandifseenlooklikeavineclimbinginthefoliage.ThescientificnameOpheodrysaestivusmeansaestivus–summer,drys–tree,opheo–snake;summertreesnake. TheHognoseSnake(Heterodonplatirinos)iscommonlyreferredtoasa“puffadder,”“spreadingadder”or“blowviper.”Whenencountereditflattensitsheadandneck,inflatesitsbodyreleasingitwithaloudhissandstriking.Thisispurebluff,foriffurtherdisturbeditwillrolloveronitsbackandplay‘possum.Anyattempttorightitwillonlyresultinthesnakevigorouslyrollingoveronitsbackagain.Itevenhangsoutitstonguegettingitdirty.Manyalarmedbythefirstact,seldomstayforthesecondactwhichhumorouslyshowsupitsshambehavior.Thenamehognoseisderivedfromthemhavinganupturnedsnout.Thispig-likesnoutisusedtorootuptheirnaturalprey–toads. Hognosesnakesarerear-fangedandpossessmildvenomthatenablesthemtoovercometoadstoswallowthem.Therearfangsbothdeflatethetoadanddeliverthevenom.Theirvenomisnotknowntobetoxictohumans,andinfacthognosesnakeshavemilddispositionsandrarely,ifever,offertobitetheircaptors.Mostarebrightlypatternedabovebutoccasionallyasolidblackindividualisfound. TheScarletsnake(Cemophoracoccinea)iscoloredsomewhatlikeScarletKingsnake.Itissecretiveandseldomseen.

FamilyViperidae

PitVipers TwospeciesofAgkistrodonarefoundinTennessee,theCopperhead(A.contortrix)andtheCottonmouth(A.piscivorus).Thesetwospeciesaresimilarlypatternedwhenyoung.Theybothhaveabrightyellowtailtheirfirstyear.TheCottonmouthgenerallylosesthispatternwithmaturityandsomearecompletelydarkabove.TheCottonmouthisthoroughlyaquaticandasthenameimpliesitisafisheater.AstudybyRogerBarbourinKentuckyshowedthatalargeiteminitsdietwasthesiren(atwo-leggedsalamander).Otheritemssuchasfishandfrogswerealsotaken.AsthenameCottonmouthsuggests,thisspecieshasacottonywhitemouththatisseenwhenthesnakeis“gaping”apolitewarningtopassersby.

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Copperheadsareopportunisticwhenitcomestofood,eatingwhateverseemstobemostabundantsuchasfrogs,mice,andevencicadas.Thissnakehaschestnutbrowndorsalmarkings thatformhourglassshapesdownitsbody.Thispatterniswideonthesnake’ssidesandnarrowinthemiddle.ManyNorthernWatersnakesareconfusedwithCopperheads.NorthernWatersnakeshavebrownsaddlemarksdowntheirback.Theseblotchesarenarrowonthesidesandwideinthecenter.Thisformsasaddleshapecompletewithstirrupsandseat.Copperheadsofcoursehaveacoppery-redhead. ThePygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmilearius)isquitesmall,seldomreachingtwofeet.Itsdiminutiverattlemakesabuzzmorelikethatofaninsectthananangryrattler.ThePygmyRattlesnakeoccursinscatteredlocalitiesontheWesternHighlandRim.ItisrareandisaThreatenedSpeciesinTennessee. TheTimberRattlesnake(Crotalushorridus)occursstatewide,persistingonlyinareaswherehumanoccupationanddisturbanceareminimal.TheTimberRattlesnakeislistedasaSpeciesofGreatestConservationNeedduetopersecutionbyhumans. Mostyoungareborninthefalloftheyearandenterhibernationwiththeirparents.Allpitvipersareovoviviparous.Theyoungarebornalive.Thisshouldbeacomforttohomeownerswhofindsnakeeggsintheiryard.InTennessee,allsnakeeggsbelongtoharmless,non-venomoussnakes.Hereareotherwaystodistinguishbetweenvenomousandnon-venomoussnakes.

Venomous Non-venomous

Haveverticalorellipticalpupils Pupilsareround

Haveapitorholebetweentheeyeandnostril

Nopitbetweeneyeandnostril

Bodyshapeincludeslargehead,narrowneckandchunkybody

Bodyshapelong,slender,withnodistinctiveneck

Rattlesnakeshaverattle Norattlebutmanyharmlesssnakeswillshaketheirtailwhenalarmed

Venomoussnakeshavefangs Haverowsofteeth

Bitewouldresultin2puncturemarks Bitelookslikecurvedrowofteeth(horseshoeorupsidedownU)

1rowofsubcaudal(beneaththetail)scales 2rowsofsubcaudalscales

Thislastcharacteristicisimportantwhenexaminingashedsnakeskin.InTennessee,acarefullookatthescalesbeneaththetailwillrevealwhetherthesnakethatshedtheskinwas

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venomousornot.Thiscanbecomfortingtothehomeownerthatfindsafive-footshedskinintheirgarage. Here’sanothercomfortingthought,Tennesseehas32speciesofsnakesonlyfourofthesearevenomous.Oneofthosevenomoussnakesisthreatenedandisthereforeveryrarewithalimitedrange.TheWesternCottonmouthisknowntoonlyoccurinthewesternhalfofthestateonlyrangingasfareastasCheathamCounty.So,MiddleTennesseeeastwardonlyhastwospeciesofvenomoussnakes,theCopperheadandRattlesnake.TheCopperheadistheleastvenomousofourvenomoussnakesandpeopleoftenrecoverfrombitesevenwithoutmedicalattention. Toavoidbeingbittenbyavenomoussnakealwaysbeabletoseewhereyouareplacingyourhandsandfeet.Ifyouarebitten,staycalmandgettoahospitalassoonaspossible.Ifyouaregivenmedicaltreatmentwithinacoupleofhoursyoushouldexperienceafullrecoveryunlessthereareconfoundingcircumstances,i.e.heartcondition,diabetes.

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VII.Resources

Publications

Altig,R.1967.FoodoftheSirenintermedianettingiinaspring-fedswampinSouthernIllinois.AmericanMidlandNaturalist77(1):239-241.

Bishop,S.C.1943.Handbookofsalamanders:thesalamandersoftheUnitedStates,ofCanada,andoftheLowerCalifornia.ComstockPubl.Co.,Ithaca,NewYork.Pp.555.

Buhlman,Kurt,TraceyTubervilleandWhitGibbons.2008.TurtlesoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.252.

Conant,RogerandJosephT.Collins.1991.ReptilesandAmphibiansofEastern/CentralNorthAmerica,PetersonFieldGuides.HoughtonMifflinCo.,NewYork,Boston.Pp.616.

Dorcas,MikeandWhitGibbons.2008.FrogsandToadsoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.238.

Elliott,Lang,CarlGerhardtandCarlosDavidson.2009.TheFrogsandToadsofNorthAmerica,AComprehensiveGuidetoTheirIdentification,BehaviorandCalls.HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,NewYorkandBoston.Pp.343.

Fauth,J.E.andW.J.Resetarits.1991.InteractionsbetweenthesalamanderSirenintermediaandthekeystonepredatorNotophthalmusviridescens.Ecology.72(3):827.

Gehlbach,F.R.andB.Walker.1970.Acousticbehavioroftheaquaticsalamander,Sirenintermedia.Bio.Science.20:1107-1108.

Gentry,Glenn(Editor).1965.AmphibiansandReptilesofTennessee.TennesseeGameandFishCommission.Pp.28.

Gibbons,Whit,JudyGreeneandTonyMills.2009.LizardsandCrocodiliansoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.235.

Gibbons,WhitandMikeDorcas.2005.SnakesoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.253.

Goin,C.J.,O.B.GoinandG.Zug.1978.IntroductiontoHerpetology.3rdEdition.W.H.FreemanandCo.,SanFrancisco.Pp.378.

Green,N.B.andT.K.Pauley.1987.AmphibiansandReptilesofWestVirginia.UniversityofPittsburgPress,Pittsburg.

Green,N.B.,P.BrantJuniorandB.Dowler.1967.EurycealucifugainWestVirginia,itsdistribution,ecologyandlifehistory.Proc.W.VirginiaAcad.Sci.39:297-304.

Hillis,R.E.andE.D.Bellis.1971.Someaspectsoftheecologyofthehellbender,CryptobranchusalleghaniensisinaPennsylvaniastream.J.Herpetology5:121-126.

Hutchison,V.H.1958.Thedistributionandecologyofthecavesalamander,Eurycealucifuga.EcologyMonogram28:1-20.

Johnson,T.R.1987.TheAmphibiansandReptilesofMissouri.MissouriDept.ofConservation,JeffersonCity.Pp.368.

Martof,B.S.1973.Sirenintermedia.CatalogueofAmericanAmphibiansandReptiles.127.1-127.3.

Martof,B.,W.MPalmer,J.R.BaileyandJ.R.Harrison.1980.AmphibiansandReptilesoftheCarolinasandVirginia.UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,ChapelHill.

Mitchell,JoeandWhitGibbons.2010.SalamandersoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.324.

Niemiller,Matthewl.andB.GrahamReynolds.2011.TheAmphibiansofTennessee.TheUniversityofTennesseePress,Knoxville.Pp.369.

Niemiller,Matthew,R.GrahamReynoldsandBrianT.Miller.2013.TheReptilesofTennessee.TheUniversityofTennesseePress,Knoxville.Pp.366.

Owen,H.M.andH.C.Yeatman.1954.Atigersalamander,AmbystomatigrinumfromFranklinCounty,Tennessee,Copeia:1954(1):67-68.

Petranka,J.W.andJ.G.Petranka.1981.Ontheevolutionofnestsiteselectioninthemarbledsalamander,Ambystomaopacum.Copeia1981:387-391.

Redmond.W.H.1985.AbiogeographicstudyoftheamphibiansinTennessee.Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville.Pp.290.

Redmond,W.H.,A.C.Echternacht,andA.F.Scott.1990.AnnotatedChecklistandBibliographyofAmphibiansandReptilesofTennessee(1835through1989).Misc.PublicationsCenterforFieldBiologyAustinPeayStateUniversity,Clarksville,TN.Pp.173.

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Salthe,S.N.1973.Amphiumatridactylum.CatalogueofAmericanAmphibiansandReptiles.Pp.149.1-149.3.

Smith,H.M.andE.D.BrodieJr.1982.AGuidetoFieldIdentificationofReptilesofNorthAmerica.GoldenPress,NewYork.Pp.240.

Snyder,D.H.1972.AmphibiansandreptilesofLandbetweentheLakes.TennesseeValleyAuthority,GoldenPond,Kentucky.Pp.90.

Souder,William.2000.APlagueofFrogs,TheHorrifyingTrueStory.Hyperion,NewYork.Pp.299.

Internet

TWRATennessee’sWatchableWildlife www.tnwatchablewildlife.org

LEAPSEnvironmentalConsulting,FrogandToadimagesandcalls www.leaps.ms

VirginiaHerpetologicalSociety,agoodsourceforetymology http://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com

AustinPeayStateUniversityAtlasofReptilesinTennessee,images,descriptions,distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/

AustinPeayStateUniversityAtlasofAmphibiansinTennessee,images,descriptions,distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/amatlas/

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AppendixA

Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee

Date_______________Time____________County____________________Location(Lat/Long)_______________________________________________Weather________________________________________________________Observers______________________________________________________

ClassAmphibiaOrderAnura(Frogs)

FamilyPelobatidae(Spadefoots)___EasternSpadefoot(Scaphiopusholbrookii)

FamilyBufonidae(TrueToads)___AmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanus)___EasternAmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanusamericanus)___DwarfAmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanuscharlesmithi)___Fowler’sToad(Anaxyrusfowleri)

FamilyHylidae(Treefrogs)___NorthernCricketFrog(Acriscrepitans)___Blanchard’sCricketFrog(Acriscrepitansblanchardi)___EasternCricketFrog(Acriscrepitanscrepitans)___SouthernCricketFrog(Acrisgryllus)___CoastalPlainCricketFrog(Acrisgryllusgryllus)___Bird-voicedTreefrog(Hylaavivoca)___WesternBird-voicedTreefrog(Hylaavivocaavivoca)___Cope’sGrayTreefrog(Hylachrysoscelis)___GreenTreefrog(Hylacinerea)___BarkingTreefrog(Hylagratiosa)___GrayTreefrog(Hylaversicolor)___MountainChorusFrog(Pseudacrisbrachyphona)___SpringPeeper(Pseudacriscrucifer)___NorthernSpringPeeper(Pseudacriscrucifercrucifer)___UplandChorusFrog(Pseudacrisferiarum)

FamilyMicrohylidae(Narrow-mouthedToads)___EasternNarrow-mouthedToad(Gastrophrynecarolinensis)

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FamilyRanidae(TrueFrogs)___CrawfishFrog(Lithobatesareolatus)___NorthernCrawfishFrog(Lithobatesareolatuscirculosa)___GopherFrog(Lithobatescapito)___DuskyGopherFrog(Lithobatescapitosevosa)SubspeciesUnconfirmed___AmericanBullfrog(Lithobatescatesbeianus)___GreenFrog(Lithobatesclamitans)___BronzeFrog(Lithobatesclamitansclamitans)___NorthernGreenFrog(Lithobatesclamitansmelanota)___PickerelFrog(Lithobatespalustris)___SouthernLeopardFrog(Lithobatessphenocephalus)___SouthernLeopardFrog(Lithobatessphenocephalusutricularius)___WoodFrog(Lithobatessylvaticus)

OrderCaudata(Salamanders)

FamilyCryptobranchidae(GiantSalamanders-Hellbenders)___Hellbender(Cryptobranchusalleganiensis)___EasternHellbender(Cryptobranchusalleganiensisalleganiensis)

FamilyProteidae(GiantSalamanders–MudpuppiesandWaterdogs)___Mudpuppies(Necturusmaculosus)___CommonMudpuppy(Necturusmaculosusmaculosus)

FamilyAmphiumidae(CongerEels)___Three-toedAmphiuma(Amphiumatridactylum)

FamilySirenidae(Sirens)___LesserSiren(Sirenintermedia)___WesternLesserSiren(Sirenintermedianettingi)

FamilyAmbystomatidae(MoleSalamanders)___StreamsideSalamander(Ambystomabarbouri)___SpottedSalamander(Ambystomamaculatum)___MarbledSalamander(Ambystomaopacum)___MoleSalamander(Ambystomatalpoideum)___Small-mouthedSalamander(Ambystomatexanum)___TigerSalamander(Ambystomatigrinum)___EasternTigerSalamander(Ambystomatigrinumtigrinum)

FamilySalamandridae(Newts)

___EasternNewt(Notophthalmusviridescens)___CentralNewt(Notophthalmusviridescenslouisianensis)___Red-spottedNewt(Notophthalmusviridescensviridescens)

FamilyPlethodontidae(LunglessSalamanders)

___GreenSalamander(Aneidesaeneus)___SeepageSalamander(Desmognathusaeneus)___CarolinaMountainDuskySalamander(Desmognathuscarolinensis)___SpottedDuskySalamander(Desmognathusconanti)___NorthernDuskySalamander(Desmognathusfuscus)___ImitatorSalamander(Desmognathusimitator)___Shovel-nosedSalamander(Desmognathusmarmoratus)___SealSalamander(Desmognathusmonticola)___AlleghenyMountainDuskySalamander(Desmognathusochrophaeus)___OcoeeSalamander(Desmognathusocoee)___BlueRidgeDuskySalamander(Desmognathusorestes)___Black-belliedSalamander(Desmognathusquadramaculatus)___SanteetlahDuskySalamander(Desmognathussanteetlah)___BlackMountainSalamander(Desmognathuswelteri)___PygmySalamander(Desmognathuswrighti)___SouthernTwo-linedSalamander(Euryceacirrigera)___Three-linedSalamander(Euryceaguttolineata)___JunaluskaSalamander(Euryceajunaluska)___Long-tailedSalamander(Eurycealongicauda)___Long-tailedSalamander(Eurycealongicaudalongicauda)___CaveSalamander(Eurycealucifuga)___BlueRidgeTwo-linedSalamander(Euryceawilderae)___BerryCaveSalamander(Gyrinophilusgulolineatus)___TennesseeCaveSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucus)___BigMouthCaveSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucusnecturoides)___PaleSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucuspalleucus)___SpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticus)___BlueRidgeSpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusdanielsi)___KentuckySpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusduryi)___NorthernSpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusporphyriticus)___Four-toedSalamander(Hemidactyliumscutatum)___TellicoSalamander(Plethodonaureolus)___EasternRed-backedSalamander(Plethodoncinereus)___White-spottedSlimySalamander(Plethodoncylindraceus)___NorthernZigzagSalamander(Plethodondorsalis)

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___NorthernSlimySalamander(Plethodonglutinosus)___Red-cheekedSalamander(Plethodonjordani)___CumberlandPlateauSalamander(Plethodonkentucki)___SouthernGray-cheekedSalamander(Plethodonmetcalfi)UnconfirmedinTennessee___MississippiSlimySalamander(Plethodonmississippi)___SouthernRavineSalamander(Plethodonrichmondi)___SouthernRed-backedSalamander(Plethodonserratus)___SouthernAppalachianSalamander(Plethodonteyahalee)___SouthernZigzagSalamander(Plethodonventralis)___Wehrle’sSalamander(Plethodonwehrlei)___Weller’sSalamander(Plethodonwelleri)___YonahlosseeSalamander(Plethodonyonahlossee)___MudSalamander(Pseudotritonmontanus)___MidlandMudSalamander(Pseudotritonmontanusdiastictus)___RedSalamander(Pseudotritonruber)___BlueRidgeRedSalamander(Pseudotritonrubernitidus)___NorthernRedSalamander(Pseudotritonruberruber)___Black-chinnedRedSalamander(Pseudotritonruberschencki)___SouthernRedSalamander(Pseudotritonrubervioscai)

ClassReptiliaOrderTestudines

FamilyChelydridae(SnappingTurtles)___SnappingTurtle(Chelydraserpentina)___EasternSnappingTurtle(Chelydraserpentinaserpentina)___AlligatorSnappingTurtle(Macrochelystemminckii)

FamilyKinosternidae(MuskandMudTurtles)___EasternMudTurtle(Kinosternonsubrubrum)___EasternMudTurtle(Kinosternonsubrubrumsubrubrum)___LoggerheadMuskTurtle(Sternotherusminor)___Stripe-neckedMuskTurtle(Sternotherusminorpeltifer)___EasternMuskTurtle(Sternotherusodoratus)

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FamilyEmydidae(BoxandWaterTurtles)___PaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspicta)___SouthernPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictadorsalis)___MidlandPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictamarginata)___EasternPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictapicta)___BogTurtle(Glyptemysmuhlenbergii)___NorthernMapTurtle(Graptemysgeographica)___OuachitaMapTurtle(Graptemysouachitensis)___OuachitaMapTurtle(Graptemysouachitensisouachitensis)___FalseMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographica)___MississippiMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographicakohnii)___FalseMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographicapseudogeographica)___RiverCooter(Pseudemysconcinna)___EasternRiverCooter(Pseudemysconcinnaconcinna)___EasternBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolina)___EasternBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolinacarolina)___Three-toedBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolinatriunguis)___PondSlider(Trachemysscripta)___Red-earedSlider(Trachemysscriptaelegans)___Yellow-belliedSlider(Trachemysscriptascripta)___CumberlandSlider(Trachemysscriptatroostii)

FamilyTrionychidae(SoftshellTurtles)___SmoothSoftshell(Apalonemutica)___MidlandSmoothSoftshell(Apalonemuticamutica)___SpinySoftshell(Apalonespinifera)___EasternSpinySoftshell(Apalonespiniferaspinifera)

OrderSquamata(LizardsandSnakes)SuborderLacertilla(Lizards)

FamilyPolychridae(Anoles)___GreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensis)___NorthernGreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensiscarolinensis)

FamilyPhrynosomatidae(Earless,Spiny,Tree,Side-blotchedandHornedLizards)___EasternFenceLizard(Sceloporusundulatus)

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FamilyTeiidae(Whiptails)___Six-linedRacerunner(Aspidoscelissexlineata)___EasternSix-linedRacerunner(Aspidoscelissexlineatasexlineata)

FamilyScincidae(Skinks)___CoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinus)___NorthernCoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinusanthracinus)___SouthernCoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinuspluvialis)___CommonFive-linedSkink(Plestiodonfasciatus)___SoutheasternFive-linedSkink(Plestiodoninexpectatus)___Broad-headedSkink(Plestiodonlaticeps)___LittleBrownSkink(Scincellalateralis)

FamilyAnguidae(GlassLizardsandAlligatorLizards)___SlenderGlassLizard(Ophisaurusattenuatus)___EasternSlenderGlassLizard(Ophisaurusattenuatuslongicaudus)

SuborderSerpentes(Snakes)

FamilyColubridae(Colubrids)___EasternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenus)___EasternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenusamoenus)___MidwesternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenushelenae)___Scarletsnake(Cemophoracoccinea)___NorthernScarletsnake(Cemophoracoccineacopei)___NorthAmericanRacer(Coluberconstrictor)___NorthernBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictorconstrictor)___SouthernBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictorpriapus)___Ring-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatus)___NorthernRing-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatusedwardsii)___MississippiRing-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatusstictogenys)___RedCornsnake(Pantherophisguttatus)___GrayRatsnake(Pantherophisspiloides)___Red-belliedMudsnake(Faranciaabacura)___WesternMudsnake(Faranciaabacurareinwardtii)___EasternHog-nosedSnake(Heterodonplatirhinos)___Yellow-belliedKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligaster)___PrairieKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligastercalligaster)___MoleKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligasterrhombomaculata)___CommonKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetula)

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___EasternKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulagetula)___SpeckledKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulaholbrooki)___EasternBlackKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulanigra)___Milksnake(Lampropeltistriangulum)___ScarletKingsnake(Lampropeltistriangulumelapsoides)___RedMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumsyspila)___EasternMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumtriangulum)___Coachwhip(Coluberflagellum)___EasternCoachwhip(Coluberflagellumflagellum)___MississippiGreenWatersnake(Nerodiacyclopion)___Plain-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogaster)___Yellow-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogasterflavigaster)___Copper-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogasterneglecta)___SouthernWatersnake(Nerodiafasciata)___Broad-bandedWatersnake(Nerodiafasciataconfluens)___Diamond-backedWatersnake(Nerodiarhombifer)___NorthernDiamond-backedWatersnake(Nerodiarhombiferrhombifer)___NorthernWatersnake(Nerodiasipedon)___MidlandWatersnake(Nerodiasipedonpleuralis)___CommonWatersnake(Nerodiasipedonsipedon)___RoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivus)___NorthernRoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivusaestivus)___Pinesnake(Pituophismelanoleucus)___NorthernPinesnake(Pituophismelanoleucusmelanoleucus)___QueenSnake(Reginaseptemvittata)___DeKay’sBrownsnake(Storeriadekayi)___NorthernBrownsnake(Storeriadekayidekayi)___MidlandBrownsnake(Storeriadekayiwrightorum)___Red-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculata)___FloridaRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculataobscura)___NorthernRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculataoccipitomaculata)___SoutheasternCrownedSnake(Tantillacoronata)___WesternRibbonsnake(Thamnophisproximus)___Orange-stripedRibbonsnake(Thamnophisproximusproximus)___EasternRibbonsnake(Thamnophissauritus)___CommonRibbonsnake(Thamnophissauritussauritus)___CommonGartersnake(Thamnophissirtalis)___EasternGartersnake(Thamnophissirtalissirtalis)___RoughEarthsnake(Virginiastriatula)___SmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriae)___WesternSmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriaeelegans)___EasternSmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriaevaleriae)

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FamilyViperidae(Vipers)

SubfamilyCrotalinae(PitVipers)___Copperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrix)___SouthernCopperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrixcontortrix)___NorthernCopperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrixmokasen)___Cottonmouth(Agkistrodonpiscivorus)___WesternCottonmouth(Agkistrodonpiscivorusleucostoma)___TimberRattlesnake(Crotalushorridus)___PygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmiliarius)___WesternPygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmiliariusstreckeri)

AllstandardcommonandscientificnamestakenfromtheSocietyfortheStudyofAmphibiansandReptilesHerpetologicalCircularNumber37,ScientificandStandardEnglishNamesofAmphibiansandReptilesofNorthAmericaNorthofMexicowithCommentsRegardingConfidenceinourUnderstanding,6thEdition(2008).

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AppendixBTurtleCharacteristics

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84

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VIII.ReviewQuestions

1.Whichofthebelowcharacteristicsofamphibiansisincorrect? a.smoothskin b.ectothermic c.claws d.laysgelatinouseggs e.vertebrate

2.Ofthethirty-twospeciesofsnakesinTennessee,howmanyarevenomous? a.3 b.4 c.7 d.1

3.Ofallthechallengesfacingherppopulationstoday,whichisthemostsignificant? a.unsupervisedchildrenmishandlingherps b.lossofhabitatordegradationofhabitat c.roadmortality d.intentionalvandalismofherps

4.Whichofthebelowcharacteristicsofreptilesisincorrect? a.Ectothermic,scaledskin b.laysleatheryorhardshelledeggs c.invertebrate d.clawsonfeet(iftheyhavefeet,i.e.snakes)

5.Twocharacteristicsofavenomoussnakeare__________________. a.smoothscalesandblunttail. b.narrowheadandroundpupils. c.slenderbodywithlongtail. d.broadheadwithpitsandverticalpupils.

6.Alizardhasclawsandscaleswhereasasalamanderhasnoclawsandsmoothskin. T F

7.EachyearintheUSmorepeoplewilldieofsnakebitesthantheydoofbeeorwaspstings. TF

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8.WhichtwospeciesareconsideredtruetoadsinTennessee? a.Americanbullfrogandgraytreefrog b.northerngreenfrogandAmericanbullfrog c.Fowler’stoad,Americantoad d.northernspringpeeperandgraytreefrog

9.Ashedsnakeskinbelongedtoanon-venomoussnakeifithas a.tworowsofsubcaudalscales b.onerowofsubcaudalscales c.nosubcaudalscales d.asinglesubcaudalscale

10.ThemostterrestrialturtleinTennesseeis a.EasternMuskTurtle b.NorthernMapTurtle c.CommonSnappingTurtle d.EasternBoxTurtle

11.Toavoidpredators,lizards a.usetheircrypticcoloration b.havegreatagilityandspeed c.“drop”theirtails d.alloftheabove

12.Ratsnakesareveryadeptat a.swimming b.burrowing c.climbing d.flippingontotheirbacks

13.Mostsalamandersfeedon a.algae b.wormsandinsects c.babysalamanders d.plants

14.“Lungless”salamandersinthefamilyPlethodontidae a.absorboxygenthroughtheirskinandmouthmembranes b.absorboxygenthroughsmallporesintheirfeet c.actuallyhavelungsthatareverytiny d.don’tneedoxygen

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15.Boldflashcolorsontreefrogs(Hylids) a.attractmates b.confusepredators c.havenopurpose d.providethermalregulation

Answers:1.c 2.b 3.b 4.c 5.d6.T 7.F 8.c 9.a 10.d11.d 12.c 13.b 14.a 15.b

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