Teaching with the

ELA Shifts in Mind

Created by Jenny Conklin-Frank Adapted by Carol Bush Network Team Specialist Orleans/Niagara BOCES

Shift 1:

PK-5 Balancing Informational and Literary Texts

According to this shift, students are expected to engage in an equal balance of informational and

literary reading. It is expected that as students continue to grow and experience the world

(science, social studies, fine arts etc.), they will do so through text. At least 50% of what

elementary students read should be informational. This does not only include narrative forms

of informational text (essays, biographies, memoirs, etc.), but forms of informational text that

include unique text features as well (―how-to‖ manuals, maps, recipes, tables, charts, etc).

Below you will find a list of various genres/forms of literary and informational text as well as

text features that students should be familiar with.

Genres (literary or thematic

categories)

Forms (physical forms and functions of the text)

Text Features (design or presentation of the text)

Adventure

Epic

Fable

Fairy tale

Fantasy

Folk tale

Historical fiction

Horror

Humor and satire

Legend

Mystery

Myth

Poetry

Realistic fiction

Science fiction

Autobiography

Biography

Memoir

Diary or journal

Travel book

Atlas

Textbook

Reference text

Technical text

Narrative (informational or literary)

such as:

stories told in poetry, novels, short stories,

picture books

Recount (informational or literary)

first-person accounts such as:

diaries, journals, short stories, novels,

memoirs

Procedure such as:

recipes, rule books, maps and directions,

instruction manuals, ―how to‖ books and

posters, experiments

Exposition such as:

essays, position papers, articles,

advertisements

Explanation such as:

textbooks in science, social studies,

history, geography

Report such as:

magazine and newspaper reports, letters,

editorials, critical reviews, essays, posters

Electronic text such as:

multimedia texts, e-mail, blogs, websites,

broadcasts

Functional text such as:

lists, memos, pamphlets, notes, brochures,

flyers, print advertisements, CD cover

inserts, invitations, announcements,

programs, business letters, scripts,

minutes of a meeting

Structural elements and

navigation aids such as:

Table of contents

Index

Title and topic

Headings

Preface or Foreword

Epilogue

Captions

Footnotes and endnotes

Glossary

Bibliography

Pull-down menus

Hyperlinks

Typographical or design

elements such as:

Font or type style

Bold and italic print

Color

Layout

Illustrations such as:

Inlays and cross-sections

Pull quotes

Sidebars

Photos

Graphs and charts

Timelines

Maps

A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction, Grades 4 to 6: A Multivolume Resource from the Ministry of Education (2006), 1:37.

Shift 1: Examining Text Features

What are text features?

Text features are the physical features of the text that highlight the important content. Knowledge about text

features enables students to use them to improve their comprehension of the text. According to Kinder and

Bursuck (1991), physical text that is well presented facilitates reading comprehension. When students learn how

to use text features, they are able to make better predictions, anticipate their learning, and comprehend the

content being studied (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2010.).There are five broad categories of text features found in

informational texts:

1) Text divisions identify how the text is organized and presented. Some examples are chapters,

sections, introductions, summaries, and author information.

2) Organizational tools and sources of information help readers understand the information. Some

examples are titles, table of contents, index, headings and subheadings, glossary, pronunciation

guide, and references.

3) Graphics show information that is easier to understand because of its visual representation, or

enhances what was written in the text. Some examples are diagrams, charts and tables, graphs, maps,

labels, photographs, illustrations, paintings, cutaway views, timelines, and captions.

4) Font size or formatting style, such as boldface, italic, or a change in font signals the reader that

these words are important.

Layout includes aids such as insets, bullets, and numbers that point readers to important

information. (adapted from Fountas and Pinnell, 2006)

Why are text features important?

The purpose of text features is to help readers focus on the important information in the text. The teaching of

text features is important for a number of reasons:

Using the visual features of the text creates opportunities for teachers to build background knowledge

for students prior to reading the main text body (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2010).

The headings and subheadings are often part of informational text, which alert the reader to focus on the

topic they will be reading about. In addition, students can change the subtitles into questions, and thus

set a purpose for reading the section.

Text features present new material in meaningful chunks. In many cases, informational text is unknown

material to the students and it is easier for them to process information in smaller chunks, such as the

ones provided by the subheadings for each section. Also, indexes and tables of contents guide the reader

to look up pertinent information in an efficient way.

Many content informational texts provide a glossary so students can immediately understand the

meaning of words and see how they are being used in context.

How do you teach text features?

1.) Start by building the students‘ knowledge about the text features strategy. Explain that we can use

text features as a way to help us understand the content we‘re reading about.

2.) Discuss when it would be appropriate to use the text features strategy.

3.) Model the strategy for students.

4.) Support students as they begin to implement the strategy. Gradually reduce the amount of support as

students become more comfortable with the strategy.

5.) Students practice the text features strategy independently.

Shift 1: Read Around the Text Strategy

Shift 2:

6-12 Knowledge in the Disciplines

According to this shift, teachers outside of the ELA classroom are expected to incorporate

literacy experiences in their planning and instruction. It is essential that students see reading as

a way to gain information that pertains to the topic they are studying. As a result, ALL teachers

must include a range of content-specific ―texts‖ in their daily classroom practices. In addition,

teachers should also be providing their students with the opportunity to demonstrate the

knowledge they have gained through writing. Students should be expected to engage in reading

and writing activities in every classroom they enter. Below is a quote from Heidi Hayes-Jacobs

that sums up this shift in educational practice.

“Language capacity is the root of all student performance. The success of a classroom learning experience rests on student language capacity. Whether it is listening to directions, reading a passage, writing a response, or discussing a point of view, the individual student’s ability to perform and grow in a classroom rests squarely on his or her corresponding language capacity. The reading, writing, speaking, and listening strategies necessary for student engagement cut across disciplines. In the world of formal education, these strategies are requisite at every level for Johnny, Maria, Abdul, and Rachel. The need to read, write, speak, and listen effectively is fundamental to every subject, in every grade, and in every class these learners will ever attend.”

- Heidi Hayes-Jacobs, Active Literacy

Shift #2: Literacy Strategies for ALL Content Areas

The following is a description of a variety of strategies that provide student engagement while focusing on

student comprehension of content material. These strategies should move the learner toward academic literacy

by providing multiple opportunities for them to engage in dialogue, read and write in a variety of situations,

investigate relevant and meaningful concepts, and justify their thought processes.

SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review) is a study strategy that students may use throughout the

reading process. Using this strategy, students first preview texts in order to make predictions and generate

questions to help direct their reading. As students read, they actively search for answers to their questions, and,

when they have finished reading, they summarize what they have read and review their notes, thus monitoring

and evaluating their own comprehension.

A KWL (Know, Want, Learn) was described by Ogle in 1986 as a framework that is used to connect a

student‘s prior knowledge to what they are actively learning. The student begins by thinking about what they

already Know about the topic of study. Next, they think about what they Want to know, and finally, they

actively Learn something new about the topic. The students can do this activity independently, with minimal

guidance from the teacher, or it can be a teacher directed activity.

The DRTA (Directed Reading Thinking Activity) is a versatile strategy that promotes active reading and

greater comprehension. It involves three processes: predicting, reading, and proving.

Think-Pair-Share is a discussion strategy that can be used as a pre-reading activity, problem-solving strategy,

or as a follow-up activity. Each student becomes an active participant.

Sticky notes are used to mark sections in a text that students would like to return to, difficult sections for which

they require clarification, for instance, or powerful or clear passages they would like to share with others. These

stopping places can be used to foster discussion and inspire writing.

Think-Alouds help students understand the mental processes readers engage in when constructing meaning

from texts. The teacher models this strategy as he or she reads a selection aloud, thus enabling students to

observe what skilled readers think about while reading.

In QAR (Question-Answer Relationships) two categories of questions are identified, In the Book and In My

Head. These two categories are further broken-down into four types of questions, Right There, Think and

Search, Author and You, and On My Own. This questioning taxonomy codifies an approach to reading texts

and answering questions and helps students understand the need to consider both information in the text and

information from their own background knowledge. QAR is the basis for three comprehension strategies,

including (1) locating information, (2) determining text structures and how these structures may convey

information, and (3) determining when an inference would be required or invited.

Reciprocal teaching uses the skills of predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing to interact with

challenging material. Through the use of these four skills, the students learn how to set purposes for reading,

how to critically evaluate and monitor themselves, and how to find the main idea in the text. The teacher

initially models the interactive dialogue, with the students following the teacher‘s example and engaging in the

same activities. As students become more proficient with this procedure, have them take turns being student

teacher for small groups of 2 to 4 students.

The Story Face is a graphic organizer that aids students‘ comprehension of narrative text. It functions like a

story map, allowing students to visualize the important components of a narrative text, including setting, main

characters, problems, events, and a resolution.

Shift #2: Literacy Strategies for ALL Content Areas (continued)

Two-column notes help students think critically about text. There are several variations.

Questioning the Author is a comprehension strategy that enables students to construct meaning from texts. It

is grounded in the fact that many textbooks lack coherence and explanation and assume unrealistic levels of

background knowledge. This strategy asks readers to engage with text in a meaningful way.

Anticipation Guides can be used to activate and assess students‘ prior knowledge, to establish a purpose for

reading, and to motivate students by stimulating their interest. They promote active reading and critical

thinking.

Graphic organizers represent information visually in a clear, logical manner. Not only do they represent

content information, but also the relationships that link ideas together. Graphic organizers help students store

and recall information that assists in understanding what is read.

Word Splash is a before-reading strategy that introduces students to key vocabulary, allowing them to access

prior knowledge of the topic. Students are asked to sort words into categories, justifying their placement based

on prior knowledge. Students make predictions based on what they know from the introduced vocabulary

words, which can be confirmed as the story or article is read. This strategy works especially well with

nonfiction text.

Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA) uses a chart that compares the terminology of a subject by its features or

characteristics. An SFA is a visual representation of how the terms students are studying are similar or different.

An SFA can be used with any content subject area.

Concept sorts are activities in categorization. Students can sort objects, pictures and/or words by concepts or

meaning. This is an excellent way to link vocabulary instruction to what students already know and to expand

their conceptual understanding of essential reading vocabulary.

A Concept Definition Map is a graphic representation that helps students understand the essential attributes,

qualities, or characteristics of a word‘s meaning. It is also a strategy for teaching students the meaning of a key

concept by having students describe the concept and cite examples of it.

A grouping and labeling activities prior to reading helps students predict and clarify the meanings of words

and the upcoming text. The teacher might list the words thought to be unfamiliar or ask the students to

brainstorm about the topic and identify such words. The teacher might provide the labels, as in a closed sort, or

ask the students to determine the categories, as in an open sort. This activity requires classification, deductive

reasoning, inference, and prediction. A similar activity after reading can help students absorb and comprehend

the vocabulary essential to the topic.

Using the Content with Sticky Notes and Jot Chart. The use of context is vital for determining the meaning

of unfamiliar words so that the reader does not have to break the flow of the text by stopping and using a

reference tool. Students should be provided many opportunities to examine unfamiliar words in rich contexts

that make use of synonym, definition, explanation, antonym, example, and inference types of clues. By using

sticky notes to mark the unfamiliar words found during reading, students can return to these words after reading

and determine their meanings if the meanings have not been revealed by subsequent context.

The Hot Spots strategy is a tactile and interactive method to allow students to seek and receive clarification for

unfamiliar ideas and words found while reading.

Shift #2: Literacy Strategies for ALL Content Areas (continued)

Partner Reading. Fluency is the clear, easy expression of words or the freedom from word identification errors

during reading. Students need to build fluency by rereading and practicing reading text aloud. In the Partner

Reading strategy, students take turns reading with a partner or in a small group. Self-correction is encouraged.

The Read-Pair-Share strategy, based on the work of Larson and Dansereau, is based on the idea that readers

summarize and clarify more easily with peer support. Summarizing helps students demonstrate literal

comprehension, and clarifying helps students ask and answer questions about text.

The ReQuest strategy, based on the work of Manzo, stems from the idea that readers need to ask informed

questions in order to comprehend. ReQuest is recommended for weaker readers because it involves a short

portion of text, small groups, and supportive teacher modeling.

The Written Conversation (WC) strategy was developed by Bintz and Shelton to capitalize on adolescents‘

natural tendency to socialize. Students working in pairs have a silent conversation by ―talking‖ on paper. Since

the conversational process has been slowed down, the students will often ―listen‖ to each other‘s ideas more

intensely than in spoken conversation.

The Pattern Guide strategy, developed by Herber, demonstrates the predominant pattern the author used to

construct the text. Pattern guides can help readers recognize causal relationships as well as patterns of

organization. These guides, also called graphic organizers, should be chosen or created by the teacher to match

the text to help students recognize the relationship between main ideas and details as well as to facilitate note

taking while reading.

Summarizing is difficult, and students need to be shown a variety of ways to perfect their skill at this. Rules,

models, graphic organizers, and collaboration are all effective. The Summarizing Based on Rules strategy,

based on the work of A. L. Brown and J. D. Day, allows students to follow a set of concrete guidelines while

developing skill at summarizing.

The About/Point strategy, developed by Morgan, Meeks, Schollaert, and Paul, is a versatile strategy for

informational, persuasive, and expository text. With it, readers need to find the subject of the text and state it

succinctly; they must enumerate the points made, as well. With such a chart, students can find and record the

main idea as well as the supporting details. They can also recognize the author‘s viewpoint or bias. Teacher

modeling is essential.

The Cooperative Reading Activity (CRA), developed by Opitz, is based on the idea that students can

effectively divide a reading, share ideas in a bulleted list, and report to the group. Individual reading is required,

but discussion and decision about the importance of details relies on consensus among group members. Note

taking is stressed.

The Zooming In and Zooming Out (ZIZO) strategy was developed by Harmon and Hedrick primarily to

enhance concept development in social studies texts, but in general, it works well with concept-laden

informational texts. It involves a two-part framework — one part for situating the concept in its larger picture

(ZO) and the other for taking a close look (ZI). The ZI part contains three components: 1) identifying the

concept, 2) ranking important information about the concept, and 3) listing unrelated or improbable

expectations related to the concept (non-examples). The ZO part also contains three components: 1) identifying

similar concepts, 2) identifying related concepts or events, and 3) summarizing.

Shift 3:

Staircase of Complexity

In order for students to be ready for the complexity of college and career texts, it is essential

that the complexity of the texts they encounter in school increases as they move throughout the

system. Each grade level requires students to take a ―step‖ of growth on the ―staircase‖ of

complexity. With this said, it is essential that teachers create more time and space in the

curriculum for this close and careful reading of complex text and provide appropriate support

and scaffolding for those students that are reading below grade level.

Shift 3: Understanding Text Complexity Expectations in the Common Core

The Common Core State Standards require students to read increasingly complex texts with increasing

independence as they progress toward career and college readiness.

A. Texts for each grade align with the complexity requirements outlined in the standards. Reading

Standard 10 outlines the level of text complexity at which students need to demonstrate comprehension in each

grade. (Appendix A in the Common Core State Standards gives further information on how text complexity can

be measured.)1 Research makes clear that the complexity levels of the texts students are presently required to

read are significantly below what is required to achieve college and career readiness. Far too often, students

who have fallen behind are given only less complex texts rather than the support they need to read texts at the

appropriate level of complexity. The Common Core State Standards hinge on students encountering

appropriately complex texts at each grade level to develop the mature language skills and the conceptual

knowledge they need for success in school and life. Instructional materials should also offer advanced texts to

provide students at every grade with the opportunity to read texts beyond their current grade level to prepare

them for the challenges of more complex text.

B. All students, including those who are behind, have extensive opportunities to encounter and

comprehend grade-level text as required by the standards. Materials aligned with the Common Core State

Standards must provide extensive opportunities for all students to engage with sufficiently complex text,

although some will need more scaffolding to do so. Curriculum developers and teachers have the flexibility to

build progressions of more complex text within grade-level bands that overlap to a limited degree with earlier

bands (e.g., grades 4–5 and grades 6–8). In addition to classroom work on texts at their own grade level, some

students may need further instruction, which could include approaches such as instruction on grade level texts,

fluency practice, vocabulary building, and additional practice with texts from the previous grade band.

However, this additional work should not replace extensive classroom practice with texts at or above grade

level, and all intervention programs should be designed to accelerate students rapidly toward independent

reading of grade-level text. Some percentage of students will enter grade 3 or later grades without command of

foundational reading skills such as decoding. For these students, it is essential that there are age appropriate

materials to ensure that they have extensive training and practice in the foundational reading skills required to

achieve fluency and comprehension. The K-2 publisher‘s criteria more fully articulates the essential foundation

skills all students need to decode in order to become fluent readers and comprehend text.

C. Shorter, challenging texts that elicit close reading and re-reading are provided regularly at each grade.

Thestudy of short texts is particularly useful to enable students at a wide range of reading levels to participate in

the close analysis of more demanding text. The Common Core State Standards place a high priority on the

close, sustained reading of complex text, beginning with Reading Standard 1. Such reading emphasizes the

particular over the general and strives to focus on what lies within the four corners of the text. It often requires

compact, short, self-contained texts that students can read and re-read deliberately and slowly to probe and

ponder the meanings of individual words, the order in which sentences unfold, and the development of ideas

over the course of the text.

D. Novels, plays, and other extended readings are also provided with opportunities for close reading as

well as research. Students should also be required to read several longer texts each year. Discussion of

extended or longer texts should span the entire text while also creating a series of questions that demonstrate

how careful attention to specific passages within the text provide opportunities for close reading. Students

should also be required to demonstrate that they are able to read larger volumes of material and extract

knowledge and insight.

Shift 3: Understanding Text Complexity Expectations in the Common Core (continued)

E. Additional materials markedly increase the opportunity for regular independent reading of texts that

appeal to students’ interests to develop both their knowledge and joy in reading. These materials should

ensure that all students have daily opportunities to read texts of their choice on their own during and outside of

the school day. Students should have access to a wide range of materials on a variety of topics and genres.

These texts should enable students to read broadly and widely to build their knowledge and experience.

Materials will need to include texts at students‘ own reading level as well as texts with complexity levels that

will challenge and motivate students. In alignment with the standards and to acknowledge the range of students‘

interests, these materials should include informational texts and literary nonfiction as well as literature. A wide

variety of formats can also engage a wider range of students, such as high-quality

Excerpt from the Publisher‘s Criteria, Common Core State Standards

Shift 3: Instructional Strategies Complex Text

‘Don’t’ Wait’ Technique

During Reading, the ―Don‘t Wait‖ technique is employed by the teacher by asking questions frequently and

throughout the selection rather than waiting until the end of a selection. Don‘t Wait questions are quick to

maximize time actually spent reading. Here‘s how

♦ 1 or 2 quick questions during reading (30 second—1 minute)

♦ Stop and jot opportunities (evidence-based quick writes)

♦ Get students back to reading

‘Lower the Level’ Technique

It is easy to assume that the goal is to get to the story level as quickly as possible and ask story-level questions.

In fact, the lower levels of meaning are critical to ensuring this level of understanding. This is where teachers

must spend more time developing readers, should they expect high-quality, evidence-based answers. As a pre-

reading activity or during the first read, teachers ask questions about a text at all of the following levels of

meaning:

♦ Word and phrase level

♦ Sentence level

♦ Passage level

♦ Story level

It is important to pay particular attention to word, phrase and sentence level. These are often the root of larger

misunderstandings and are easily over looked. For example:

“What does it mean that the lion “turned on them”? How is that different from turning around?”

“The author says, „It was the worst thing imaginable.‟ What‟s the „it‟ she‟s referring to there?”

Remember: Lower Level does not necessarily mean less rigorous! You aren‘t going down the ladder on

Bloom‘s Taxonomy when you ‗Lower the Level‘.

Additional Examples of Lower the Level Questions

Word/Phrase Level of Meaning

―The author says, ‗It was the most challenging thing possible.‘ What‘s the ‗it‘ she‘s referring to?‖

―Who is ‗he‘ in that sentence?‖

―The author writes ‗night fell‘. What does it mean that ‗night fell‘?‖

―What does it mean that the dogs ‗boiled out of the alley‘?‖

Sentence Level of Meaning

―Can you take that sentence and put it in your own words?‖

―It says, ‗whose names she didn‘t know.‘ What does that tell us about her relationship with these girls?‖

Passage Level of Meaning

―What parts of this paragraph tell you that Mohi is mean-spirited?‖

―Who can explain the most important event that‘s happened in the first page of this chapter?‖

Story Level of Meaning

―Is Macbeth a tragic hero or a cruel butcher?‖

―What is the moral of the story The Lion and The Mouse?‖

―What are some possible themes that we already see emerge in the first few pages of our novel?‖

Shift 4:

Text-Based Answers

According to this shift, teachers insist that classroom experiences stay deeply connected to the

text on the page. They promote rich and rigorous conversations that are dependent on a

common text and require students to use evidence from that text to support their arguments.

Currently students may be deficient in any one of several areas: foundational reading skills,

understanding of text structure, background knowledge, vocabulary attainment, and

comprehension strategies. The idea behind this shift is to help students build a repertoire of

reading strategies that support them in the deep comprehension of a text.

Shift 4: Evidence-Based Question Techniques

Teaching students how to ―unlock the full meaning of the texts they read is the single most powerful outcome a

teacher can foster‖ (Lemov, p. 249). Teachers can begin by helping students to remove barriers by teaching

them strategies for understanding words and their meaning independently and in context, facilitating deep

comprehension through questioning that leads to processing and analysis of text, and motivating readers to have

authentic conversations about texts to share perspective and generate ideas.

‘Evidence-Based Question (EBQ)’ Techniques

Top reading teachers constantly emphasize groundedness in the text, even on subjective and opinion questions,

by asking evidence-based questions—that is, questions where students must make reference to a fact or event

from the text. In this technique, teachers ask questions which require the students to make a direct reference to

the text. It is important to observe that evidence-based questions need not be narrow or concrete. Questions can

be used in two different ways, to induce or deduce, information. All that matters is that students are supporting

their answers with evidence from the text.

Shift 5:

Writing from Sources

According to this shift, students are expected to use evidence from multiple sources to inform or

make an argument. Traditionally, there has been a heavy emphasis on personal narrative

writing. Under this shift, narrative writing should be reduced to 30% of the writing by grade 8

and 20% of the writing by grade 12. The remaining percentage of writing should be equally

split between informative and argumentative writing. The goal is to have students to develop

strong skills through written argument that respond to the ideas, event, facts, and arguments

presented in the texts they read.

Shift 5: Writing Across the Curriculum Writing Across the Curriculum

In response to the need of students to learn content using a variety of strategies and their need to practice

writing in a variety of contexts, many teachers have adopted the strategies associated with WAC. The following

principles underlie WAC:

♦ Writing promotes learning;

♦ Integration of writing and the writing process promotes student participation, a diversity of student

voices, and engages students as critical thinkers while promoting their texts as important resources and

thinking tools;

♦ Effective writing instruction integrates disciplines;

♦ The opportunity to write in every class develops good writers;

♦ Using writing as part of instruction can be used in every classroom; and

♦ Only by practicing the thinking and writing conventions of an academic discipline will students begin to

communicate effectively within that discipline.

Including writing in instruction has short and long-term benefits. In the short term, students and their teachers

are better able to appraise how well they grasp information and where deeper elaboration of key concepts is

needed. Students are able to take small pieces of content and analyze them looking for patterns and connections.

In the long run, students who use writing as a technique to learn content have developed their skills as thinkers.

The organization, summary, and analysis of content becomes easier for students, producing richer

understandings for them. Students become more practiced at using writing to communicate their learning and

thinking. Writing is used to initiate discussion, reinforce content, and model the method of inquiry common to

the field. Writing can help students discover new knowledge as they sort through previous understandings, draw

connections, and uncover new ideas as they write.

Writing-to-learn fosters critical thinking, requiring analysis and application, and other higher level

thinking skills. It is writing that uses impromptu, short or informal writing tasks designed by the teacher

and included throughout the les- son to help students think through key concepts and ideas. Attention is

focused on ideas rather than correctness of style, grammar or spelling. It is less structured than

disciplinary writing. This approach frequently uses journals, logs, micro-themes, responses to written or

oral questions, summaries, free writing, notes and other writing assignments that align to learning ideas

and concepts.

When writing-to-demonstrate-knowledge, students show what they have learned by synthesizing

information and explaining their understanding of concepts and ideas. Students write for an audience

with a specific purpose. Products may apply knowledge in new ways or use academic structures for

research and/or formal writing. Examples include essays that deal with specific questions or problems,

letters, projects, and more formal assignments or papers prepared over weeks or over a course. They

adhere to format and style guidelines or standards typical of professional papers, such as reports, article

reviews, and research papers and should be checked before submitted by the student for correctness of

spelling, grammar, and transition word usage.

Shift 5: Writing-to Learn

Writing-to-Learn Strategies

Cause - Effect

Students observe or read about the interaction(s) between components of a natural or technological system.

They record cause and effect relationships within that system on a graphic organizer. For more on cause and

effect organizers please go to: http:// www.educationoasis.com/curriculum/GO/cause_effect.htm.

Column Notes

The double-entry journal is a two column graphic organizer. Students record important factual information from

text and/or lecture in the left hand column. The right hand column is used by students to process and record

personal responses to the information. A third column can be added if needed. For more on column notes go to:

http://forpd.ucf.edu/strategies/stratCol.html.

Compare and Contrast

Students collect information about two or more scientific concepts, systems and/or examples. The key attributes

are recorded on a graphic organizer in order to clarify similarities and differences.

Concept Definition Map

Students graphically represent how sub-concepts, vocabulary terms and examples are related to a main topic or

central concept.

Concept/Vocabulary Development

Students use a variety of methods and modes (oral, visual, written) to develop a personal, in-depth

understanding of key scientific con- cepts and terms.

CRAFTS – Context, Role, Audience, Format, Topic, and Strong Verb

CRAFTS (Bellamy, 2005) is a strategy that extends the RAFT model (Buehl, D. 2001) to include context.

Students demonstrate their un- derstanding of the targeted content by writing to an authentic audience and

purpose.

Shift 5: Writing-to-Learn (continued)

GIST (Generating Interactions Between Schemata and Text)

GIST is a step-by-step process for summarizing text material. It is particularly valuable with students who have

difficultly putting what they have read into their own words. Students restate main ideas from scientific text

omitting specific examples and/or evidence used to support or illustrate the concept(s) (Cunningham, 1982).

Journaling (Notebooks)

A Notebook is a record of student inquiry learning experiences over a period of time. The notebook can be used

exclusively for inquiry investigations or it can be used to include reflections from reading or class discussions.

It is more than a collection of observations, data collected, facts learned. The notebook also documents student

reflections, questions, predictions, and conclusions.

Main Idea

Students organize by relative importance. Main idea(s) and supporting examples and/or evidence are identified

and represented on an appropriate graphic organizer.

Marginal Notes

Marginal notes are short written statements in which students record their interactions with text in the margins

while they are reading.

Metaphorical Thinking

Metaphorical thinking is an associative process that makes connections between scientific concepts and things

that, on the surface, seem dissimilar.

Quick Write

Quick Writing asks students to independently record everything they can think of in 3-5 minutes. The prompt

students are given can be open ended or specific, depending on the teacher‘s purpose. This strategy can be used

before, during or after learning. It should not be a high risk, ―graded‖ activity.

Synthesizing

Students identify main idea from information presented (text, lecture and/or experience). They then combine

this information with their prior knowledge to create a new or revised personal understanding (schema) (See:

Harvey & Goudvis, 2007).

Time-Sequence

Students use a graphic organizer to represent events in their natural world which happen in a specific order. The

organizer must be appro- priate to the type of sequence (linear, cyclical, repetitive). Information represented can

come from text, lecture and/or direct observation.

Visualizing and Recording Mental Images

Some students process ideas better visually than orally. This strategy encourages students to use images to

describe complex scientific concepts and/or processes. Students may have their own unique way of representing

ideas.

Shift 5: Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge

Writing-to-Demonstrate-Knowledge Strategies

Argumentation

In argumentation a claim is developed and proven using logical reasoning and examples. The writer also rebuts

arguments of the potential opposition to the claim. Adapted from Karbach, J. (1990). Using Toulmin's model of

argumentation. Journal of Teaching Writing, 81-91.

Essay Writing

An essay is a non-fiction piece of writing, usually written from an author's point of view. It includes writing that

uses thesis statements and support for them. Essays conform to all rules of grammar and punctuation.

Informational Writing

Informational writing imparts scientific knowledge or tells the reader how to do something. The text is non-

fiction and must be factually accurate.

Investigation Report

In a Science Investigation Report, students are expected to take hands-on laboratory experiences and report on

or process them through writing. Students report on and reflect on what they did in the lab activity to make

sense of their results. Reports developed should be Type 5 Writing: publishable and for audiences outside the

classroom (John Collins‘ Five Types of Writing).

I-Search Paper (coined by Ken Macrorie in The I-Search Paper, 1988)

I-Search is an informal, inquiry genre for research. Students develop questions based upon their own interests or

develop their own ques- tions related to the topic under study. They utilize a variety of science resources to find

answers to their questions.

Journalistic Reporting

Students write a newspaper/magazine article explaining a topic in science based on the results of their

―investigation reporting.‖

Narrative Writing

Narrative writing tells a story. The basic format is beginning, middle, and end, using character, settings and

plot. The goal of this type of writing in science is to apply and demonstrate knowledge learned about scientific

concepts, science examples and/or famous scientists.

Research Report

A research report is an informational text produced to summarize a body of scientific work. The report must be

based on documented, credible sources and should follow appropriate formats. Research reports use

conventions of headings, subheadings, etc. (see Michigan‘s Genre Project at www.michigan.gov/glce for more

information related to specific characteristics of genre).

Shift 6:

Academic Vocabulary

Academic vocabulary refers to the vocabulary words that don‘t fall into any given content area.

Instead, they are words that span all disciplines and provide students with access to any

complex text they encounter. Significance, theory, and principle are all examples of academic

vocabulary words. According to this shift, teachers should spend more time focusing on this

type of vocabulary as opposed to content-specific vocabulary. In doing so, we equip students

with the words they need to be successful when reading complex texts. (NOTE: This shift does

not indicate that teachers should stop teaching content-specific vocabulary, just that they should

put an emphasis on the academic vocabulary.)

Shift 6: Vocabulary Instruction Building Academic Vocabulary

Teaching specific terms in a specific way is probably the strongest action a teacher can take to ensure that

students have the academic background knowledge they need to understand the content they will encounter in

school. When all the teachers in a school focus on the same academic vocabulary and teach it in the same way,

the school has a powerful comprehensive approach. When all the teachers in a district embrace and use the

approach, it becomes even more powerful.

Eight Characteristics of Effective Direct Vocabulary Instruction

1. Effective vocabulary instruction does not rely on definitions.

2. Students must represent their knowledge of words in linguistic and nonlinguistic ways.

3. Effective vocabulary instruction involves the gradual shaping of word meanings through multiple

exposures.

4. Teaching word parts enhances student‘s understanding of terms.

5. Different types of words require different types of instruction.

6. Students should discuss the terms they are learning.

7. Students should play with words.

8. Instruction should focus on terms that have a high probability of enhancing academic success.

A Six-Step Process for Effective Vocabulary Instruction

Step 1: The teacher provides a description, explanation, or example of the new term.

HOW: Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term.

♦ Looking up words in dictionaries is not useful for teaching vocab

♦ Provide a context for the term

♦ Introduce direct experiences that provide examples of the term

♦ Tell a story that integrates the term

♦ Use video as the stimulus for understanding information

♦ Ask students to investigate the term and present the information to the class (skit,

pantomime, poster, etc.)

♦ Describe your own mental picture of the term

♦ Find or create pictures that explain the term

Step 2: Students restate the explanation of the new term in their own words.

HOW: Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words.

♦ Monitor and correct misunderstandings

♦ Must be student‘s original ideas, not parroting the teacher

♦ Discuss with a partner

♦ Student record (notebook or journal)

Step 3: Students create a nonlinguistic representation of the term.

HOW: Ask student to construct a picture, symbol, or graphic representing the word.

♦ Model, model, model

♦ Provide examples of student‘s drawings

♦ Play Pictionary

♦ Draw an example of your own

♦ Dramatize

♦ Create a comic book

Shift 6: Vocabulary Instruction (continued)

Step 4: Periodically, students do activities that help them add to their knowledge of vocabulary terms.

HOW: Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms in t

heir notebooks.

♦ Highlight prefixes, suffixes, root words that will help them remember the meaning of the term

♦ Identify synonyms and antonyms for the term

♦ List related words

♦ Write brief cautions or reminders of common confusions

♦ Translate the term into another language for second language students

♦ Point out cognates to words in Spanish

♦ Write incomplete analogies for students to complete

♦ Allow students to write (or draw) their own analogies

♦ Sort or classify words

♦ Compare similarities and differences

Step 5: Periodically, students are asked to discuss the terms with one another.

HOW: Periodically ask student to discuss the terms with one another.

♦ Think-Pair-Share

♦ Compare their descriptions of the term

♦ Describe their pictures to one another

♦ Explain to each other any new information they have learned (―aha‘s‖)

♦ Identify areas of disagreement or confusion and seek clarification

♦ Students can make revisions to their own work

Step 6: Periodically, students are involved in games that allow them to play with the terms.

♦ Games are used to help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work and

help the teacher to create context in which the vocabulary is useful and meaningful.

♦ The learners are requested to take part and in order to do so, they must understand what others

are saying or have written, and they must speak or write in order to express their own point of

view or give information.

♦ So, by this way, they are not only improving their vocabulary, but they are also improving

their communication skills.

♦ Listen for misconceptions when learners are playing games/activities.

♦ Provides an opportunity for learners to work together.

♦ Gives in-context and out-of-context opportunities to apply, analyze, evaluate and synthesize

new vocabulary.

Reference: Building Academic Vocabulary, Teacher‘s Manual by Robert J Marzano & Debra J. Pickering