This article was downloaded by: [University of Birmingham]On: 19 November 2014, At: 21:46Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales RegisteredNumber: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Proceedings of theMusical AssociationPublication details, includinginstructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rrma18

Tendencies of theOperatic Stage in theNineteenth CenturyAlbert VisettiPublished online: 28 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: Albert Visetti (1895) Tendencies of the OperaticStage in the Nineteenth Century, Proceedings of the MusicalAssociation, 22:1, 141-151, DOI: 10.1093/jrma/22.1.141

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jrma/22.1.141

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracyof all the information (the “Content”) contained in thepublications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations orwarranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions andviews of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsedby Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not

be relied upon and should be independently verified withprimary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not beliable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands,costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connectionwith, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and privatestudy purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematicsupply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expresslyforbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be foundat http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

MAY 12, 1896.

SIR GEORGE GROVE, C.B., VICB-PRESIDENT,

IN THE CHAIR.

TENDENCIES OF THE OPERATIC STAGE INTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

BY ALBERT VISETTI.

SINCE the times of the Reformation, no century has witnessedsuch radical changes in human thought as have taken placeduring the last one hundred years. All political, social,scientific, and artistic principles and methods have beenaltered, and a strict practical and logical considerationappears happily to be the accepted leading theory in allbranches of learning.

One of the greatest changes—though one very little noticedbecause of the small importance attached to the subject onwhich it has acted by great thinkers and critics—is the onethat has taken place in the essence and form of the " Opera."

The " Opera 1" Of what our forefathers understood toconstitute an opera in the early part of this century nothingremains, and very little remains even of what our fathersconsidered as the ideal of the opera—nay, a middle-agedman, if he takes the trouble to consider what kind of intellec-tual fare for his brains he expected the manager of CoventGarden to have provided for him when twenty years ago hewent to the opera, and what he now expects to find, willeasily see that only the name is still the same; but that theessence, the appearance, the very raison d'Stre of the thingdesignated by that name have altogether been altered.

In placing before you some ideas in connection with thisextraordinary evolution, it is not intended to give the resultof an accurate historical and philosophical study ; but simplyto put on the tapis some questions, some suggestions, which

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

142 Tendencies of the Operatic Stage.

may prove an incentive, and perhaps become a possible guideto such men as would devote their time and their intelligenceto this fruitful source of deep and healthy considerations.

Up to the last few years it was a dogma with authoritativemusical critics of a conservative tendency, that the standardexpression of the opera had been reached by the Italiancomposers in the palmy days of Bellini, Rossini, andDonizetti. For these writers, who represented the opinionof the bulk of opera-goers all over the world, what precededthat glorious period was styled "preparation" and whatfollowed " decadence " of the opera. All their hopes andexpectations were in the coming of " un altro Bellini," whowas with a genuine and simple melodic vein to restore thefortunes of the opera, and especially save it from the nippinginfluences of "la musica tedesca."

Now it is easy to laugh at these critics, but after seriousconsideration it becomes clear to the impartial mind that theyhad cause enough to believe that they were in the right.

The palmy days of the Italian opera show us a branch ofart which had reached its highest technical and intellectualdevelopment, and which chanced to have simultaneouslymen of genius as its exponents and interpreters. What theycalled "opera" was merely an exhibition—in the highestand noblest sense—of the capabilities of the vocal art in its" dramatic " and " bravura " style.

The dramatic action was not the intellectual essential ofthe opera, but was a material essential. No opera couldhave existed without a plot, as a pearl necklace cannot existwithout a string to keep the pearls together; but its import-ance was limited to offering a certain logical and variedsuccession of vocal pieces on the dominant emotional charac-ter, of each of which the composer was to write a melody.It was, in fact, a somewhat uncouth and primitive form ofprogramme-music. The character of the melody, the degreeof its efficiency to stir in the heart of the audience a feelingakin to the one under which the dramatis persona weresupposed to labour, and the possibility it afforded the singerof showing off his vocal powers and his control over them,constituted the degree of excellence of each piece. Thegreater or less number of excellent pieces constituted thegreater or less degree of excellence of the whole opera. Thevital knot of the drama (that is, the action) was rushedthrough the recitativo secco, and occasionally also receivedthe compliment of a cantabile ; but both recitativo secco andcantabile were artistic mortar to cement the crevices thatwould remain between the successive different expressions offeeling.

Though it is, perhaps, desirable that the mould which gaveshape to the old Italian Operas be broken for good, those

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Tendencies of the Operatic Stage. 143

operas, seen in what light and aim they had in those days,show a wise method and a truly artistic feeling.

Of all musical sounds that can be produced, not one canvie in intensity of power on the nervous system of man withthe well trained human voice. For this fact there are almostindisputable physiological reasons. The aim of composersbeing to appeal, not to the intellect, but to the feelings of theaudience, it was natural to them to draw on the most power-ful means they had at their disposal; and it was but wisdomto study the nature and range of action of the means theywere using, so as not to strain it to express what, by itsnature, it was unfit to express.

For this reason they attempted, and with undeniablesuccess, to render musically states of feeling; but did notattempt to render musically a dramatic action which wouldhave been beyond the limits of the art of singing. As hintedbefore, the action was run through the recitativo, and veryoften in a Draconic fashion ; they printed the lines in the bookof words between inverted commas, with the notice on thetitle-page, " il virgolato si ommette."

By adopting instinctively the great precept of Horace—we say instinctively, because we don't suppose that eitherRossini or Bellini were much given to the perusal of theEpistola to the Pisones—they gave us some works of real art.Some pieces of " Sonnambula," " Norma," " Favorita,"" Mose " are artistically true; and for all the material andintellectual development of musical means and expression itdoes not appear that anytning more powerful can be done.If, instead of doing as they did, they had insisted on giving avocal and melodic treatment of a drama, they could haveonly produced ludicrous works. They knew the exact limitsof their art, and never passed them ; like great painters, whoillustrate only those passages in the text which come into thefull domain of their art, these musicians sang what could besung, leaving the rest to take care of itself as well as it could.A recent attempt at giving pictures illustrating an unin-terrupted succession of events seems, so far, to have met withapproval only in music hall spheres.

Contemporary with this almost monopolisation of thepublic taste by the Italian school—whose dazzling light hadattracted even such a genius as Mozart—" Fidelio" andlater on " Der Freischutz " show the intellectual indepen-dence of their composers from the prevailing tendencies of thetimes. Though the conception of the opera and its treat-ment is nearly as far from a logical dramatic development aswere those of the Italian opera, yet the mere bravura style isnot reckoned upon any more as an essential constituent of awork, and the effects are sought after in other and higherartistic means.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

144 Tendencies of the Operatic Stage.

It is, however, a fact worth considering, that though " DerFreischatz " stands out amongst operas as the most advancedin the direction of what Wagner calls musical dramas, yet inall appearance the great change was more influenced by" William Tell" than by Weber's masterpiece. This maybe owing to two causes. One, the coming of Wagner, whoradically changed the constitution of the opera ; the other,that the public changed gradually its taste according to thechanges that either spontaneously or under influences wereslowly and cautiously brought about by the popularcomposers.

" William Tell," seen now at a distance of nearly seventyyears from its first production, fails to strike the superficialobserver with its being an epoch-making opera, compared tosome of its predecessors even of the same composer; yet itis really " William Tell" that caused the general public astrong doubt as to the aesthetic foundation of the Italian Opera.It enlarged the views of the audience; the dramatic actioncame somewhat to the front as something worth being takeninto consideration ; where the mere singing could not reach,the orchestra kept up the musical interest in the action ; andeven the mise-en-scene began to be used as a powerful meansof dramatic effect on the operatic stage. This train ofthought was productive of the Barocco School of the ParisGrand Opera, from " Robert le Diable," " Prophete," up to" Charles VI.," " La Juive," "Herculaneum," &c, a schoolas false as it was gorgeous; a school doomed to disappearlike all works of transition, and to bury under its ruins evenmuch that is the fruit of true genius. Yet that school hasdone much intellectual good as giving evidence of thepossibility of having a musical drama, and of the necessityof calling in other arts to achieve this end.

Was " William Tell " a spontaneous change in Rossini'sideas, or had it been influenced by Weber ? The secondhypothesis can almost be dismissed by those acquainted withRossini's frame of mind. Besides, one thing is to be foundin " William Tell" which is absolutely unprecedented, andwhich is the key-note of all modern works—that is, " localcolour." By the local colour in "William Tell " is not to beunderstood the old-fashioned device of introducing into acomposition popular melodies or national tunes; this is asimple objective method, an accident of the composition.The local colour of " William Tell" is a highly successfulstriving to create musically impressions, like those evoked inthe mind of the artistic observer of foreign scenery andforeign customs.

" Traviata," " Don Carlos," " Les Huguenots," " LaJuive " have all a very powerful dramatic colour, true to theirsubject; but " William Tell," " Carmen," " Cavalleria," and,

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Tendencies of the Operatic Stage. 145

taking the latest example," Shamus O'Brien," give the exactimpression that one receives from visiting Switzerland,Spain, Sicily, and Ireland.

While Paris was delighting itself in an art de luxe, therewas coming to the front in Italy an unconscious iconoclast,who, after his terrible work of destruction, had the power ofbecoming a great builder: this man is Guiseppe Verdi. Hewas a man of action; he did not discuss his views inmagazines or pamphlets, but he wrote operas just as he feltimpelled to write and carried everything before him.

From a technical point of view it is undeniable thatVerdi's early works are a long step backwards, compared tothe masterpieces of the Italian and of the French School.Look at " Sonnambula," " Lucia," " Mose," " Robert leDiable," and then look at " Nabucco " and " I Lombardi."It is like stepping out from the society of the muscadins to anold Saxon banquet. We are absolutely plunged into thedark ages, and bid to find out the way with the true light.Verdi went to work with the ingenuousness and instinctiveright thinking of a Siegfried: rivetting and soldering andpatching up is a poor work ; no good sword will ever come ofit—crush the whole to powder, melt it, and begin ab ovo.

Dumas tire said in his abrupt way: " Give me a police-man who has never been to see a ptay, and I may make ofhim a great actor; but if you give me a pupil of theConservatoire, I should lose my time for nothing." Verdihad no Academical training, no culture of any kind beyondwhat was strictly necessary to go on in a modest and decentsociety; but he was a man of quick perception, of exuberantfeelings, and naturally impelled to interchange these feelingswith his fellow-creature; trust him that with such impulseshe will find easily enough his way to make himself under-stood. The most polished speaker is very seldom the mostpersuasive, and many a good thing has been said and will besaid in bad grammar.

With Verdi the opera tends solely to dramatic expression:he breaks off with—or, to say better, he ignores not only allthe traditions that stand in his way, but even the fundamentalprinciples of the art of singing, of orchestration, refinement,polish, taste—everything; he goes in a straight line to hisobject, careless whether he walks on the gravelled path, or onthe lawn, or through the flower-beds.

England, as far as opera was concerned, did not seem totake any active part in that movement. Balfe and Wallace

Sart that was fading away on the Continent, may have muchto do with the somewhat antiquated structure of " The

11 Vol. 22

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

146 Tendencies of the Operatic Stage.

Bohemian Girl " and " Maritana," antiquated even at thetime that they were first produced.

The earliest examples of operas written on the lines onwhich apparently the present generation agrees that operasshould be written are " Tannhauser" and " Lohengrin."

These two works have firmly laid the foundation of a newart, or at least of a clearly delineated new form of art. Allthe resources of all the branches of music are here called in,not to shine for themselves, but to throw light on and render allpowerful and impressive the expression of the poet's thought.

The general public—as might have been expected—wasnot ripe for the acceptance of such a radical change; but themind of the highly educated artist was. And the highlyeducated artist was not only ready to accept the revelation,but even felt that a revelation was fated to come. A proof oithis we find in the significant fact of Signor Boito's writinghis first " Mefistofele" in days when he was entirelyunacquainted with any of Wagner's musical or literaryworks. It is a pity for the history of the opera that theoriginal score of " Mefistofele " should not have been printed.For all its failings in matter of details, the work, especially inthe Prologue, in the Romantic Sabbath, and in the Emperor'sscene, is sketched with such an amount of genius, inspiration,and skill as to equal, in sublimity of conception, anythingthat has been done afterwards.

But it is with "Tannhauser" and "Lohengrin" that wefind that the name of " opera " (which is still commonly usedowing to the force of inertia) comes to signify something thathas nothing to do with what was meant by it at the beginningof the century.

The opera, originally the work of the musician, and betterstill of the musician who restricted his sphere of action tovocal music, is now the domain of the poet. The poet in itsetymological sense—the maker, the creator, not the rhyme-monger ; lines, with or without rhyme or alliteration, consti-tute the tailoring part of poetry; but the real poetry is thecreating of a poem. If " Hamlet," " Romeo and Juliet,"and " Othello " had been written in prose instead of measuredspeech, they would be poems just the same, while we allknow of many poems that for all their exuberance of rhythmsand rhymes are as dry as a directory. The poet is the manwho has eyes to see the events that pass round him, and hasa heart to feel what pathos there is in them, and can there-fore discern what is worth recording and what is intrinsicallyunworthy of recognition. The idea once secured, the modernpoet must draw no more on words alone, but on words,music, and the plastic arts, and make their intervention inthe opera subservient to the most beautiful, true, and impres-sive manifestation of his idea.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Tendencies of the Operatic Stage. 147

It is very unlucky for the historian that history does notarrange its events in a way more clearly illustrative of thechain of causes and effects. This unavoidable inconvenienceis particularly felt when one wishes to keep something like achronological order in the intellectual and material develop-ment of an idea. Wagner expounded theoretically andpractically his views nearly fifty years ago, and over thirtyyears ago he had already written and had partly producedthose works of his which mark the highest degree of perfec-tion it was in his power to give to the embodiment of hisartistic ideal; and yet it is only of late years that we candetect the real influence of his theory in the essential consti-tution of the opera.

Between the first appearance of "Tannhauser" and" Lohengrin " and the real understanding of their composer'sprinciples, we have no lesser works than Gounod's,Massenet's, Ambroise Thomas's, Verdi's second manner, andothers which it would be useless to mention; that is, we have—minus Wagner's works, which have been slow in creepinginto popularity—all the operas that formed the delight ofopera-goers for the end of the first and beginning of thesecond half of our century. But, looking back at that richperiod of operatic productions, one must ask: " Do theseoperas represent an intrinsic part in the development of themodern opera, or are they only splendid individual efforts,manifestations of individual feelings, of taste, refinement,gracefulness, but without a true instinct or a clear knowledgeof the form and means for the expression of a dramaticaction ? " One feels very much inclined to think that thelatter is the case, and a sufficient proof of this may be foundin the fact that Verdi and Massenet, in their later works,though always preserving their musical individuality andtheir characteristics, have both stepped into the tracktrodden first by Wagner.

At the present day, though the general public complainsthat there is not, as in the past, the great composer whosename was a household word from the palace to the cottage,yet those who look seriously into the matter must come tothe conclusion that we are in reality richer in talent and ingenius on the operatic stage than any other generation everwas; only the ideal to be reached has now taken such asuperb flight that it stands far above the heads of men who,fifty years ago, would have touched it by simply stretchingout their hand.

Without speaking of a phalanx of young talented men ofwhich one reads in the papers, but whose works have not yetreached us—and some of whom are the authors of the wordsas well as of the music—but mentioning only names of menwho have an established reputation, we can say : Massenet,

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

i+8 Tendencies of the Operatic Stage.

Bruneau, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, Goldmark,Humperdinck, Stanford, Sullivan, Cowen, Mackenzie. Eachof these composers ha6 (if I may say) an individual individu-ality—each group has a national individuality—but all ofthem have only one aim—that of imparting additional interestand charm to a dramatic action by the help of music. Noone of them tries any more to make the poem subservient tothe exigencies of musical effects, but they literally make amusical narrative of a sweet or of a tragical story. This wecan see from the choice of the subjects and from theirpsychological treatment. Classicism is now banished fromthe operatic stage; what drove classicism from the stage —" the grand historical drama "—is also banished in its turn;the great modern tendency is toward realism.

Realism is an exaggeration of truth as sentimentality is anexaggeration of sentiment. Realism, if indiscriminatelyused, is deleterious to any form of art; and, more than toliterature and painting, to music, whose essence is the ideal;but, however, realism is a safe starting-point toward theideal. Man admires and receives his inspiration fromheaven, but his feet stand on the solid ground. For so longas composers study human nature they are sure to be true tothemselves and to their fellow-creatures; to find the Ideal ofthe real world is—as it has been the case with the" Nibelungen "—the work of a genius; and we shall nowgauge the amount of genius of an operatic composer, nomore by the degree of freshness and prettiness of hismelodies, no more by the charm of his orchestration or bythe cleverness of his counterpoint, but by the degree of truthhe can give us freed from what is merely of the earth earthy.

Thus the end of the nineteenth century sees the realisationof Wagner's musical drama, and, in all appearance, thetrilogy, " Meistersinger," " Tristan," and " Parsifal," willremain for this century the nearest approach to a rationalbalance of the sister arts co-operating in the expression of adramatic action. But after the nineteenth century, whichwill be over in four years, there will be a twentieth century,and there will be a generation which will have all theadvantages of the light and truth bequeathed to them by ahundred years of unequalled work. Will the generations ofthe twentieth century accept the balance of the arts in themusical drama as determined by Wagner ? It is verydoubtful. Preposterous as it may seem, yet everythingpoints to the possibility that the definite form of expressionof a dramatic action which shall answer the feeling of afresh and unbiassed generation will come out from the formof the modern English popular drama, where, howeverroughly, the words represent the material part and the musicthe emotional part of the action.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Tendencies of the Operatic Stage. 149

DISCUSSION.

THE CHAIRMAN.—I think you will all agree with me that amore interesting paper or one more worthy of this Associationhas seldom been read here than that we have just listened to.It will repay quiet reading when it is printed in the " Pro-ceedings "; the subject is so large and complex, and so welland cleverly treated that it really wants a great deal moreconsideration than we can give it at this moment. There areno doubt many present who have observations to make onsome of the points that have been brought before us. Beforedoing so, however, I beg to move that our warmest thanks begiven to the lecturer for the very instructive paper he hasread to us.

Mr. GOLDSCHMIDT.—I have much pleasure in secondingthat motion.

The vote of thanks was unanimously carried, and, owing toSir George Grove having another engagement, Mr. Southgatethen took the chair.

Dr. MACLEAN.—I gathered that the final purport of thelecture was to enquire whether or no Wagner had said thelast word in opera. I think some later words have been said.One of Wagner's special achievements was the expression ofpassion through music, but in the expression of strictly humanpassion it is doubtful whether the young Italian school, astypified in Mascagni, has not gone a step farther. Anothercharacteristic of Wagner was his extraordinarily free counter-point. As long as the tonalities or contained harmonies werefirmly planted, it mattered comparatively little with him howthe parts proceeded or interwove. At the time these develop-ments were considered excessive, but in this respect Bruneau,the most advanced of the French writers, has probably gonebeyond Wagner. I am not speaking of the faux-bourdons andsuch like things introduced by him with special objects, butof his general part-writing, and I must say that to my ear itis not cacophonous. Without, therefore, in any way comparingthese men with the great German master, I should suggestthat on particular points the tendency of the age may havetaken them beyond him. As to the future of opera, I shouldsubmit that that depends on the men. The power of theschools is unfortunately much broken, and individualism is inthe ascendant. And in opera individualism shows itself innothing so much as the power of the composer to identifyhimself with characters so as to pourtray them through themusic. Thelecturer spoke very correctly of local colour havingadvanced from the state of merely introducing national airsto that of giving a general sensation of locality and environ-ment. But even more is now demanded by expecting personal

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

ISO Tendencies of the Operatic Stage.

characterisation. This attribute has marked all the mostsuccessful operas of the last thirty years. As to " Carmen,"many writers could have thrown in the Spanish colour ; butBizet alone made music which really causes the mind torealize Escamillo, Carmen, and Michaela. Passing overThomas's " Mignon," where perhaps this proceeding is lesssuccessfully carried out, there is " Cavalleria Rusticana " ;it is not the local Sicilian colour here, but the passion ofSantuzza which makes the opera. " La R6ve" is theembodiment of the saintly girl buried in her books. Massenet's" Manon " has succeeded where others of his have failed,because he there just hit off the impersonation of his giddyand beautiful heroine. I doubt not men will be found tocontinue this process, and so further develop the opera.

Mr. WEBB.—With regard to the concluding remarks of thelecturer, I am inclined to believe that there will be a develop-ment beyond that of Wagner; in the progress of all art thereis a period of coalescence which is followed by the individualdevelopment of the factors which have coalesced. All thearts are now introduced on the stage with more or less mutualsacrifice of each. There should therefore come a time whenthe limits of each art will be more clearly understood than atpresent, and when in opera music will be given the primaryplace. I don't agree with Dr. Maclean that Mascagni'sexpression of passion is greater than that of Wagner, for inWagner's works there is a certain loftiness which is notattained by the Italian composer. Individualism iscertainly a peculiarity of the age, and I believe the successof operas depends upon the forcibleness with which thecharacters are developed. The paper is particularly interest-ing just now, and opens many channels of thought.

Mr. SOUTHGATE.—One cause of the changes that haveoccurred is, I think, due to the phase of feelings which havepassed over mankind. In the early times the Italiansregarded opera as a means for displaying their vocal abilities,and to show what effects they could produce by careful voicetraining. Then it was felt that this was artificial, and Gluckbrought about the reform which has goneon to the present day.I understood the lecturer to say that we were proceedingtowards realism. Where, I should like to know, is this realismto stop ? It seems to me that each style of opera has its flowand re-flow; we appear to go to one extreme and then go backagain. Take, as an instance, Professor Stanford's " ShamusO'Brien." What a great difference that presents to the" Canterbury Pilgrims " or " Savanorola." This new workis cast in a simple form, and I venture to say it delightsmost of us so much that it is now in its sixtieth performance.If some operas are to be developed on Wagnerian lines therewill certainly be another branch returning to the more simple

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Tendencies of the Operatic Stage. 151

form of Mozart; " La Reve " and " Hansel and Gretel " areparallel examples. In the case of " William Tell," this operareally expressed the sentiment of the time; was it not theoutcome of the feelings of freedom in France after the revolu-tion and the putting down of the monarchy ? How far weare going in the direction of that curious compound of M.Bruneau, which Dr. Maclean calls counterpoint, I really don'tknow. He urged composers to give something pore thanlocal colour to their music, to seek to represent the individual-ism of the characters themselves. This Wagner has done inall his later works, for we get the Leitmotiven at everymoment, showing us the thoughts dominating the characters.Dr. Maclean appears to want us to go farther. Suppose, forinstance, we get an opera about Robinson Crusoe. How is thecharacter of Friday to be expressed ? How are his feelingsto be set down and his individualism to be described ? Tothis depiction I think we should prefer Bruneau's consecutivefifths and octaves, hideous as they are. Still, I look forwardto a closer representation of the feelings expressed in themusic assigned to the characters before us on the stage.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

irm

ingh

am]

at 2

1:46

19

Nov

embe

r 20

14