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8/14/2019 Technology, the recording and distribution of music
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/technology-the-recording-and-distribution-of-music 1/17
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8/14/2019 Technology, the recording and distribution of music
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Contents
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 3
DISTRIBUTION................... ................... .................. .................. .................. ................... .................. ............... 4
RECORDING....................................................................................................................................................11
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................................14
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Introduction
Thereislittledoubtthattechnologyhashadagreatimpactontheworldofmusic.The
PAsystemsofthe1960sthatmadebiggerconcertspossible,newinstrumentssuchas
theelectricguitarorthesynthesizerhasalsomadenewtimbrespossible.Inthe
recordingstudiothedigitalagehasgivenmusiciansamazingpossibilitieswhenitcomes
tocreatingnewsoundsormanipulatingrecordedsounds1.Nowonecanrecordfor
exampleapianochordandthenmanipulateittochangetheactualnoteswithinthe
alreadyrecordedsound.
Inthisessaymygoalistolookathowwhatkindofresearchthathasbeendonewith
regardstohowmusichasbeeninfluencedbytechnology.Therearemanydifferentways
toapproachthisandIhavetriedtofocusonsomeoftheaspectsofthisfield.
Needlesstosay,technologyisfartoolargeasubjecttotackleinanyonebodyofwork.
Thetermcouldincludenotationtechniques,theinventionordevelopmentofnewor
currentinstruments,andtosomeextentthedifferentvocaltechniquespracticedin
variouscultures.Ihaveattemptedtonarrowmyfocusdowntotwodifferentaspectsof
technology:
1) Thedistributionprocess,bywhichImeanhowmusichasbeendistributedfrom
theinventionofthephonograph,onecouldofcourselookatthedistribution
modesofnotation,travellingbardstakingthesongswiththemtonewplaces,or
justthesongsthemselvesbeingtransferredthroughwordofmouth.Although
thesesystemsofdistributionstillexistitisfairtosaythatthephysical
distributionofmusichastakenoverinalargeextent.
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2) Therecordingprocess,thepossibilityofactuallybeingabletorecordsoundand
transferittoaphysicalmediumisafairlynewone.Sincethephonographthe
processhasbecomelesslaboriousbutperhapsmoreimportantly:the
possibilitiesforintentionallymanipulatingthesoundasgivennewopportunities
andfieldsofinterestforcomposersandmusicians.Thissectionisintendedto
provideaninsightintosomeofthecharacteristicsofrecordedsoundthat
separatesitfromthe“live”sound.
Distribution
Toalargeextent,distributionandconsumptionfunctioninrelationtoeachother.The
distributionwillaffecthow,andwhat,isconsumedbythemarket,andthisappliesof
coursetomusic.Likewisethedemand,orconsumptionpatternswillinfluencethe
distribution,thisisperhaps,evenmoretrueincommercialmusic.Ihavetherefore
chosentoincludetwomodelsofdistribution.Firstlythemodelofculture,orinthiscase
music,asbeingconsumed“top-down”.ThisisaccordingtoTaylor;“theso-calledculture
industriespromulgatetheirproductsonapublicthatacceptsthemunquestioningly”.2
Theissuesofagency,issomethingwewillcomebacktobutfornowwewilllooksolely
ontheconsumption.Examplesofthiscanbefoundinmostpopmusic,especially,music
foundinthechartsinDecember.Thisiswhentheconsumersarebeingbombardedwith
advertisement.Thishappensinmanyways,theobviousonecouldbeadsinnewspapers
ofintelevision,buttherearemoresubtleways,suchasencouragingtherecordsstores
toplayspecificalbumsintheshop,theChristmassuggestionsfoundinnewspapersor
justthroughinstoreevents.Thereare,ofcourse,justafewofmanymarketingtools.
Theseconddistributionistheopposite;thisisthe“bottom-up”,definedbyTayloras
“peoplemaketheirownmeaningoutofmass-producedandmass-mediatedcultural
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forms”.Somesongsorartistsbecomefamouswithouttherecordindustryanticipatingit
inadvance.Theymayreceiveanunexpectedlygoodreview,havetheirmusicappearin
amovie,besooriginal,orperhapsappearonthecoverofRollingStone.Thereis
howeveratendencythathasbeenintensifiedthelastdecadeorso,especiallyafterthe
Internet,tocreateanimpressionofanartistbecomingfamousthroughabottom-up
modelwhen,infact,itistheotherwayaround.Therehasbeenanincreasingly
professionalapproachwithinrecordcompanieswhenitcomestocreatingafake“hype”
aroundtheartists.Itisforinstancenotacoincidencewhensongsappearonthe“Rock
Band”orthe“GuitarHero”gamesorwhenRøyksoppappearsinAmericanTV-ads.This
isaresultofhardworkbyrecordcompanies,andgivetheimpressionthattheirartists
arepopularorcontemporary.Thetwofollowingexamplesdemonstratewaysinwhich
therecordindustry,“simulate”a“bottom-up”model.Thefalsehypecreatedwhen
ChristinaAguilerawasreleasingherfirstalbumisanexampleofthemoretypicalwayof
doingthis.3ButafarmoreinteractiveexampleisthemarketingsurroundingtheNine
InchNailsalbumYearZero,inthiscaseacompanythatproducesvideogameswas
employed.SeveralUSBstoragedeviceswerefoundafteraNineInchNailsconcert,these
linkedfanstowebsites,withcodesandriddlesthatgavethemnewwebsites.Thesesites
weredesignedinawaythatcoincidedwiththesubjectmatterofthenewalbumbutalso
gavefanssnippetsofnewsongsandvideos.Thismarketingplanalsocausedthefansto
discussthewebsitesandriddlesondifferentforums.Effectivelyleavingittothefansto
spreadthewordoftheupcomingrelease.4Thisisprettymuchanaturalextensionof
word-of-mouth,utilizingthepossibilitiestheInternetprovides.Theideabehindthe
marketingitselfhasbeennamed,viralmarketing.Despitethedramaticnameitissimply
theideathattheconsumers,spreadthemessagethemselves,whereasthe“traditional”
marketingrequiresconstantlyremindingtheconsumersofyourmessagethrough
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advertisementorsimilarmethods.Taylorarguesthatweshouldnottrytochoseone
theoryovertheotherbutratheracceptadualityasheputit:“sometimessome
consumersinsomeplacesandtimesareduped;sometimessomeindustriesinsome
placesandtimesfailtofooltheircustomers”5.
Thewholeconceptofviralmarketing,again,bringsustotheissueofagency.Arepeople
simplydoingwhattheyaretoldhere?Dopeoplesimplyreceivethemessagethroughthe
technology,inthiscasetheInternet,andspreadtheword?Therehavebeentwomain
camps,whentalkingaboutagencyandtechnology;thefirstoneistheideaof
voluntarism,technologyisviewedasnothingmorethanatool,dependingonthewillof
theuseriscanbevoluntarilyusedforgoodorbad.Thusbeingessentiallyneutralin
itself.6Thesecondideaisthenotionoftechnologicaldeterminism,thisisessentiallythe
opposite,statingthatthetechnologytransformstheused.Thesenotionsareverymuch
supportedbytheliteratureofMarshallMcLuhan.Thisisinasenseapessimisticview
suggestingthatiteffectivelyrobstheuserofagency.Technologicalsomnambulismisin
asensetheideathatattemptstocapturethebestofbothworlds.Itisamarginalstance
comparedtodeterminismandvoluntarism.Thebasisforthisdirectionisthe
assumptionthattechnologyismadebyengineersandusedbyeveryoneelse;itis
nothingmorethanatoolanddoesthereforenotneedanylookinginto.Ifweattemptto
transferthesetheoriestotheactualworldtheycanquicklyseemtooabsolute.They
clearlyneedmorerefinement.WiebeE.Bijkercitesthreedifferentmodesofanalysis;
thefirstmodeisthesystemsapproach,thisisanapproach“inwhichlargetechnological
systemsarethemainfocalpointofanalysis”.7Thesecondapproachisnamedactor
networkand“attemptstoanalyseanysociotechnicalensemblewiththesameanalytical
frameworkforbothhumanandnonhumanactors”,thiswillofcoursegivesomeformof
agencytoobjects,orinthiscase,technology.Thethirdapproachisthesocial
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constructionoftechnology.Hereonestartsbyexaminingthe“relevantsocialgroups”,
theonesresponsibleforthetechnology.InthetraditionalcontextIassumethe“relevant
socialgroup”istheengineers,ofteninacommercialsetting(creatingsomethingin
ordertomakemoney).However,alotofinnovationthesedayscomesfrompeople
workingoutsidethetraditionalsocialgroupofengineers,suchashackers,innovative
musiciansor,inadigitalcontext,anyonewithsomeknowledgeofOpenSourcesoftware.
YannSeznec,alsoknownasTheAmazingRolo,hascreatedtheWiiLoopMachine8.At
theBimucconferenceinBergenlastyearclaimedthathedidnotregardhimselfasa
computerexpert.Simplysomeonewhowasveryinterestedinmusic,hadanidea,and
taughthimselfenoughtofollowthroughwiththecomputerprogramming.Ifonethinks
alongtheselinesspecificallyinthecontextofdistributionandrecordinghistoryone
mightquicklyseethelimitationsofthesetheories.Yetanotherexampleofproblems
aroundagencyisthemp3file.Theinventionofthemp3filesstemsbacktothelate
eightiesandearlyeighties,whenengineerswereattemptingtocreateadigitalwayof
transportingvideoandaudiotogether.Thiswasprimarilydesignedforthemovie
makingbusinessandreliedonencodingthefilesinsuchawayasthattheyremovedall
unnecessary“extra”informationthatisnotaudibleorvisualforthehumans.Later,this
technologywasutilizedbyotherprogrammerswhoalteredthefilesandusedthemfor
thestoringanddistributionofmusic.9Theseprogrammerswerenotworkingina
commercialsettingbutdidthisontheirowninitiative.Thisbecomesthenanexampleof
usersalteringthetechnologyandgivingitnewuses.Itwasofcoursenotuntilthemp3
filesweremarriedwiththep2p(filesharing)technologythatitcouldtrulybecomea
globaldistributionmedia.10Thismeansthatitwasnotnecessarilyonerelevantsocial
group,butseveralgroups,workingisolatedondifferentprojectsintheformof
developingthemp3formatandthep2ptechnology.Taylorseemstothinkthatneither
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ofthesetheoriesadequatelymanagestofocusonthepeople.Heisnotinterestedinthe
specifictechnologiesbutratheronpeople’sinteractionwiththem.11Hearguesforan
adoptionofpracticetheory,12whenlookingattechnology.Thetheoryisbasedonthe
ideathat“consciousnessofindividualselfasasubjectcomerintobeingthrough‘labour’
ofexpressiveexternalization,reflectiononandreappropriationofthatwork.”13The
ideahereistoapproachtechnologiesastextsthatpeoplerelatedto(orareforcedto
relateto)andhowthisinteractioncreatesidentities,categories,etc.However,SherryB.
Ortnerpointsoutthatpracticetheoryshouldbeviewedmoreasafoundationtobuild
newtheoriesonratherthanacceptitasareadytheory.14MosttheoristsintheScience
andTechnologystudies(STS)tendtoemphasizetheactor-networkapproachto
thinkingoftechnology.Theideaisbasedonthenotionthattheengineerswhodevelop
thetechnology“inscribe”15theirideaupontheartefact,orinthiscaseitcouldbethe
gadget.Andpeoplewhousethetechnologylatersimplyusetheideasalreadyinthe
gadgets,thus,effectively,becomingsimplyobjectswithoutagency.Theagencyisinthe
object,notthepeople.Thisisanideathatcouldworkwhenonetalkaboutverysimple
technologiesorobjectsthatarebasedaroundonefunctionandcannotbemanipulated.
Inordertodemonstratethis,Iwillcontinuewithafewexamples,lookingatthemp3
files,sinceitprovidestheuserwithalevelofinteractionandadaptionofusesthathas
notbeenpossiblewithpreviousformats.
Mp3filesenablesustodigitalizethemusic,removingitfromaphysicalobjectand
distributeitthroughtheInternet.ThishashadseveralconsequencesandIchooseto
focusontwoofthemhere;Whereasweusedtobuyalbumsofartiststogetourfavourite
songswecannowpurchase/downloadthespecificsongswewant.Whenyoucombine
thiswiththeeaseofcreatingplaylistswecanseethatthenotionsof“concept”albums
becomeslessrelevant.Weare“freed”fromhavingtoacceptthemusicthewayitis
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presentedonalbumsbythemusicindustry.Taylorclaimsthat“today’stechnology
makespossibleforagreaterdegreeofeclecticisminconsumptionthaneverbefore
becauseofpurchases(ordownloads)fromthewebofsingletracksofrecordedmusic”,
theconsequenceinhismindisthat“…itisnoweasytoacquire,cheaplyorfornocostat
all,justaboutanykindofmusiconemightwantfromtheinternet”.16Thisisalso
supportedbythesecondconsequenceofthemp3files;Thedistributioncannowbe
donewithouthavingtomakephysicalcopiesofthemusic,meaningthatonecansell
moredigitalunitswithouthavingtotaketheriskofendingupwiththousandsofCD
unitsthatitwasnotpossibletosell.Thisalsomakesiteasiertogetholdofmoreobscure
musicquicker,ratherthanhavingtowaitforweeksforaCDfromanothercontinent,ifit
waspossibletoorderinthefirstplace.Katz,whodescribesanewapproachto
discoveringmusic,alsosupportsthisview.Hetermsthe“divergentapproach”17asa
newwayofactivelyseekingoutnewmusic.Theideaisthatratherthansearchingfor
specificartistsyoucansearchonkeywords,Katzusestheexampleofsearchingfor
“Cello”givingyou“CelloSongs”byNickDrake,Bach,andApocalyptica.Thisallowsyou
todiscovernewmusicfromcompletelynewgenresthatyouprobablywouldnotfind
withouttime-consumingresearchifyouweretodoitwithouttheInternetorp2p
networking.Whentalkingaboutthemp3sandthenewpossibilitiesofinteractionit
seemsfittingtomentionanotherexamplefromthebandNineInchNails,thisonedeals
tosomeextentwithtechnologicaldeterminism,ormorespecifically,howtheconsumers
oftheproductcanadaptitinwaysthatwerenotoriginallyconceivedbythe“engineers”
orinthiscase,theband.Afterreleasingthe“YearZero”record,thebandreleaseda
recordcalled“Y34RZ3R0R3M1X3D” thisconsistedofacompleteremixof“YearZero”
byaseriesofguestmusicians,butmorerelevantly,itwasreleasedwithabonusdisc
consistingofthemixdownfilesofthealbum.18Fanswerethenencouragedtoupload
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theirversionsofthesongsontoadesignatedsite(http://remix.nin.com/)whereother
peoplecanhear,download,commentandrateremixes.Thismakesthenotionthatwe
simplyconsumefinishedproductswithspecific“messages”alreadyinscribedontothem
complicated.Thetechnologyofdigitalprocessingofsoundaswellasthetechnologythat
makessuchdistributionpossible.ThiscouldbeseenasaculminationofwhatKatz
mentionswhenhesays:“…listenerscanbecomeamateursoundengineers…”19.When
onelooksatvoluntarismanddeterminismagencybecomesacentralissue.Itistoover
simplifytosaythatyouare“eitheragentsinthefaceoftechnology,orunagentic”20.One
couldlookatwheneverpeopleuseexistingtechnologyinanewway,theyarenotusing
itinthewaythatisalready‘determined’bythetechnology.Thisbecomesespeciallytrue
becauseofthemp3files.ThepracticeofDJingwouldforinstancenothavehappenedif
peoplemindlesslyusedthetechnologyinthewaytheengineersintended.TheLPplayer
wasintendedtolistentomusicwiththerecordspinningbyitself,nottobetouched.
However,thisisexactlywhattheDJsstartedexperimentingwith,andbybreakingthe
rulestheyalsoillustratethelimitationsoftheSTSapproachtoactornetwork.According
toKatztheDJing“…subverts the intended functions of the phonograph and the disc. It
transforms a sound reproduction mechanism into a musical instrument and treats
records –typically finished musical products –as raw material…” 21Thisapproachis
faultyevenintheverybeginningofrecordinghistory,theintendeduseandtheactual
useofthephonograph.22
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Recording
Music,orthedistributionofithasundergonesomedramaticchangesovertheyears.
Frombeingperformeditmovedontonotationintheninthcentury.Thishasbeen
attributedtoCharlemagne23.Thischangedthewaymusicwasdistributed,nowone
couldbringthemusiconpaperandiftheperformersweretrainedtheycouldreproduce
itwithouthavingeverheardthemusicbefore.Theinventionofmovabletypealso
acceleratedthedistributionofmusicinthesixteenthcentury,makingthedistributionof
musicevenmoreefficient.Eventthoughtheinventionofthephonographin1877
heraldedanewageofrecordedsound,itdidnotreachthemassesuntilyearsafter.In
fact,Edison’sfocuswasoncreatingadictaphone,notamusicrecordingdevice24.Had
theworldstrictlyadheredtosomeofthetheoriesthetechnology’sagencywewouldnot
havelistenedtomusicbutonlythespokenword,sincetheprimaryintentionofthe
“engineer”wastocreateadictaphone.Infact,itwasnotuntilthe1890sthatonecould
firstseethecontoursofacommercialmarketdeveloping.25
Katzpresentsseveralpropertiesoftherecordedsounds,whichheclaimshasgreatly
impactedthewaywerecord,listenanddistributemusic.Inowintendtodescribesome
ofthesetraitsandrelatethemtoactualexamples.Thefirstqualityistangibility,the
actualmusicisstoredonamediumthatisaconcrete,tangibleobject.Thismakes
transportationofmusicmucheasier,whereasonehadtomovetotheperformersor
havetheperformersmovetoyou(orperformyourself).Thisrelatesofcourse,tothe
distributionprocess,wherethenextdevelopmentisthatthemediumitselfhasbecome
intangible,simplybinarycodesthatonecancopywithease.Thisbringuptheissueof
portability,thenextqualityKatzcites.Thisiswheretherecordedmusictruly
differentiatesfromthelivemusic.Theauthorcitesthefactthatyoucantakethe
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recordingandlistentoitsomewhereelsethenwhereitwasrecorded,however,the
portabilityoftheactionofrecordingisalsosignificant.Onemajorchangehasbeenthat
therecordingstudioisnotwhatitusedtobe,inthe1970sand1980s“thestudio”
impliedalocalewithexpensiveequipment,mixers,monitors,microphonesetc.There
hasbeenachangefromthisexpensiveandprofessionalstudiotothehomestudio.These
daystheprocessorsofregularcomputershavebecomesopowerfulthatonedoesnot
necessarilyneedtobookastudioasonedidbefore.Entirealbumscannowbecreated
onlaptops.Theportabilityallowsyoutolistentothemusic,removedfromitsoriginal
livesetting.Listeningtomusicintheprivacyofyourownhome,byyourselfforinstance.
Youcanalsorepeattherecordinganditwillremainstatic,whereaslivemusicwillvary
invariousways,dependingonfactorssuchasacoustics,skilloftheperformer,
positioningoftheperformeretc.Thefactthatourperceptionofthemusicchanges,as
wellasthefactthatthe“work”becomestherecording,wediscovernewaspectsofthe
music.ThisisalsousedcreativelyinDJing,wheretheDJtakessmallsamplesandloops
theminnewandinterestingways.Therepeatabilityisinthiscontextusedasawayof
manipulatingtherecording,whichisthenexttraitdescribedbyKatz.Hepointsoutthat
recordinghasgivenusthepossibilitytomanipulatethemediumthatstoresthesound,
openingupformanytechnicalmanipulationsoftherecording.Althoughthese
manipulationsaretechnicalincharactertheycanbeusedmusically.Therhythmicuseof
samplesinDJing,modulationeffectsfornewandinterestingtimbres,mixingtogether
“unrealistic”mixesinstereoorsurroundcouldbeexamplesofthetechnicalused
musically.Anotherexampleofthepossibilitiesformanipulationoftherecordingisto
lookatthenewpossibilitiesthathaveappearedoverthelast20years.Whenlookingin
theLogicStudiorecordingsoftwaremanualtherearemorethan100differentvirtual
instrumentsthatcanbeeitherpunchedinorrecordedonamidisynth.Thereisevenan
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extrainstructionbook(let)regardingthepossibilitiesforinstrumentsandeffectanditis
668pageslong26.Andthisisrecordingsoftwarethatcanberunononlylaptops,maybe
connectedtoanmicrophoneThepossibilitiesinthedigitaleffectsandinstruments
worldaremassive.Therearethosewhoarguethattheincreaseinpossibilitiesnot
necessarilyequatesanincreaseinfreedom.ForBrianEnoitistheotherwayaround:
moreoptionsblockintuitivework,takeuptoomuchofthebrain’sfunctionthatshould
beleftrespondwith“attentionandsensitivitytothechangingtextureofthemoment”.27
Arecordingcouldbeseenasintrinsicallyunrealisticsincethesoundisseparatedfrom
thevisualstimuli,thataccompaniesitinthe“natural”,live,world.Visibilityisthenext
traitonKatz’list.Thisissomethingwemightnotbeabletofullyappreciateinourday
andageseeingaswehavebeenraisedwithrecordingtechnologyaroundus.Anasa
consequenceofthepossibilitytomanipulatesounditmustalsobeacceptedthatmany
ofthesoundwearehearingarenot“natural”inanyway.ArtistssuchasMuslimgauze
andBancodeGaiaappearasbandsbutareinrealityone-manprojects28.Thisis
electronicsamplebasedmusic,whichimpliesthecomposingisinselectingandediting
theloopstogether.Thereisnovisualstimulithataccompaniesitsimplybecausethe
recordingisdonebyaddingdifferenttracksinrecordingsoftware.Thereisno“live”
musictorecordinthefirstplace.Theideathatthesonghasbecomerecordedandthat
thework“lasts”for4minutesinthe“real”worldthereforebecomesanillusionatbest.
Theysimplydonothavenaturalvisualstimulithat,accompaniesit.Thisbringsustothe
issueoftemporality,whenavoiceisrecorded;itiscapturedandinasensefreedfrom
time.Dependingonthemediumitisstoreduponitcanlastforyears,andbereplayedin
adifferenttime,maybeevenwhenthepersonisdead.Weheartherecordingina
differentplacebothphysicallybutalsopsychologically.Wedonotappreciatethe
uniquenessofarecordingnow,whereasin1880,wewouldhavebeeninaweonsucha
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reproductionofsound.Itopensupforhearingthingsthatarenolongerinexistence,
suchascastratosingersforinstance.
TheexamplesofMuslimgauzeandBancoDeGaiasupportTaylorwhenheclaimsthat
“Musicasasocialactivityisbecomingathingofthepastformanymusicians”29.When
youalsolookatthepricereductionofequipmentsuchassynthesizersanddrum
machinesonecanseethatitisnowpossibletofor“anyone”tobuildtheirownstudio.
This,coupledwiththeeaseofdistributingmp3files(nottheeaseofmakingmoneyon
thedistribution)hasledtowhatmanycallademocratizationofthemusicmaking.,
HoweveraccordingtoTaylorthisisanissuethatisrarelyelaboratedbeyondthe
obviousreasonofavailabilityandtheeaseofmakingit.30
Conclusion
InthisessayIhavetriedtodemonstrateanddiscusssomeoftheaspectsofboththe
distributionandrecording.Inthedistributionfieldwehaveseenhowthedifferent
consumptionmodelsareappliedtothetotherecordindustryandhownew
technologiessuchasthemp3formatandp2pfilesharingchallengethehegemonyofthe
recordcompanies,whorelyonthecommercialphysicalformats.Thiscanalsobeseenin
relationtotheissueofagency.Arewesimplyusingthetechnologyastheengineers
intended,oristhetechnologyanextensionofourownwill?Theintentionwastolistthe
relevanttheoriesonagencyanddemonstratetheminthedigitalworld.Whenitcomes
torecording,itisclearthatrecordedmusicdiffersfundamentallyfromlivemusic.The
differenttraitsKatzlistshaveimpactedthewaywelisten,howwedistributeandhow
werecord.Theyalsoprovideuswithconcept;theyinturn,makeiteasierto
differentiatebetweentherecordedandthelivemusic.Clearlymuchmorecouldbesaid
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onthissubject.Ihavebeenforcedtolimittheamountmaterialinthissectionbut
hopefullythematerialusedsayssomethingaboutthequalitiesthatcanberelatedtothe
distributionprocessandshedsomelightondifferentaspectsofthetheoriesofagency
andconsumptioninthefaceoftheworldofthecommerciallyrecordedmusic.
1Youtube.Com,melodynepromotionaltrailerviewed16.10.08http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFCjv4_jqAY2Taylor,2001:223Taylor,2001:284Ninwiki.com,viewedonthe16.10.08
http://www.ninwiki.com/Timeline_of_Year_Zero_Discovery5Taylor,2001:256Taylor,2001:267
Taylor,2001:318WiiLoopMachinewebsite,viewedonthe8.11.08:http://www.theamazingrolo.net/wii/?page_id=14
9Katz,2005:16010Katz,2005:16111,Taylor,2001:33,3412Taylor,2001:3413GroveMusicOnline,Ethnomusicology,§IV:Contemporarytheoreticalissues,Chapter
9,PracticeTheory14Taylor,2001,3415Taylor,2001,3216Taylor,2001:1917Katz,2005:16718NineInchNailsofficialwebsitehttp://yearzero.nin.com/remix/viewedonthe30.10-0819Katz,2005:16920Taylor,2001:3121Katz,2005:13222Katz,2005:7123Taylor,2001:324
Blokhus/Molde,2004:3425Blokhus/Mole,2004:37
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26LogicStudio:InstrumentsandEffects(2007)27Taylor,2001,11128Talor,2001:14029
Taylor,200113930Taylor,2001,161
BibliografiBlokkhus,Y.,&Molde,A.(2004).Wow!PopulærmusikkensHistorie.Oslo:Universitetsforlaget.
Katz,M.(2005).CapturingSound:HowTechnologyHasChangedMusic.Berkley,
California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Sterne,J.(2003).TheAudiblePast:CulturalOriginsofSoundReproduction.Durham,D.C,
U.S.A.:DukeUniversityPress.
Taylor,T.D.(2001).StrangeSounds:Music,Techology&Culture.London:Routledge.
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