TEACHING PRACTICUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT-TEACHERS:

A MODEL FOR THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO (NUL)

by

PULANE JULIA LEFOKA

Secondary Teacher Certificate STC, Lesotho National Teacher Training College, (1979)

Dip.Ed., National University of Lesotho, (1981)

B.Ed., National University of Lesotho, (1986)

A THESI S SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUmEMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction

/ We accept this thesis as conforming I _ tp th$ required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

April 1994

® Pulane Julia Lefoka, 1994

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written

permission.

Department of O l f l f t 1 CJJLLUff) <g 'JflSJfeUcTiOH

The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada

Date © ^ OH _5i_

DE-6 (2/88)

Abstract

This study takes as its point of departure the need to reform

teaching practicum at the National University of Lesotho. It

examines the literature devoted to the teaching practicum,

identifying and appraising various models for the teaching

practicum, and extracting principles for the conduct of the

teaching practicum. The principles developed are then applied to

the development of a framework for the teaching practicum at the

National University of Lesotho. The study recommends a reflective inquiry approach in which student-teachers undertake a supervised

teaching practicum and an induction year based upon a combination

of Schon's model of a reflective teaching practicum and Zeichner's

inquiry oriented teacher education.

ii

Table of Contents

Abstract ii Table of contents iii The figure vi Acknowledgements vii

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1 Background 1 The Lesotho Primary and Secondary Education

System 2 A brief history of teacher education in Lesotho 3 National Teacher Training College Teacher Education

Structure 4 Teaching practicum at the National Teacher Training

College 5 National University of Lesotho Teacher Education

Structure 6

Background to the problem 10 The problem 13 The objectives 13 Rationale 14

CHAPTER II Literature Review 16 Section I 17

The complexity of the enterprise. 17 Preparing for the teaching practicum

teaching 22 The teaching practicum supervision team 25

Section II 31 A life long teacher education program 31 Reflection and induction in teacher education 33 Reflection-on/in-action 33 Some key factors. 3 7 The practicum setting: 3 7 Coaching the reflective practitioner: 3 8 The models/supervision methods/approaches: 40

Summary 42

The induction program 45 Justification for induction programs 46 The induction program goals 48 The mentor teachers/the mentor teams 49 The induction program models 52 Research on induction program 53

iii

Summary 54

CHAPTER III 55 The Teaching Practicum: Critical Feature 55

The main teacher education program categories 55 Diversity in teaching practicum theory 56 The teaching practicum models/theoretical orientations 58 The teaching practicum time-frame 69 The teaching practicum context 73 Financial implications for reform in teacher education 77

Summary 79

CHAPTER IV 81 The National University of Lesotho Teaching Practicum: The Reflective-Inquiry Model 81

Justification 81 The theory 86 The teaching practicum principles 87

Phase I 91 Part I

Second year teacher education students: Second Semester January to 91

Part II Third year Teacher Education Students: First and

second semesters, August to December and January to May 92

Phase II 94 Fourth Year Teacher Education Students: Second

Semester, January to April. 94 The seminar 97

Phase III 98

Teaching Practicum: June, July to August 98 Part I Part II 100 Part III The debriefing meetings 102 Part IV Evaluation 102

Phase IV 103 The induction program 103 Program evaluation 104

Summary 105

iv

CHAPTER V 109 Discussion 104

The rationale 110 The context ill Journal writing 112 Curriculum modification 113 Towards a model 114 Supervision of teaching practicum 117 The teaching practicum triad 119 Evaluating the "reflective inquiry" teaching practicum

model 121

Collaboration 123

Collaboration among the student teachers 124 Collaboration between the Institute of Education

and the Faculty of Education 124 Collaboration with the NTTC Field-Based

Supervisors 125 Collaboration with the secondary Schools 12 6

Supporting Sponsor Teachers/Mentor Teachers 127

Summary 128

References 130

Appendix 136

v

The figure

The diagrammatic representation of the Reflective-Inquiry Model proposed for the National University of Lesotho 90

vi

Acknowledgements

I'll invest my money in people. W.K. Kellogg

My sincere gratitude goes to the W.K. Kellogg Foundation for the financial and professional support they provided me throughout my entire stay and study in Canada. The Foundation's financial support enabled me to devote my time entirely to my studies and to my son.

I also wish to register my indebtedness to members of my thesis Committee. I thank Dr. Charles Ungerlieder, my program advisor and committee member, for his support--both personal and professional during my studies. Dr. Ungerleider was always a phone call away during difficult times--in both my academic and personal life. Dr. Tony Clarke was an invaluable mentor during the final critical phase of my Master's program. I learned a tremendous amount through the feedback support, and advice he gave me during the countless readings of my thesis. Thank you to Dr. Gaalen Erickson, who acted as my external examiner despite his incredibly hectic schedule. His constant support throughout my studies at U.B.C. was most appreciated. I was most fortunate to have this unique committee of teacher-educators; my memorable experience with them is the pride that I take back with me to Lesotho.

I also feel fortunate to have been a graduate student in the Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction. In this Centre, there exists a community that provides a supportive environment under the guidance of the Director, Dr. John Willinsky, and his associates, Dr. Hillel Goelman, and Dr. Ian Wright. The Centre's flexibility in allowing individual graduate students to build individual, self-satisfying programs of study enabled me to choose courses that were relevant to me as an individual.

A special message of appreciation also goes to friends and families both in Lesotho and Canada. Thank you Lerato Mahakoe, Ann Hawson, Vera Radyo, Selena Hardley, and Beth Coleman. My thanks to John Gillis, a friend and colleague outside of the educational field, who read the final draft and asked important questions that enabled me to revise and refine this document.

Two very special families, the sebatane and the Fords helped me throughout my time as a graduate student. The Sebatane were a vital link that helped me maintain contact with my life in Lesotho. I owe special thanks to the Ford family whose caring nature, love, and generosity made my stay in their home the most enjoyable time of my live in Canada. I felt a member of their family as we shared cultural feast and festivals together.

Last but not least, to my son Letlotlo, who has been the most encouraging and supporting member of my family. Being with him all the time gave me the strength I needed and allowed me to take time from my studies and join him in his adventures.

vii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background

Teacher education is a complex undertaking that can be divided

into two stages. The first stage is pre-service education, which

generally takes into account all formal and informal education

leading to certification. The second stage is termed in-service

education, which focuses on, but is not limited to, the first year

of teaching in the classroom setting.

The diverse elements of the pre-service education evolve as a

result of the influence of many factors, a number of which are an

aside to the specific teacher education program models. The pre-

service education program's primary elements are complementary life

experiences, extensive course work in educational theory,

observational field-work and practical teaching experiences. Each

of these elements is granted a specific weight in terms of the

extent of their individual influences on the structure and

organization of the teacher education program.

The study reported here is intended for the Lesotho context.

It is important to note the extent to which socio-economic and

historical context influence practice. Therefore, an understanding

of the Lesotho context is important for exploring the strengths and

successes of current structures and incorporating them into a

proposed model of change. A brief overview of the Lesotho

educational system will provide a perspective from which one can

1

constructively critique the teacher education program at the

National University of Lesotho.

The Lesotho Primary and Secondary Education System

Lesotho primary education is structured as a seven year

programme, at the end of which a primary school leaving examination

is administered. Students who successfully complete the primary

school leaving examination (commonly known as PSLE) proceed to a

three year junior secondary education programm. At the end of

junior secondary, students sit for a Junior Certificate (JC)

examination. Successful students then proceed through senior

secondary education where they prepare for the Cambridge Overseas

School Certificate (COSC) examination. If they successfully

complete all twelve years of primary and secondary schooling are

awarded either a level of COSC or a GCE (the General Certificate in

Education - a certificate awarded to senior high school students

who fail only English language in their COSC examination), students

are eligible to apply to any of Lesotho's institutions of higher

education (Lesotho Technical Colleges, Agricultural Colleges, the

Schools of Nursing, etc.). Students obtaining a first or a second

class COSC have better opportunities of being admitted to post-

secondary institutions. However, a good pass at Junior secondary is

acceptable for entrance to most institutions of higher education

with the exception of the National University of Lesotho.

2

A brief history of teacher education in Lesotho

The first teacher training college in Lesotho was established

in 1945 by church missionaries. The purpose of this original

college, according to Hall (1969), was to train "good native

teachers for their Southern African mission" (p.l.). A number of

missionary-run colleges and, subsequently, a university were

introduced over the years. These colleges prepared primary school

teachers, while the university concentrated primarily on training

senior secondary school teachers. Some secondary school teachers

were offered an Advanced Teacher Certificate program by the

missionary-run teacher training college. Primary teacher

preparation in Lesotho remained under religious control until 1975,

after which the pre-existing denominational teacher training

colleges were phased out by the Lesotho government. The

denominational colleges were amalgamated into one government-

controlled teacher training college, the National Teacher Training

College (NTTC). This institution, unlike the former colleges, aims

at preparing teachers of all denominations for a range of

educational levels and institutions in the Lesotho nation.

NTTC teacher education structure is different from that of the

Faculty of Education at the National University of Lesotho (NUL).

One of the differences is that while NTTC prepares primary and

junior secondary school teachers, the NUL prepares teachers for

senior secondary schools. Another major difference is in the

scheduling of the terms academic programs vis-a-vis the timing of

the primary and secondary school sessions, {diagram of time-line}

3

The NTTC terms match the primary and secondary schools' academic

sessions, which run January to June, and July to December. In

contrast, the semesters of the National University of Lesotho run

January through May, and resume from mid-August through mid-

December. While the teaching practicum at NTTC falls within the

second session for primary and secondary schools, the NUL teaching

practicum straddles both the first and the second school sessions.

The NUL teaching practicum starts at the beginning of June, two

weeks before secondary schools close for winter break. The six-week

practicum continues in the last two weeks of July when secondary

school students return from the winter break, until the middle of

August when the University reopens for its first semester. The

principle argument put forth for this arrangement is that the

Faculty of Education at NUL is understaffed and can only support

the practicum (that is provide Faculty supervision) if it is timed

outside of the regular semesters.

National Teacher Training College Teacher Education Structure.

The National Teacher Training College offers three levels of

teaching certificate programs, as well as a technical teaching

diploma program. The certificates offered are the PTC or Primary

Teachers' Certificate, the APTC or Advanced Primary Teachers'

Certificate', and the STC or Secondary Teachers' Certificate.

NTTC admits students into these programs from a variety of

academic backgrounds. For example, a student applying for admission

to primary school teacher education program at NTTC does not

4

necessarily require COSC (the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate

awarded to senior secondary graduates with proficiency in English).

Students holding either a GCE or a junior secondary certificate

(JC) can also apply for admission. Applicants possessing a COSC

standing have the highest rate of acceptance into the programs,

followed by GCE and JC certificate holders. In the majority of

cases, students holding a first or a second class pass at COSC are

automatically admitted into the secondary teacher education

program. Also, it is not uncommon to find graduated NTTC students

with primary teaching certificate (PTC) subsequently enrolling in

the secondary program. Furthermore, NTTC admits students who have

completed three years in technical colleges and want to become

teachers. These students are admitted into a diploma program in

Secondary Technical Teacher Education.

Teaching practicum at the National Teacher Training College

The duration of the teacher education programs at NTTC are

three years. Student-teachers spend their first year in the college

studying both professional teaching theory and general academic

subjects. During the first half of their second year, student-

teachers continue with the college course work and are at the same

time engaged in orientation to teaching practicum. Orientation to

the practice of teaching begins with micro-teaching / peer-teaching

experiences. This is followed by student-teacher's presentations of

mini-lessons in the elementary and secondary school classrooms.

In the practice of mini-lessons, small groups of four to five

5

students are directly supervised in primary and/or secondary

classroom environments by their NTTC academic instructors. The

group of student-teachers sit together in a classroom as each

presents a mini-lesson. This mini-lesson practice is conducted

twice-monthly for four months. This practice leads directly to the

next phase of the teacher education program, the teaching

practicum.

The teaching practicum in the primary and secondary schools

begins in the second half of the second year of study. In order to

give student-teachers opportunities to acquire teaching

experiences, they are placed in the schools throughout the country.

Here, students assume full responsibility for teaching either their

speciality subjects, in the case of secondary and diploma student-

teachers, or all subjects in the case of primary student-teachers.

Supervision of student-teachers in their teaching practicum is

a responsibility of field-based Internship Supervisors1. The

college also engages Cooperating Teachers2 to work very closely

with the Internship Supervisors in supervising student-teachers.

National University of Lesotho Teacher Education Structure

The Teacher Education program at the National University of

Lesotho is a four-year concurrent undergraduate program. COSC

1 S c h o o l - b a s e d internship supervisors are NTTC instructors prepared to stay in the teaching practicum sites in order to be with the student-teachers on a full-time basis.

2 The cooperating teacher is the North American equivalent to a sponsor teacher. Cooperating teachers are school-based classroom teachers who help student teachers.

6

candidates holding a first class pass and a good pass in English

language are automatically admitted to the program. Teachers

holding secondary teacher certificates (STC) from NTTC are also

admitted directly to the program. Originally, the two groups were

offered different degree programs; BA.Ed for COSC graduates and

B.ED for STC graduates. Until recently, B.Ed student-teachers were

exempted from the teaching practicum. Starting from August 1992,

all teacher education students will study towards a B.ED, and all

will undertake a teaching practicum.

Students enrolling in the NUL teacher education program are

supposed to major in at least two teaching subjects offered in

faculties other than the Faculty of Education. The Faculty of

Education is, however, responsible for advising student-teachers

about the appropriate faculties from which they can select relevant

teaching courses. For example, students would be expected to choose

teaching subjects from the Faculty of Humanities instead of the

Faculty of Law because courses in law are not taught at either the

primary or secondary school levels (see National University of

Lesotho Calendar 1991/92, p. 94-95).

Education student-teachers depend on other faculties for

disciplinary content knowledge. The Faculty of Education is however

responsible for the teaching of methodology and curriculum studies

courses. A student-teacher intending to become a language teacher

for example, would be required to also register in Curriculum

Studies course in Language Education, a course offered in the

Department of Language Education in the Faculty of Education.

7

The concurrent nature of the NUL teacher education program

puts some constraints on the positioning and timing of the teaching

practicum. If a teaching practicum were to be scheduled concurrent

to the students' programs of non-education courses in the

Humanities, students in the Faculty of Education would be at a

disadvantage in terms of the time available to attend classes and

to complete the required assignments for their courses.

In 1986 the National University of Lesotho Commissioned a team

of evaluators to study its teaching practice (teaching practicum).

Specifically, the evaluators were to examine "problems related to

the effective execution of teaching practice and make

recommendations and suggestions for improvement" (1986. p.l).

The Commission noted several problems inherent in the NUL

concurrent teacher education program. For example, the Commission

identified what they termed an "inter-departmental" problem. It

suggested that a "holistic planning" approach be adopted. From this

report we learn that a holistic approach "requires the planning of

a sector, system, or institution as a single whole rather than a

sum of its aggregate parts" (1986, p.9). One would like to believe

then that the proposed holistic planning would enable NUL to make

necessary plans for an acceptable teaching practicum. Furthermore,

holistic planning would presumably involve those faculties working

with student-teachers to participate in the teaching practicum.

One of the NUL teaching practicum program inadequacies is the

centralized supervision of student-teachers. In current practice,

NUL teaching practicum is the sole responsibility of the faculty

8

instructor. This practice assumes that the university supervisor is

the only legitimate educator to supervise student-teachers in their

practicum experiences. Student-teachers in the NUL Faculty of

Education do not receive formalized supervision support from the

schools in which they conduct their teaching practicum.

Furthermore, the quality of supervision conducted by faculty

instructors, while they alone are responsible for all observation

and supervision, has its shortcomings due in part to the workload

of the instructors. In the case of NUL, supervising instructors

only provide minimal help to the individual student-teacher partly

because they supervise several student-teachers consecutively.

Balch and Balch (1987), in a review of teacher education

programs in other countries, observe that research in the area of

teacher education clearly shows that the cooperating/sponsor-

teacher has a strong influence upon the student-teacher in the

teaching practicum. The authors point out that, the cooperating

teacher is characterised by students as "supportive, enthusiastic,

pleasant and challenging" (p.2). The cooperating teacher, unlike

the faculty supervisor, is more familiar with such things as the

school's social climate and recent innovations in the school

system. Through their years of teaching, practicing teachers

accumulate experiences that are useful in assisting student-

teachers interpret and improve upon their own teaching experiences

and skills. In current practice at NUL, however, the support

provided for the individual student-teacher is seen by many

educators as inadequate; it does not reflect the importance that

9

experienced educators attach to the practice of close supervision

of the student-teacher by practicing teachers in the practicum

setting.

Background to the problem

The preceding overview provides the past and the current state

of pre-service teacher education configurations at NTTC and NUL.

The overview further illuminates the teacher education structural

differences in these institutions. This background information also

clarifies the fact that NTTC conduct a lengthy and more closely

supervised teaching practicum compared to the NUL six-week,

narrowly, supervised teaching practicum.

The 1986 NUL teaching practicum Commission identified several

shortcomings of the NUL teacher education program. The report

comments that the central issue was "length and positioning" of the

practicum. This issue, the report notes, was commented upon by all

people interviewed. The evaluators observe that "there was general

agreement that more time must be given to the teaching practice"

(1986 p.22) . Despite the Commission's call for a re-examination of

the practicum experience, little change has been made to the

program. The teaching practicum duration, for example, was extended

from four weeks to six weeks. Some might argue that this was a 50%

increase and that this should be considered as a substantial

change. However, there is a danger in proposing and implementing

increases in the teaching practicum duration alone without

proposing methods and identifying resources that would guide and

10

monitor the students throughout the teaching practicum, regardless

of its duration. This was the case, in my view, when the 1986

Commission proposed several structural alternatives for NUL without

providing a guide of how supervision was going to be undertaken.

The scope of the alternative models suggested by the 1986 NUL

Teaching Practice Commission was far-ranging and included the

following: a five year program; a ninth semester add-on; an eight

semester model; winter vacation periods; and a three-year plus one-

year structure. Several alternatives to a fifth year structure were

also suggested. These included the establishing of a winter school,

cumulative teaching practice during years II, III and IV and

establishing a demonstration/night school under the supervision of

the Faculty of Education (1986. p.23). The advantages and

disadvantages of each option were discussed (See appendix). The

Commission concluded that "from the evidence presented that the

Fifth Year Internship, the Ninth Semester and the Eight Semester

options are all associated with insurmountable problems and

therefore recommends the adoption of the degree plus PCE route"

(1986, p.29).

Regardless of the warning about structural problems associated

with the fifth year option, NUL selected the option. Fortunately,

this idea was rejected by the student teachers themselves. The NUL

Education student-teachers went on strike to protest the

University's decision to implement the Internship scheme (See

Commission 1986). The report further shows that the Ministry of

Education did not approve of the idea either. Other possible

11

alternatives were: "having an initial Teaching Practice between

year II and III under school supervision, followed by a formal 6

week Teaching Practice between year III and IV by the university,

followed by a further 18 weeks teaching practice between July and

December after 4th year" (1986, p.7-8). However, as has already

been pointed out, none of these alternatives has been implemented

even on a trial basis. A reasonable question to ask is: Why has

this institution not implemented any of these alternative models?.

The alternative structures proposed by the 1986 commission, as

with any educational change, have financial implications. The

report admits this:

The Ministry of Education also endorsed a minimum of 12 weeks of Teaching Practice for all students. It saw the lengthening of the course (9th semester or 5th year) as defeating the intention of making teaching more attractive while also costing the Government more, instead of stabilizing training costs or reducing them (1986, p.7).

Indeed, a common complaint of educators is that educational reforms

or changes are impeded by bureaucratic and fiscal constraints.

However, in previously released reports of studies and

evaluation of the NUL program not excluding the Commissions 1986

report, little has been said about alternatives such as encouraging

students-teachers to become reflective teachers during their

micro-teaching experiences, the post-certificate induction program,

and several other options which do not necessarily require

extensive financial support. A combination of the existing

structure with a less expensive model could be an appropriate

12

answer for NUL teaching practicum.

The problem

It is not for lack of studies that the teaching practicum in

the Lesotho University context has not been more revised and

improved, but rather that this is an extremely complex undertaking.

However, the 1986 Commissions Report, the latest of these reports,

reveals that the structure of the actual supervision of the

teaching practicum was not studied by this Commission. In other

words, this report does not provide evidence about the extent to

which University supervisors provide student-teachers with the

opportunity to inquire and reflect on their teaching experiences in

their teaching practicum settings. The emphasis was on extending

the practicum and assuming that such an extension will

automatically bring about competency in student teaching practice.

The objectives

This theses will argue that the above assumption is false and

will present an argument for a model which is not concerned so much

about length in terms of duration (i.e.quantity) of the teaching

practicum, but rather in terms of how that time is used towards the

goal of educating skilled and competent teachers (i.e. quality).

The model presented in this thesis aims to strengthen the NUL

teaching practicum program and ultimately accelerate and improve

the professional development of the student-teachers as they embark

on their teaching careers. A wide selection of the current

13

literature on models of teaching practicum has been reviewed. A

model will be derived from that literature which is complementary

to and compatible with the current fiscal and political constraints

and circumstances of the Teacher Education Program at the National

University of Lesotho.

This study will specifically address the following objectives:

1. Identify the theoretical orientations that frame the design of teaching practica.

2. Outline the literature on reflective practice with the purpose of integrating it in the NUL teaching practicum model.

3. Design a reflective-inquiry model for the National University of Lesotho.

4. Detail the strategy for the implementation of a model of reflective inquiry.

Rationale

This theses is conceived with the intention of providing an

alternative model of teaching practicum that can be useful in a

context in which extending the teaching practicum is not feasible.

Importantly, this proposed model will take into consideration

constraints to implementation as identified from the reaction to

the previously proposed model of reform of the teaching practicum

element of NUL's Teacher Education Program (specifically the 1986

Commissions proposals).

Three key constraints stand out: the budget; the concurrent

nature of the B.Ed, program; and the incompatible schedules of the

NUL and the secondary school system. This proposed model is

14

designed around these constraints and present a workable model of

teaching practicum reform, based on models of reflective practice,

that could be implemented in a timely fashion in NUL.

15

Chapter II

Literature Review

Teacher educators and researchers are increasingly calling for

reform in pre-service teacher education. From the literature, it is

apparent that the major concern is on producing a "competent

teaching force". The Holmes Group report (1987), (a report by the

U.S. Deans of the Faculties of Education) in illustrating the

reasons for reforming teacher education, points out that "the

better a teacher is educated, the better an education that teacher

potentially can provide" (p.l).

Chapter II will be presented in two sections. The first

section will examine issues that impede change in teacher education

programs. For example, the section will illustrate, in the North

American context, how and why reform is constrained by the teaching

practicum as it is currently practiced. The review will look into

the current approaches to teaching practicum and how these relate

to full-time teaching.

The second section reviews proposed alternatives that fulfil

the criteria of professional development and maintenance of

standards. For example, some teacher education institutions are

considering reflection on teaching and induction programs as

possible solutions to problems associated with teacher education.

The literature suggests that these concepts guide current reform

efforts. Therefore, time will be spent on reviewing the literature

specific to these two concepts in light of the impact they appear

16

to have on efforts to conceptualize teacher education as a

continuum.

Section I

Any proposal of reform of pre-service teacher education

programs brings into play a variety of factors. These intersecting

factors range from the complex nature of teacher education, the

practice of supervision of student-teachers in real teaching

environments, and the environments of the schools in which student-

teachers practice their teaching. The idiosyncratic natures of the

different factors often produce areas of incompatibility which

result in the 'unsuccessful' implementation of proposed changes.

The complexity of the enterprise.

Doyle (1990) and Goodlad (1991), point out that teacher

education encompasses multiple components that operate at different

levels of the enterprise. This complexity affects the pace at which

reform efforts can be implemented. Some theorists see reform as

constrained by "lack of connectedness between the schooling

enterprise and the preparation of those who staff it" (Goodlad,

1991, p.5).

Goodlad's point raises an interesting issue: schools, although

used by faculties of education for purposes of teaching practicum,

are administered by a different body. Goodlad is suggesting that

teacher education programs depend on the availability and

cooperation of schools in order to give the student-teachers the

17

opportunity to undergo the teaching practicum process.

Additionally, teacher educators depend on the availability and

cooperation of schools in order to undertake research which can

inform the teacher education practice. Yet in practice, despite

this implied interdependence, the interaction between these two

groups is inadequate.

In 1987, the Holmes Group discussed issues related to the

reliance on the schools' cooperation. They suggested several

solutions to this problem. The Holmes Group very strongly

recommended that professional schools2 be opened. They further

indicated that the opening of the professional schools would reduce

the problems encountered in depending heavily on public schools for

their cooperation in conducting the teaching practica. Professional

Development Schools, in addition to improving teacher education,

. . .would expand opportunities for strengthening knowledge and practice: to test different instructional arrangement under different working and administrative conditions. Innovative professional practice would be developed, demonstrated, and critically evaluated at these exemplary sites before being disseminated elsewhere (Holmes Group Report, 1987, p.13) (My emphasis).

Bowman (1990) elaborates on the interrelationship between

Faculties of Education and the Public School System and suggests a

new direction. In a review of teacher education in the province of

Professional School, in this context, are schools that are run by teacher education faculties for purposes of creating a controlled environment for conducting teaching practica.

18

British Columbia, Canada, Bowman comments that "reforms in teacher

education and reforms in schools should go hand in hand" (p.11).

However, he does not investigate the feasibility of such a

proposition, given the fact that public schools agenda is viewed as

different from that of the teacher education institutions.

This brings us to yet another constraint that may affect

teacher education reform efforts; societal demands and

expectations. Doyle (1990), notes: "Ideally, teacher education

exists to produce and maintain a continuous supply ... of highly

talented and motivated teachers for the nation's classrooms" (p.5).

This stipulation requires teacher education institutions to prepare

teachers to fit into the existing school structure and not vice-

versa. In discussing the "good employee paradigm" as it affects

teacher preparation, Doyle (1990) points out that, according to

this paradigm,...

. . .effective teacher education prepares candidates in the prevailing norms and practices of classrooms and schools. The ideal teacher, in this framework, is one who can efficiently cope with the "real world" of schooling. The emphasis is on training and socialization for the job of teaching- as it exists (p.5) (My emphasis).

The above constraint is an example of an external force that

affects the preparation of teachers. Thus, as attempts are made to

bring about changes in teacher education, consideration of such

external forces, in addition to forces created within the environment

of the Faculties of Education, have to be carefully considered.

In describing some of the problems associated with the teacher

19

education faculties, Goodlad (1991) points out that education

boundaries are ill defined, making it difficult for reform efforts

specific to teacher education to be implemented. Goodlad (1991)

argues that teacher education curriculum is:

...scattered about in the liberal arts departments, in the schools and colleges of education in various adjunct relationships, and in the nearby schools where student teachers are received. Just assembling this diverse group isn't easy. Bringing all together for purposes of defining a mission and program requires a Herculean effort. Not surprisingly, the curriculum is incoherent, lacking in mission and organizing elements to tie the whole together (p.6).

This may be particulary so when we view other elements that

constitute the foundation of teacher education. The process, the

structures and the orientations that guide program formulations are

but a few issues in which teacher education is grounded. Feiman-

Nemser (1990), in her review of the literature, recapitulates the

orientations that guide teacher education program formulations.

According to Feiman-Nemser's literature review, there are five

dominant orientations:

• an academic orientation "highlights the fact that teaching is primarily concerned with the transmission of knowledge and the development of understanding. Traditionally associated with liberal arts education and secondary teaching, the academic orientation emphasizes the teacher's role as intellectual leader, scholar, and subject-matter specialist" (p.221),

• a practical orientation focuses "attention on the elements of craft, technique, and artistry that skilful practitioners reveal in their work. It also recognizes that teacher deal with unique situations and that their work is ambiguous and uncertain" (p.222),

• a technological orientation "focuses attention on the knowledge and skills of teaching. The primary goal is to prepare teachers who can carry out the task of teaching

20

with proficiency" (p.223), • a personal orientation "places the teacher-learner at the

centre of the educational process. Learning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively" (p.225),

• a critical/social orientation "combines a progressive social vision with a radical critique of schooling" (p.226) .

Teacher education institutions no doubt will find elements of

each of these orientations in their program. Further, the above

distinctions are useful as they help to illustrate program

structures. Each one of the above orientations places an emphasis

on particular responsibility for teacher education. Furthermore,

these orientations provide an overview of what may guide a pre-

service education review. However,

...collectively they do not represent a set of equally valid alternatives from which to choose. [Instead, they] constitute a source of ideas and practices to draw on in deliberating about how to prepare teachers in a particular context. Each orientation highlights different issues that must be considered, but none offers a fully developed framework to guide program development (Feiman-Nemser, 1990, p.227).

The implication is that reform efforts may not bring similarity

between institutions in the program that they offer. Feiman-Nemser

(1990) admitted as much when she said that...

. . .a plurality of orientations and approaches exists because people hold different expectations for schools and teachers, and because, in any complex human endeavour, there are always more goals to strive for than one can achieve at the same time (p.227).

Teacher educators, therefore, might be required to make choices

from the orientation in designing a program which best suits the

21

institutional interests and needs. Feiman-Nemser argues that teacher

educators cannot avoid making choices about what to concentrate on.

Although there may be differences observed in various teacher

education programs, the teaching practicum seems to be at the heart

of all reform literature. The literature clearly argues that

pedagogical knowledge acquired in the schools of teacher education

has to be demonstrated in the teaching practicum component of the

program. Shulman (1987) claims that:

... pedagogical content knowledge is of special interest because it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. It represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction (p.8).

Shulman (1987) emphasizes that the key to distinguishing the

knowledge base of teaching lies at the intersection of content and

pedagogy. Thus, pre-service teacher education can be regarded

complete only if its students can demonstrate that they can

"transform the content knowledge [they] possess into forms that are

pedagogically powerful" (p.15). It is through undergoing the process

of teaching practicum that education students can demonstrate their

acquired skills and knowledge, particularly.

Preparing for the teaching practicum

Most teacher education faculties require their students to

22

acquire micro-teaching4 experiences as a form of preparation for

the teaching practicum. Micro-teaching experiences enables student

teachers to explore their understanding of the learned teaching

skills. Micro-teaching is "a combination of a conceptual system for

identifying precisely specified teaching skills with the use of

video-tape feedback to facilitate growth in these teaching skills"

(Peck and Tucker, 1973, p.951).

Some researchers have studied the relationship of micro-

teaching to the teaching practicum. The studies of the 1960s

reported in the literature show strong relationships between micro-

teaching and the teaching practicum experiences. Peck and Tucker

(1973) report that studies undertaken by Allen and Fortune (1967),

Fortune, Cooper and Allen (1967), Cooper and Stroud (1967), Emmer

and Millet (1968) and Davis and Smoot (1969), indicate that

student-teachers exposed to this process performed at a "higher

level of teaching competence than a comparable group of students

[and] showed a significantly more desirable patterns of

teaching behaviour" (Peck and Tucker, 1973, p.952).

However, the 1990's studies refute earlier findings which

claimed that there was a noticeable relationship between micro-

teaching experiences to student teachers' actual teaching.

According to (Copeland, cited in Carter, 1990), the

Micro-teaching in this context refers to the laboratory experiences whereby student teachers teach mini-lessons to their peers.

23

acquisition of teaching skills in a laboratory setting did not predict their use by student teachers in classrooms ... the use of skills was dependent, rather, on the ecology of the classroom in which the student teacher taught (p.292).

Schaller (1993) reports an interesting finding whereby student

teachers themselves reported that the methods they had learned and

practiced in the laboratory do not work "nearly as well" with pupils

in real classrooms. These contradictions suggest the need for a re­

examination of the impact of laboratory experiences. The use of

laboratories might therefore depend on the goals for using them.

However, the studies of the 1990s could ask questions such as: What

part might laboratory experiences play in teacher education reform

initiative? Micro-teaching might focus on reflection on laboratory

experiences vis-a-vis practicing teaching skills.

Teaching Practica

Since teaching is "essentially a learned profession," (Shulman,

1987, p.9) student-teachers have to be placed in the schools where

they can gain experience in teaching "real" students. Most schools

of thought view the teaching practicum as forming an integral part

of teacher education. It provides student-teachers with the

opportunity to practice the theory learned during their pre-service

training. Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987) contend that the

practicum is often seen as the key element in pre-service teacher

education. According to these authors, "it is widely, indeed almost

universally, agreed that field-based experience is a necessary

component in teacher education" (p.35).

24

Fullan et al. (1987) cautions us that research suggests that

teaching practicum as it operates is "ineffective in helping

students relate theory and practice in teaching" (p.35). The

authors provide a variety of reasons for the observed problems.

These involve such things as the supervisory teams, the actual

supervision process, and the school enterprise, among others.

The teaching practicum supervision team

The teaching practicum team is viewed by many writers as a

triad; a three-person group involving the student-teacher, the

faculty advisor and the sponsor teacher. Each member of the triad

holds different status which affects the process and supervision of

the teaching practicum. For example, the associate teacher and the

faculty advisor, due to their various experiences, bring to the

practicum different supervision skills. Practicum critiques view

this situation as "forces" that pull student teachers in different

directions. The associate teachers' supervision skills, their

expertise and/or training and the criteria used for selecting them

are but a few concerns discussed in the literature. Potthoff

(1993), points out that the literature portrays the need for

substantial improvement in how sponsor teachers are selected and

trained.

There are conflicting views about how this might occur.

According to Housego (1992) , "cooperating teachers are not all

equally knowledgeable regarding teaching or to the same degree

skilled in supervision" (p.61). More important, faculties of

25

education have no set criteria for matching student-teachers with

associate teachers (Bruneau, 1993) . The major criterion with regard

to cooperating teacher selection, "appears to be a willingness to

work with pre-service teachers" (Mclntyre, 1983 cited in Potthoff,

1993) . If student-teachers continue to be placed under the

responsibility of people who may have not received proper training,

how can teacher educators be sure that student-teachers benefit

from this experience? The point to be made, though, is that change

affecting teacher education has to embrace the other members of the

triad as well. Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987) express

dissatisfaction with the current situation of associate teacher

selection and preparation. They suggest that "altering and

enhancing the roles of associate teachers and student teachers must

figure prominently in the reform" (p.36) deliberations.

Thus, literature strongly supports involvement of associate

teachers. "The cooperating teacher often appears to be the most

important person in helping teachers come to understand what it

means to teach" (Olson and Carter 1989, cited in Potthoff, 1993

p.254). Some consider associate teachers as possessing the

qualities of mentors. As mentors, associate teachers would be

expected to be more caring, giving student-teachers attention and

being helpful to the 'would-be teachers' (Bowman, 1990; Bruneau,

1992) . The importance of associate teachers input is especially

valued by proponents of traditional-craft teacher education.

Zeichner (1983) discusses the traditional-craft theory in

teacher education. He views the idea of attaching student-teachers

26

to a master teacher as giving student-teachers the opportunity to

accumulate knowledge about teaching by "trial and error". Student-

teachers can do so in the presence of experienced associate

teachers. With assistance from the associate teacher, the student-

teacher could master a repertoire of technical skills of teaching

(Zeichner, 1983) . Zeichner goes on to say that:

A master-apprentice relationship is seen as the proper vehicle for transmitting the 'cultural knowledge' possessed by good teachers to the novice. Despite the reluctance of university teacher educators to affiliate themselves with this conception of teacher education, the 'traditional-craft' paradigm is still alive and well in U.S. teacher education today in the form of the typical student teaching experience (p.5).

Zeichner (1983) discusses other teacher education orientations;

the behaviouristic teacher education whose primary concern is

fostering the development of skill in an actual performance of a

predetermined task, and the personalistic teacher education

orientation, which, amongst others, seeks to promote the

psychological maturity of prospective teachers. While each of these

teacher education orientations may be viewed as important and

relevant in teacher preparation, the traditional craft orientation

seems to be more pertinent to the student-teachers' and associate-

teachers' relationship in the practicum setting.

The other category in supervision of teaching practicum

embraces faculty of education representatives. In some Canadian

institutions, the faculty advisor can be any of the following

people: a sessional supervisor, a faculty associate, a graduate

27

student, or a faculty member. At the University of British

Columbia, (A Canadian Institution) the faculty representative must

be an experienced teacher who has been specially prepared for the

responsibility of supervising student-teachers. In the majority of

cases however, the faculty advisor, unlike the sponsor-teacher

plays a unique role. They provide assistance to student-teachers,

they represent the faculty vision, and at the same time assess

student's performance (Bruneau 1992, p.20). According to this

author the role of the faculty advisor in the practicum setting is

much more important than that of the sponsor teacher because as the

Faculty representative they also have to be particularly careful

about conveying the Faculty's goal through ensuring that student's

maintain the Faculty expectations. The role of faculty advisor as

it relates to reform needs to be examined closely.

Do the different people holding the position of faculty

advisor (faculty associates, graduate student, sessional teachers

and faculty member) view themselves as upholding the same values?

Do they follow similar supervision patterns? Do faculty advisor

themselves undergo any training? How are these team members

selected to the position of faculty advisor? Housego (1990) points

out that selection of university advisors needs substantial review.

She argues that teacher education institutions cannot continue to

provide "few enticements for faculty to undertake supervision"

(p,61).

One of the most striking problems related to faculty advisors

is the fact that supervision at the secondary level is faced with

28

division in the university advisor roles. According to Bruneau

(1993), these roles consist of subject specialist on one hand and

generalist supervision on the other. The subject specialist

advisor's knowledge base and expertise in the student-teacher's

chosen subject can be helpful to the student-teacher's request for

help on the content taught. The generalist advisor, unlike the

subject specialist could be viewed as paying more attention on

emphasizing the 'likenesses' across subject-matter, rather than the

uniqueness in each subject. Bruneau's suggestions, however, fall

short of demonstrating whether there is a possibility of

reinforcing either type to play a dual but useful role. Thus,

Bruneau provides us with a situation that challenges future reform

plans particulary supervision of secondary school student teachers.

The third and equally important member of the triad is the

student-teachers themselves. Relationships between student-teachers

and the supervision teams are well documented. Researchers debate

the magnitude of these relationships and show that student-

teachers' hold a junior position on this triad. Researchers note

that student teachers are apprehensive about the teaching practicum

experiences. One of their concerns centres on practicum assessment.

"Typically, evaluation occurs over a short period of time in a

setting governed by pre-existing norms and orchestrated by a

cooperating teacher who retains primary responsibility" (Potthoff,

1992, p.265). Potthoff (1992) provides suggestions based on the

findings on his study: Student teacher performance evaluation--

Better way? He argues that the:

29

...assessment systems should be context sensitive. Rating scales, which seldom provide contextual cues, imply a standardization of experience which does not exist. Contextual factors clearly influence what student teachers do and how they do what they do. Context makes it difficult for some students to fail and difficult for others to succeed (p.271).

The important message here is that student-teacher assessment

needs to be reviewed if teacher education is to be reformed. Student

teachers may require a different form of assessment, one that

involves them in ways that will enhance their teaching experiences.

Another area that is closely related to student-teachers' role

in the teaching practicum triad is their preparedness to teach. The

literature is concerned about such issues as student-teachers

readiness to teach, their attitude toward the teaching practicum, and

their conceptions of the teaching practicum. If student-teachers do

not feel prepared to teach (reported below) it can be assumed that

they might not feel comfortable in participating in discussions that

involves their teaching experiences and that their role in the

teaching practicum triad might not be a prominent one.

Carter (1990) and Housego (1992) discuss the process of

preparing student-teachers and how they (student-teachers) feel

about the process. Carter (1990) concentrates on the extensive

preparation that is aimed at ensuring that student-teachers enter

the teaching practicum feeling prepared to teach. The author

contends that though efforts are made to prepare student-teachers

for teaching practicum, nothing can ensure feeling prepared to

teach. While Housego (1992) studied the student teachers' feeling

of preparedness to teach, personal efficacy, and teaching efficacy

30

in the University of British Columbia secondary teacher education

program (as per the title of the article). Housego (1992) reports

that there was no significant increase in the average rating of

feeling prepared to teach in the final four months of a twelve

month teacher education program.

The literature reviewed in the above section leads us into the

next question: Can the teaching practicum be structured such that

the process might be useful to student-teachers? The section that

follows presents suggestions on how teacher education programs can

be structured such that it can benefit students-teachers.

Section II

A life long teacher education program

One of the critical questions is whether teacher education can

produce competent teachers given the constraints inherent in this

enterprise. Bowman (1990) and Jackson (1993) both make a point that

learning to teach is a lifelong process. According to Jackson,

"beginning teachers are not going to have a fully developed

knowledge base to guide their curricular decisions" (p.24). This

suggests that teacher education can only introduce its candidates

to the concept of teaching, help them acquire basic teaching

skills, create situations for practice, but cannot be expected to

produce completely perfect teachers. Further professional

development has to be provided beyond the pre-service teacher

education component. Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987) argue that

31

the area of continuing professional development for teachers has

"been much neglected and needs serious attention" (p.23).

If we accept that learning to teach is a lifelong activity

then we must seek ways that will make this continuity a profitable

exercise.

The literature review on teacher education reform abounds with

research on teacher education as a continuum. One school of thought

supports the notion that student-teachers should be taught to

reflect on their teaching. Another school supports and advocates

collaboration among teacher education stake holders. Those who

propose collaboration, suggest that induction programs can assist

student-teachers as they progress in their teaching career. The

NCATE [National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education]

report (1987, cited in Bowman 1990) provides justification for

continuity, teacher education:

...is not a single time bound activity but a continuing process of career development. Teachers have a right to expect superior initial preparation that provides them with the knowledge and skills to enter the field; they also have a right to expect systematic evaluation, feedback and support during the first year of teaching and an integrated program for continued professional development(p.25).

Varah, Theine, Parker (1986), Jensen (1987), Fullan, Connelly

and Watson (1987), Fullan and Steigelbauer (1991) and Mathot (1988)

discuss some of the problems experienced by the first and second

year teachers. New teachers are said to encounter discipline

problems, classroom management problems, feelings of isolation,

32

difficulty using teaching materials, and difficulty in evaluating

students' work. Fullan and Stiegelbauer (1991) point out that

efforts must be made to assist beginning teachers because these

teachers face overwhelming situations. They point out that:

whether those teachers experience the sink-or-swim ndividualism characteristic of traditional school culture ... or the inbuilt support of collaborative work cultures makes a huge difference in whether they stay in the profession and how good they will become if they do. . . . , but there are few things as deterministic of the entire career of a teacher as getting off to a disastrous or a strong start (p.3 04).

Reflection and induction in teacher education

An understanding of beginning teachers dilemmas and the need for

assisting them during their initial stages of their professional life

brings us to the last section of this chapter; the need for

introducing student-teachers to reflective practice during their

teaching practicum and induction programs when they finally graduate

and join the profession.

Reflection-on/in-action

One of the concerns of Faculties of Education, educators and

teacher education researchers which is constantly singled out in

the literature is preparing student-teachers to engage in

"reflective practice" in their daily teaching experiences. The

33

search for ways of employing this concept in the curriculum of

teacher education is an active area of research. The literature

abounds with interpretations of what "reflective practice" can mean

for teacher-educators. For many researchers, the incorporation of

theory on reflective practice into the teacher education

curriculum is a positive move. Most of the literature claims that,

if student- teachers can be provided with the opportunity to

develop as reflective practitioners, their teaching will be

enhanced.

Teacher educators are beginning to realize that while the aim

of teacher education is to produce "highly competent" teachers, the

number of years spent in teacher education nor the well designed

theoretical programs offered cannot fully ensure that graduates

leave their institutions fully prepared for the teaching

profession. Student-teachers are said to enter the profession still

uncertain about how they should handle the difficult situations and

sometimes unexpected events they encounter in classroom situations.

This problem can be attributed to the fact that classroom life is

highly unpredictable. The ways in which the experienced teachers

handle classroom problems cannot be addressed fully in the

university classrooms. Hence the promotion of the theory of

"reflective practice." Ross (1990) points out that:

...the ability to reflect about the practice does not develop in one course or even in a few courses. Enabling pre-service students to be reflective requires the development of a clearly articulated program of study (p.97).

34

This means that helping the student teacher to become

"reflective" requires teacher-educators to provide student-teachers

with situations that will enable them to gain practical experience

in this area. D.A. Schon (1983), through his work entitled "The

Reflective Practitioner" has laid a foundation to the current

deliberations and research studies concerning "reflective

practice". Some teacher educators have tested the applicability of

this concept in the student teaching practica. The works of

MacKinnon and Erickson (1988) and that of Clarke (1990) in which

Schon's concept is tested with student-teachers in teaching

practica, are but a few examples of how seriously teacher educators

are promoting reflective practice in teacher education. The reasons

for these efforts are obvious: "the development of competent and

reflective teachers is a value toward which most teacher educators

would strive..." (Richardson, 1990, p.12)

As more and more educators/researchers show interest in

reflection, interpretations of what this theory means for teacher

education proliferate. Some interesting insights into reflective

theory are summarized by Grimmett (1988) in the following passage:

Reflection ... engages practitioners in a 'conversation' with the problematic situation . . . frames are imposed which highlight certain aspects of phenomena at work in the situation; problems are set, the situation framed, and problem-solving actions are generated (p.9).

The point he is making is that the reflective processes necessary for

dealing with the disparate situations encountered in the classroom

situation are primarily developed through experience in that

35

environment rather than through theoretical learning.

But Grimmett's interpretation leads us to yet other

interesting questions: Can beginning teachers engage in the type of

reflection that Grimmett is referring to? If not, why not? And how

can teacher educators help their student-teachers achieve this

level of reflection?

The literature tells us that the beginning of a teaching

practicum is a very difficult time for most student - teachers.

Student-teachers have problems adjusting to the new setting,

relating theory to practice, and conceptualizing the task of

teaching. The problem of student-teachers adjusting to the teaching

practicum is evidently considered pertinent since it is dealt with

by Reynolds (1992) and Mackinnon and Erickson (1988). The latter

authors point out that:

The beginning of practicum is likely to be very confusing and mysterious since the competence to be learned cannot simply be told to the student in a way that he or she could at that point understand (p.119).

The emphasis here is that, regardless of how helpful supervisors

can be, student-teachers are apprehensive of this new world in which

they are asked to play a major role, that is, of teacher. The authors

caution that in helping student-teachers to become reflective, there

is need to be tactful and make use of approaches that will encourage

reflective teaching habits. Thus, the factors that enable the

student-teachers to reflect in-action, as it is illuminated by the

preceding insights, will be discussed in this section.

36

Some key factors.

A multitude of factors that can encourage student-teachers to

reflect on and in action are discussed in the literature. Some of

the key factors that enable the development of reflection on and in

action in a student-teacher practicum setting will be addressed.

The practicum setting:

While student-teachers may be introduced to the concept of

reflection in some of their methods courses, this setting does not

provide them an opportunity to explore the concept in very

meaningful manner. In the field of education therefore, reflection

requires that student-teachers be placed in an action setting to

enable them to understand and use the concept. Fortunately, teacher

education is structured such that student-teachers experience

micro-teaching and the teaching practica at some point in their

program. According to MacKinnon and Erickson (1988) "one important

feature of the practicum setting is that it provides a 'virtual'

world,.." (p.118 also see Schon 1987, p.170). Immersed in the

everyday classroom life, student-teachers can be afforded the

opportunity to try practice reflection. Bowman (1990), in

commenting on Schon's concept of reflection, emphasizes that one

"learns one's business by practice, then reflection on that

practice "(p.36). However, not all settings are conducive to

enabling student-teachers to practice reflection effectively.

According to Ross (1990) , "field settings must provide a

supportive and challenging environment" (p.109). It is important

37

that field settings be seen to allow student-teachers to develop

teaching reflectively. Grimmett (1988) takes this point further by

pointing out that settings in which real reflection can be

developed are those which "precipitate puzzles or surprises for the

professional practitioner" (p.13). The implication here is that

settings should not only be supportive, but should present problems

so that student-teachers can begin to realize that there are events

in teaching which do require them to reflect on/in their teaching.

However, learning to become a reflective practitioner, as suggested

by Bowman raises a variety of questions, a key question being: is

engagement in practice teaching, in itself, enough to foster

reflection? The immediate answer would be no. There are other

factors that must be considered in order to create a supportive

setting. For example, the student-teacher must be mentored by a

supervisor, who Schon prefers to call the "coach".

Coaching the reflective practitioner:

Let us briefly examine the role of a "coach" and subsequent

implications in developing reflection during the teaching

practicum. The word "coach" is commonly used in the field of

sports. A coach is someone who demonstrates, supervises, initiates

dialogue, experiments, and is available during practice. But we

also note that a coach can never take the place of a player during

competitions. Schon (1983) suggests that "coaching" can be

summarized by the following characterization: "through advice,

criticism, description, demonstration, and questioning, one person

38

helps another learn to practice reflective teaching in the context

of doing" (p.19). If we can accept that the supervisor assumes the

role of a "coach" as described by Schon, then a "coach" has to be

a model, and in being a model would be expected to perform some or

all activities associated with coaching.

Some authors are suggesting higher recognition of the place of

observation and dialogue during the practicuin. Schon (1988)

classifies the implications of coaching in this manner:

In order to get to the inner relationship, a coach must always pass through the outer one. In other words, a coach gets to the teacher's interaction with kids ... only through the medium of an interaction with the teacher. And in this interaction, one often finds vulnerability, anxiety, and defensiveness (p.22).

While Ross (1990) argues that "common meaning" can be pursued by

"listening effectively to students and determining how a student is

interpreting the communication of the teacher educator ..."(p.106).

By showing the relationship between dialogue and developing

reflection, these authors suggest that the process of coaching needs

to be sensitive to each student's ability to conceptualize. If good

relationships are established between teacher-educator and student-

teacher, better outcomes will likely follow. The coach must be

available to guide the student through the teaching practicum period.

Valli (1990) stresses the importance of inviting students to

take "risks" and assuring them through dialogue that their "mistakes"

are normal and that they should not hesitate to share their

experiences. Valli indicates that:

39

In a relational approach, reflection seems to have two purposes. The first purpose is to provide the ground for caring relations and communities. The prospective teacher must be given the opportunity to reflect so that the supervisor or teacher educator can enter into his or her reality (p.49) .

It is important that teacher educators establish this

relationship as they encourage the development of Schon's "reflective

practitioner." Dialogue is an instrument through which feedback can

be provided and can be seen as a cooperative effort by two people

where listening takes place, information is given, and appropriate

responding takes place. Student-teachers must be willing to share

their experiences with their supervisors,- only then can supervisors

learn about their problems. Thus the literature indicates that the

student-teacher dialogue is seen to increase if and when the coach/

supervisor's approach encourages it.

The models/supervision methods/approaches:

Although the supervisor can facilitate reflection on/in

action, he/she can only do so through employing specific methods.

Several approaches that can be used to encourage reflection on/in

practice are provided in the literature. MacKinnon and Erickson

explore Schon's three models: the "follow me" model, the "joint

experimentation" model and the "hall of mirrors" model. Although

these models are discussed separately, this does not mean that

supervisors have to use one at a time or even separate them during

practice. It would not be surprising to find that supervisors using

all three to address different situations.

40

The "follow-me model is particularly important at the initial

stages of the teaching practicum. This is the stage whereby

student- teachers are still struggling with the reality of being in

a real classroom with real students. At this stage student-teachers

need to learn from the classroom teachers some of the techniques

required in classroom teaching. According to Schon, the dominant

pattern in a "follow-me" model is "demonstration and imitation;"

(p. 215) Schon points out that the underlying message for this model

is that student-teachers should in reality act in similar patterns

to that of their coach. Thus, student-teachers are invited to

experiment with what they consider to be essential features of the

coach's demonstration. (See Schon, 1987, p.215)

In a "joint experimentation" model, student-teachers can be

gradually helped to conceptualize the classroom setting and the

practicum expectations. This model assumes that the supervisor

provides a supporting and "nurturing" environment in which the

student will feel encouraged to take the initiative. The joint

experimentation further assumes that the supervisor also reflects

on his/her practice and shares the experiences with the student.

Thus, as Gillis (1988) puts it, student-teachers must be guided

through their experimentation process. Schon's "joint

experimentation" model as interpreted by Mackinnon and Erickson

shows that the coach takes an exploratory, analytic stance: the

coach joins the student in experimenting in practice, assessing the

student's ways of framing problems and acting in uncertain

situations" (p.119). The purpose of joint experimentation is

41

grounded in supportive environments. Thus, the coach has to

interact closely with the student in order to provide the student

an opportunity to reflect on /in practice. It becomes more

meaningful if both parties are willing to share their reflection

experience which moves us to Schon's third model.

Schon's third model is a hall of mirrors. In this model both

the student-teacher and the coach have reached a stage where they

can discuss each other's reflection. In this model, the coach

mirrors the very reflective practice he/she is encouraging in the

student-teacher; while the coach too thinks about his/her coaching

actions. Schon points out that in a hall of mirrors:

. . . student and coach continually shift perspective. They see their interaction at one moment as a reenactment of some aspect of the student's practice; at another, as a dialogue about it; and at still another, as a modelling of its redesign. In this process, they must continually take a two-tiered view of their interaction, seeing it in its own terms and as a possible mirror of the interaction the student has brought to the practicum for study. In this process, there is a premium on the coach's ability to surface his own confusion. To the extent that he can do so authentically, he models for his student a new way of seeing error and 'failure' as opportunities for learning, (p.297)(My emphasis)

Summary

In opening this section I indicated that concerned teacher-

educators are beginning to consider the importance of reflection

on/in action in teacher education. I have also identified some ways

in which this can be incorporated into the teaching practicum. Some

of the motivations for developing reflective practica stem from the

42

belief by educators that the teaching practicum is the best place

for beginning to illuminate reflecting on/in action. The literature

about the possible rewards for enabling student-teachers to

experiment with reflection on/in action suggests that teachers can

move from just reflecting on/in action to solving teaching

problems. Russell, Munby, Spafford, and Johnston (1988) point out

that reflection in-action is seen as the process in which a

professional, responding to puzzle and surprises in the context of

practice, reframes a problem in a way that suggests new lines of

action (p.70) (my emphasis) . Thus, there seems to be a promising

future for Schon's "reflective practitioner" in modern teacher

education curriculum.

Further, the literature supports the notion of encouraging and

facilitating reflective practice during the teaching practicum.

However, some authors caution about problems associated with

reflection in-action, the "second level" of reflection. While most

published researchers maintain that reflection on action can be

developed by student-teachers during the practicum, reflection in­

action may be too complicated to be developed at the teaching

practicum level. Gillis (1988) and Mackinnon and Erickson (1988)

take similar positions on this notion. Gillis observes that

reflection in-action might be promoted within a supervisory

setting, especially if supervisors use the "clinical supervision"

model. The author notes that while the teaching practicum is

probably the most appropriate place for this activity to occur, "it

seems unlikely to occur with much frequency" (p.52). Gillis's

43

concern is with the constraint of time, which is to say, the

relatively short duration of the practicum. He seems to suggest

that for reflection in-action to be successful, more time is

required. MacKinnon and Erickson (1988) draw a similar conclusion.

They submit that reflection on-action is mostly easily accomplished

in a practicum setting, while reflection in-action "can indeed be

encouraged, (but) it is extremely difficult and threatening because

of the lack of experience and the limited repertoire of most novice

teachers" (p.134). And further to this, Bowman (1990) sees the

roles of teacher educators as that of initiators and facilitators;

but because of the limited time that teacher educators spend with

the student-teachers, they should ideally collaborate more fully

with their peers throughout the profession. This, Bowman thinks,

could ensure that "in the future, somewhere down the road, will

emerge the reflective practitioner" (p.9)(my emphasis).

By submitting that reflection in-action cannot be easily

developed during the teaching practicum, the authors are suggesting

that teacher educators have to accept that they can initiate these

developments, but this is only one of many steps towards the

development of student-teachers into mature reflective

practitioners.

Initiating reflection on and in-action in teacher education is

a positive step toward enhancing "competence" in teacher education.

It is a step which can lead to providing "reflective practice for

all teachers, at all stages of their career. ... It is both a key

goal of teacher education and the informing characteristic of each

44

step in the teacher education continuum" (Fullan, Connelly and

Watson,1987,p.6).

Preparing student-teachers to become reflective practitioners as

well as mounting induction programs for all beginning teachers in

all contexts seems to be the focus of reform efforts in the 1990's

literature.

The induction program

Let's face it. The new teacher who opens the classroom on Monday may have graduated last Friday. That teacher may have moved to a new area and lived alone for the first time. All of a sudden, he or she is expected to be an adult and a professional, and an exceptionally competent one at that (John Mahaffy, cited by Jensen 1986, p.l).

This section will discuss what an induction program is, why it

is important for teachers such as the one described in the above

citation, and the models of induction programs.

Induction may be thought of as a supportive program for the

beginning teacher. For Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987) induction

means "a relatively structured, supportive and progressive entry

(of new teachers) into the early years of teaching" (p.23). This

idea is elaborated in McDonald's definition of induction. He

defines it as "encompassing the mastery of two tasks: the effective

use of skills of teaching and adapting to the social system of the

school" (McDonald 1980b, cited by Varah, Theune & Parks, 1986,

p. 33). Induction therefore is the extension of the teacher

education curriculum intended to form a bridge between the pre-

service and in-service teacher education. One would imagine that

45

the induction programs are typically developed to orient the new

teachers into the profession of teaching. The emphasis here is that

induction is a component of the learning continuum that encompasses

teacher professional development throughout their career.

Justification for induction programs

The literature on induction programs suggests that there are

several reasons for proposing that the teaching profession attend

to the importance and/or relevance of induction to the profession.

Induction programs raise a number of interesting issues, such

as supervision of new teachers. Jensen (1986) notes that "school

principals are frequently reluctant to monitor the performance of

new teachers" (p.5) particularly during the first months of their

teaching. This of course is a paradox. If the teachers are not

assisted, they:

. . . tend to experience difficulties, particularly in discipline and classroom management, (that may) compound as the school year progresses. Without supervision and feedback, they may repeat costly errors (Jensen, 1986, p.5) .

The important message is that, due to lack of support, these

teachers tend to socialize themselves into the profession, and in

the process of doing so, develop teaching behaviours that may not

be conducive to their professional development. Jensen (1986)

contends that when socialization is a solitary act, new teachers:

46

... learn both the job of the teacher and the culture of the school by observing staff members rather than by-communication: the newcomer is reluctant to betray lack of knowledge or competence, and experienced teachers do not wish to be seen as meddlers (p.5).

The above comment suggests that both experienced and new

teachers rarely discuss each other's expectations, concerns, and/or

problems due to, in part, the fact that the school system is setup

such that each teacher lives in his/her own isolated 'world' . For

example, regardless of the fact that the new teachers are quite

inexperienced, they may be entrusted with the full responsibilities

of teaching from the first day of their teaching career but have

little opportunity to engage in meaningful discussion about these

responsibilities. To prevent the perpetuation of this situation and

to reduce the possible mistakes that may be made by such teachers,

Huling-Austin (1986) proposes that the profession must consider

itself responsible for the well-being of all its members and in

particular its new members. The author argues that as part of their

responsibility, the experienced professionals should provide

appropriate induction programs for the new teachers. An implicit

assumption is that the new teachers who have been assisted through

the induction program will grow professionally through collegial

support and assistance.

A contemporary of Jensen's goes on to state that although

induction programs vary from one institution to the other, "their

one commonality is that they all promote a high level of

interaction-among the beginning teachers, administrators, and

colleagues" (Huling-Austin, 1986, p.7).

47

The observation by Jensen (1986) and Hulling-austin (1986) ,

suggest that induction programs have the potential to provide

strong links that connect experienced professionals with new

members. Through induction programs, one might argue, a new

community is born each year: A community of professionals that

takes care of its inexperienced members in order to strengthen the

calibre of the profession as a whole.

The induction program goals

Induction programs are receiving much attention because of the

role they play particularly for the new teachers. One of the major

concerns about the new teachers (as illustrated by the proponents

of induction) is that many leave the profession due to problems

they encounter during their first few years of teaching. Induction

program therefore are seen as potential in overcoming such

problems.

The importance of induction programs is underlined in several

induction program reports. According to the following reports

induction programs are based on the understanding that they provide

professional support to the new teachers. This is particularly

helpful in that the profession may be able to retain more teachers

than has been previously the case. Theune and Parker (1986), The

Mission School District (1990), The Ontario Ministry of Education

report (1988), Jensen (1987), Hulling-Austin (1986) and Fullan and

Stiengelbauer (1991) lay out some interesting induction program

goals. According to Hulling-Austin the following goals can serve as

48

a guide for those intending to implement these ideas:

• To improve teaching performance: A more realistic goal for induction program is to provide the support and assistance necessary to develop those beginning teachers who enter the profession and who have the requisite abilities and personal attributes to become successful teachers (p.2).

• To increase the retention of promising beginning teachers during the induction years. If an induction program is successful in assisting beginning teachers to make a smooth transition into the teaching profession, one may realistically expect the teacher retention during the induction years (p.3).

• To promote the personal and professional well-being of beginning teachers. Many beginning teacher experience personal and profession trauma during their first year without the support of an induction program. ... Teacher induction programs can serve as personal and professional support to beginning teachers... (p.4)

If the above goals are used in structuring an induction

program, such a program can be expected to improve the performance

of new teachers, particularly if these teachers are provided with

an ongoing support and assistance grounded in a clearly

articulated, context-specific vision of what constitutes reflective

practice alternatives. It is through such efforts that the teaching

profession can be seen to promote both the personal and

professional well-being of student-teachers. (See Hulling-Austin,

1986).

The mentor teachers/the mentor teams

For the most part, induction programs have been proposed and

implemented by schools rather than by teacher education

institutions. However, there are few reported instances (such as

Verah, Theune and Parker's 1986, report) where induction programs

49

have been initiated and supported by institutions of higher

learning. The common practice of schools being responsible for

induction programs is however understandable. It is within the

school setting where experienced mentors are found. Thus, in order

to improve the quality of the new teachers, efforts should be made

to reconceptualize the traditional roles and responsibilities of

these mentor teachers. In other words, in order for the teaching

profession to achieve the induction program's goals, there is a

need to identify the team of professionals who should be charged

with the responsibility of orienting the new teachers to the

workplace and the teaching profession culture.

The process of assigning the new teachers to the experienced

teachers and/or mentor teachers requires a set of criteria

particularly if we accept that not all teachers posses the

mentoring skills. Jensen (1987) Maintains that selection of the

mentor teachers must be done very carefully. He writes that:

If the school's induction program includes the appointment of mentor teachers, the selection of the mentors is critical. Research and common sense both suggest that a capable teacher who teaches the same subject at the same grade level and within the same instructional style could be most helpful to a new teacher (p.19).

Verah, Theune and Parker discuss the responsibilities to be

assumed by the mentor teachers. These include such things as

assisting:

• the inductee in understanding the nature of the learners; ...the curriculum... (and) understanding the total school

50

program, and • serving as resource for inductee by...planning for

teaching;... identifying sources of information about teaching, the school and community (p.34)

The Ontario Ministry of Education report (1988) broadens the

description of the mentor teacher by describing such persons as an

"experienced teacher assisting the inductee's entrance into the

profession by providing support, counselling, guidance into the

school and community life, and opportunities for professional

activities" (p.32). This description clarifies the fact that the

mentor teachers are expected to do more than just helping the new

teachers with their classroom problems and/or instruction. The

mentor teachers should instead be seen to be more than academic

associates. They should in some cases act as counsellors to the new

teachers.

Some induction reports note that in order for induction

programs to be useful, new-teachers, have to be given the

opportunity to select the professionals with whom they feel

comfortable. The Mission School District report (1991) indicates

that pairing the "mentors and proteges was voluntary, based upon

relationships established in the first month of school year" (p.l).

If one is to accept this citation, then one has to note that

assigning new teachers to mentor teachers should be flexible in

order to allow the new teachers to make their own selection.

According to this school of thought, one would assume that the new

teachers should be introduced to the concept of induction during

their orientation into the school culture in order to enable them

51

to spend the first month consciously studying the experienced

teachers's instructional behaviours and/or attitudes.

The important message is that the mentor teacher must be an

experienced teacher with expertise of the sorts described above

that distinguish him/her from the rest of the teachers in the

school. He/she must also be capable of helping new teachers to

improve their instructional skills as well as helping the new

teacher adjust to the new social environment.

The induction program models

In the light of what has been discussed above, it would seem

important to note that an effective induction program model has to

be designed in order to achieve the program goals. Several

induction models are suggested in the literature. According to

Jensen (1987) they may be grouped into three broad categories:

• A common model uses the experienced teacher as mentors or sponsor, providing the newcomer with legitimate access to a colleagues expertise. ...mentor teachers may provide formal classroom observation in a clinical supervision format(p.7).

• Another model of induction emphasizes increased supervision and coaching by the site administrator or by the district's staff development personnel and proposes to consider the first year of teaching as an internship, one that features intensive feedback from district supervision (p.7).

• Still another model combines the energies of school and higher education personnel. In this structure, teacher educators work with school district administrators and classroom teachers to ensure that the new teacher's transition from student teaching to full-time teaching is smooth (p.7).

52

Jensen's (1986) models provide a useful framework that can

guide those institutions that are keen to design induction

programs. The inclusion of the university teacher educator as shown

in Jensen's third model means that where this model is practiced,

the implication is that teacher education has moved to a world of

interconnectedness and interdependencies, a world in which no one

institution is fully responsible of educating the teachers. This

increased awareness requires both teacher educators and experienced

school based professionals to collaborate in the efforts to assist

the new teachers.

Research on induction programs

Although most of the current literature on teacher education

innovations supports the employment of induction programs, the

literature seems to be more rhetorical than empirical; induction

literature is mostly found in school district's or Ministries of

Education's reports. Perhaps this suggests that this theory has

not been extensively researched. Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987)

report that "Some temporary or longer induction programs have been

in operation in other provinces (Alberta) , and other countries

(Australia, Britain, United states), ..." (p.36). The authors

maintain that a lot can be learned from the experiences of these

countries. They further note that many induction programs were

experiments, which had to be discontinued "as initial funds ran

out." It is not clear however whether there has been any follow-up

53

studies on the effectiveness of induction programs in the above

mentioned situations.

Summary

In spite of the fact that research on the significance of

induction programs has not been extensive, the reports cited in

this section illuminate that induction is relevant to enhancing

teaching practice. A properly structured induction program can

contribute to the professional development of the new teachers. For

example, an institution that is interested in the notion of

reflective practice might structure its induction program so that

the work of reflection initiated in pre-service teacher education

can be continued.

The implication of involving teacher educators as explained in

this section is that the teacher educators can help their graduate

smoothly adjust into the workplace and by so doing strengthen the

links between teacher education and the school that hire the

graduates.

54

CHAPTER 111

The Teaching Practicum: Critical Feature

This chapter examines the teaching practicum models used in

the North American context and the theory that guides the

development of such models. It asks questions such as: What is the

theoretical frameworks that guide the development of teaching

practicum models? What are the intended outcomes of individual

models? Why do certain models work better than others? What are the

nature of opportunities presented to student teachers under

prevalent models? Why are some models considered better than

others? What teaching practicum experiences help student-teachers

achieve the teacher education goals in each of the models?

The knowledge of conceptual theories can help teacher

educators examine the major role of the teaching practicum in

student teaching. Such knowledge can be used in developing a

teaching practicum model appropriate for specific institutional

context.

The main teacher education program categories

Traditionally teacher education programs have been divided

into two main categories: The concurrent and the consecutive

teacher education programs. The concurrent program refers to a

teacher education program taken concurrently with an undergraduate

degree, while the consecutive program means that teacher education

is taken for one or two years after the completion of an

55

undergraduate degree. (See the Ontario Ministry of Education

report, 1988 and Fullan, Connelly and Watson, 1987). However, these

traditional categories employ varying models of teaching practicum

corresponding to the purposes that teacher educators in individual

Faculties of Education believe should be achieved. Some of these

purposes will become clearer in the discussion of various

orientations.

A concurrent program might include, for example, a distributed

field experience (student teachers attending practicum at certain

intervals throughout a one year program of study) . The same

experiences might be practiced in a consecutive teacher education

program. For example, the University of Botswana runs a concurrent

teacher education program. Student teachers in this university

undergo a teaching practicum in March, in June and throughout July.

Unlike the University of Botswana, the University of British

Columbia in Canada runs a consecutive teacher education program for

secondary student-teachers who undergo teaching practicum at

intervals; a two week practicum in the fall and then a thirteen

week practicum in winter. Administrative "necessities" aside, one

might conclude that these examples demonstrate that the theories

and/or beliefs held by teacher educators in various institutions

influence the way teaching practicum models are designed and/or

framed.

Diversity in teaching practicum theory

In answering the question "What are the current teaching

56

practicum models?", it is important to examine the theoretical

teaching practicum orientations that guide the development of

teaching practicum models. These orientations were mentioned in

chapter two of this paper. They are revisited here to examine how

they relate to the variety of teaching practicum structures found

in teacher education. This examination will illuminate the

diversity of program structures and the factors that have

contributed to that diversity.

The assumptions that weigh the value of different approaches

to field experiences are derived from the theoretical orientation

adopted in framing teaching practicum models. That is to say,

different theoretical models lead to very different teaching

practicum models. It is not surprising therefore that there is no

universal teacher education practicum model. Part of the reason for

the differences observed in teaching practicum models may be due to

the fact that individual institutions frame their goals such that

they are applicable to their context. Zeichner (1983) concurs with

this view. He points out that:

. . . there has been too little discussion, . . ., of the goals of teacher educators who hold distinctly different positions about many of the valuative questions underlying paradigmatic orientations. As a consequence of this lack of open debate over the goals and purposes ... (the) models of both research and practice in teacher education tends to be limited in number and narrow in scope and are too closely tied to paradigmatic orientations that are dominant at particular points in time. (p.3)

It is therefore understandable that the goals of the program

57

dictate the model for the teaching practica. This study will

attempt to evaluate these theories and recommend an appropriate

foundational theory that can serve a model for the Lesotho

university.

The teaching practicum models/theoretical orientations

Many researchers discuss the theory of the teaching practicum

curriculum under conceptual frameworks or orientations. Several

theoretical orientations have been identified and discussed in the

literature; the "behaviouristic, " the "personalistic," the

"traditional-craft," and the "inquiry-oriented" approach (see

Zeichner, 1983, and Feiman-Nemser, 1990,). This list is not

exhaustive, there are other important theoretical orientations

discussed in the literature, but these four orientations capture many

variations discussed in the literature. Part of the reason for their

popularity is that they have been identified as "comprising the major

approaches" particularly in the United states where in the recent

years Teacher Education discussions focused on theoretical

orientations. (See Zeichner, 1983, p.7). However, Zeichner (1983)

cautions that these orientations should not be viewed synonymous to

specific teacher education programs. He points out that institutions

can incorporate some elements "from two or more general orientations

into single paradigm" (p.7).

Several researchers discuss these orientations as they relate

to the teaching practicum program design. See Guyton and Mclntyre

(1990), Zeichner (1993), Zeichner and Liston (1987), Feiman-Nemser

58

(1990), Dunbar (1981) Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989), Fullan,

Connelly and Watson (1987), Tom and Valli (1990) and Bowman (1991).

These researchers and writers indicate that the ways in which

teaching practica are implemented in various institutions varies

greatly. This diversity could be regarded as a healthy sign of

programs responding to specific contextual needs in teacher

education. In other words, the field of Teacher Education is too

complex to settle for a single teaching practicum model. Bowman

(1991), in his review of the teacher education programs in the

province of British Columbia in Canada, states this position best

when he says that he supports the variation of program structures

used in these institutions as opposed to a "blanket program." The

section that follows briefly examines how (according to the above

mentioned researchers) these theoretical orientations direct the

teaching practicum models.

The first orientation, known as "behaviourist," emphasises

that the teaching practicum should enable student-teachers to

develop skills that are both observable and related to school

children's learning. Those who believe in this theory might

structure a teaching practicum such that performance would be a

measure of ability to increase children's learning. The goal would

be to determine whether the student-teacher can demonstrate the

competency in the skills to promote meaningful learning. This

orientation therefore seeks to prepare student-teachers to follow

the established school's norms. In other words, student-teachers

would go to schools to perfect the teaching methods they have been

59

taught in their professional studies courses. Zeichner (1983)

points out that, the concern with this orientation is "with

fostering the development of skill in an actual performance of a

predetermined task" (p.4) . Valli (1992) points out that in

behaviouristic teaching practica, the student-teacher needs to

demonstrate adequate teaching competency based on effective

teaching research. Teacher educators who believe in this

orientation are concerned about the self-perceived needs and

concerns of prospective teachers. (See Zeichner 1983 p.3).

Critics of this approach argue about the fact that student-

teachers whose teaching practicum is grounded in this theory play

little part in determining the substance and direction of their

preparation program. Student-teachers are expected to "pursue

predetermined tasks even if the content is inappropriate"

(Zeichner, p.3, 1983). Teacher educators who support this theory

have to describe and decide on the "specific" behaviours they

expect the student-teachers to demonstrate as a result of teaching

practicum experience. This situation creates a problem in that

"behaviours" (even in one's normal life) are unpredictable and can

not always be defined in advance because the exact context of the

future is not known to those who describe the program nor the

student teachers. (See Zeichner, 1983) Another problem with this

orientation is that the ways in which student-teachers carry out

teaching performance would have to be related to the expectations

of the classroom teacher and not in what the student-teachers

believe. This approach is criticised for not allowing student-

60

teachers to think and to reflect on their teaching actions. (See

Valli, 1992)

The second orientation, "personalistic," places little

emphasis on development of teaching skills in student teaching

because its purpose is to promote "psychological" maturity of

student-teachers. (See Guyton and Mclntyre, 1990). This orientation

is consequently useful in helping student teachers reorganize their

"perceptions and beliefs" about the process of teaching. Thus, the

teaching practicum that is framed on this theory does not emphasize

teaching skill development; it allows student-teachers to take

risks in real practical situations by giving them a supportive

atmosphere that would enable them to "try their wings." The purpose

of a model framed on this theory would be to design a practicum

that allows student-teachers to learn what "they need to know" and

to experience the problems encountered in an authentic professional

setting.

The literature states that in the actual setting, the student-

teachers would be encouraged to "take risks" and discover adequacy

and enhancement of their professional life. In practice student-

teachers nurtured through this orientation would be placed at the

centre of educational learning, allowing them to discover "personal

meaning." It would ask such questions as: Do student-teachers

understand the process they are going through? How do they see

themselves growing in this process? How do they see themselves

becoming effective in this process? As Feiman-Nemser (1990) notes

"learning to teach is (a) transformative process, not just a matter

61

of acquiring new knowledge and skills" (p.227). It can be assumed

that student-teachers nurtured under this theory would become

independent in handling unfamiliar classroom encounters and that

this transformation can be expected to occur after student-teachers

completed the teaching practicum process that supports personal

growth. Zeichner (1983), in supporting the fact that this

orientation promotes the psychological maturity of prospective

teachers, argues that teacher education is a form of adult

development, a process of "becoming" rather than merely a process

of educating someone how to teach. It is through giving them some

degree of independence that they may gradually mature into the

practice of teaching while they are practicing to become teachers.

In questioning the effectiveness of a teaching practicum model

based on the "personalistic" theory, Feiman-Nemser (1990) asks "Can

a personally oriented pre-service education promote a view of good

teaching and, at the same time, encourage students to develop their

theories and discover methods that work for them?" (p.225).

The third type, commonly referred to as a "traditional-craft"

orientation, is concerned with encouraging student-teachers to view

teaching as a craft. Some educators refer to this approach as a

process of apprenticeship (See Feiman-Nemser, 1990, p.516).

Typically, student-teachers would be attached to an experienced

teacher to observe and experiment with the tools appropriate for

the discipline and at the same time would be using the language in

the setting in which they are placed. The explicit intention of

this orientation is that student-teachers can learn to become

62

teachers and/or learn to teach through being in the field with

practicing teachers. This is supposed to enable them to become good

apprentices, because they would be given the opportunity to

practice and in the process acquire the skill and "craft knowledge"

through being involved in the daily activities of the practicing

teacher. Andrew (1983) provides an example of a program that

employs the traditional-craft theory. He describes a five-year

teacher education program in which "the first phase of the program

is a semester course that places the student as a teaching

assistant in the schools (exploring teaching)." (p.21). Andrew's

(1983) case indicates that student-teachers in the described

program are placed in the schools even before they are taught any

teaching methods. The purpose of a teaching practicum approach such

as the one described by Andrew (1983) is to allow student teachers

to gain teaching knowledge by observing and participating in the

activities of the classroom teacher. Brown, Collins and Duguid

(1989) refer to this situation as "learning through cognitive

apprenticeship" (p.37). The authors argue that "cognitive

apprenticeship methods try to enculturate students into authentic

practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar

to that evident-and evidently successful-in craft apprenticeship"

(p.37). Thus, student-teachers are inducted into a community of

practitioners and a world of practice (See Feiman-Nemser 1990,

p.222). By placing student-teachers in the real "world" of

teaching, the proponents of this approach maintain that student-

teachers gain the knowledge of teaching by "trial and error" in a

63

community and wisdom of experienced practitioners (See Zeichner,

1983) . The knowledge gained through this kind of experience is

referred to as "craft knowledge". Grimmett and MacKinnon (1992)

describe this form of knowledge as "a particular form of practice-

related professional knowledge which is constructed by teachers in

the context of their lived experiences and work" (p.8) . Thus, craft

knowledge can be best acquired through participating in a practicum

setting supported by experienced and effective teachers.

This theory is not without critics either. According to the

literature, although this approach allows student-teachers to build

a repertoire of technical skills of teaching as well as to gain

craft knowledge, it does not necessarily guarantee that student-

teachers prepared through this model will be able to make proper

judgements about what ought to be done in difficult situations or

unexpected teaching circumstances. (See Feiman-Nemser 1990, and

Zeichner, 1983) . Another problem is that experienced teachers are

not necessarily effective teachers of student-teachers. Therefore,

it cannot be assumed that being assigned to an experienced teacher

necessarily implies that each student-teacher will benefit from

such an experience. The literature describes some mentor teachers

as "drill sergeants," or "laisser-fair neglector." The main

weakness of this orientation therefore, is that it encourages,

through imitation of associate teachers, unquestioning maintenance

of the status quo. Moreover, this model does not allow student-

teachers to "inquire" and reflect on their actions because they

focus on learning from observing the actions of their associate

64

teachers. Tom and Valli (1990) add that the most difficult aspect

of this model is that there is really little consensus on what is

meant by craft knowledge. Thus, making it even more difficult for

teacher educators to decide on what aspects of teaching experiences

student-teachers have to know as they participate in the school

setting, observe their associate teachers, and learn to teach.

There is a growing interest in the literature about the forth

and final theoretical framework known as the "inquiry-oriented"

approach. This approach is said to be important because it allows

student-teachers to explore the possibility of inquiring into their

practice during their teaching practicum. Bowman (1991), in

contrasting the apprenticeship model of teacher education to

inquiry oriented approach, has argued forcefully that:

. . . although vocational or apprenticeship type model of teacher preparation have many essential practical elements in them, they are too narrow, too survival oriented, to stimulate critical reflection. Those programs that emphasize professional knowledge lend themselves more to reflection, to broadening and deepening the teacher's understanding, but not if those studies are isolated from practice for then they tend to be perceived as irrelevant, (p.66)

The emphasis of the inquiry-oriented approach is to give

student-teachers an opportunity to investigate their teaching and

consequently their teaching context as they play the role of

experimental inquirers. The practicum that is grounded in inquiry-

oriented theory gives student-teachers opportunities to learn to

"reflect" on their classroom actions and ask themselves questions,

such as, why they behave in the way they do and how they should in

future react in similar situation. By exploring the possibilities

65

of being actively involved in their classroom actions student-

teachers would develop new knowledge about themselves and about how

to handle difficult or unexpected situations. Zeichner (1983)

supports the notion of facilitating inquiry into one's teaching

practice. He views the prospective teacher as an active agent in

his or her own preparation for teaching.

Since the literature shows that the teaching practicum duration

is not always long enough to ensure full understanding of inquiry

into one's actions, it is suggested that teacher educators explore

the possibility of experimenting with the use of this approach in the

teacher education laboratories. The current literature strongly

supports engaging student-teachers in the process of inquiry while

they are still on campus. According to Guyton and Mclntyre (1990),

teacher educators are advocating the re-emphasis of professional

laboratories. These authors maintain that, in the laboratory,

student-teachers can begin to test applicability of concepts, and

that they can also reflect on their actions.

The proponents of an inquiry based practicum believe that this

orientation requires student-teachers to be in the field of

practice for a reasonable period in order to enable them to

practice becoming inquirers. Teacher educators who are interested

in this theory would have to ensure that student-teachers spent

sufficient time in the practicum setting. The objective would be to

give them time to be familiar with the situation in which they are

to play a new role of teaching and then to let them practice

reflecting on their actions. The major purpose of this orientation

66

is to enable student-teachers to understand their own practice and

the situations in which this practice is carried out. More

importantly they would be expected to improve their practice

through being conscious and analytical about their actions.

Another objective might be to consider the time to be spent in

the teaching practicum. In other words, inquiry into one's teaching

requires sufficient time in order to learn in the culture of the

school to explore this concept. It is through allowing student-

teachers to practice inquiring into their practice that their

teaching skills can improve as they move away from the constraints

of acting according to the expectations of sponsor-teachers or

their faculty advisors to acting according to their own

professional beliefs about teaching and learning.

Another objective could be to give student-teachers a variety

of teaching and observational experiences so that they might have

enough time to inquire into their own practice and to reflect on

other such inquiries. Applegate and Shaklee (1983) report on the Kent

State University experience. Their program is based on the assumption

that student-teachers work with mentor teachers for an extended

period of time providing student-teachers an opportunity for

"knowledge integration and reflection to occur" (p.67). The goal of

a program such as the one described by Applegate and Shaklee (1983)

would be to encourage student-teachers to analyze their own practice

and that of the assisting mentor teachers. (See Zeichner and Liston

1987 and Zeichner, 1983) . Zeichner (1983) points out that because the

inquiry oriented approach:

67

. . . views the teacher as an active agent in his or her own preparation for teaching and assumes that the more a teacher is aware of the origins and consequences of his or her actions and of the realities that constrain these actions, the greater is the likelihood that he or she can control and change both the actions and constraints, (p.6)

The inquiry oriented approach to the teaching practicum has to

be planned such that student-teachers are encouraged to inquire into

their practice while they are on campus as well as during the

teaching practicum. Nodie Oja, Diller, Corcon and Andrew (1992)

explain that their 5-year teacher education program at the University

of New Hampshire is designed such that student-teachers are

encouraged "to make thoughtful, effective classroom decisions" (p.3).

According to these authors, student-teachers in this University

explore the possibility of inquiry by participating in support groups

that encourage them to "comment on each others papers and to

construct their own agendas for co-exploration" (p.7). In other

words, they begin to experience reflective practice by helping each

other to reflect on their documented thoughts. The student-teachers

of this university work live in a supportive community that involves

other student-teachers as well as members of supervisory triad

throughout the program.

From the examples provided above, it becomes clear that this

orientation requires a community of scholars who can collaborate in

the effort to encourage competency in student teaching. The

literature clearly argues that professionally trained teachers should

first and foremost be able to inquire into teaching and think

critically about their work.

68

The promise of an "effective" application of the inquiry-

oriented approach in teacher education is, naturally, questioned by

some educators. In discussing some problems that may be encountered

in implementing this approach to the teaching practicum, Guyton and

Mclntyre (1990) note that one can and will encounter individual

professional teachers and whole institutions with intransigent

attitudes towards change. Additionally, curricula and instruction

are often highly structured and inflexible, making it difficult for

student-teachers to explore the possibility of experimenting with

the inquiry-oriented approach.

Furthermore, in designing innovative inquiry-oriented learning

strategies such as reflective practice, teacher educators often

assume that sponsor teachers can and will assist student-teachers

to inquire into their own practice. However, without offering these

sponsor teachers orientation to the new approaches to teacher

education, the sponsor teachers will lack the skills and the

motivation to assist their students. Another drawback associated

with the inquiry-oriented approach is that it requires extensive

time to master reflective practice, a length of time that is

arguably much greater than the fixed duration of the teacher

education program. Thus, it is a valid concern that many student-

teachers may leave the practicum without sufficient practice.

The teaching practicum time-frame

Several factors affect the design of the teaching practicum

models: the context in which the program is run, the purpose for a

69

particular teaching practicum model, the administration of the

teaching practicum, the process of student supervision, the people

involved in the field experiences, the financial implications, as

well as the positioning and time-frame for the teaching assignment.

Some of these factors have been discussed in the preceding

chapters. The context, the financial implications and the time­

frame are related to the rationale for the model to be proposed for

the Lesotho context in the next chapter and will be discussed

there. These factors have been identified by the 1986 Lesotho

University Commission as constraining efforts to improve the

teaching practicum model.

The literature abounds with both the positioning of the

teaching practicum in relation to the entire teacher education

program as well as the length of time that student-teachers spend

in field experience. For example, in some programs, student-

teachers go out on teaching practica twice a year, in others they

might be in the schools for the whole year. Another variation is

that some programs prefer to have student-teachers go for their

teaching practicum at the end of the program so that they do not

necessarily have to return to campus after the completion of their

teaching practicum, while others, as in the case of Andrew (1983),

begin their program of study in the schools, return to the campus

and finish their program in the schools. Andrew (1983) points out

that the third phase of the program "-the fifth year of study -

usually includes a full school year internship plus one or two

summers of graduate course work" (p.21). While this diversity of

70

time-frame and positioning of teaching practica relates to the

teaching practicum model and its purpose, it also demonstrates that

the scheduling of teaching practicum is very complicated.

A brief examination of the current practices concerning time­

frame might help to illustrate the above raised point. Bowman

(1991) , in a review of the state of teacher education in the

Province of British Columbia, where three teacher education

institutions are located, observes that there is a variety of time­

frames in the three institutions. He reports that the extended

practicum at the University of Simon Fraser is fourteen weeks,

thirteen for the University of British Columbia, and eight weeks at

the University of Victoria. Bowman (1991) further points out time

scheduling within these institutions: the University of Simon

Fraser offers a practice based program with fifty percent of time

spent on campus and fifty percent in the schools, while the

University of British Columbia has divided its practicum into two

blocks of time: two weeks of school orientation and thirteen weeks

of teaching practicum. Thus, 30% of the program is spend on the

teaching practicum. The University of Victoria offers an internship

program of eight weeks. The programs differ because of the history

of an individual institution, their size, their complexity and

their conceptual approaches.

Fullan, Connelly and Watson (1987) in a review of the teacher

education practices in the province of Ontario, recommend that

there be a two-year internship period defined as the equivalent of

ten months full-time, with a fifty percent teaching appointment in

71

each of the two years. They point out that the focus of the

proposed internship program would be supervised reflective practice

and that the period of internship would be devoted to developing

professional expertise through teaching practice, observation, and

reflection. The Ministry of Education in Ontario also conducted a

review of the teacher education programs in the province of

Ontario. A recommendation of the review Committee was that

student-teachers undergo a sixty-days teaching practicum. The

Review Committee believed that this period would enable student-

teachers more "opportunities to be with children and young people

and to engage in the activities of teaching" (p.20). This extended

time will also give student-teachers more opportunities for

reflective practice and for involvement in the schools' extra

curricular activities.

The most prominent feature in the literature on time-frame as

discussed in the above examples is the stark contrast between

length of time to be spent in the teaching practicum and the

positioning of the practicum in the Canadian teacher education

institutions. The observed differences however, help to illustrate

the difficulty of designing a practicum teaching model, especially

scheduling the time to be spent in the practicing schools. While it

may be true that the most important step in designing such programs

would be identifying what the practicum should be intended to

achieve, it becomes difficult to decide on the issue of time. The

variety of time schedules as well as the positioning of the

teaching practicum practiced in the North-American context is

72

diverse. Wong and Osguthorpe (1993) point out that the factors

affecting program decisions are complex and often misunderstood.

They provide an interesting example indicating that there is

confusion about the use of terms by teacher educators: "One

institution's 'extended' program may be less rigorous and take less

total time than another institution's 'extended' program" (p.69).

The important message however, is that context still plays an

important role in determining the goals for a teaching practicum

program.

The teaching practicum context

Another important factor to be considered in designing a

teaching practicum model is context. In this regard, context refers

to the social, historical, and political settings of the school in

which student-teachers are placed. As indicated in the preceding

chapters, schools are built for school children and not for the

purpose of teacher education. Schools are administered by a

different body from that of the Faculties of Education. In some

contexts such as in Lesotho for example, the school calender year

is different from that of the university; (See Chapter I). For a

student-teacher to begin teaching in a classroom in which the

regular grade teacher has already established certain norms might

be difficult. Designing a teaching practicum model appropriate for

the orientation that one believes in can be constrained by the

context.

The context might pose a variety of problems. First, the

73

distance between the schools as well as from the university campus

might have some important bearing on teaching practicum. For

example, if the purpose of the program is to help student-teachers

foster reflective practice in student teaching, then placing

student-teachers in schools not easily reached by faculty advisors

might be a disadvantage because they might spend excessive time

travelling to and from schools instead of spending time in ways

that can be profitable to the student-teachers. In short, it would

seem important that in designing a model for teaching practicum,

teacher educators consider the implications that such a model could

have for both the student-teachers and the other participants in

the program.

Guyton and Mclntyre (1990), in discussing the problems

associated with the context in which teaching practicum is

undertaken, ask a very interesting question: Does the ecology of

the public school support student-teachers? Sometimes, for example,

following the inquiry oriented approach might not be feasible if

the class sizes are large and student teachers are not supported by

the system. For example, Lesotho class sizes are very large. In a

study that investigated the teaching and learning strategies in

Lesotho Primary School classrooms, Chabane, Lefoka and Sebatane

(1989) found that the average class sizes in various standards

ranged "from 54 to 98 in the lowland schools and from 41 to 84 in

the mountain schools." (p.74) And further, such class sizes lend

themselves to a drill and practice teaching mode rather than on

interaction reflective inquiry mode. In this context student-

74

teachers are not supported by the system in that they have to teach

a class regardless of its size. This situation applies for both

primary and secondary school student-teachers.

Guyton and Mclntyre (1990) propose that one way of solving the

problem of a large class size is by placing several student-

teachers in one school so that they can help each other inquire

into their practice. With regard to secondary school student-

teachers this may be an alternative worth considering. At secondary

level, a student-teacher teaches one subject and since they do not

have to be in their classrooms all the time, they could use their

non-instructional time to discuss their experiences, their

perceptions, and several other important issues that relate to

their teaching with their colleagues. In other words, student-

teachers within the same institution who teach the same subject and

the same grade (but in different divisions) may be able to support

each other both professionally and socially by sharing their

experiences, observing each other's lessons from time-to-time and

by giving each other feedback.

Guyton and Mclntyre (1990) contend that the context of the

public school is not, in the majority of cases, presented as a

positive influence on student-teacher development. Specifically,

the class sizes are not designed to accommodate the professional

development of student-teachers. But this situation is beyond the

control of most of the teacher education institutions. While

building schools or centres for teacher education practice does not

seem possible, particulary for countries with limited economic

75

resources such as Lesotho, innovations in teacher education have to

be designed to fit the school system as it is structured and not

vice versa.

In an attempt to solve other problems such as the those

associated with the desperate geographic placements of student-

teachers and the problem of sustaining high levels of motivation

while serving in difficult situations, teacher educators might

consider placing regional supervisors in locations that are a great

distance from the university. The Lesotho National Teacher Training

College adopted this strategy since its inception in 1975. Field-

based supervisors (commonly known as Intern Supervisors) are placed

throughout the country so that they can visit student-teachers on

a regular basis. (See Sebatane, Bam, Mohapeloa, Mathot and Pule

(1987.) There is an indirect benefit to placing student-teachers in

a variety of situations. For example, teacher educators may learn

from the experiences of student-teachers what to incorporate in

their program to prepare their graduates for a variety of

situations. One of the possible solutions to the problem of the

context is suggested by Guyton and Mclntyre (1990). They refer to

what they call a "centre concept." This is a strategy whereby

student-teachers are placed in large groups in district schools

that may be hundreds of miles away from the university. The

university faculty members based in the centre coordinates and

supervises the student-teachers. Since such a faculty member would

be in the student's practicum setting all the time, it can be

assumed that student-teachers will benefit from such an

76

arrangement. In other words, several possibilities of helping

student-teachers to become competent, reflective practitioners can

be explored.

The context also involves the sponsor teachers who participate

in teacher education field experiences. The implications are that

while teacher educators need to recognize and use the resource in

the field, "the outstanding task (is) to orient teachers whose

schools receive student teacher about the purpose of the new model

and what role they are expected to play" (See Fullan, 1991, p.295) .

This problem might be attended to by the faculty advisor who is

placed in the centre. Such a member can run training workshops for

the sponsor teachers.

Another advantage of placing the faculty associate in the

schools is finance. Staying in the same district with the student-

teachers would reduce the amount of money spent on travelling

between the schools.

Financial implications for reform in teacher education

Research into teacher education has been extensive. The

purpose of conducting studies in teacher education is to inform

practice. The literature shows that impact of research on change is

reported to be slow. Wong and Osguthorpe (1993) observe that

teacher educators respond slowly to issues suggested in the

research literature. These authors observe that innovations such as

extending teacher education programs beyond the 4-year

baccalaureate have taken some institutions a long time to adopt.

77

Moreover, institutions take a long time before the issuance of

national proposals. This (as indicated in chapter 1) is

particularly true with the National University of Lesotho. Changing

a program structure involving extensive costs can be a stumbling

block for innovation.

Fullan, Connely and Watson (1987),say that a major obstacle to

employing qualified faculty members "to fulfil the changing and

more demanding needs of new curricula and methods in the schools

and in the faculty of education" (p.27), is insufficient funding.

Although insufficient is the major constraint studies that inform

educators about the financial implications for reform efforts are

not common.

According to Guyton and Mclntyre (1990), very little is known

about the costs of educational field programs. Studies on this

issue indicate that "although programs are expanding with the

increase of pre-student teaching experiences, the overall budgets

for the program, when inflation is taken into account, have

decreased" (p.521) . This observation may be true for some contexts

but for Lesotho the reverse might be true. For example, in 1987,

the Lesotho National Teacher Training College assigned a team of

Consultants to evaluate and make recommendations on the College's

Internship Programme (See Sebatane, Bam, Mohapeloa, Mathot and

Pule, 1987) Although this team of Consultants recommended that this

second year of internship was the most vital part of the program,

the Ministry of Education decided to reduce it to six months

because the Ministry considered it to be expensive. Another example

78

is that part of the NUL delay to implement the 1986 recommendations

is financial. For the Lesotho context, therefore, net budgeting

support has decreased.

Summary

There is no universally recognized teaching practicum model;

different teacher educators hold different understandings of what

should inform an ideal teaching practicum curriculum. For example,

some models of teaching practica may be based on a combination of

one, two or more orientations. Defining which model is prevalent is

difficult because as Fullan (1991) rightly observes, the quality of

program experiences probably varies from one institution to another.

He points out that until very recently there has been very little

information on the particular characteristics of programs that might

make a difference. It is apparent therefore that individual teacher

education institutions will continue to develop models based on their

beliefs, the time-frame, as well as the context in which the

practicum is undertaken.

Obviously, the way teacher educators view the purpose of the

teaching practicum has direct impact on the types of teaching

practicum models conducted in teacher education. Some of the most

important features of designing a teaching practicum model are its

purpose and conceptual framework. Lasley and Applegate (1982)

maintain that the important task for teacher educators is to

develop a common set of beliefs concerning what student-teachers

must know and be able to do. However, the model that is grounded in

79

involving student-teachers in inquiry practice appears to be of

particular interest to this educator as it fulfils many of the

demands required by today's teaching. The proponents of this model

suggest that student-teachers be given the opportunity to

participate actively as classroom observers and teachers. The

approach is based on the theory that student-teachers should be

encouraged to question their practice with the assistance of

faculty advisors and/or sponsor-teachers.

80

CHAPTER IV

The National University of Lesotho Teaching Practicum:

The Reflective-Inquiry Model

In reforming a teacher education program, one has to consider

factors that may influence the conduct of the practicum, factors as

diverse as the context in which the program is conducted or the

criteria for selecting experienced teachers who will participate in

helping student teachers in their practicum settings. Additionally,

some programs may require drastic changes while others might be

reformed by changing only an element of the program. Whatever form

change takes one has to study and choose theories that can best

guide the development of such an appropriate model, the principles

that will determine the organizational structures, and the

procedures necessary for the successful execution of the new

program.

Justification

Program designers or teacher educators suggest new approaches

to teaching practicum based on research literature. Sometimes

program structures are changed after the existing program has been

evaluated and found lacking in one or more areas. At the National

University of Lesotho the latter was the reason for suggesting

teaching practicum program changes. The NUL 1986 Teaching Practice

Commission was set up to study the teaching practicum structure and

to make recommendations about possible alternatives to the

81

established model. The Commission suggested a variety of

alternatives for changing the teaching practicum at the National

University of Lesotho. (See Chapter I)

Although the 1986 Teaching Practice Commission made viable

recommendations for the reform of the teaching practicum at the

National University of Lesotho, the report did not provide the

theory that would have guided the application of the suggestions

made. Furthermore the Commission did not articulate the principles

and strategies for the implementation of any of the five models

they proposed.

In chapter I, it was indicated that little progress had been

made towards significant change to the traditional model operating

at the National University of Lesotho. However, the report offers

some helpful insights into evaluation, history, and efforts that

have been taken in the past and their implications for NUL's

teacher education program. The model proposed in this paper is

based on the belief that the 1986 efforts to reform the NUL

teaching practicum are still necessary. In addition, current

research described in this study on practicum structure should

inform the redesigning of the teaching practicum program at NUL.

Teacher education in the Faculty of Education at the National

University of Lesotho (as in many institutions) is a broad program

comprising of course work and a teaching practicum. This theses

proposes a model for the teaching practicum in relation to those

other elements of the teacher education program. Some of the

rationale for focusing on the practicum is supported by the 1986

82

NUL Commission members, who along with other educators insist that

"school based experience is of fundamental importance in any

teacher training programme (The Commission report, 1986, p.22).

Accepting that reform efforts at NUL have failed in the past, this

proposal offers a model that will enhance student-teachers as

active participants in teaching practicum setting. It suggests that

there be change in the way in which the teaching practicum is

structured -not a radical change but rather an improvement on the

current model. It involves a new vision for the roles of the

student-teachers, instructors, and subject teachers in the schools.

Thus, the proposed model, unlike those suggested by the 1986

Teaching Practice Commission, entails rethinking the current

practice and exploring the context of teaching practicum without

changing the entire system. The model provides a theoretical basis

that will support the development of independent professionals to

learn, during their practicum, to collaborate with fellow students

as well as experienced subject teachers in the schools. The model

further draws some guiding principles and details on the activities

to be made at each phase of the program.

Much of the literature reviewed in the preceding chapters of

this thesis is based upon the North American context. The models

and the organizational structures of the teaching practicum

suggested in the literature would, if used in Lesotho, have to be

modified to suit that context. For example, most North American

universities offer teacher education either after the first degree

or as a four-year program followed by a professional year in a

83

Faculty of Education. Most universities have adopted the notion of

an "extended teaching practicum" in which students spend a

sustained time in the school setting. The history of teaching

practicum in Lesotho shows that an extended practicum for NUL is

impossible. (See chapter I) Other than the problems mentioned in

chapter I, Lesotho still has a problem of large numbers of

unqualified teachers working in the schools. One of the country's

priorities therefore, is to increase the number of certificated

teachers. Waiting for teachers to complete their program of studies

after an undergraduate period of five years would act against the

aim of preparing more teachers in order to combat the problem of

shortage of certified teachers in the school system.

Another example peculiar to North America teacher education

institutions is that some institutions have experimented with new

ideas such as helping student teachers to become reflective

practitioners. Others have established policies that require

regular evaluation of their programs. Although the reviewed

literature clearly shows that institutions in the North American

context still have enormous teacher education problems to overcome,

to this educator, these institutions are advanced in many ways when

compared with the situation in Lesotho. For example, extensive

research on a variety of elements that constitute teacher education

has been conducted over many years. Furthermore, change in many

North American institutions has been informed by the research

literature.

Other teacher education institutions in Africa, for example

84

the University of Botswana, have moved a step ahead of NUL.

According to Mannathoko and Chipeta (1990) student-teachers in this

university present 40 minute video taped lessons (the length of a

period in the school system) for their micro-teaching experiences.

The video taped lessons are reviewed by the student-teachers to

enhance reflection on their lessons.

In proposing a model for reform in the teaching practicum at

the University of Lesotho, it is important to consider that all

reform efforts "must confront the question of what teachers need to

know and how they can be helped to acquire and develop that

knowledge." (Feiman-Nemser, 1990, p.218). Fullan, Connelly and

Watson, (1987) caution, that when thinking about extending the

teacher education program, it is important to have a solid

rationale for doing so. When proposing a new program or changing

certain elements of the program, it is important to ask the

question not only how but why change the program? The rationale for

the proposed model for the Lesotho University is that student-

teachers be assisted to study their own teaching by engaging in

"reflection" in practice. Reflective practice is an element of an

inquiry-oriented approach to teacher education. This explains the

reason for coining the words reflective-inquiry as the title for

the model proposed in this study. The model recognizes several

issues pertaining to successful implementation. For example, it

will incorporate experienced teachers in the school whose knowledge

may help student-teachers experiment with the new ideas in becoming

reflective practitioners by inquiring into their own practice.

85

The theory-

Three features distinguish the model proposed in this paper

from the alternative models proposed by the 1986 NUL Commission of

teaching practice. First, the model will facilitate inquiry by

student-teachers into their practice. Second, student-teachers will

be provided with a fully structured school experience that will

enable them to spend a reasonable time with teachers in the school

as they gradually settle into their practicum setting. Third, the

teaching practicum will immediately precede the induction or the

first year of teaching during which guidance by mentor teachers and

the NTTC field-based supervisors will be a necessary and important

continuation of their professional development.

The basis for differentiating this model from the current NUL

practicum model partly resides in Donald Schon's conceptualization

of a reflective practicum. According to Schon (1983, 1987), a

reflective practicum has three main features: learning by doing,

coaching rather than teaching, and reciprocal reflection between

student and coach. In developing this proposed model, an attempt

will be made to integrate Schon's theory with the methods courses

offered at NUL establishing an important link between theory to

practice. The importance of linking theory to practice, especially

in a reflective practicum, is emphasised by Clarke (1992), who

notes that methods courses that explicitly linked theory to

practice enhanced student-teacher's reflection.

In order to facilitate reflective practice in student

teaching, a number of things have to be considered. The proposed

86

model is inquiry based, requiring that student-teachers and

instructors to work together from a common conceptualization of

teaching. Furthermore, the primary objective for the practicum will

be to provide student-teachers with opportunities to inquire into

their own practice by using the theory of "reflective practice."

(See Chapter two, section two: Reflective Practice in Teacher

Education). Student-teachers in the present structure, receive 96%

of course work from both the Education Faculty and the content

Faculties. Teaching practicum constitutes 4% of the student-

teacher's study program. The proposed model will maintain the

course work structure but will, in addition to this, exceed the 4%

in ways that will not affect the student-teachers' program of

study. For example, the half day school visits will constitute 1%

while the induction program will constitute 13% of the student's

teaching practicum period. This will become clearer in the

objectives and the strategy to be discussed in this chapter.

The theoretical underpinning for this model is reflection.

Shulman (1987) points out that reflection is:

... what a teacher does when he or she looks back at the teaching and learning that has occurred, and reconstruct, reenacts, and/or recaptures the events, emotions and the accomplishments. It is that set of process through which a professional learns from experience. It can be done alone or in concert, (p.19)

The teaching practicum principles

This model will facilitate reflective inquiry in student

teaching during on-campus and off-campus teaching experiences. It

87

will

• sensitise student teachers to the need to inquire

reflectively into their teaching. The notion of school

visits is an example whereby student-teachers might go

out to document cases about teaching and return to campus

to reenact the situation and reflect about the process.

• cultivate the ability to share their experiences with

fellow student-teachers, subject teachers and the faculty

supervisors. The program is structured such that

discussion and/or dialogue is facilitated throughout the

entire teaching practicum phases. The dialogue will

become useful particularly in the seminars to be held

immediately after the micro-teaching experiences and the

school-visits.

• ensure that student-teachers are oriented toward

independent teaching by gradually coaching them drawing

upon the models of reflective practice: follow-me model,

joint experimentation, and the hall of mirrors. The idea

of nurturing the student-teacher through a guided

practice, as would be the case with a student who is

assisted through Schon's models will enable the student-

teachers to eventually become independent about the

conduct of their own teaching. Thus, the teaching

practicum gives them an opportunity to explore their

abilities to become reflective practitioners.

88

• engender self-confidence by allowing student-teachers to

"learn the forms of inquiry by which competent

practitioner reason their way, in problematic instances

..." (See Schon's argument that while student-teachers

learn from the experiences of the coach, they, on the

other hand, experiment, repeat certain activities for

purposes of understanding their problems, and grow

professionally through the process).

89

Phase IV (1 year) Application Experience r-i

O

ty (D

•A H-

This model will be carried out in phases. In each phase an

attempt will be made to show the objective and the strategy that

will be followed in order to achieve each objective. The key

principle to the proposed teaching practicum model for NUL is to

assist the student-teachers to become reflective inquirers into

their own teaching "through a phased introduction to such

practice." It is hoped that they will become competent in dealing

with classroom problems as they are guided towards the profession

of teaching.

Phase I

Part I

Second year teacher education students: Second Semester January to

May.

Objective:

Student-teachers will be introduced to the concept of

reflective practice. The aim is to allow student-teachers to gain

reflective inquiry knowledge that they will use in their practicum

setting.

Strategy

This introduction will be integrated in their Introduction to

Teaching (EDF201) course: This course addresses organization for

classroom teaching; the structure and development of a unit of work

and of an individual lesson. (See page 110 of the 1992-1993 NUL

calender) As student-teachers begin to develop their lesson plans,

91

they will be encouraged to talk about their experiences preparing

a lesson plan with their fellow students and their instructors. At

this level students will be gradually introduced to the concept of

reflective inquiry and how they can use dialogue to make explicit

their understanding of the experience they are going through; the

action on which they will reflect will be the act of designing and

presenting their lesson plans to their fellow students. The use of

dialogue in practicum settings is considered a critical element of

reflective inquiry because it is through interaction that all

participants will enter each other's world. Clarke's study

illuminates the fact that the complementary practices of

observation and dialogue enhance the student-teacher's reflection

on their practice.

Part II

Third year Teacher Education Students: First and second semesters,

August to December and January to May

Objective

The first semester continues to focus on the theory of

reflective practice while the second semester will prepare student-

teachers for the micro-teaching experiences. The purpose will be to

explore various concepts and begin to use these concepts in their

micro-teaching experiences. In other words, student-teachers might

practice Schon's concept of reflection on-action. Micro-teaching

will be conducted in the second semester.

92

Strategy

Teaching skills and resources (EDF301) . This is a third year course

that addresses communication theory as well as observation and

simulation of classroom skills. Student-teachers will spend the

first half of the third year learning more about the theory of

reflective inquiry. According to Olaitan and Agusiobo (1981),

student-teachers who lack theoretical knowledge that they need to

use in their practicum setting experience greater difficulty in

interpreting behaviours of their students and perhaps interpreting

their own actions. Application of the reflective practice theory

will become more meaningful as student-teachers engage in

simulation activities in the micro-teaching experiences.

In the second semester, student-teachers will spend time in

the micro-teaching laboratories, conducting simulation exercises.

Their lesson presentations will be video taped and the focus of

seminars, to be held after the micro-teaching, will be to encourage

student- teachers to discuss their experiences.

In this suggested model, micro-teaching will take a different

form from the current one. In the proposed model, micro-teaching

experiences allow student-teachers to present mini lessons as is

the current situation, but an additional seminar will be added in

which student-teachers will watch their video lessons and reflect

and comment on their actions. Other student-teachers will

participate in this deliberation and provide constructive feedback

and jointly reflect on the lessons. In discussing the importance of

video taped micro-teaching lessons taught, Olaitan and Aguisiobo

93

(1982) point out that:

... the most important advantage of the video-taping in micro-teaching is that the student teacher can make an objective assessment of his own teaching by playing back the video-tape. He can also compare his own assessment of 'self during teaching with the assessment of his teaching by the supervisor or other cooperating students, (p.38)

In order to support student-teachers' micro-teaching

experiences, a group of instructors will participate in the micro-

teaching and seminars. Olaitan and Agusiobo (1982) explain that

"Micro-teaching is a scaled-down teaching encounter that has been

developed as a preliminary experience in teaching." (p.38) According

to these authors, the purpose of micro-teaching is to "develop

professional competencies before practice teaching." (p.38) The use

of video tape will help student-teachers to begin to experiment with

reflection on practice. Moreover, experience will prepare them for

the inquiry they will be making during their school visits.

Phase II

Fourth Year Teacher Education Students: Second Semester, January to

April.

Objective

The purpose for the school visits will be two fold. It is

important that prior to practicum experiences, student-teachers

are, as Schon (1987) points out, initiated "into the traditions of

a community of practitioners and the practice world they inhabit"

(p.36). It is through the process of initiation that student-

94

teachers begin to learn the teachers' conventions, constraints,

languages, and appreciative systems, their repertoire of exemplars,

systematic knowledge, and patterns of knowing-in-action.

Additionally, student teachers will document the cases of the

lessons observed. The strategy for recording cases will have been

addressed in the course (EDF493).

The fourth year of study offers a course Educational Enquiry

EDF493-3. This course addresses the nature of educational research

and methods of inquiry, classification of research design, research

problems and several other topic areas (See 1992-1993 NUL

Calender). This course is not directly relevant to the Lesotho

secondary school student-teachers, because it does not help them

become reflective practitioners. In other words, the student-

teachers are taught theory that is of no immediate use to them. In

this model the focus of this course will change to reflective

inquiry. This is more relevant to their work than learning about

the theory of undertaking research but not applying it. This course

will prepare student-teachers for school visits. (Also see chapter

III-the apprenticeship orientation). The emphasis here is to study

how teachers reflect in action and on action. Thus, the cases might

help them understand the case theory covered in EDF 493.

Strategy

Currently, NUL student-teachers do not have any form of

practical orientation to schools. According to the literature, most

teacher education institutions allow student-teachers to spend a

95

short time in schools observing teachers and, in some cases, they

do some teaching during the orientation period. The University of

British Columbia in Canada for example, offers a two-week

orientation to the teaching practicum (see chapter III.) The

University of Botswana offers the month of March for the

orientation similar to that of the University of British Columbia.

The proposed model will ensure that student-teachers spend

half-day school visits once every two weeks for a period of four

months during their fourth year of study. The purpose will be to

observe subject teachers teaching the subject relevant to the

individual student-teacher's area of interest. Spending half days

observing teachers will allow student-teachers to note features

that they think are outstanding about the observed lessons. The

most important question will be "why" the observed teachers act in

the ways that the student-teachers thinks are uncommon. Student-

teachers will be encouraged to take notes on features that they

think are peculiar to the practice of teaching. In other words,

features that appear to be puzzles and require distinguished

imagination before acting. Student-teachers will present their

findings in the seminars to be held on campus after the school

visits for group discussion. Classroom observations will be

followed by a discussion between the student-teacher and the

subject teacher. This situation will provide the student-teachers

with opportunities to ask the teachers for clarification. Schon

points out that:

96

... verbal descriptions can provide clues to the essential features of a demonstration, and demonstrations can make clear the kind of performance denoted by a description that at first seems vague or obscure, (p.112)

The seminar

These seminars will be used for the purpose of reflecting on

student-teachers' observations and interpretations of the situations

they observed.

The school visits will be followed by on-campus seminars. The

purpose of the seminars is to allow student-teachers to share their

findings with their fellow students. They will present the cases of

the lessons they observed and the teacher's explanations of their

actions. Where possible, the student-teachers will be allowed to

act out the lessons. These presentations will enable both the

fellow student-teachers and the instructors to analyze the cases

and comment on how the student-teachers would have handled the

situations if they were in the position of the observed teachers;

thus, enabling student-teachers to visualize how professionals

address unanticipated situations. The seminar will focus on

distinguishing the reflection-in-action (that is, what the teacher

was seen doing in class to address problematic situations from

reflection-on-action, that is, the teacher's interpretation of her

actions as described by the teachers after the lesson

observations). Student-teachers will enter into what Schon (1987)

calls executing "sequences of activity, recognition, decision, and

adjustment without having, ... 'to think about it'" (p.26). Schon

says this engagement in classroom activities is known as

97

spontaneous knowing-in-action that usually gets teachers through

their working day. Thus, the student-teacher, by re-enacting either

verbally or through imitation will enter into the teacher's world

of practice.

Phase III

Teaching Practicum: June, July to August

Objective

The objective in this period will be to provide student-

teachers with opportunities to teach. Teaching practicum is

considered as the:

...first opportunity for the student teacher to participate in activities involved in teaching situations. It is also recognized as an experience of guided teaching in which student teachers assume increasingly responsibility for directing the learning of a group of pupils over a specific period of time. (Olaitan and Agusiobo, 1982, p.4)

Strategy

Part I

The six-week NUL teaching practicum will be divided into two

parts. The first two weeks of the practicum will focus on observing

and imitating the subject teacher. This two weeks will employ

Schon's "follow me model." The underlying theory for the "follow

me" model is demonstration and imitation enhanced by dialogue

between coach and student. Schon indicates that one way of helping

98

students understand the process of teaching is by demonstration. He

gives an example of coaching in the context of designing. Schon

writes, "a coach demonstrates parts or aspects of designing in

order to help his student grasp what he believes she needs to learn

and, in doing so, attributes to her a capacity for imitation"

(p.107). Schon points out that it is acceptable to provide students

with descriptions of what "coaches" do. This descriptions can help

student-teachers learn to recognize peculiar qualities by taking

students through actions. Actions, Schon argues, are necessary

because students may not understand the coaches' descriptions.

Instructors have to "act out their descriptions." Note that

imitation in a reflective inquiry mode is deliberate. Schon argues

that imitation in this context "presents itself as a process of

selective construction. ...Imitative reconstruction of an observed

action is a kind of problem-solving..." (p.108 and 109)

Imitation is important particularly during the initial stages

of the practicum. According to Schon students at the beginning of

their practice "try to decipher the coach demonstrations and

descriptions, testing the meaning she constructed by applying them

. . . revealing in this way what she has made of things heard or

seen" (p.293). It is "essential to learning, just insofar as

students are initially unaware of what they need to learn, ..."

(Schon, 1987, p.293) In agreeing with the notion of helping

student-teachers during their initial stages of the practicum, Gore

(1991) points out that, faced with classroom problems, the student-

teacher often has less experience to draw on in making sense of his

99

or her experience. Gore urges teacher educators to present student-

teachers with situations that can help to build a concrete sense of

pedagogical thinking and acting.

Part II

In the final four weeks of the teaching practicum student-

teachers will, under the guidance of the subject teacher and their

instructors assume more teaching responsibilities. At this stage,

the practicum will move towards Schon's joint experimentation and

a hall of mirrors models. The subject teacher and the student-

teacher will work as partners in inquiry. This means that both the

subject teacher and the student-teacher will consciously inquire

into their teaching. Schon suggests that the coach must suggest

"ways of producing the intended qualities, inviting the student to

join in a process of experimentation, teaching by demonstration the

idea of practice as experiment" (p.181). The emphasis of the joint

experimentation model is that student-teachers must feel free to

set their own goals. Student-teachers must be allowed to try out

what they think they want to learn. This will allow them to

describe their actions and, more important, be able to inquire into

their actions. The way in which individual subject teachers handle

joint experimentation will vary from one teacher to another. This

is acceptable because even student- teachers will be encouraged to

select the parts of the observed lessons that they consider

relevant to what they plan to practice, (see Schon, 1987)

Most secondary school teachers have breaks between the

100

teaching of one or two lessons. This is a perfect opportunity for

the student- teacher to discuss the subject teacher's lesson

immediately after the lesson observation. The situation also allows

the student-teacher to "act out" what he/she is trying to

understand in the next lesson with a different group of students.

For example, the subject teacher could teach the same topic in Form

A 1 and the student-teacher can teach the same topic in Form A 2.

However, Schon cautions that, in observing the student-teacher and

in holding conferences after the student-teachers' lessons the

coach might find that student-teachers are vulnerable particularly

"in the early stage of the practicum," they may become defensive,

and "the learning predicament can readily become a learning bind"

(p.166). Given this situation, subject teachers must be cautious

about the way they communicate with the students-teachers so that

they in turn can be comfortable to share their predicaments.

One of the strategies that the proposed model suggests is to

place more than one student-teachers in the same course in one

school. Where possible student-teachers who hold certificates in

secondary teaching from the Lesotho Teacher Training College will

be paired with those who are fresh from secondary school, enabling

them to support each other. They can visit each others classes and

they can arrange to meet after the lessons to share their views and

give each other feedback.

Further, in Schon's words, the experienced student-teachers

might be able to "reflect on their own processes of inquiry, and

examine their own shifting understandings..." (p.323). This

101

practicum will present challenging experiences to both the

inexperienced student-teachers as well as the experienced student-

teachers. This program will also allow student-teachers to continue

with their explorations of the process of reflective inquiry

practice.

Part III

The debriefing meetings

Objective and strategy

The end of the formal university practicum in August will be

marked with a one week of debriefing meetings. The purpose will be

to consolidate student - teacher' s teaching practicum experiences and

to prepare student-teachers/graduates for the induction program.

Additionally, the deliberations of the seminar will provide

necessary feedback to the Faculty of Education. Documentation from

this seminar will help in the efforts to improve the proposed model

for the Lesotho context. The seminar will also encourage and

support the reflective inquiry by discussing issues arising from

practice in a roundtable discussion format.

Part IV

Evaluation

Evaluation of student teaching practice is part of the

practica experiences and a requirement by many teacher education

institutions. The reflective practicum offers student-teachers

opportunities to engage in informal evaluation of their practice.

102

Thus, as they inquire, share their experience with fellow students,

instructors and subject teachers, they are to some extent examining

their teaching ability. The literature is sceptical about teaching

practica evaluation. (See chapter II). It is said to have negative

impact of student-teachers. An assumption of the reflective-inquiry

practicum is that it places value not only on student-teacher's

performance but also on their ability to be reflective about their

performance, they too need to be integral components of any

evaluation of the student-teacher.

Evaluation of NUL student-teachers will be completed at the

end of August, enabling them to attend the convocation of degrees

normally held in September. By this time, student-teachers will

have applied for jobs in the school in their own locality. After

the teaching practicum experiences have been completed graduates

will begin their induction program.

Phase IV

The induction program

Objective

The induction program forms the final phase of the reflective

inquiry model. The objective of this phase is to assist student-

teachers to construct professional knowledge under the guidance of

the field based NTTC internship supervisors and mentor teachers.

Additionally, the first year of teaching, beginning in September,

is intended to induct the first year teachers into their

profession. These teachers will continue to explore the notion of

103

reflection-in-action in their first year of teaching.

Many researchers support the notion of induction programs for

the first year teachers. Fullan (1991) discusses the implications

of extended programs. He notes that, due to problems that first

year teachers always encounter even with the five-year teacher

education program, "it becomes clear that a five-year, let alone a

nine-month, pre-service program cannot possibly produce the

complete starting teacher." (p.301) Fullan supports the notion of

placing the teaching practicum at the very end of the program so

that student-teachers will continue into their first year of

teaching. This notion is supported by Shulman (1987) who suggests

that educators should be concerned with how the extensive knowledge

of teaching can be learned during the brief periods normally

scheduled for teacher education.

Strategy

The induction program will be facilitated by the educators who

are working in the schools. At the initial stage of the program

implementation, the NTTC field-staff will help both the first year

teachers and the mentor teachers. In training the mentor teachers

in the process of helping the first-year teachers, these educators

will at the same time be helping the first group of NUL inductees.

Program evaluation

The tendency for Lesotho institutions is to evaluate programs

only when the need arises. For example, the 1986 Commission

104

referred to in this study, was initiated because the instructors

were not happy with the length of time that student-teachers spent

on the teaching practicum. The National Teacher Training College

evaluated its internship program in 1987 because the Lesotho

Ministry of Education felt it was an expensive model to teacher

education.

For the proposed model, evaluation will comprise an important

element of the teaching practicum program. This program will be

evaluated every two years. The purpose of this evaluation will be

to collect data that can inform the decisions to improve the

program. In the two years, there will be two groups of graduates in

the field to participate in the evaluation exercise. The first

group will consist of student-teachers who have completed their

teaching practicum under the reflective inquiry approach. Another

group will be the graduates who have completed the first year of

teaching and have received guidance through the induction program.

Summary

Suggesting changes to program scheduling within complex

administration structures such as NUL in which the context and the

economy are not supportive of the changes is not an easy

undertaking. It is, however hoped that this proposal will serve as

a framework that can stimulate discussion about how the current

teaching practicum model can be reformed.

An inquiry oriented approach requires that student-teachers

spend sufficient time in their schools (See chapter III) . The

105

current six-week teaching practicum time that constitutes merely 4%

of the program of study will be supplemented with seminars, school

visits, and induction programs. The quality of the time spent with

student teachers is the most important element of this model.

This model however, requires collaboration from a number of

experienced educators in the field of teaching. For example, in

order to support student-teachers during their induction programs,

there needs to be people in the field who can ensure that NUL

graduates are supported in their first year of teaching. The field-

based NTTC Internship supervisors as well as mentor teachers will

play an important role of continuing to assist NUL graduates.

This chapter has proposed a model that will encourage student-

teachers to explore their ability to experiment with the concepts

of reflective inquiry in teaching. Furthermore, student-teachers

will become increasingly competent decision makers about their own

practice, based on their own inquiry, discussion with peers,

sponsor teachers, and university supervisors. Through the inquiry

oriented involvement, they will become increasingly competent in

handling a variety of teaching challenges they are likely to

encounter in teaching practice. The process will be enhanced by

their participation in induction programs.

This chapter has further suggested a model that allows the

student-teachers to gain insights into the world of experienced

teachers and how they use their craft knowledge to solve some of

the unique classroom occurrences. On the other hand, it gives the

student-teachers opportunities to inquire into their own

106

experiences beginning with the micro-teaching experiences and

moving through to the practicum settings. To this, Schon says, the

"coach and student, when they do their jobs well, function not only

as practitioners but also as on-line researchers, each inquiring

more or less consciously into his own and the other's changing

understandings" (p.298) . Given these opportunities, one hopes that

NUL student-teachers can exert more control over their teaching

experiences other than when student- teachers feel compelled to

conform to the teaching approaches or philosophies of their

supervisors. (See Gore, 1991)

This model will benefit both the student teachers and the

subject teachers. Schon argues that teachers in the schools are not

aware of their "knowing-in-action" that informs their teaching

behaviour. It is through a well-structured process whereby each can

learn more about each other's actions. Dialogue (see chapter II)

helps each participant in the practicum setting understand

another's world of teaching better. It is important that teachers,

be they in-service or pre-service, share their ideas explicitly.

Schon contends that "when inquiry into learning remains private, it

is also likely to remain tacit. Free of the need to make our idea

explicit to someone else, we are less likely to make them explicit

to ourselves." (p.300) An important element of reflective practice

is making explicit or problematizing the taken-for-granted

assumptions that underlie our teacher practices.

The model suggested requires cooperation between student-

teachers and their subject teachers as well as collaboration

107

between fellow students. This model will require the National

University of Lesotho to consider the fact that the schools have

the resources that can be deployed for the benefit of the student-

teachers. NUL has to accept the fact that often "life in the

profession" is understood better by those who live it..." (See

Schon, 1987, p. 306)

This model offers NUL an alterative that recognises that some

of the prevailing problems in African teacher education

institutions cannot be easily solved. Olaitan and Agusiobo (1982),

in writing about the problems faced by the teacher education

institutions in Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra Leone, pointed

out that effective practice teaching in most developing countries

is faced with many barriers such as: obtaining suitable periods for

teaching practicum, providing adequate length of time for teaching,

and internal physical barriers such as poor roads and transport to

practicing schools for supervision. Since NUL shares similar

problems, the model that can best suit this institution is the one

that encourages student- teachers to inquire into their practice at

each stage of the program and capitalize, through reform efforts on

features of the current. This approach will ensure independent

professional development once student-teachers move beyond their

induction year.

108

Chapter V

Discussion

This study calls for an alternative model for teaching

practicum in the context of the Teacher Education Program at the

National University of Lesotho (NUL). Alternative teaching

practicum models for NUL have been suggested before. Specifically,

in 1986 several alternative models were examined but insignificant

change in the teacher education program's teaching practicum was

enacted (See chapter I) . Therefore, after almost eight years of the

current practice, it is time to reform the NUL teaching practicum

model. It is important that models of teaching practicum focus on

the student-teacher's professional development in a manner in which

student-teachers play the major role of inquiring into their own

teaching and making efforts to improve it.

In this study. Teaching Practicum: A Model for the National

University of Lesotho, an attempt is made to formulate an

alternative model for the NUL teaching practicum. The proposed

model incorporates a theoretical frame to guide the implementation

of the program. The terms reflective inquiry have been coined as a

name for this NUL model of teaching practicum. Fundamental to this

concept is student-teacher professional development as a

consequence of thorough reflection on practicum experience.

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight important themes

discussed in the preceding chapters and then make suggestions for

109

the implementation of the reflective-inquiry program.

The rationale

Traditionally change within NUL in the area of the teaching

practicum program has been slow and difficult to mount. It is

almost a decade since the National University of Lesotho was

furnished with recommendations to redesign the teaching practicum.

It is apparent that the major constraints to the implementation of

change have been financial as well as the concurrent nature of the

NUL teacher education structure. Additionally, all the models

suggested by the Commission focused on extending the teaching

practicum beyond the six-weeks period without providing guidelines

on how the extended period was going to be used to provide for the

student-teachers' professional development. It is precisely the

focus of the 1986 Commission's recommendations that has inspired

the design of a model that focuses on student-teacher development

within the given institutional structure and its prevailing

constraints. It is my belief that given the theory in which this

proposed model is grounded, student-teacher's competence can be

enhanced if their teaching practicum experience is systematically

guided and connected to a well supervised first year of teaching.

This proposed induction year program will support the proposal for

moving the formal/traditional six-week teaching practicum from the

end of the third year to the end of the fourth year of study.

110

The context

This study has examined research on teacher education,

specifically research literature related to the teaching practicum.

The reviewed literature has provided theories and principles that

have framed the ideas for a model suitable for NUL. In other word,

studying this literature has provided direction for a model

appropriate for the National University of Lesotho.

The literature suggests that although the teaching practicum

is a fundamental element of most teacher education programs, the

models of teaching practicum vary greatly. This educator finds that

some of the established theories are appropriate to the NUL

context. This is particularly true with inquiry oriented approach.

While the theory that forms the basis for the proposed model may be

used by many institutions, the ways in which it will be used in the

implementation of this model will be distinctive and responsive to

the Lesotho context.

For example, the literature shows that the use of video tapes

to capture student-teachers idiosyncrasies provides them with

worthwhile feedback upon which they can further their professional

development. In other words, video is a useful tool for engaging

students in reflective inquiry into practice, to enable analysis of

their lessons and interaction with their sponsor teachers (and

possibly their fellow student-teachers). However, it is obvious

that physical and financial constraints would prohibit the

acquisition of video technology (particularly in the school

setting) at the present time in the Lesotho context. As an

111

alternative and toward the same goals of reflective inquiry, I

suggest the use of audio cassette tapes. The use of audio cassette

tapes can motivate both the student-teachers and the sponsor

teachers in a context in which advanced technology is not readily-

available. The audio cassette tapes have been used in the Lesotho

context before and were found helpful in enabling teachers to

reflect on their teaching. According to Chabane, Lefoka and

Sebatane (1986) the primary school teachers who listened to their

audio taped lessons were excited to hear themselves on tape and

were motivated to make efforts to change their teaching practice.

It is therefore suggested that the proposed model also employ the

use of audio material in the teaching practicum setting. The audio

tapes may be used by both the sponsor teachers and student-teachers

to tape their lessons, listen to the tapes together, and follow

these activities with discussions/dialogue. This will provide them

with additional data to analyze their teaching experiences.

Journal writing

Another inexpensive tool that the student teacher might use in

a Lesotho context is a journal. Student-teachers can record the

process of reflection about their teaching. The student-teachers

can use the journal after their micro-teaching experiences, during

the school visits and in their practicum setting. Journal entries

made after the micro-teaching experiences can be used in the

seminar dialogues. Journal recordings made during the school visits

period might focus on their interpretation of the observed lessons.

112

It is assumed that this exercise will enhance the process of

reflective inquiry and increase their participation in the after

school seminars with other student-teachers. Journal writing will

even be more beneficial in the practicum setting where student-

teachers' dialogue will include sponsor-teachers, instructors and

fellow student-teachers. More importantly the essence of journal

writing is to provide student-teachers with their own reference

material which can be used for reflective purposes with the aim of

making explicit underlying assumptions, and their practice.

Curriculum modification

The 1986 NUL Teaching Practice Commission suggested that one

of the problems of providing the students with a broader practicum

experience is the possible disruption to the on-campus program and

curriculum measurements,- student-teachers may not have access to

all the required education courses. As an alternative to the

practice of reflective inquiry in the context of the teaching

practicum experience, aspects of reflective inquiry could be

integrated into the existing elements of the on-campus programs. By

proposing that the concept of reflective inquiry be integrated in

the courses EDF201, EDF301 and EDF493 it is suggested that there be

some curriculum modification. This suggestion recognises that there

is a potential in gradual introduction to the concept of reflective

practice in the existing courses. This introduction will enable the

student-teachers to use this theory throughout the progressive

phase of the proposed model.

113

Towards a model

Several theoretical orientations used in designing the

teaching practicum models have been discussed in chapter II of this

paper: The "behaviouristic," the "personalistic" the "traditional-

craft" and the "inquiry-oriented" approach (Zeichner 1983) being

the four major orientations. An exhaustive review of the literature

of these and other theoretical orientations has facilitated the

designing of the proposed NUL teaching practicum model. I have

proposed that the NUL model be inquiry-based, but I have borrowed

Zeichner's idea that elements of various orientations can be

incorporated to form a multi-dimensional model. By suggesting that

student-teachers be assigned to subject teachers (which is not

currently the case) and by encouraging student-teachers to be

reflective about the inquiries they make about the teaching, I have

already incorporated elements of various orientations.

The proposed model would be implemented in phases, thus

allowing the integration and the contextualization of reflective

inquiry. The first phase would constitutes an essential condition

for initiating reflective practice. During the second phase,

student-teachers would visit subject teachers and document cases

that would be the focus for discussion in the seminars, while the

third and final phase that precedes the induction year takes the

student-teacher into a practicum setting.

The first phase dictates the theoretical introduction of

reflective inquiry, closely followed by the systematic emphasis on

reflective practice. A well articulated micro-teaching experience

114

will enhance the conceptualization of the theory and allow student-

teachers to familiarize themselves further with the concept. The

use of video tapes in the micro-teaching environment would provide

the student-teachers with the means to reflect systematically on

and modify their teaching behaviours. Several researchers have

discovered that giving student-teachers the opportunity to reflect

on their actions in micro-teaching enhances their competence and

desire to experiment with reflective practice. This idea is

supported by Guyton and Mclntyre (1990) Applegate and Shaklee

(1983), Nodie Oja, Diller, Corcon and Andrew (1992) and Mannathoko

and Chipeta (1990) . However, it should be stressed that this

reflective emphasis should also be a collaborative effort involving

both the student-teachers and their instructors in which the

instructors provide feedback and evaluation specific to the video

taped micro-teaching experience.

The underlying theme of the second phase is reflective

practice as it applies to real/observed (non-theoretical) teaching

experiences. Currently NUL students do not receive initial school

orientation prior to their actual teaching practicum, although

school orientation is a common practice in most teacher education

institutions. Allowing student-teachers to visit schools will

enhance their understanding of the reality of the secondary school

classrooms. Most important, the school visits in the proposed model

are not just mere visitations whereby students would observe

teachers teaching or be informed about the school expectations.

These visits will be meaningful to the student-teachers in that

115

they will be collecting data on observed lessons in order to

interpret it and share it with their fellow students in the after

school visits seminars. In other words, student-teachers will be

conducting mini case studies to use in learning about the

reflective inquiry process. Moreover, student-teachers will,

through these school visits, be able to play an active part in

choosing the subject teachers with whom they feel comfortable

working. In other words, a Mathematics and Science specialist will

have the opportunity to visit both the Maths and Science teachers.

This is a step towards involving student-teachers in selecting

sponsor-teacher.

The school visits are immediately followed by the actual

teaching practicum. It is the school setting where the practice of

Donald Schon's models of the reflective practicum will be more

meaningful to the student-teachers. In the school setting, the

student-teachers will, in the initial stages, be following the

sponsor teachers and observing them. In other words, the "follow-

me" model will be more practical because the student-teachers will

have to imitate the sponsor-teachers in their own teaching

experiences. Student-teacher together with their sponsor-teachers

will move to the models of joint experimentation and a hall-of

mirrors as they reflect on their teaching experiences through the

latter stage of the practicum.

The final phase that is outside the campus, is the induction

year. It is proposed that the goal for the NUL induction program be

slightly different from the NUL Science Education induction program

116

whose focus is to orient graduates to their working situation. The

proposed induction program should "contain some degree of

systematic and sustained assistance and not merely be a series of

orientation meetings or a formal evaluation process used for

teachers new to the profession ..." (See Huling-Austin, 1990,

p.53 6) to support reflective inquiry.

Supervision of teaching practicum

The third and final phase has two distinct components: the

six-week teaching practicum which is the culmination of the four-

year teacher education program leading to the award of the teaching

certificate, and secondly, the post-certificate induction program

year.

Close supervision, particularly in the frame of reflective

inquiry, is seen as an integral element of both the pre-certificate

teaching practicum and the post-certificate induction year program.

Student teachers nurtured in this theory benefit from experienced

teachers with whom they can interact. This idea is supported by

among others, Zeichner (1983), Pothoff (1993) and Bruneau (1993) .

However, NUL does not currently designate sponsor teachers to

work with student-teachers during the teaching practicum period.

For example, it is not uncommon to find student-teachers given full

workload of teaching from their first day of teaching practicum. In

situations such as this, student-teachers appear preoccupied with

the practice of teaching rather than with any assessment of their

own professional development. Overloading student-teachers thus

117

reduces their time to think about their own practice. This notion

is supported by Clarke in his study entitled Student-Teacher

Reflection in the Practicum Setting (1992). Clarke argues that an

excessive "workload appeared to be detrimental to the student

teachers' professional development" (p.190). It is therefore

strongly suggested that NUL engage sponsor-teachers for the

duration of the student-teacher practicum period with the

expectation that the two work together throughout the practicum.

Unfortunately, a compounding and difficult issue (also

discussed in the literature) pertaining to supervision of the

reflective teaching practicum is identification of qualified and

experienced educators to act in the role of sponsor teacher. The

literature shows that student-teachers benefit most from the

support of experienced educators for their practicum experiences.

At present, NUL does not have an established system whereby

student-teachers can be supported by experienced sponsor-teachers.

In order for student-teachers to reflect effectively on their

teaching actions there has to be somebody to interact with about

these experiences. Clarke (1992) notes that it is difficult "to

determine whether or not a student (is) reflective through drop-in

visits to the students' classroom." (p.176). Thus, student-teachers

might benefit from daily dialogue with the sponsor teachers because

they are with the student-teacher most of the teaching practicum

period as opposed to the NUL instructors who drop in once in a

while.

The purpose of establishing a student-teacher/sponsor-teacher

118

relationship is two-fold. First, student-teachers will learn from

observing the sponsor-teachers in their ways of teaching and, in

particular, in addressing unexpected classroom encounters, thus

using Schon's follow-me model. Second, student-teachers through a

daily dialogue with their sponsor teachers will begin to interact

with sponsor teachers in ways that will enable student-teachers to

reflect on their own teaching experiences, thus moving into Schon's

"joint-experimentation and hall of mirrors" models. Researchers

such as Grimmett and MacKinnon (1992) support the notion of

involving sponsor teachers in reflective teaching practicum. Their

argument is that these teachers have accumulated knowledge from

which student-teachers can learn by working closely with them.

These authors argue that effective practicing teachers also learn

to become competent by reflecting on their practice as a result of

working with student- teachers. It is believed, that by giving the

student-teachers the opportunity to reflect on their practice in

the presence of effective and experienced teachers, the student-

teachers will accelerate on their professional development.

The teaching practicum triad

This study further proposes that NUL explore the notion of

fully functioning teaching practicum triad. A teaching practicum

triad comprises of student-teacher, the sponsor-teacher and the

faculty advisor. An ideal teaching practicum is the one in which

more than one educator can participate in helping the student-

teachers. Thus, student-teachers can learn from their faculty

119

instructors who seek connections between the student interpretation

and presentation of the pedagogical theories taught in the Faculty

of Education courses. The student-teacher, also can learn from the

practicing sponsor teacher who is more conversant with the issues

relating to actual teaching practice.

This theses therefore proposes that NUL initiate a teaching

practicum that involves the student-teacher, the sponsor-teacher

and the university instructor. The type of triad proposed for NUL

is based on Gore's (1991) "harmonious" triad theory. She suggests

that a beneficial triad is the one in which all members collaborate

in helping not only the student-teachers' professional development

but also their own development. Gore notes that while there are

differences of position held by each member of the triad which

cannot be avoided, the triad must metaphorically focus on working

collaboratively towards creating what she calls metaphorically

"chamber music." In other words, the university instructor plays a

significant role in enhancing the student teachers' reflective

inquiry activities, the sponsor-teacher contributes in ways that

the university instructor cannot, while the student-teacher focuses

on her professional development in her own ways. Thus, according to

Gore, "each individual contributes a different note, the sum of

which is greater and more pleasing than any of the individual

parts..." (p.270). It is suggested that NUL work towards

establishing Gore's triad in which the different positions held by

all members of the triad contribute "synergistically" towards the

student teachers' teaching experiences.

120

The final phase of the proposed NUL practicum is the induction

year. This phase is proposed because the literature emphasizes that

preparing reflective practitioners requires extensive practice in

the school setting, far beyond the limited time frame of the six-

week practicum of the preceding phase. (See Chapter II of this

theses: Schon's reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action). It

is interesting to learn that, the NUL 1986 Teaching Practice

Commission also expressed the necessity for an extended teaching

practicum. Thus, in this model, it is proposed that an induction

program for education students be the bridge between the NUL six-

week teaching practicum and the professional years of the teaching

practice.

The NUL induction program will be the first year of teaching

of its graduates. This program will focus on extending the

reflective inquiry practice introduced in phases one through three.

Thus, NUL graduates through the help of NTTC field-based supervisor

and/or mentor teachers will explore Schon's notion of reflection in

action.

Evaluating the "reflective inquiry" teaching practicum model

Evaluation of program structures is not very common in

Lesotho. For example, the NUL teaching practicum structure has not

been evaluated since 1986. It is believed that program evaluation

should form part of the regular administration of teacher education

program. (The criteria and methodology for such an evaluation

program could be the subject of a supplementary proposal.)

121

Evaluating programs only when there is a crisis, such as is the

case in 1986 of NUL, is problematic. "Crisis" evaluations have a

tendency to leave out important elements of the program, as

evaluation committees rush to collect information and produce

reports required by administrators. In 1986, for example, the

Commission failed to collect data from the student-teachers. This

omission can result in student-teachers resistance to the reform

efforts, as was the case at NUL in 1987 (See chapter I ).

A debriefing seminar, to be held at the end of the teaching

practicum session will provide data from the student-teachers about

their reflective inquiry experiences. Data will also be collected

from the sponsor-teachers at the same time. Data collected from the

student-teachers and from the sponsor-teachers will provide useful

information for NUL program designers, the NUL Faculty of Education

and the adminstration. There are several benefits to yearly

evaluation. One benefit is that up-to-date data will be collected

in a consistent and timely fashion from the people who are

experimenting with the theory of the reflective inquiry. Another

benefit is that data collected from the debriefing seminars can be

used almost immediately in the preparation program seminars of the

incoming teacher education students.

An evaluation should also be conducted at the end of the

induction year program. In a similar manner, data would be

collected from NUL graduate students, mentor teachers, as well as

from the NTTC field-based supervisors. Evaluation at the end of the

teaching practicum phase and evaluation at the end of the induction

122

program are necessary steps towards documenting the progress and

process of the NUL teacher education programs.

Collaboration

The literature as discussed earlier (chapter II) shows that

teacher education is a continuum. The argument is that teacher

educators cannot be expected to do all that is required to prepare

a fully competent teacher with the span of a pre-service program.

Reflective practice, as pointed out in the literature, requires

extensive time in order for students to reflect-on/in their

teaching activities. Thus, it is important that the NUL six-week

practicum be supplemented with a supervised and mentored induction

program year. A reflective inquiry teaching practicum and

associated induction program requires that NUL collaborate with

secondary schools, other NUL departments as well as other teacher

education institutions. The importance of collaboration with other

educators and/or education institutions is supported by many

teacher education researchers. Researchers such as Huling-Austin

(1990), Doyle (1990), Goodlad (1991), Bowman (1990), Jackson

(1993), Jensen (1986), Fullan (1991), the Ontario Ministry of

Education (1988), Gore (1991) and Potthoff (1993) are among the

many who consider collaboration as a valuable undertaking in

bridging the gap between the needs and requirements in pre-service

and in-service teacher education.

123

1. Collaboration among the student teachers

The NUL student-teachers fall into two categories: students

who hold teaching certificates from NTTC and those who are fresh

from secondary school and do not hold such a certificate. Preparing

student-teachers to collaborate among themselves will be encouraged

in their micro-teaching experiences, school visits, as well as

during the actual teaching practicum. As they begin their teaching

practicum, student-teachers will be paired with other student-

teachers according to their subject majors and their experiences.

This strategy is intended to enhance their ability to assist each

other in their efforts to improve their reflective inquiry skills.

For example, student teachers-might observe each other's lessons

and provide each other with peer level feedback.

2. Collaboration between the Institute of Education and the Faculty

of Education

The Institute of Education (IE), a research department of NUL

in which this teacher-educator is a member, is charged with a

number of responsibilities. One of IE's major roles in the

educational system of Lesotho is to run staff-development workshops

for in-service teachers. This department has, since 1990, been

conducting workshops for primary school teachers on "instructional

self-reflection skills." The potential of this department in

participating in teacher preparation was already recognized by the

1986 Teaching Practice Commission. In the report, the Commission

noted that the Institute of Education plays a major role in Lesotho

124

education because it provides in-service education for teachers.

The Commission however, commented that "continual improvement of

teachers' abilities by means of in-service courses should come as

a follow-up on participation by the Institute of Education in pre-

service education" (p.19).

Therefore, this theses proposes that the Institute of

Education now play a leading role in preparing pre-service student-

teachers for the reflective-inquiry practicum. Furthermore, the

department should collaborate with the NUL Faculty of Education in

preparing both the sponsor teachers and the mentor teachers for the

reflective practicum and the induction program respectively. The

participation of the IE at this juncture is facilitated by the in-

service training workshops focusing on "instructional self-

reflective skills," and perhaps more important, because the IE has

recently established a Teacher-Education Division. It is therefore

quite relevant that this division collaborate with the Faculty of

Education in the preparation of pre-service student-teachers as

well as conduct training workshops for sponsor/mentor teachers.

3. Collaboration with the NTTC Field-Based Supervisors

It is proposed that since NUL Faculty cannot supervise its

graduate teachers scattered throughout the country, every effort be

expended to make use of the talents and resources of affiliate

teacher education organizations. This proposal is supported by the

theory that the essence of reform is joint efforts to improve

teacher education both at pre-service and in-service levels through

125

employing resources found in the schools. The idea of seeking the

assistance of a (teacher education) college is supported by McNay

(1993) who writes that in some instances, expertise can be found

outside the faculties, particularly in the "community colleges."

One such organization in Lesotho is the National Teacher

Training College (NTTC). The NTTC is currently affiliated with the

NUL Faculty of Education in the area of professional exchange.

However, over the years, the NTTC has independently established a

nationwide pool of qualified field-based internship supervisors who

have gained valuable experience working closely with student-

teachers.

Therefore, it is recommended that the affiliation between NUL

and NTTC be further developed towards utilizing the skills of this

national system of field-based supervisors to collaborate in the

preparation of NUL graduates in their professional development

through teaching practice, specifically for the duration of the

induction program year.

4. Collaboration with the secondary Schools

NUL has been placing its student-teachers in the Secondary

Schools for many years. In the current practice, student-teachers

do not receive structured assistance from the Secondary School

subject teachers. Since the notion of school visits as proposed for

the second phase requires that student-teachers visit school,

observe teachers, and that teachers participate as sponsor and

mentor teachers, it is recommended that NUL enhance formal

126

collaboration with the schools that will participate in the student

teaching practicum.

Supporting Sponsor Teachers/Mentor Teachers

It is important to emphasize that the concept of reflective-

inquiry will be introduced for the first time at the National

University of Lesotho. Therefore, the success of this three-phase

model depends to a great extent on the building of a staff of

well-trained sponsor/mentor-teachers (in addition, of course, to

the development of an effective collaborative process which would

guide the triad of student-teacher/instructor/mentor teacher).

Researchers who have tested the theory of reflective practice note

that this concept requires close and skilful supervision which will

not be immediately available in Lesotho secondary schools. It is

therefore proposed that school-based training serve the purpose of

preparing the sponsor teachers for the task. This school-based

training of sponsor teachers will be enhanced by participation in

the actual teaching practicum. As sponsor teachers gradually assist

student teachers through (Schon's "follow-me," "joint-

experimentation" and "a hall of mirrors" models) , they will in turn

be engaging in reflective inquiry within the scope of their own

teaching and coaching experience. Thus, training will be context

bound and more meaningful to the teachers than would be the case if

they were given workshops away from their work situation; the

process will benefit both the student-teacher and the sponsor

teacher.

127

Clarke (1992) notes that the process of reflective practice by

student-teachers and the sponsor teachers "...served as a

professional development opportunity for students and sponsor

teachers..." (p.199). This study suggests that sponsor teachers be

given brief introductory preparation to the concept of reflective

inquiry and that this be followed by experimentation and

exploration with Schon's reflective practicum theory.

Summary

Many researchers, particularly in the 1990' s, strongly believe

that preparing student-teachers to become reflective practitioners

is an important goal. It is argued that reflective inquiry forms a

basis for preparing competent teachers and it is to this end that

the proposed model is devoted, specifically in the context of the

National University of Lesotho's Teacher Education Program.

The structure of the model enacts reflective inquiry through

a variety of phases: in the content of the courses; in the micro-

teaching experiences; in the observations taken during school

visits; in the follow-up seminars; in the supervised practicum; and

in the supervised induction program year of teaching.

This model is designed so that NUL student-teachers develop

skills for reflective inquiry and become competent teachers,

nurtured by the systematic guidance of teacher educators. It is

believed that reflective inquiry will lead to improved teaching as

the competence of the student-teacher is developed more quickly by

this approach. The assumption is that the idiosyncratic process of

128

reflective inquiry through all phases will allow the student-

teachers to gain the knowledge that should improve their own

practice. The issue of improved practice through reflective-inquiry

is confirmed by Grimmett, MacKinnon, Erickson and Riecken (1992).

They described their concept of reflection as the process of being

thoughtful about one's teaching actions and behaviour, coupled with

the efforts of contemplation that leads to conscious, deliberate

changes of teaching habits and strategies.

Therefore, the purpose of the reflective-inquiry model is to

create a strategy-based, student/sponsor learning environment

within the time constraints of the student-teacher practicum and

induction-year program, in which the students/graduates

professional development will be enhanced by inquiry in and on

practice.

129

References

Applegate, J. & Shaklee, B. (1983). Stimulating Reflection While Learning to Teach": The ATTEP at Kent University. In L. Valli (Eds.), Reflective Teacher Education Cases and Critiques p.65-79. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Andrew, M.D. (1983) . The Characteristics of Students in a Five Year Teacher Education Program. Journal of Teacher Education, XXXIV(1), 20-23.

Balch, P.M. & Balch, P.E. (1987) . The cooperating teacher-a practical approach for the supervision of student teacher. New York: University of America.

Bowman, J. (1990) . Issues in Teacher Education. Vancouver: Wayne Wiens.

Bowman, J. (1991). Report to the College of Teachers on Teacher in British Columbia. Vancouver: Georgina Shaw & William Sutherland.

Bruneau, S. (1992). The Faculty Advisor's Involvement in the Student Teaching Practicum: Necessity of luxury? Paper presented in Westcast Conference, Edmonton: Alberta.

Bruneau, S. (1993). The case for Subject-Specialist Supervision of Secondary Student Teachers' Practica. Paper presented in Westcast Conference, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Brown, S.B., Collins, A. & Duguid, C. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1) 32-42.

Carter, K. (1990) . Teachers' Knowledge and Learning to Teach. In W.Robert Houston (Ed.) A Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp.291-310), New York: Macmillan.

Chabane, CM., Lefoka, J.P. & Sebatane, E.M. (1989). Teaching/ Learning Strategies in Lesotho Primary School Classrooms. (Research Report). Lesotho: National University of Lesotho, Institute of Education.

Clarke, A. (1992) . Student-Teacher Refection in the Practicum

130

Setting. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, the University of British Columbia, British Columbia.

Doyle, W. (1990). Theses in Teacher Education In R. Houston (Ed.) & M.Haberman & J. Sikula (Ass.Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education: A project of the Association of Teacher Educators. (pp.3-24). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Dubar, J.B. (1981) . Moving to a five-year Teacher Preparation Program: The Perspective of Experience. Journal of Teacher Education, XXXII(1) (13-15).

Feiman-Nemser, S. (1990). Teacher preparation: Structures and conceptual alternatives. In W.R. Houston (Ed.),& M. Haberman & J. Sikula (Ass.Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. A Project of the Association of Teacher Educators. (212-233). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Fullan, M.G., Connelly, F.M. & Watson, N. (1987). Teacher Education in Ontario: Current Practice and Options for the Future.(Government Report). Ontario: Ministry of Colleges and Universities and Ministry of Education.

Fullan, M.G. & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The Meaning of Educational Change. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gillis, G. (1988). Schon's Reflective Practitioner: A Model for Teacher? In P.P. Grimmett and G.L. Erickson (Eds.), Reflection in Teacher Education (pp.47-53). New York: Teachers College

Goodlad, J.I. (1991). Why We Need a Complete Redesign of Teacher Education. Journal of Educational Leadership 49 (3) 4-6, 8-10

Gore, J.M. (1991). Practicing What we Preach: Action Research & the Supervision of Student Teachers. In B.R. Tabanchnick, & K.Zeichner, (Eds.), Issues &Practices inquiry-Oriented Teacher Education.(pp.253-280). London: The Falmer Press.

Guyton, E. and Mclntyre, D.J. (1990). Student Teaching and School Experience. In W.R. Huston and (Ed.), M. Haberman & J. Sikula (Ass. Eds.). A Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: A project of the Association of Teacher Educators, (pp.514-534) New York MacMillan Publishing Company

131

Grimmett, P.P. (1988). The nature of reflection conception in perspective. In P.P. Grimmett & G.L. Erickson (Eds.), Reflection in Teacher Education, (pp.5-15). New York: Teachers College Press.

Grimmett, P.P. & MacKinnon A.M. (1992) An Alternative Conception of Knowledge for the Education of Teachers: Craft Knowledge. Review of Research in Education. 18 1-58

Grimmett, P.P. Mackinnon, A.M., Erickson, G.L. & Riecken, T.J. (1990) Reflective Practice in Teacher Education. In Clift R.T., Houston, W.R. & Pugach M.C. (Eds.) Reflective Practice in Education: An Analysis of Issues & Programs, (pp.20-38) New York:Columbia University.

Hall, L.B. (1969) . A brief history of the Lesotho Training College, A brochure produced for the centenary of Lesotho training. Lesotho: Morija Printing works.

Holmes Group Report (1987) . Reforming Teacher Education: The Impact of the Holmes Group Report. New York: Teachers College

Housego, B.E.J. (1992). Monitoring Student Teachers' Feelings of Preparedness to Teach, Personal Teaching Efficacy, and Teaching Efficacy in a New Secondary Teacher Education Program. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research. XXXVIII(1) 49-64

Huling-Austin, A. (1986) . What Can and Cannot reasonably Be Expected from Teacher Induction Programs. Journal of Teacher Education. XXXVII(1) 2-5

Jackson, L.M. (1993). Tomorrow's Teacher: A Review of the Literature on the Qualities Required to be a Successful Teacher in the 1990s and Beyond (A report) The Maritine Province.

Jensen, M.C. (1986) Induction Programs Support New Teachers and Strengthen Their Schools. Oregon School Study Council CSCC Bulletin. 3_0(D •

Lasley, T.J. & Applegate, J.H. (1982). The Education of Secondary Teachers: Rhetoric or Reform? Journal of Teacher Education.

132

XXIII(1), 3-6.

MacKinnon, A.M. (1988) . Taking Schon's Ideas to a Science Teaching practicum. In P.P. Grimmett &G.L. Erickson (Eds.), Reflection in Teacher Education, (pp.113-135) . New York: Teachers College.

Mannathoko, C. & Chipeta, D.P. (1990) . Teaching Practice Evaluation: Supervisor's and Students' Perceptions of Teaching Practice in Botswana Secondary Schools, March, May & June.(Research Report) Botswana: University of Botswana, Faculty of Education.

Mathot, G. (1988). Report on the induction programme IP. (Report) Science Education department: National University of Lesotho.

McNay, M. (1992). Practicum Internship: Collaboration, The Continuum, And The "Whole School Context". In L. Beauchamp, A. Borys, M. Iveson,and J.K. McClay (Eds.), Cross and Horizons in teacher education. Proceedings of the Westcast 1992 Conference (pp.263-233). Edmondon:Alberta

Ministry of Colleges and Universities (1988). Final Report of the Teacher Education review Steering Committee (Paper, September 1988).

Mission School District, (1991). A mentor Programme for first year teachers. Programme Update.

National University of Lesotho (1993). 1992/1993 Calender. Lesotho: Morija Printing Works.

National University of Lesotho (1986). Study Commission on Teaching Practice, (report) Lesotho: National University of Lesotho.

Nodie Oja, S., Diller, A., Corcoran, E. & Andrew, M.D. (1992). Communities of Inquiry, Communities of Support: The Five Year Teacher Education Program at the University of New Hampshire. In L. Valli (Ed.), Reflective Teacher Education: Cases and Critiques (pp.3-23). New York.-State University of New York Press.

133

Olaitan, S.O. & Aqusiobo O.N. (1981). Principles of Practice Teaching. Education in Africa. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Peck, R.F. & Tucker, J.A. (1973) . Research on Teacher Education. In R.M.W. Travers, (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching (pp.940-971) . Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company.

Potthoff, D. (1992) . Student Teacher Performance Evaluation -- A Better Way? In L. Beauchamp, Borys, A., M. Iveson, & J.K. McClay, J.K. (Eds.), Crossroads & Horizons in teacher education. Proceedings of the Westcast 1992 Conference (p.264-2 71). Edmonton:Alberta

Potthoff, D. (1992). Proposed Model For Working With Prospective Cooperating Teachers. In L. Beauchamp, A. Borys, M. Iveson, & J.K. McClay, (Eds.) . Crossroads & Horizons in teacher education Proceedings of the Westcast Conference)e) (pp.254-263. Edmondon:Alberta.

Reynolds, A. (1992). What is competent beginning teaching? A review of the literature. Review of educational research. .62.(1) 1-35

Richardson, V. (1990). The Evolution of Reflective Education and Teacher Education. In R.T. Clift, W.R. Houston & M.C. Pugach (Eds.), Encouraging reflective practice in education, (pp.3-19). New York: Teachers College Press.

Ross, D.D. (1990) . Programmatic Structures for the preparation of reflective teachers. In R.T. Clift, W.R. Houston & M.C. Pugach (Eds.), Encouraging reflective practice in education, (pp.97-118). New York: Teachers College Press.

Russell, R., Munby, H. , Spafford, C , & Johnston, P. (1988). Learning the professional Knowledge of teaching: Metaphors, puzzles, and the theory-practice rela tionship.In P. Grimmett & G. Erickson (Eds.).Reflection in teacher education (pp.67-89). New York: Teachers College Press.

Schaller, J. (1992) . Teacher Training And The Real World: Reactions of Education Student to Situations. In The Extended Practicum. In L. Beauchamp, A.Bory Iverson, M. & McClay, J.K. (Eds.) Crossroads And Horizons in Teacher Education. Proceedings of the Westcast 1992 Conference, (pp.284-291) Edmondon: Alberta.

134

Sebatane, E.M., Bam, V.M., Mohapeloa, &Pule,S.M. Mathot, G.(187). Consultancy report on the internship programme of the National Teacher Training College. (Research Report). Ministry of Education: Lesotho.

Schon, D.A. (1983) . The reflective practitioner. How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Book.

Schon, D.A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design for Teaching & Learning in the Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Schon, D.A. (1988). Coaching the Reflective Teaching. In P.P. Grimmett and G.L. Erickson (Eds.) Reflection in Teacher Education (pp.19-38). New York: Teachers College.

Shulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform. Havard Educational Review. 57.(1) 1-22.

Zeichner, K.M. (1983). Alternative Paradigm Education. Journal of Teacher Education. XXXIV(3).

Zeichner, K.M. Liston D.P. (1987) Restructuring teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education. 41(2) 3-20

Valli, L. (1992). Afterword. In L. Valli (Ed.), Reflective Teacher Education Cases and Critique. (p.213-225). Albany: State University of New York Press.

Valli, L. (1990) . Moral approaches to Reflective Practice. In R.T. Clift, W.R. Houston & Pugach M.C. (Eds.). Encouraging reflective practice in education: An analysis of Issues and programs (pp.39-56). New York: teachers College Press.

Verah, J., Theune, W.S. & Parker, L. (1986). Beginning Teachers: Sink or Swim? Journal of Teacher Education. XXXVII (1) 30-35.

Wong, M.J. & Osguthorpe, R.T. (1993) . The Continuing Domination of the Four-Year Teacher Education Program: A National Survey. Journal of Teacher Education. 44(1) 64-70

135

Appendix

Fifth year

Advantages

1. Supervision is over along period, as is evaluation.

2. Students would have sufficient time in school to become fully

integrated into the life of the school

3 . Students would have opportunity to take classes throughout years

A-E

4. There would be no interference with the programs of other

faculties.

5. Students would have relatively few logistical problems in

repeating course where necessary.

Pis advan t age s

1. Students will not graduate in the same year as their peers.

2. Travelling expenses could be high for supervision unless student

choice of schools was severely restricted.

3. Government have already expressed their dislike of this option.

Ninth Semester

Advantage

1. Supervision is over a long period, as is evaluation

2. Students would have sufficient time in school to become full

integrated into the life of the school.

136

3. Students will have time to learn from their mistakes and to

attempt remedial action.

4. Students would have opportunity to take classes throughout

year A-E.

5. There would be no interference with the program of other

faculties.

6. Students would have relatively few logistical problems

repeating course where necessary.

7. Students on all education programmes could be treated in the

same way.

Disadvantages

1. Student will not qualify at the same time as their peers.

There will be a delay of some six months.

2. Travelling expenses could be hight for supervision unless

student choice of schools was severely restricted.

3. Government have already expressed their dislike of this

option.

4. PGCE students would have only one semester at the university.

Eighth Semester

Advantages

1. supervision is over a long period, as is evaluation.

2. Students would have sufficient time in school to become full

integrated into the life of the school.

137

3. Students will have time to learn from their mistakes and to

attempt remedial action.

4. Students would have opportunity to take classes throughout

years A-E.

5. PGCE student will qualify at the same time as their peers.

6. Teaching practice would, at present, be in the first half of

a school year which should cause less disruptions in the

schools.

Pis advant age s

1. Students will take a reduced number of education and content

courses and opportunities for further studies will be limited.

2. Students who fail compulsory course or pre-requisite courses

may have problems in repeating a course and also in finding a

programme.

3. Students will have a very restricted choice of programme.

4. Faculties will have to teach certain courses in the first

semester, with a consequent risk of staffing problems.

5. Student will have to receive a substance allowance.

Two (or three of four) vacation periods

Advantage

1. Students will be able to do all their education courses as

they do at present.

2. Compulsory courses can be repeated if necessary.

138

3. Courses can be taught in either semester

4. All the present content can be taught.

5. Students will retain the same freedom of choice of courses.

6. Travelling expenses will be minimal.

7. The students will receive their qualifications at the same

time as their peers.

9. The first period will help the students in subsequent

practices.

Disadvant acres

1. The one year courses, such as PCE and Dip Sc Ed Agric, would

be treated on a different basis.

2. Schools will have some student for four weeks and others for

six. They would probably have to have at least four students.

The four-week period may be disruptive for the schools.

3. Students will not have enough time to get to know their pupils

properly and to learn by their mistakes.

4. Students will not have the opportunity to experience many

aspect of the teaching profession outside the class-room.

During the fourth year, devoted entirely to Education, other

studies having been completed in the first three year.

Advantage

1. There would be no interference with the program of other

faculties.

139

2. Students would have relatively few logistical problems in

repeating courses where necessary.

3. Students on all education programmes could be treated in the

same way.

4. Students will qualify at the same time as their peers.

5. Relatively low costs.

Pis advant age s

1. Other faculties will have to complete their programmes in

three years.

2. Education courses will have to be concentrated into the final

year.

3. Both Education and content course will have to be reduced in

number.

4. Students will have a restricted choice of programm.

5. There will be large numbers of students doing teaching

practice at the same time, with consequent staffing problems.

140