Teaching Manuscripts - Phalthy's Home Page · Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport Royal University of Law and Economics Teaching Manuscripts for Economics and Law Students HAP

Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport Royal University of Law and Economics

Teaching Manuscripts for

Economics and Law Students

HAP Phalthy

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................. i The Noun........................................................................................................................................ 1 Tenses ............................................................................................................................................. 6 Simple Present Tense ...................................................................................................................... 6

Present Continuous Tense ......................................................................................................... 7 Present Perfect Tense................................................................................................................. 8 Simple Past Tense...................................................................................................................... 9 Past Perfect Tense...................................................................................................................... 9 Past Continuous Tense............................................................................................................. 10 Simple Future Tense................................................................................................................ 11 Future Continuous Tense......................................................................................................... 12 Future Perfect Tense................................................................................................................ 12

Pronunciation of –ed in regular verbs....................................................................................... 13 Pronunciation of nouns with regular plural ............................................................................. 13 How to Use Article A, An, and The ........................................................................................... 14 Other............................................................................................................................................. 16 Indirect Speech............................................................................................................................ 17 Conditional Sentence .................................................................................................................. 18 Punctuation Marks...................................................................................................................... 19 Would Rather .............................................................................................................................. 24 The Verb Need............................................................................................................................. 25 Would like .................................................................................................................................... 25 Making invitation........................................................................................................................ 25 Could-May-Might ....................................................................................................................... 26 Should........................................................................................................................................... 26 Must.............................................................................................................................................. 27 Have to.......................................................................................................................................... 27 Words that always take singular plural verbs and pronouns ................................................. 29 Adjective + Linking Verbs ......................................................................................................... 32 Multiple Number Comparative ................................................................................................. 32 Because + subject + Verb............................................................................................................ 33 Because of + noun (phrase) ........................................................................................................ 33 Types of Problems....................................................................................................................... 34

Problems with Modals and Modal-Related Patterns ............................................................... 34 Problems with Causatives ....................................................................................................... 37 Problems with Conditionals..................................................................................................... 38 Problems with Subjunctives .................................................................................................... 39

Problems with Passives ........................................................................................................... 40 Problems with Unfulfilled in the Past – Had Hoped ............................................................... 41 Problems with Pronouns.......................................................................................................... 41 Problems with Nouns............................................................................................................... 42 Problems with Comparatives................................................................................................... 43 Problems with Prepositions ..................................................................................................... 44 Problems with Adverbs and Adverb-Related Structures......................................................... 45 Problems with Point of Views ................................................................................................. 47

Steps to Writing........................................................................................................................... 48 Tips for Writing Reports and Documents in English .............................................................. 53 Overview of Essay Organization................................................................................................ 56 Selecting and Organizing Language.......................................................................................... 62 Formats for Letters ..................................................................................................................... 70

Full Block ................................................................................................................................ 70 Block........................................................................................................................................ 71 Semiblock ................................................................................................................................ 72 Simplified ................................................................................................................................ 73

Animals......................................................................................................................................... 74 Fruit.............................................................................................................................................. 78 Curriculum Vitae (GB) or Résumé (US)................................................................................... 79

i

Preface In order to easily maintain the documents which have been taught to students at the Royal

University of Law and Economics, I tried to compile them in one set. All the manuscripts

provided to students are apart from the textbooks allowed by the university.

As being in the position of a teacher, I want all students to enlarge their knowledge by self-

studying or conducting a research. I want students to understand deeply about the feeling of

teachers as well as the function of teachers in class. Teachers are just facilitators and they guide

students to do something. So the important thing of learning is to try one's best in order to

brainstorm or innovate anything. If students could find new good ideas, that is what teaching

success.

The aim of these manuscripts is to provide an opportunity for students to study important

grammars in order to write good essays as well as to easily communicate with the people all over

the world.

I deeply hope that my students will do something good for their nation by use of this language.

Cambodia, 2004

HAP Phalthy

Compiled Teaching Manuscripts at RULE

The Noun

A noun is a word that is the name of a thing, quality, person, animal, etc. and can be the subject or object of a verb. A Kinds of nouns There are four different kinds of nouns in English.

1 A proper noun names one particular person, thing, or animal. This noun is written with a capital letter as English, Phnom Penh, Mary, Sally, France, the United States, ...

2 A common noun names persons, things, or animals of a kind as man, girl, dog, table, train, pig, mountain,...

3 An abstract noun names some quality or state as beauty, love, courage, weakness, strongness, health, wickedness, ...

4 Collective noun is a noun that is singular in form but can refer to a number of people or things. team, flock, group, committee, congress, family, crowd, government, class, jury, organization, company, army, club, majority, minority, public, ...

B Plural of nouns

1 The plural of a noun is usually made by adding 's' to the singular. book ∏ bookshouse ∏ housesday ∏ dayscliff ∏ cliffsrope ∏ ropesballoon ∏ balloons

2 Nouns ending in 'o', 'ch', 'sh', 'ss', 's', 'x', and 'z' form their plural by adding 'es'. tomato ∏ tomatoeschurch ∏ churchespotato ∏ potatoesbrush ∏ brusheskiss ∏ kissesbox ∏ boxesaddress ∏ addressesbus ∏ busesmatch ∏ matcheswatch ∏ watchesdish ∏ dishesbuzz ∏ buzzesmotto ∏ mottoesvolcano ∏ volcanoesmosquito ∏ mosquitoeshero ∏ heroes

3 Nouns ending in 'y' following a consonant form their plural by dropping the 'y' and adding 'ies'. baby ∏ babiescountry ∏ countriescity ∏ citieslady ∏ ladies

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fly ∏ fliesstory ∏ storiescopy ∏ copiesbody ∏ bodiesfamily ∏ familiesfactory ∏ factories

But nouns ending in 'y' following a vowel form their plural by adding 's'. boy ∏ boyskey ∏ keysdonkey ∏ donkeystoy ∏ toys

valley ∏ valleys essay ∏ essays

4 Nouns ending in 'f' or 'fe' form their plural by dropping 'f' or 'fe' and adding 'ves'. calf ∏ calveshalf ∏ halvesknife ∏ knivesleaf ∏ leaveslife ∏ livesloaf ∏ loavesself ∏ selvessheaf ∏ sheavesshelf ∏ shelves thief ∏ thieveswife ∏ wiveswolf ∏ wolves

The nouns hoof, scarf, and wharf take either 's' or 'ves' in the plural. hoof ∏ hoofs or hoovesscarf ∏ scarfs or scarveswharf ∏ wharfs or wharves

Other nouns ending in 'fe' or 'f' form their plural by adding 's' in the ordinary way. cliff ∏ cliffssafe ∏ safeshandkerchief ∏ handkerchiefsroof ∏ roofsgulf ∏ gulfsproof ∏ proofsbelief ∏ beliefschief ∏ chiefschef ∏ chefs

5 A few nouns form their plural by changing vowels (irregular plural). foot ∏ feet mouse ∏ mice tooth ∏ teeth woman ∏ women man ∏ men child ∏ children ox ∏ oxen appendix ∏ appendices

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deer ∏ deer sheep ∏ sheep fish ∏ fish trout ∏ trout alumnus ∏ alumni focus ∏ foci/focuses terminus ∏ termini formula ∏ formulas or formulae datum ∏ data goose ∏ geese louse ∏ lice memorandum ∏ memoranda salmon ∏ salmon bacillus ∏ bacilli radius ∏ radii genius ∏ genii or geniuses

6 Nouns ending in 'is' form their plural by dropping 'is' and adding 'es'. basis ∏ baseshypothesis ∏ hypothesesthesis ∏ thesesanalysis ∏ analysescrisis ∏ crisesaxis ∏ axesparenthesis ∏ parenthesesellipsis ∏ ellipsesantithesis ∏ antitheses

7 Certain nouns are always plural and take a plural verb. clothes police pants trousers jeans pyjamas/pajamas shorts briefs glasses scissors pliers tweezers

Uncountable Nouns (Non-count nouns or mass nouns) The names of things which cannot be counted as separate objects are called uncountable nouns. They include:

- Names of substance a Fluids: water, coffee, milk, soup, blood, ... b Solids: ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, glass, wood, cotton, ... c Gases: steam, air, smoke, oxygen, hydrogen, ... d Particles: rice, chalk, dust, flour, salt, sand, sugar, ...

- Abstract nouns beauty, courage, education, happiness, health, wealth, justice, confidence, luck, intelligence, truth, violence, peace, speed, ...

- Whole groups made up of similar items food, fruit, furniture, jewelry, money, make up, ...

- Field of study

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history, literature, psychology, chemistry, physics, math, philosophy, geography, algebra, geometry, sociology, biology, archeology, economics, law, technology, ...

- Natural phenomena weather, fog, heat, humidity, lightning, rain snow, thunder, wind, light, sunshine, gravity, ...

- Recreation tennis, chess, football, soccer, basketball, ... Uncountable nouns are always singular and take singular verbs. The coffee is cold. The weather is terrible. The food is delicious. History makes me surprised. They are not used with a/an, but often used with some, any, no, a little, ... I don't want any advice or help.

I need some information. She put a little sugar in her coffee. I opened the curtains to let in some light.

We can use: a bit of news a piece of glass a slice of cake a box of flour a drop of oil a cup of tea a pot of jam a grain of sand Many non-count nouns can be used in another sense which is countable. With a countable

meaning they can take 'a or an' in the singular and can be used in the plural. His hair is black. (non-count noun) ∏ He found three hairs in the milk. My house was made of wood. ∏ We picnicked in the woods.

Note: Work: occupation is uncountable noun. Works (plural): can mean 'factory' or 'moving parts of a machine'. Works (usually plural): can mean literary or musical compositions.

Shakespeare's worksCountable nouns (Count nouns) Countable nouns are things we can count. a banana, a beach, a song, a ten-pound note, a fault, a radio, an accident, a battery, a cup, We can use some and any with plural countable nouns. We sang some songs. Did you buy any apples? We use many and a few with plural countable nouns. We didn't take many photographs. I have a few jobs to do. Many nouns can be used as countable or uncountable nouns, usually with a different meaning. Compare: Countable noun Uncountable noun Did you hear a noise just now? I can't work here. There's too much noise. (a particular noise) (not 'too many noises') I bought a paper to read. I need some paper to write on. (a newspaper) (material for writing on) You can stay with us. There is a spare room. You can't sit here. There isn't room. (a room in a house) (space)

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I had some interesting experiences. They offered me the job because I had a lot of (things that happened to me) experience. (not ‘experiences’) Enjoy your holiday. Have a good time! I can’t wait. I haven't got time. * Before singular count nouns we can use 'a' or 'an'. Goodbye! Have a nice evening. Do you need an umbrella? * We cannot use singular count nouns alone. (without a/the/my/...) She never wears a hat. (not 'she never wears hat') Be careful of the dog. (not 'Be careful of dog') What a beautiful day! (not 'What beautiful day') I've got a headache. (not 'I've got headache') Compound nouns

• noun + noun kitchen table winter clothes boyfriend armchair

table cloth tablespoon tableland racehorse horserace

• noun + gerund fruit picking lorry driving weight lifting coal mining

• gerund + noun waiting list swimming pool driving licence walking stick

• noun + preposition + noun and other compound nouns sister-in-law man-at-arms merry-go-round maid-of-all-works

• adjective + noun blackboard grandfather adopted child foster parents

• verb + noun cut- throat pick-pocket take-home-pay shift-key

• verb + adverb breakdown farewell let-down let-up

• preposition + verb in-let out-let

• Adverb + verb up-keep down-pour

Note: The combinations can be used: - Second noun belonging to or being part of the first.

Church bell, garden gate, college library, shop window, ... - Noun indicating the place of the second.

city street, corner shop, street market, ... - First noun indicating the time of the second.

Summer holiday, Sunday paper, Spring flowers, November fogs, ... - First noun indicating the material of which the second is made.

steel door, stone wall, rope ladder, gold medal, ...

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- First noun indicating the purpose of the second. coffee cup, reading lamp, golf club, notice board, chess board, writing desk, ...

- For competition: football match, boxing match, beauty contest, ...

Tenses Simple Present Tense

1 General truth Water freezes at 0oC. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. The world is round. The sun rises in the morning.

2 Habitual or repeated action (usually with these: always, usually, habitually, often, every day, every week, every year, never, sometimes, ...) I study for two hours every night. My class begins at nine. He sometimes works until two o'clock. You always eat a sandwich for lunch.

3 Now (right now): with non-progressive verbs (describe states) Common non-progressive verbs

A. Mental State: know, believe, imagine, want, realize, feel, doubt, need, understand, suppose, remember, prefer, recognize, think*, forget, mean, ...

B. Emotional state: love, like, appreciate, hate, dislike, fear, envy, mind, care C. Possession: possess, have*, own, belong D. Sense perceptions: taste*, smell, hear, feel*, see* E. Other existing states: seem, look*, appear*, cost, owe, weigh*, be*, exist, consist of,

contain, include I know you are a very cute man. She loves me very much. This book belongs to my teacher. Those flowers smell good. Mineral water consists of some other metal ions.

"*" can be used as progressive verbs with different meaning.

I think he is a kind man. I am thinking about this grammar. He has a car. I am having trouble. She is having a good time.

4 It may be used to express future time in sentence concerning events that are on a definite schedule or timetable and they concern future time words. Only a few words are used in this way: open, close, begin, end, start, finish, arrive, leave, come, return.

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Classes begin next week. John's plane arrives at 6:05 pm next Monday. The shop opens at nine tomorrow morning.

Present Continuous Tense (Present Progressive) 1 Now (right now)

He is speaking right now.

I need an umbrella because it is raining.

They are talking on the phone.

She is still working.

We're answering to our teacher.

Why are you working alone?

2 General in progress: to express future meaning, they're often used with a

word or phrase like tomorrow, next week, next year, next weekend, on

Monday, ... (The idea of the sentence concerns a planned event or definite intention)

I am taking five courses this semester.

He is going to London tomorrow.

She is coming here next week.

My wife's having an appointment with a doctor on Monday.

I am taking four courses next semester.

My friend is going to work at 7:20 am.

3 Using the present progressive with always, forever, constantly to express

anger or annoyance. She is always leaving her dirty socks on the floor for me to pick up! Who does she think I am?

Her maid? (annoyance or anger)

I'm always/forever/constantly picking up her dirty socks. (annoyance)

He's always messing up the kitchen. (annoyance or anger)

He's constantly leaving his dirty dishes on the table. (annoyance)

You are always suggesting this proposal. (annoyance)

4 Using expression of place with progressive tense

She is studying in her room. = She's in her room studying.

Jack is taking a nap on the couch. = Jack is on the couch taking a nap.

They're attending a conference in England. = They're in England attending a conference.

I am typing grammar in my study. = I am in my study typing grammar.

She is working hard in her house = She's in her house working hard.

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Present Perfect Tense

1 Past indefinite action or time They have moved into a new apartment.

I have seen snow.

Have you tried to come here by motorbike?

They have driven quite a lot.

2 The repetition of the activity before now (not exact time)

We have had four tests so far this semester.

I have written my wife a letter every other day for the last two weeks.

I have met many people since I came here in June.

I have flown on an airplane many times so far.

3 An action that began in the past and continued to the present time (We

usually use since or for) • Since = a particular time

• For = a duration time I have been here since 8 o'clock.

We've been here for two hours.

He has liked cowboys movies over since he was a child.

I have known him for many years.

4 Adverbs of time are often used with present perfect tense to indicate non-

specific time or the action that is just finished.

Adverbs of time: already, before, before now, recently, lately, previously, not

yet, yet, never, ever, just.

I have just written this word on the blackboard.

They've already done their homework.

She's never seen it.

He has driven a motorcar before.

Present Progressive = is/are + verb + ing

Present Perfect Tense = have/has + past participle

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Simple Past Tense 1 The simple past tense indicates that an activity or situation began and

ended at a particular time in the past. I walked to school yesterday.

He lived in Paris ten years ago, but now he is living in Rome.

I bought a new car three days ago.

She told me about her actual life.

2 If a sentence contains when and has the simple past in both clauses, the

action in the "when clause" happens first. I stood under the tree when it began to rain.

When she heard a strong noise, she got up to investigate.

When I dropped my cup, the coffee spilled in my lap.

Stanley was very sick when she tripped and fell down from the mountain.

Past Perfect Tense 1 The past perfect tense expresses an activity or time that was completed

before another activity or time in the past. My parents had already eaten by the time I got home.

Until yesterday, I had never heard about it.

The thief simply walked in. Someone had forgotten to lock the door.

I gave the flowers that I had bought for her.

They told me she had gone to a birthday party.

2 If either before or after is used in the sentence, the past perfect is often not

necessary because the time relationship is already clear. The simple past

may be used. Sam had left before we got there. = Sam left before we got there.

After the guest had left, I went to bed. = After the guest left, I went to bed.

She had cooked before her children reached home. = She cooked before her children reached

home.

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Past Continuous Tense (Past Progressive)

1 The past continuous tense expresses an action that was going on or

continuing in the past time. She was getting tired of the everlasting talk.

They were looking at him in astonishment.

She had a parrot that was always talking.

They were saying what a wonderful cat she has.

2 If both actions occurred at the same time, but one action began earlier and

was in progress when the other action occurred. I was walking down the street, when it began to rain.

While I was walking down the street, it began to rain.

At eight o'clock last night, I was attending school.

While I was typing a computer, the electricity was broken out.

She came into her room while her husband was sleeping.

3 Sometimes the past progressive is used in both parts of the sentence when

two actions are in progress simultaneously. While I was studying in one room of our apartment, my roommate was having a party in the

other room.

While she was looking at me, I was studying grammar.

I was typing grammar while my son was sleeping.

They were watching at me while I was doing exercises.

4 In some cases, the simple past and the past progressive give almost the

same meaning. It was raining this morning. = It rained this morning.

She was doing her homework last night. = She did her homework last night.

They were playing football yesterday. = They played football yesterday.

He was driving a car yesterday afternoon. = He drove a car yesterday afternoon.

I was reading a newspaper last night. = I read a newspaper last night.

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Past Perfect Tense = had + past participle

Past Continuous Tense = was/were + verb + ing


Simple Future Tense

1 The simple future tense expresses an action (something) that is going to happen (do) in the future time. We call simple futurity.

Formula: I shall you will he will

she will it will we shall you will they will

I shall be twenty five years old next month.

You will all go to the riverside next week.

He'll sit on a barn.

They will play football.

2 The simple future tense expresses a promise, order, command, willingness, or determination as well as futurity. We call futurity with promise, order, command, willingness, or determination.

Formula: I will you shall he shall she shall it shall we will you shall they shall

If you work hard, you shall have a holiday on Saturday. (promise) I won't speak it. (determination) You shall do as I tell you. (order, command) We won't forget to say "Many happy returns." We will say it as soon as we see her. (willingness) 3 We also can use simple future tense to express a prediction.

According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow. Be careful! You will hurt yourself. Fred will be at the meeting tomorrow.

Note • The use of shall to express future time, but uncommon in American English. • Shall is used much more frequently in British than in American English.

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Future Continuous Tense (Future Progressive)

1 The future continuous tense expresses an activity that will be in progress at a future time.

I will be studying when you come. You will be sitting in class at this time tomorrow. This time on Friday I shall be flying to Spain. He will be taking me in this car. I hope you won't be feeling too tired.

2 The progressive form of be going to: be going to + be + verb + ing Don't call me at nine because I won't be home. I am going to be studying at the library. We are going to be watching TV next Tuesday.

3 Sometimes there is little or no difference between the future progressive and the simple future, especially when the future event will occur at an indefinite time in the future.

Don't get impatient. She will be coming soon. When I arrive at airport, my whole family will be waiting for me. When I get up tomorrow morning, the sun will be shining, the birds will be singing, and my roommate will be lying in bed fast asleep.

Future Progressive = will / shall + be + verb + ing

Future Perfect Tense 1 The future perfect tense expresses an activity that will be completed at or

before another time or event in the future. I will graduate in June. I will see you in July. By the next time I see you, I will have

graduated. I will have done my homework by the time I go out on a date tonight. This traffic is terrible. We're going to be late. By the time we get to the airport, Bob's phone will have already arrived, and he'll be wondering where we are. I will already have finished my homework before I go to school.

2 The future perfect tense expresses a prediction for a future activity or event. By the year 2010, researchers will have discovered a cure for cancer. You will have finished your homework by the time the movie starts. Jan will have left by five o'clock. Before school is out, I will have returned all of my library books. We will have gotten an answer to our letter by the time we have to make a decision. Before we can tell them about the discount, they will have bought the tickets. By the middle of the twenty-first century, the computer will have become a necessity in every home. It is believed that by 2010 immunotherapy have succeeded in curing a number of serious illnesses.

Note: By the time introduces a time clause; the simple present is used in a time clause.

By HAP Phalthy 12Future Perfect Tense = will / shall + have + past participle


Pronunciation of –ed in regular verbs We pronounce [d] [t] [id] or [∂d] when the verbs ended in b, d, g, ʤ, l, m, n, r, f, k, ∫, s, t∫, p, ks t, d

v, z, and all vowels played looked needed dreamed smoked wanted spilled walked waited stayed worked added smiled stopped graded learned boxed traded

Pronunciation of nouns with regular plurals * [s] after [f] : chiefs, coughs, proofs [k] : cakes, forks, knocks [p] : drops, taps, tapes [t] : pets, pockets, shirts [Ө] : depths, months, myths * [z] after [b] : bubs, tubes, verbs [d] : friends, hands, roads [g] : bags, dogs, legs [l] : bells, tables, walls [m] : arms, dreams, names [n] : lessons, pens, spoons [ղ] : songs, strings, tongues vowel + [r] : chairs, doors, workers, vowel sounds : eyes, ways, windows * Nouns ending in the following take an extra syllable pronounced [iz] [z] : mazes, noises, noses [dʒ] : bridges, oranges, pages [s] : buses, chasses, masses [∫] : bushes, crashes, dishes [t∫] : matches, patches, speeches [ks] : axes, boxes, taxes

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How to Use Article A, AN, and THE • A or An can precede only singular count nouns; they mean one. They can be used in a

general statement or to introduce a subject which has not been previously mentioned. A baseball is round. (general – means all baseballs)

I saw a boy in the street. (we don't know which boy) • An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. A is used before words that begin

with a consonant sound. a book, a girl, a waitress, an apple, an eye, an egg

• Some words can be confusing because the spelling does not indicate the pronunciation. a house (begin with a consonant sound) an hour (begin with a vowel sound) a university (begin with a consonant sound) an umbrella (begin with a vowel sound)

• The following words begin with a consonant sound and thus must always be preceded by a. a house, a home, a heavy cast, a half day, a universal suffrage, a uniform, a university, a union, ...

• The following words begin with a vowel sound and thus must always be preceded by an. an uncle, an hour, an heir, an open book, an eye, an umbrella

• The is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common knowledge. The boy in the corner is my friend. (The speaker and the listener know which boy.) The earth is round. (There is only one earth.)

• With non-count nouns, one uses the article the if speaking in specific terms, but uses no article if speaking in general. Sugar is sweet. (general – all sugar) The sugar on the table is from Cuba. (specific – the sugar that is on the table.)

• Normally, plural count nouns, when they mean everything within a certain class, are not preceded by the. Oranges are green until they ripen. (all oranges) Athletes should follow a well-balanced diet. (all athletes)

• Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or things with the same name and the speaker is specifying one of them. There are three Susan Parkers in the telephone directory. The Susan Parkers that you know lives on First Avenue.

• Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, driver, school, church, home, and college do not use any article unless to restrict the meaning. We ate breakfast at eight o'clock this morning. We went to school yesterday.

• Use the following generalizations as a guide for the use of article the.

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Use THE with Don't use THE with Oceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, plural lakes the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the Great Lakes, the Thames, The Danube Mountains the Rocky Mountains, the Andes the earth, the moon Schools, colleges, universities When the phrase begins with school, etc. the University of Florida, the College of Arts and Sciences, the School of Engineering Ordinal numbers before nouns the First World War, the third chapter Wars (except world wars) the Crimean war, the Korean war Countries with more than one word except Great Britain) the United States, the Central African Republic, the Netherlands Historical documents the Constitution, the Magna Carta Ethnic groups the Indians, the Aztecs Abstract nouns used to limit or qualify The life we live here is hard. The work that we do is very easy. The freedom of the seas is comfortable. Name of meals used to limit or qualify Are you coming to the dinner we are having in London next week?

Singular lakes Lake Geneva, Lake Erie Mounts Mount Vesuvius, Mount McKinley Planets, constellations Venus, Mars, Orion School, colleges, universities When the phrase begins with a proper noun Santa Fe Community College, Cooper's Art School, Stetson University Cardinal numbers after nouns World War one, chapter three Countries with one word China, Venezuela, France, Cambodia Continents Europe, Africa, South America States Florida, Ohio, California Sports baseball, basketball Abstract nouns used in a general sense Life is very hard for some people. We will have freedom or death. Work is better than laziness. All the people want happiness. Love is blind. General areas of subject matter mathematics, sociology Holidays Christmas, Thanksgiving Name of meals used in a general sense Come to dinner with me. Come to tea with her. Name of materials used in a general sense Butter is made from cream. Wheat is grown in Canada. Before plural nouns used in a general sense Books are my best friends. Most proper nouns I walked in Hyde Park. Do you know Regent Street? She comes from France.

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OTHER

The use of the word other is often a cause of confusion for foreign students.

• Another + Singular noun = one more

another pencil = one more pencil

another girl = one more girl

• the other + singular noun = last of the set

the other pencil = the last pencil present

the other man = the last man present

• other + plural noun = more of the set

other books = some more books

other boys = some more boys

• the other + plural noun = the rest of the set

the other pens = last remaining pens

the other waiters = last remaining waiters

• other + non-count nouns = more of the set

other water = some more water

• the other + non-count nouns = all the rest

the other water = the remaining water

Note: Another and other are nonspecific while the other is specific.

If the subject is understood, one can omit the noun and keep the determiner and other so

that other functions as a pronoun.

If it is a plural count noun that is omitted, other becomes others. The word other can

never be plural if it is followed by a noun.

- I don't want this book. Please give me another. (any other book – not specific)

- I don't want this book. Please give me the other. (the other book – specific)

- This chemical is poisonous. Others are poisonous too. (nonspecific chemicals)

- I don't want these books. Please give me the others. (specific books)

Note: Another way of substituting for the noun is to use other + one or ones.

- I don't want this book. Please give me the other one/another one.

- This chemical is poisonous. Other ones are poisonous too.

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Indirect Speech • Expression of time in indirect speech

Direct Speech Indirect Speech - tomorrow ⇐ the following day or the day after - the day after tomorrow ⇐ in two days after - today ⇐ that day - yesterday ⇐ the previous day or the day before - the day before yesterday ⇐ two days before - next week ⇐ the following week - a year ago ⇐ the previous year or a year before - here ⇐ there - this ⇐ that - next month ⇐ the following month - next year ⇐ the following year

Speaker’s verbs Reported verbs

- Simple present tense ⇐ Simple past tense - Present continuous tense ⇐ Past continuous tense - Future tense ⇐ Future in the past (would/should + verb) - Future continuous tense ⇐ Future continuous tense in the past

(Would/should + be + verb + ing) - Simple past tense ⇐ Past perfect tense - Present perfect tense ⇐ Past perfect tense

• Pronouns or adjectives in indirect speech

Pronouns Adjectives

Direct speech Indirect speech Direct speech Indirect speech I ⇐ he (she) my ⇐ his (her) you ⇐ I (he, she) your ⇐ my (his, her) he ⇐ he his ⇐ his she ⇐ she her ⇐ her it ⇐ it its ⇐ its we ⇐ they our ⇐ their you ⇐ we (they) your ⇐ our (their) they ⇐ they their ⇐ their Note: If the Reported Speech is in the Present Time, we don’t need to change anything from the Direct Speech.

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Conditional Sentence Conditional Clause

(If Clause) Principal Clause (Result Clause)

1

2

3

4

5

Open Conditional

(True in the present/future)

Subjunctive Conditional

: Present Conditional

(Untrue in the present

/future)

Past Conditional

(Untrue in the past)

Doubtful Supposition

Untrue in the future

Simple Present Tense If you need me,

If I finish my homework,

If I have enough time,

Simple Past

If I were sure of the answer,

If I had enough time,

If I had a bicycle,

Past Perfect

If it had not rained so hard yesterday,

If I had had enough time, If the master had paid him properly,

Future Subjunctive

(Should is used with all the

persons)

If I should see a tiger,

If he should be sick, If my son should have an accident,

Were (with all persons) +

infinitive If I were to start tomorrow,

If he were to work hard,

If you were to start learning Thai,

Simple Present/Future I will help you.

I will go to the movie.

I write to you every week.

Subjunctive Conditional in the

Past Tense (Future in the past)

(would/should + simple form) I should speak.

I would write to my parents.

I would ride it to school.

Would (should) + have + Past

Participle I should have gone to London.

I would have written to my parents. the workman would have worked well.

Future Subjunctive (would + verb)

or Past Subjunctive (might or

could + verb) I would kill it.

he would send for a doctor.

I would send him faster to the hospital.

Future in the past I would reach home in the evening.

he would get more increment.

you would go to Thailand.

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Punctuation Marks Commas (,) A comma is one of the most popular punctuation marks. It is used to break up the sentence into

smaller, meaningful units. It is like a brief pause while a full stop is like a longer pause.

• Adjectives: Sometimes a noun might have several adjectives. If so, the adjectives are

separated by commas.

The mean, fat, grumpy, old man smiled.

• Lists: A comma is used to separate items on a list.

She bought some garlic, bread and butter.

• Commas with "and": Usually, the word and is used just before the end of a list instead

of a comma.

In math, we learn about decimals, fractions, multiplication, addition and subtraction.

Sometimes this is confusing when and is used to join two words together such as:

- gin and tonic

- science and technology

- art and craft

Here, gin and tonic is one item. However, in the following list they might be interpreted

as two separate things when they are placed at the end.

He ordered a whisky, beer, soda, gin and tonic.

In such cases it can be made clearer by adding and plus a comma.

He ordered a whisky, beer, soda, and gin and tonic.

• Although and If: Clauses containing although and if are usually separated from the rest

of the sentence by a comma.

Although she loved him very much, she didn't marry him.

If I see him, I'll give him the message.

Note: If although and if are in the middle of the sentence, there is no need to put a comma.

She didn't marry him although she loved him very much.

I'll give him the message if I see him.

• Dates: Numbers in dates must be separated by a comma if they are next to each other.

July 25, 1999 or July 25th, 1999

Note: You do not need a comma for 25 July 1999.

• Direct speech: Remember to put a comma before the speech starts. If the speech starts the

sentence, remember to put a comma at the end of it.

She said, "I drank the tea and began to feel sick."

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"I drank the tea", she said, "and began to feel sick."

• Relative clauses: Relative clauses begin with words like who, which and that. They

contain extra information about the subject. If the extra information is an essential part of

the subject's identity, do not use a comma or commas.

Essential: The boy who had a broken arm jumped off the bridge.

Non-essential: The boy, who had a broken arm, jumped off the bridge.

In sentence 1, the relative clause identifies the actual boy who jumped off the bridge

because there were several boys on the bridge at the time. Sentence 2 is just about one boy

and gives some extra (non-essential) information about him.

• Asides: A comma is often used to show that an extra (non-essential) comment is being made.

Children, as you know, can be very noisy.

Mrs. Smith's son, Jacob, had an accident.

• Transitional words: A comma is usually found with words that keep the sentence or

photograph going.

Suddenly, he started shaking.

Dogs, for example, made very good pets.

• Numbers: A comma is often used with long numbers to help break them down into

millions, thousands, hundreds, etc. in this way, they are usually to read quickly.

10,571,942: Ten million, five hundred and seventy-one thousand, nine hundred and forty-two.

Semis-colon (;) A semi-colon is like a full stop – it indicates that two main clauses must be separated. However,

the separation is not as strong as the separation caused by a full stop.

The semi-colon shows that there is still a connection between the two clauses.

Full Stop (.) = complete separation

Semi-colon (;) = partial separation

Janet loved reading; her sister was a television fan.

Note: Many writers now prefer a full stop to a semi-colon.

Janet loved reading. Her sister was a television fan.

• Transitional words: A semi-colon is often used before transitional words such as for

example, therefore, nevertheless, consequently, however, moreover.

He was very tired; nevertheless he completed the job.

• Long lists: When the items in a list are quite long or complex, a semi-colon can help to

keep them clearly separated.

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When going to a cold country, remember to take a long, woolen overcoat; a number of

warm sweaters or cardigans; some long-sleeved shirts; plenty of thermal underwears; long,

woolen socks; a good pair of boots; and an umbrella.

• Common Conjunction: Usually, you do not need to use a semi-colon before common

conjunctions such as and, but, for, nor, and or.

These conjunctions normally take the place of a semi-colon.

He was a good man but he made a mistake.

He was a good man; he made a mistake.

Note: You can use a semi-colon before and at the end of a long list.

Colon (:) 1 The main role of the colon is to separate main clauses when there is a step forward from

the first to the second, especially from introduction to main point, from general statement

to example, from cause to effect, and from premises to conclusion.

- There is something I want to say: I would like you all to know how grateful I am to you.

- It was not easy: to begin with I had to find the right house.

- The weather was bad: so we decided to stay at home.

(In this example, a comma could be used, but the emphasis on cause and effect would be

much reduced.)

2 It also introduces a list of items. In this use a dash should not be added.

The following will be needed: a pen, pencil, rubber, piece of paper, and ruler.

3 It is used to introduce, more formally and emphatically than a comma would, speech or

quoted material.

I told them last week: ‘Do not in any circumstances open this door.’

Dash (–) 1 A single dash is used to indicate a pause, whether a hesitation in or to introduce an

explanation or expansion of what comes before it.

“I think you should have–told me,” he replied.

2 A pair of dashes is used to indicate asides and parentheses, like the use of commas, but

forming a more distinct break.

People in the North are more friendly–and helpful–than those in the South.

There is nothing to be gained–unless you want a more active social life–in moving to the city.

3 It is sometimes used to indicate an omitted word for example a coarse word in reported

speech.

‘–you all,’ he said.

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Hyphen (-) 1 Used in compounds:

(a) Sometimes used to form a compound word from two other words: hard-hearted; radio-telescope; fork-lift truck

(b) Used to form a compound from a prefix and a proper name: pre-Raphaelite; pro-Soviet; anti-Nazi

(c) Used to form a compound from two other words that are separated by a preposition:

mother-in-law; mother-to-be; mother-of-pearl

(d) Used to vary the first element of a hyphenated compound:

common to both pre-and post-war Europe

(e) Used when forming attributive compounds from two or more proper names:

the Bush-Gorbachev summit

services on the London-Bahrain-Hong Kong route

(f) Used when writing out compound numbers between 21 and 99.

seventy-three; four hundred and thirty-one

2 (esp. British) Sometimes used to separate a prefix ending in a vowel from a word beginning

with the same vowel:

co-ordination; re-elect; pre-eminent

3 Used after the first section of a word that is divided between one line and the next:

… in order to avoid future mis-

takes of this kind.

4 Used between two numbers or dates to include everything that comes between these numbers or dates:

pp106-131

a study of the British economy, 1947-63

Full stop (.) = (US Period) 1 Used to mark the end of a sentence that is not a direct question or an exclamation:

I knocked at the door. There was no reply.

2 Sometimes used in abbreviations:

Jan.; e.g.; a.m.; p.m.;...

Question Mark (?) 1 Use a question mark after (not before) questions.

Where are you going?

Is he here yet?

Did you finish your homework yet?

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2 In a direct quotation, the question mark goes before the quotation marks.

He asked, "What's your name?"

They asked me, "How is your study?"

Exclamation Point (!) Use an exclamation point after exclamatory sentences or phrases.

I won the lottery!

Be quiet!

Wow!

How beautiful she is!

Quotation Marks (" ") 1 Use quotation marks at the beginning and end of exact quotations. Other punctuation marks

go before the end of quotation marks.

He said, "I'm going to Siem Reap."

"How are you?" he asked.

2 Use quotation marks before and after titles of stories, articles, songs, and television programs.

Periods and commas go before the final quotation marks, while question marks and

exclamation points normally go after them.

Do you like to watch "Smart Game" on TVK?

Her favorite song is "Let It Be."

Do you like the story "Tum Tiv"?

Apostrophe (') 1 Use an apostrophe in contractions.

Don't it's we've they're 2 Use an apostrophe to make possessive nouns.

Singular: Jerry's My boss's Plural: the children's the Smiths'

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Would Rather * Would: Besides its use in conditional sentences, would can also mean a past time habit. When David was young, he would swim once a day. * Used to: In this usage, the expression Used to means the same as would. . Past time habit: Subject + used to + verb in simple form

When David was young, he used to swim once a day. Subject +be/get + used to + verb + ing John is used to swimming everyday. John got used to swimming everyday.

Note: Be used to = be accustomed to Get used to = become accustomed to

Would Rather: means the same prefer, except that the grammar is different. Would rather must be followed by a verb, but prefer may or may not be followed by a verb. I would rather drink Coca-cola than orange juice. I prefer drinking Coca-cola to drinking orange juice. Or I prefer Coca-cola to orange juice.

Note: Would rather is followed by than when two things are mentioned, but prefer is followed by to. . Present: Subject + would rather + verb in simple form. John would rather go to class tomorrow than today. I would rather speak English than French. . Past: Subject + would rather + have + past participle John would rather have gone to class yesterday than today. We would rather have visited the United States last year than this year. They would rather have done exercises yesterday than today. * Would rather that is used with two subjects. . Present subjunctive: Subject 1 + would rather (that) +subject 2 + verb in simple form I would rather that you call me tomorrow. We would rather that he take this train. . Present contrary to fact: Subject 1 + would rather (that) + subject 2 + past tense Henry would rather that his girlfriend worked in the same department as he does. (His girl friend does not work in the same department) Jane would rather that it were winter now. (It is not winter now.) He would rather that I went to the restaurant tomorrow than today. . Past contrary to fact: Subject 1 + would rather (that) + subject 2 + past perfect Jim would rather that Jill had gone to class yesterday. (Jill did not go to class yesterday.) Negative* Present: Jim would rather not go to class tomorrow. * Past: John would rather not have gone to class yesterday. * Present subjunctive: John would rather that you not call me tomorrow. * Present contrary to fact: He would rather that his girlfriend didn’t work in the same department as he does. * Past contrary to fact: John would rather that Jill had not gone to class yesterday.

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The Verb Need The verb need is followed by the infinitive only if a living thing is the subject. If a thing (an inanimate object) is the subject of the verb, the verb is followed by gerund or the verb be plus the past participle. Living thing as subject + need + verb in infinitive John and his brother need to paint the house.

My friend needs to learn Spanish. He will need to drive alone tonight.

Thing as subject + need + verb in past participle The grass needs cutting. = The grass needs to be cut. The television needs repairing. = The television needs to be repaired. The composition needs rewriting. = The composition needs to be rewritten.

In need of It is also possible to use the expression in need of in some cases instead of using need as a verb. Because need is not a verb in this case, it must be preceded by the verb be. Subject + be + in need of + noun

Jill is in need of money. = Jill needs money. The roof is in need of repair. = The roof needs to be repaired. The organization is in need of volunteers. = The organization needs volunteers.

Would like

This expression is often used in invitations; it can also mean want. Note: It is incorrect to say, “Do you like…?” to invite somebody to do something.

Would you like to dance with me? I would like to visit Japan. We would like to order now please. They would like to study at the university. Would you like to see a movie tonight?

Making invitation Formal I would like to invite you…

Would you like to…? Do you want to…? How about + verb + ing?

Informal Let you go to…?

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Could – May – Might Although could is used in conditionals, it can also be used to mean possibility. In this case could, may, or might means the same. The speaker is not sure of the statement made when using these modals. It might rain tomorrow. It will possibly rain tomorrow. It may rain tomorrow. = It could rain tomorrow. Maybe it rains tomorrow. Note: Maybe is the combination of may and be, but it is one word and is not an auxiliary. It means the same as perhaps. Other examples of could, may, might: The president said that there might be a strike next week. I don’t know what I’m doing tomorrow. I may go to the beach or I may stay home. It might be warmer tomorrow. I may not be able to go with you tonight. I don’t know where Jaime is. He could be at home.

Should This modal is used to indicate: 1 A recommendation, advice, or obligation Henry should do exercises daily. Maria should go on a diet. One should study hard tonight. You should see a doctor about this problem. 2 Expectation; used to indicate something that the speaker expects to happen It should rain tomorrow. I expect it to rain tomorrow. My check should arrive next week. I expect it to arrive next week. Note: The expression had better, ought to, and be supposed to generally mean the same as should in either of the two definitions.

Had better Subject + Should + verb in simple form Ought to Be supposed to

John should study tonight. John had better study tonight. John ought to study tonight. John is supposed to study tonight.

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Must This modal is used to indicate: 1 Complete obligation; this is stronger than should. With should the person has some choice on whether or not to act but with must the person has no choice. John must study tonight. One must endorse a check before one cashes it. George must call his insurance agent today. A pharmacist must keep a record of the prescriptions that are filled. K An automobile must have gasoline to run. An attorney must pass an examination before practicing law. This freezer must be kept at –20 oC. 2 Logical conclusion; must is used to indicate that the speaker assumes something to be true from the facts that are available but are not absolutely contained of the truth. John’s lights are out. He must be asleep. (We assume that John is asleep because the lights

are out.) The grass is wet. It must be raining. (We assume that it is raining because the grass is wet.)

Have to

This pseudo-modal means the same as must (meaning complete obligation)

George has to call his insurance agent today.

A pharmacist has to keep a record of the prescriptions that are filled.

* For a past time obligation, it’s necessary to use had to. Must cannot be used to meaning a

past obligation.

George had to call his insurance agent yesterday.

Mrs Kinsey had to past an examination before she could practise law.

* Modals + perfective You have already seen these in the section on conditionals; however, it is

also possible to use other modals in this form. The modal + perfective is usually used to indicate

past time.

Modal + have + verb in past participle……

Note: Remember that a modal is always followed by the simple form of the verb. Thus, have can

never be has or had.

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* Could, may, might + perfective Use any of these modals + perfective to indicate a past

time possibility in the present.

It may have rained last night, but I’m not sure.

The cause of death could have been bacteria.

John might have gone to the movies yesterday.

* Should + perfective

This is used to indicate an obligation that was supposed to occur in the past, but for some

reason it did not occur.

John should have gone to the post office this morning. (He did not go to the post office.)

Maria shouldn’t have called John last night. = She did call him.

The policeman should have made a report about the burglary. = He didn’t make a report.

Note: the expression was/were supposed to + verb in simple form means much the same as

should + perfective.

John was supposed to go to the post office this morning. = He didn’t go.

The policeman was supposed to make a report about the burglary. = He didn’t make a

report.

* Must + perfective

This is not used to indicate a past obligation. Remember to use only had to, should +

perfective or be supposed to to indicate a past obligation.

The grass is wet. It must have rained last night. (It probably rained last night.)

Tony’s lights are out. He must have gone asleep. (He probably went to sleep.)

John did very well on the exam. She must have studied. (She probably studied.)

Sandra failed the test. She must not have studied. (She probably did not study.)

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Words that always take singular verbs and pronouns

The following words must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in formal written English. Any + singular Some + singular noun Every Eachanybody nobody somebody everybody either anyone no one someone everyone neither anything nothing something everything anywhere nowhere somewhere everywhere ** Either and neither are singular if they are not used with or and nor. If either of you takes a vacation, we will not be able to finish the work. Neither problem is harder to solve than this one. * None/no No, none can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the noun which follows it. None + of the + non-count noun + singular verb None of the counterfeit money has been found. None + of the + plural count noun + plural verb

No + singular noun + singular verb non-count noun

No + plural noun + plural verb

None of the students have finished exam yet.

No example is relevant to this case. No student is in the class at seven o’clock.

No examples are relevant to this case. No students come to study late today. * Either/Neither When either and neither are followed by or and nor the verb may be singular or plural depending on whether the noun following or and nor is singular or plural. Neither + noun + nor + plural noun + plural verb Either + noun + or + plural noun + plural verb

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today. Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.

Neither + noun + nor + singular noun + singular verb

Either + noun + or + singular noun + singular verb

Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today. Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.

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* Gerund as subject If a sentence begins with verb + ing (gerund), the verb must also be singular. Knowing her has made him what he is. Dieting is very popular today. Not studying has caused him many problems. Washing with a special cream is recommended for scalp infections. Being cordial is one of his greatest assets.

* Collective nouns Also many words indicating a member of people or animals are singular. The following nouns are usually singular. In some cases there are plural if the sentence indicates that the individual members are acting separately. congress, family, group, committee, class, organization, team, army, club, crowd, government, jury, majority, minority, public. * Majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone, it is usually singular; if it is followed by a plural noun, it is usually plural. The majority believes that we are in no danger. The majority of the students believe him to be innocent.

Examples of collective nouns: The committee has met, and it has rejected the proposal. The family was elated by the news. The crowd was wild with excitement. Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation. The organization has lost many members this year. Our team is going to win the game. * flock of birds, sheep

herd of cattle pack of dogs + singular verb school of fish price of lions The flock of birds is crying overhead. The herd of cattle is breaking away. A school of fish is being attacked by sharks. The flock of sheep is running very fast. The price of lions was coming here last night.

* Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurement used as a whole are singular. Twenty-five dollars is too much to pay for that shirts.

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Fifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish this test. Two miles is too much to run in one day. Forty-five minutes is enough time to give students dictation. A number of + plural noun + plural verb (many) A number of students are going to the class picnic. A number of applicants have already been interviewed. The number of + plural noun + singular verb The number of days in a week is seven. The number of residents who have been questioned on this matter is quite small.

* Nouns that are always plural a pair of … (singular) scissors, shorts, pants, jeans, tongs, trousers, glasses, pliers, tweezers, briefs, pyjamas, clothes,… The pants are in the drawer. A pair of pants is in the drawers.

The scissors are dull. This pair of scissors is dull.

There is + singular subject (or non count noun) There are + plural subject

There is a storm approaching. There are too many people at the party. There have been a number of telephone calls today.

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Adjective + Linking Verbs

Subject + Linking (copulative) verb + adjective + subject + complement * Linking verbs: be, become, remain, stay, appear, feel, look, smell, taste, seem, sound Mary felt bad about her test grade. The soup tastes good. The flowers smell fragrant. * Feel, look, smell, and taste may also be transitive verbs. The doctor feels the leg carefully to see if there were any broken bones. odj. adv. The lady is smelling the flowers gingerly. obj. adv. Professor Ingells looked at the exam happily. obj. adv.

Multiple number comparatives

Number multiples include half, twice, three times, four times, …

much Subject + verb + number multiple + as + + noun + as + noun

many

The + comparative + subject + verb + the + comparative + subject + verb

Note: It is incorrect to say “twice more than” This encyclopedia costs twice as much as the other one. At the clambake last week, Fred ate three times as many oysters as Barney. Jerome has half as many records now as I had last year. * Double comparatives: these sentences begin with a comparative construction, and thus the second clause must also begin with a comparative.

The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel. The higher we flew, the worse Edna felt. The bigger they are, the harder they fall. The sooner you take your medicine, the better you will feel. The sooner you leave, the earlier you will arrive at your destination. The more + subject + verb + the comparative + subject + verb The more you study, the smarter you will become. The more he rowed the boat, the farther away he got. The more he slept, the more irritable he became.

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* Despite = In spite of (= although) can go at the beginning or in a middle of a sentence. Despite his physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman. In spite of his physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman. Jane will be admitted to the university despite her bad grades. Jane will be admitted to the university in spite of her bad grades. * Although = Even though = though These are subordinate conjunctions used to connect two clauses.

Although Even though + subject + verb + complement … Though

Although he has a physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman. The child ate the cookie even though his mother had told him not to. She attended the class although she did not feel alert. Though he did a lot of exercises, he felt worried about his exam. Though he had not finished the paper, he went to sleep. Even though I am strict, my adopted child has still made a bad thing. Because + subject + verb

Jane was worried because it had started to rain. The students arrived late because there was a traffic jam. You are lucky because your children are obedient and smart.

Because of + noun (phrase)

Jane was worried because of the rain. The students arrived late because of traffic jam. Because of the rain, we have cancelled the party. He can’t forget you because of your goodness.

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Types of Problems

1 Problems with Verbs 1.1 Verbs that Require an Infinitive in the Complement

Remember that the following verbs require an infinitive for a verb in the complement. agree, appear, arrange, ask, claim, consent, decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, forget, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, manage, mean, need, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, wait, want

S V C (infinitive) We had planned to leave here last week. She wanted to speak with Mr. Brown. I intend to inform you that we cannot approve your application. The weather tends to improve in May. They didn't plan to buy a car. He claimed to get more allowance from this month.

1.2 Verbs that require an -ing form in the Complement admit, appreciate, avoid, complete, consider, delay, deny, discuss, enjoy, finish, keep, mention, miss, postpone, practice, quit, recall, recommend, regret, risk, stop, suggest, tolerate, understand

S V C (-ing) She is considering not going.He enjoys traveling by plane. Ratha completed writing his thesis this year. I miss watching the news when I am traveling. She mentions stopping at El Paso in her letter.

1.3 Verb Phrases that require an -ing form in the Complement approve of, be better off, can't help, count on, do not mind, forget about, get through, insist on, keep on, look forward to, object to, think about, think of

S V Ph C (-ing) She forgot about canceling her appointment. Let's go to the movie when you get through studying. I have been looking forward to meeting you. We wouldn't mind waiting.

2 Problems with Modals and Modal-Related Patterns Modals are auxiliary verbs. They are used with main verbs to give additional meanings to main verbs. The most common modals are listed below, along with some of the additional meanings that they add to main verbs. Can possibility, ability, permission Could possibility, ability in the past May probability, permission Might probability Must necessity, logical conclusion Shall future with emphasis Should advice, obligation, prediction Will future Would condition 2.1 Modal + Verb Word

Remember that a modal is used with a verb word. A verb word is the dictionary form of the verb. In some grammar books, the verb word is called the bare infinitive because it appears without the word to. Verb words are very important in many patterns, but they are used most often with modals.

S modal verb word

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They might visit us. After you show me the way, I can go by myself. Our friends might stop to see us on their way to California. I would, if there is time, like to make a phone call. Beth may, with effort, pass this course. The flight should be on time.

2.2 Logical Conclusions – Events in the Past Remember that must is a modal. Must followed by the verb word have and a participle expresses a logical conclusion based on evidence. The conclusion is about an event that happened in the past. Remember that an observation in the present may serve as the basis for a conclusion about something that happened in the past. For example, "here is a message on my desk." It may be concluded that "my friend must have called last night."

S must have participle past time My friend must have called last night. The streets are wet; it must have rained last night. This pen won't write; it must have run out of ink (in the past). The ring that I was looking at is gone; someone else must have bought it. He doesn't have his keys; he must have locked them in his car. I don't see Martha anywhere; she must have left early.

2.3 Logical Conclusion – Events in the Present Remember that must is a modal. Must followed by be and an -ing form or an adjective expresses a logical conclusion based on evidence. The conclusion is about an event that is happening now.

S must be -ing present time S must be adjective present time

My friend must be calling now. He must be upset now. The line is busy; someone must be using the telephone now. Bob is absent; he must be sick again (now). He is taking a walk; he must be feeling better now. She must be studying at the library now because all of her books are gone. Sarah must be getting a divorce (now) because her husband is living in an apartment.

2.4 Logical Conclusions – Events that Repeat Remember that must is a modal. Must followed by a verb word expresses a logical conclusion based on evidence. The conclusion is about an event that happens repeatedly.

S must verb word repeated time My friend must call often. The light is always out in her room at ten o'clock; she must go to bed early every night. Our neighbors must have a lot of money because they are always taking expensive trips. He must like his job because he seems very happy. Her English is very good; she must speak it often. Carol always gets good grades; she must study a lot.

2.5 Knowledge and Ability – Know and Know How Remember that know followed by a noun expresses knowledge and know how followed by an infinitive expresses ability.

S KNOW noun S KNOW how infinitive

I know the answer. = I know how to answer the question. If she knew how to drive, he would lend her his car. I don't know how to use the card catalog in the library. Until he came to the United States to study, he didn't know how to cook.

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You'll have to help her because she doesn't know how to do it. 2.6 Past Custom – Used to and BE Used to

Remember that used to is similar to a modal. Used to with a verb word means that a custom in the past has not continued. BE used to with an -ing form means to be accustomed to.

S used to verb word S be used to -ing form

He used to live in the countryside. = He was used to living in the countryside. I used to study at the University of Southern California before I transferred here. = I was used to studying at the University of Southern California before I transferred here. We used to go to the movies quite frequently. = We were used to going to the movies quite frequently. He used to drink too much. = He was used to drinking too much. She used to get up early. = She was used to getting early. She used to speak in public. = She was used to speaking in public.

2.7 Advisability – Had Better Remember that had better is similar to a modal. Although had appears to be a past, had better expresses advice for the future.

S had better verb word S had better not verb word

You had better take Chemistry 600 this semester. You had better not take Chemistry 600 this semester. You had better hurry if you don't want to miss the bus. We had better take reservation so that we will be sure of getting a good table. We had better check the schedule. You had better not quit your job until you find another one. You had better not go alone.

2.8 Preference – Would Rather Remember that the phrase would rather is similar to a modal. Although would rather appears to be a past, it expresses preference in present and future time.

S would rather verb word S would rather not verb word

I would rather drive. I would rather not drive. She told me that she'd rather not serve on the committee. If you don't mind, I'd rather not go. He said that he'd rather go to a small college instead of to a large university. I'd rather write this than print it because I don't print well. Greg would rather have a Pepsi than a beer.

2.9 Preference for Another – Would Rater That Remember that when the preference is for another person or thing, would rather that introduces a clause. The other person or thing is the subject of the clause. Although the verb is past tense, the preference is for present or future time.

S would rather that S V (past) S would rather that S didn't verb word

I would rather that you drove. I would rather that you didn't drive. I'd rather that you didn't do that. Diane would rather that her husband didn't work so hard. The dean would rather that students made appointments instead of dropping by. My roommate would rather that I didn't keep the light on after ten o'clock. We'd rather that you came tomorrow.

2.10 Negative Imperatives Remember that an imperative is expressed by a verb word.

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Please don't verb word

Would you please not verb word Please don't tell anyone. = Would you please not tell anyone. Please don't smoke. = Would you please not smoke. Please don't park here. = Would you please not park here. Please don't be late. = Would you please not be late. Please don't go yet. = Would you please not go yet. Please don't worry. = Would you please not worry.

3 Problems with Causatives Causatives are main verbs that cause people or machines to do things or cause things to change. They are listed below in order of the most forceful to the least forceful: make, get, have, let, help 3.1 Causative Make

Remember that Make can be used as a causative. In a causative, a person does not perform an action directly. The person causes it to happen by forcing another person to do it.

S MAKE someone S MAKE something verb word

His mother made him take his medicine. I made the machine work. She made the baby take a nap. Professor Rogers didn't make us type up our lab reports. Are you going to make your daughter work part time in the store this summer? I can't seem to make this dishwasher run. Patsy makes everyone do his share around the house.

3.2 Causative Get Remember that Get can be used as a causative. In a causative, a person does not perform an action directly.

S GET someone infinitive S GET something participle

Let's get Ralph to go with us. Let's get our car fixed first. Do you think that we can get Karen to take us to San Diego? I want to get the house painted before winter. Let's get some of our money exchanged for dollars. Nora got her mother's wedding dress altered so that it fit perfectly. We will have to get someone to fix the phone right away.

3.3 Causative Have Remember that Have can be used as a causative. In a causative, a person does not perform an action directly. Have has even less force and authority than Get.

S HAVE someone verb word S HAVE something participle

My English teacher had us give oral reports. I want to have this book renewed, please. Tom had a tooth filled. Have you had your temperature taken yet? They had their lawyer change their wills. I like the way you had the beautician do your hair. We are going to have our car fixed before we go to Toronto.

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3.4 Causative Let Remember that Let can be used as a causative. In a causative, a person does not perform an action directly. With Let, a person gives permission for another person to do it.

S LET someone verb word S LET something verb word

His mother let him go to school. I am letting this machine cool. Professor Baker let us write a paper instead of taking a final exam. When I was learning to drive, my Dad let me use his car. Would you let us borrow your notes? Larry is so good-hearted, he lets people take advantage of him. Don't let that bother you.

3.5 Causative Help Remember that Help can be used as a causative. In a causative, a person does not perform an action directly. With Help, a person assists another person to do it.

S HELP someone verb word infinitive

He is helping me type my paper. = He is helping me to type my paper. Her husband always helps her do the laundry. = Her husband always helps her to do the laundry. Don't you help each other study for tests? = Don't you help each other to study for tests? My teacher helped me get this job. = My teacher helped me to get this job. Bob said that he would help us find the place. = Bob said that he would help us to find the place. This book should help you understand the lecture. = This book should help you to understand the lecture.

4 Problems with Conditionals Conditionals are statements with if or unless. They are opinions about the conditions

(circumstances) that influence results, and opinions about the results. There are two kinds of conditions. In most grammar books, they are called real or factual

conditionals and unreal or contrary-to-fact conditionals. Factual conditionals express absolute, scientific facts, probable results, or possible results. Contrary-to-fact conditionals express improbable or impossible results.

4.1 Factual Conditionals – Absolute, Scientific Results

Remember that absolute conditionals express scientific facts. Will and a verb word expresses the opinion that the result is absolutely certain.

Condition Result If S V (present) , S V (present) If S V (present) , S will verb word

If a catalyst is used, the reaction occurs more rapidly. = If a catalyst is used, the reaction will occur more rapidly. If water freezes, it becomes a solid. = If water freezes, it will become a solid. If children are healthy, they learn to walk at about eighteen months old. = If children are healthy, they will learn to walk at about eighteen months old. If orange blossoms are exposed to very cold temperature, they wither and die. = If orange blossoms are exposed to very cold temperature, they will wither and die. If the trajectory of a satellite is slightly off at launch, it gets worse as the flight progresses. = If the trajectory of a satellite is slightly off at launch, it will get worse as the flight progresses. If light strikes a rough surface, it diffuses. = If light strikes a rough surface, it will diffuse.

4.2 Factual Conditionals – Probable Results for the Future

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Remember that will and a verb word expresses the opinion that the results are absolutely certain. In order of more to less probable, use the following modals: will, can, may.

If S V (present) ................, S will can may

verb word

...

If we find her address, we will write her. = We will write her if we find her address. If you put too much water in rice when you cook it, it will get sticky. If they have a good sale, I will stop by on way home. We will wait if you want to go. If you listen to the questions carefully, you will answer them easily. We'll attend the lecture at the art museum if we finish our work a little early today.

4.3 Factual Conditionals – Probable Changes in Past Results Remember that the speaker or writer is expressing an opinion about the results of the past under different conditions or circumstances. In order of the most to the least probable, use the following modals: would, could, might.

If S had participle ............, S would have could have might have

participle

If we had found her address, we would have written her. = If we had found her address, we could have written her. = If we had found her address, we might have written her. If we had had the money, we would have bought a new stereo system. I would have had to call the police if the neighbors hadn't quieted down. Anne would have stayed longer if her mother had let her. If we had known that she had planned to arrive today, we could have met her at the bus station. I would have checked my paper again if I had had more time.

4.4 Contrary-to-fact Conditionals – Impossible Results Were Remember that the verb Be is always were in contrary-to-fact conditionals.

If S were ..., S could would

verb word

If the party were on Friday, we could go. If Barbara were really my friend, she would call me once in a while. (Barbara is not my friend) I could introduce him to my sister if Mr. Harris were single. (Mr. Harris is not single) If the meat were a little more done, this would be an excellent meal. (The meat is not done) I would be very happy if my daughter were here. (My daughter is not here.) If it were a little larger, this apartment would be perfect. (The apartment is not larger.)

4.5 Contrary-to-Fact Conditionals – Change in Conditions Unless Remember that there is a subject and verb that determines the change in conditions after the connector unless.

S V unless S V Luisa won't return unless she gets a scholarship. I can't go unless I get my work finished. They are going to get a divorce unless he stops taking drugs. You won't get well unless you take your medicine. Dean never calls his father unless he needs money. We can't pay the rent unless the scholarship check comes.

5 Problems with Subjunctives Some verbs, nouns, and expressions require a subjunctive. A subjunctive is a change in the usual form of the verb. A subjunctive is often a verb word in English. 5.1 Importance – Subjunctive Verbs

Remember that the following verbs are used before that and the verb word clause to express importance.

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ask, demand, desire, insist, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, urge S V that S verb word

Mr. Johnson prefers that she speak with him personally. The doctor suggested that she not smoke. I propose that the vote be secret ballot. The foreign student advisor recommended that she study more English before enrolling at the university. The law requires that everyone have his car checked at least once a year. She insisted that they give her a receipt.

5.2 Importance – Nouns Derived from Subjunctive Verbs Remember that the following nouns are used in this pattern: demand, insistence, preference, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion.

Noun that S verb word The recommendation that we be evaluated was approved. He complied with the requirement that all graduate students in education write a thesis. The committee refused the request that the prerequisite be waived. She ignored the suggestion that she get more exercise. The terrorist's demand that the airline provide a plane will not be met by the deadline. He regretted not having followed his advisor's recommendation that he drop the class.

5.3 Importance – Impersonal Expressions Remember that the following adjectives are used in impersonal expressions. essential, imperative, important, necessary

It is adjective infinitive It is adjective that S verb word

It is not necessary to take an entrance examination to be admitted to an American university. It is not necessary that you take an entrance examination to be admitted to an American university. It is important to verify the data. = It is important that the data be verified It is imperative to be on time. = It is imperative that you be on time. It is important to speak with Mr. Williams immediately. = It is important that I speak with... It is imperative to sign your identification card. = It is imperative that your signature appear on your identification card. It is essential to file all applications and transcripts no later than July 1. = It is essential that all applications and transcripts be filed no later than July 1.

6 Problems with Passives A passive changes the emphasis of a sentence. Usually in a passive, the event or result is more important than the person who causes it to happen. 6.1 Necessity for Repair or Improvement – Need

Remember that Need may express necessity for repair or improvement. S need -ing form S need to be participle

This paragraph needs revising. This paragraph needs to be revised. His car needs fixing. = His car needs to be fixed. The rug needs cleaning before we move in. = The rug needs to be cleaned before we move in. The house needs painting, but we plan to wait until next summer to do it. = The house needs to be painted, but we plan to wait until next summer to do it. Her watch needed repairing. = Her watch needed to be repaired. The hem of this dress needs mending before I wear it again. = The hem of this dress needs to be mended before I wear it again.

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6.2 Belief and Knowledge – Anticipatory It Remember that an anticipatory it clause expresses belief or knowledge. Anticipatory means before. Some it clauses that go before main clauses are listed in the following: It is believed It is hypothesized It is known It is said It is thought It is true It is written

Anticipatory it that S V It is believed that all mammals experience dream. It is hypothesized that the subjects in the control group will not score as well. It is generally known that she is leaving at the end of the year. It is said that a buried treasure was hidden near here. It is believed that a horseshoe brings good luck. It is thought that our ancestors built this city.

7 Problems with Unfulfilled in the Past – Had Hoped Remember that had hoped expresses a hope in the past that did not happen.

S had hoped that S would verb word We had hoped that she would change. He had hoped that he would graduate this semester, but he couldn't finish his thesis in time. We had hoped that he would stay longer. They had hoped that she would not find out about it. I had hoped that she would come to the party. His father had hoped that he would go into business with him.

8 Problems with Pronouns You probably remember learning that "pronouns take the place of nouns." What this means is that

pronouns often are used instead of nouns to avoid repetition of nouns. A pronoun usually has a reference noun that has been mentioned before in conversation or in writing. The pronoun is used instead of repeating the reference noun. In some grammar books, the reference noun is called the "antecedent of the pronoun" because it has been mentioned before. "Ante" means "before." For example, in the following sentence, the word them is a pronoun that refers to the noun secretaries. Many secretaries are using computers to help them work faster and more efficiently. There are several different kinds of pronouns in English. Some of them are personal pronouns, which can be either subject or object pronouns; possessive pronouns; relative pronouns; reflexive pronouns; and reciprocal pronouns. 8.1 Subject Pronouns in Complement Position

Remember that in complement position after the verb Be, a subject pronoun must be used.

It BE subject pronoun (I, you, he/she, it, we, you, they)

It is he whom the committee has named. It was she whom everyone wanted to win. Is it they at the door again? This is he speaking. Didn't you know that was we who played the joke? I have to admit that it was I who wanted to go.

8.2 Object Pronouns after Prepositions Remember that personal pronouns used as the object of a preposition should be object pronouns.

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The following prepositions are commonly used with object pronouns: among, between, for, from, of, to, with, beneath...

preposition object pronoun (me, you, her, him, it, us, you, them)

I would be glad to take a message for her. The experiment proved to my lab partner and me that prejudices about the results of an investigation are often unfounded. Of those who graduated with Betty and him, Ellen is the only one who has found a good job. The cake is from Jan and the flowers are from Larry and us. Just between you and me, this isn't a very good price.

8.3 Possessive Pronouns Before -ing Forms Remember that possessive pronouns are used before -ing nouns. The following are possessive pronouns: my, your, her, his, its, our, your, their.

S V verb phrase

pronoun (possessive) -ing form (noun)

We can count on her helping us. He regretted their misunderstanding him. We don't understand why you object to his coming with us. I would appreciate your letting me know as soon as possible. The doctor insisted on her taking a leave of absence. He is surprising by your having to pay for the accident. My father approves of my studying in the United States.

9 Pronouns with Nouns 9.1 Infinitive and -ing Subjects

Remember that either an infinitive or an -ing form may be used as the subject of a sentence or a clause.

S (infinitive) V O S (-ing) V O

To read a foreign language is even more difficult. Reading quickly and well requires practice. To work provides people with personal satisfaction as well as money. = Working provides people with personal satisfaction as well as money. To sneeze spreads germs. = Sneezing spreads germs. To shoplift is considered a serious crime. = Shoplifting is considered a serious crime. To rest in the afternoon is a custom in many countries. = Resting in the afternoon is a custom in many countries. To exercise makes most people feel better. = Exercising makes most people feel better.

9.2 Quality phases with -ing Nouns Remember that an -ing form may be used as a noun. In some grammar books, this -ing

form is called a gerund. Remember that -ing forms are usually noncount nouns and that noncount nouns are not preceded by the unless followed by a qualifying phrase. We have already classified most -ing forms as noncount nouns, but there is one pattern in which the is used with a noncount -ing noun. When a prepositional phrase qualified the noun, that is, adds specific information, the may be used with an -ing noun subject.

The -ing (qualifying phrase = of noun ...) The reading of technical material requires knowledge of technical terms. The correcting of errors in a language class can be embarrassing. The writing of letters is an art. The winning of prizes is not as important as playing well. The sending of electronic mail (E-mail) is now common. The singing of Christmas carols is an old tradition.

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9.3 Nominal That Clause Remember that sometimes the subject of a verb is a single noun. Other times it is a long

noun phrase or a long noun clause. One example of a long noun clause is the nominal that clause. Like all clauses, the nominal that clause has a subject and verb. The nominal that clause functions as the main subject of the main verb which follows it.

Nominal that clause (S) V That vitamin C prevents colds is well known. That she has known him for a long time influenced her decision. That we need to move is sure. That the library is closed is likely. That she will win is almost certain. That it is not fair seems obvious.

10 Problems with Comparatives Noun may be compared for exact or general similarity or difference. They may also be compared for similar or different qualities or degrees, more or less, of specific qualities. In addition, they may be compared to estimates. 10.1 Exact Similarity – the Same as and the Same

Remember that the same as and the same have the same meaning, but the same as is used between the two nouns compared, and the same is used after the two nouns or a plural noun.

... the same as noun noun ... noun ... the same noun (plural) ... the same

This coat is the same as that one. = This coat and that coat are the same. = These coats are the same. That car is almost the same as mine. = That car and mine are almost the same. My briefcase is exactly the same as yours. = My briefcase and yours are exactly the same. Is your book the same as mine? = Are your books and mine the same? Are this picture and the one on the desk the same? = Is this picture the same as that one on the desk? The teacher gave Martha a failing grade on her composition because it was the same as a composition he had already read. = The teacher gave Martha a failing grade on her composition because it and a composition he had already read were the same.

10.2 General Similarity – Similar to and Similar Remember that similar to and similar have the same meaning, but similar to is used between the two nouns compared, and similar is used after the two nouns or a plural noun.

noun ... similar to noun noun... noun ... similar

noun (plural) similar This coat is similar to that one. = This coat and that one are similar. = These coats are similar. I would really like to have a stereo that is similar to the one on display. = The stereo that I would like to have and the one on display are similar. My roommate's values are similar to mine in spite of our being from different countries. = My roommate's values and mine are similar in spite of our being from different countries. Cliff's glasses are similar to yours, but his cost a lot less. = Cliff's glasses and yours are similar, but his cost a lot less. That joke is similar to a joke that I heard. = That joke and a joke that I heard are similar. All of the other departments are similar to this one. = All of the other departments and this one are similar.

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10.3 General Similarity – Like and Alike Remember that like and alike have the same meaning, but like is used between the two nouns compared, and alike is used after the two nouns or a plural noun.

noun ... like noun noun ... noun ... alike

noun (plural) ... alike This coat is like that coat. = This coat and that one are alike. = These coats are alike. The weather feels like spring. This suit is like that suit. = These suits are alike. Your recipe for chicken is like a recipe that my mother has. = Your recipe for chicken and a recipe that my mother has are alike. I want to buy some shoes like the ones I have on. = The shoes I want to buy and the shoes I have on are alike. Anthony doesn't look like his brother. = Anthony and his brother don't look alike.

10.4 Specific Similarity – Quality Nouns Remember that a quality noun is used in comparisons of a specific characteristic. The following are examples of quality nouns: age, color, height, length, price, size, style, weight.

noun V the same noun (quality) as noun She is the same age as John. I want to buy a pair of shoes the same style as these I'm wearing. This is not the same size as the rest of the apartments. The gold chain that Edith saw is the same weight as yours. Please cut my hair the same length as the style in this magazine. Is this thread the same color as the cloth?

10.5 Double Comparatives Remember that when two comparatives are used together, the first comparative expresses cause and the second comparative expresses result. A comparative is more or less with an adjective, or an adjective with -er.

Cause Result The comparative S V, the comparative S V

The more you review, the easier the patterns will be. The more you study during the semester, the less you have to study the week before exams. The faster we finish, the sooner we can leave. The less one earns, the less one must pay in income taxes. The louder he shouted, the less he convinced anyone. The more you practice speaking, the better you will do it.

11 Problems with Prepositions Prepositions are words or phrases that clarify relationships. Prepositions are usually followed by nouns and pronouns. Sometimes the nouns are -ing form nouns. Prepositions are also used in idioms. 11.1 Place – Between and Among

Remember that between and among have the same meaning, but between is used with two nouns and among is used with three or more nouns or a plural noun.

between noun 1 ... noun 2 among noun 1, noun 2, noun 3 ...

The work is distributed between the secretary and the receptionist. The rent payments are divided among Don, Bill, and Gene. The choice is among a vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry ice cream cone. Rick and his wife can usually solve their problems between them. Profits are divided among the stockholders of the corporation. The votes were evenly divided between the Democratic candidate and the Republican candidate. The property was divided equally between his son and daughter.

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11.2 Place – In, On, At Remember that in, on, and at have similar meanings, but they are used with different kinds of places. In general, in is used before large places; on is used before middle-sized places; and at is used before numbers in addresses. Finally, in is used again before very small places. Remember these patterns. in COUNTRY

STATE PROVINCE COUNTY CITY

on STREET STREET CORNER COAST RIVER a ship a train a plane

at NUMBER in a corner (of a room) a room a building a park a car a boat

We live in the United States in North Carolina in Jacksonville on the East Coast on New River at 2600 River Road. Cliff can live in Yellowstone National Park because he is a park ranger. Is Domino's Pizza on Tenth Street? The apartments on the Hudson River are more expensive than the ones across the street. We are going to stay overnight in Chicago. Let's take our vacation on the coast instead of the mountains.

11.3 Time – In, On, At Remember that in, on, and at have similar meanings, but they are used with different

times. In general, in is used before large units of time; on is used before middle-sized units of times; and at is used before numbers in clock time. Idiomatic phrases such as in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, at night, at noon must be learned individually like vocabulary. in YEAR on DAY at TIME MONTH DATE Lily was born in 1919 in December on Sunday at 7:00. I would rather take classes in the afternoon. Gloria has a part-time job at night. The rainy season begins in May. We came to the United States in 1997. The graduation is on May 20.

12 Problems with Adverbs and Adverb-Related Structures Adverbs and adverb phrases add information to sentences. They add information about manner,

that is how something is done; frequency or how often; time and date or when; and duration of time or how long. 12.1 Negative Emphasis

Remember that negatives include phrases like not one, not once, not until, never, never again, only rarely, and very seldom. Negatives answer the question, how often? They are used at the beginning of a statement to express emphasis. Auxiliaries must agree with verbs and subjects.

negative auxiliary S V Never have I seen so much snow. Never again will they stay in that hotel. Only rarely has an accident occurred. Very seldom can a movie hold my attention like this one. Not one paper has she finished on time. Not once have Steve and Jan invited us to their house.

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12.2 Introductory Adverbial Modifiers – Once Remember that once means at one time in the past. Once answers the question, when?

Once is often used as an introductory adverbial modifier. It modifies the main subject that follows the clause.

Once noun , S V Once a salesman, Pete has been promoted to district manager. Once a student at State University, he is now an engineer for an American company. Once a clerk in a grocery store, Helen is now a policewoman. Once a citizen of Ireland, he is now applying for permanent residency in Canada. Once Republicans, we usually vote for Democratic candidates now. Once an avid soccer fan, he is now becoming more interested in American football.

12.3 Introductory Adverbial Modifiers – While Remember that while means at the same time. While answers the question when? It is often used as an introductory adverbial modifier. It modifies the main subject that follows the clause. When can also mean at the same time, but when must be used before a subject and a verb in the same clause.

While noun , S V While When

S V ..., S V

While a salesman, Pete traveled a lot. = While he was a salesman, Pete traveled a lot. = When he was a salesman, Pete traveled a lot. While (tourists) in Washington, D.C., they saw the Capitol Building where Congress meets. = While they were (tourists) in Washington, D.C., they saw the Capitol Building where the congress meets. = When they were (tourists) in Washington, D.C., they saw the Capitol Building where the congress meets. I was very homesick while a student abroad. = I was very homesick while I was a student abroad. = I was very homesick when I was a student abroad. While still a teaching assistant, he was doing important research. = While he was still a teaching assistant, he was doing important research. = When he was still a teaching assistant, he was doing important research. According to the newspaper, he accepted bribes while a high official of the government. = According to the newspaper, he accepted bribes while he was a high official of the government. = According to the newspaper, he accepted bribes when he was a high official of the government. While (a visitor) on vacation, she bought gifts for her family. = While she was (a visitor) on vacation, she bought gifts for her family. = When she was (a visitor) on vacation, she bought gifts for her family.

12.4 No longer Remember that no longer means not any more. No longer is often used between the auxiliary verb and the main verb. No longer answers question, when?

S auxiliary verb no longer main verb I can no longer see without my glasses. We can no longer tolerate living with Terry. Brad no longer works here. Since she talked with her advisor, she is no longer interested in majoring in political science. The person you are trying to reach is no longer at this telephone number.

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Although they used to write each other every day, they are no longer exchanging letters. 12.5 Generalization – As a Whole and Wholly

Remember that as a whole means generally, Wholly means completely. As a whole is often used at the beginning of a sentence or a clause. Wholly is often used after the auxiliary or main verb.

generally as a whole

S V

S V completely wholly

As a whole, the news is correct. The news is wholly correct. As a whole, we are in agreement. The house and all of its contents was wholly consumed by the fire. The teams are not rated equally, but, as a whole, they are evenly matched. As a whole, Dan's operation proved to be successful. As a whole, people try to be helpful to tourists.

13 Problems with Point of View Point of view means maintaining the correct sequence of verb tenses and time phrases in a sentence. 13.1 Point of View – Reported Speech

Some verbs are used to report past events. Remember that the following verbs are used as the first past verb in the pattern below. asked, believed, forgot, knew, remembered, reported, said, thought, told

S V (past) that S V (past) He said that he was sorry. I thought that he was coming today. A research scientist at State University reported that he found a blood test to diagnose cancer. When she told us that everything was ready, we went into the dining room and seated ourselves. They asked him if he would help us. Professor Baker told his class that there are 10,000 species of ferns.

13.2 Point of View – Verbs and Adverbs In all patterns, avoid using past adverbs with verbs in the present tense. Between one thing and another, Charles did not finish typing his paper last night. In 1990, according to statistics from the Bureau of Census, the population of the United States was 250,000,000. We did not receive mail yesterday because it was a holiday. Mary did not finish her homework in time to go with us to the football game yesterday afternoon. Although there were only two hundred foreign students studying at State University in 1990, there are more than five hundred now.

13.3 Point of View – Activities of the Dead In all patterns, avoid using present verbs to refer to activities of the dead. Just before he died, my friend who wrote poetry published his first book. Professor Ayers was so punctual that until the day he died, he always arrived in class just as the bell rang. Before he died, the man who lived across the street used to help me with my English. A short time before he died, the old man had written a will, leaving his entire estate to his brother. Until the day she died, the lady who lived next door visited me every evening.

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Steps to Writing 1 Exploring Ideas 1.1 Interviewing Someone

In this step, you are going to interview someone in order to get information. Use the following questions to ask your friends in the class. You can add more questions.

1 What is your name?.......................................................................................................... 2 Where are you from?........................................................................................................ 3 Do you like staying in Phnom Penh? Why?..........................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................... 4 Who supports your study?................................................................................................ 5 How do you come here?................................................................................................... 6 How do you usually spend your days for your study?..........................................

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.......................................................................................................................................... 7 What do you like to do in your free time?.............................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................... 8 Why did you decide to study here?.......................................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................... 9 Why do you need more English?...........................................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................... 10 What do you want to be in the future?..............................................................................

1.2 Building Vocabulary How do you learn new vocabulary? One way to learn new words is to make vocabulary charts. For example, you can make a chart that lists new words by categories or topics. What new vocabulary did you and your partner use in your interview? Add your words to the following chart. Some words are there as examples.

Word waiter

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Free Time Activities swim

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Goals or Fields engineering

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Other New Vocabulary very much

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2 Organizing Ideas 2.1 Ordering Information in a Paragraph

There are different ways to organize or order information in a paragraph. For this kind of paragraph, write facts about the person you interview first. Then write the person's opinions.

1 The reporter interviewed Yoshi Hiramoto for her article. After writing her note, she numbered them in the order she wanted to write the sentences in her paragraph. Look at the reporter's questions and notes. Write F for the questions about facts about Yohsi, O for the question about Yoshi's opinions, as in the example. 1 F What is your name? Yoshi Hiramoto 2 .......... Where are you from? Chiba – near Tokyo – seaport 6 .......... How old are you? 34 years old 7 .......... What is your occupation? sales manager 3 .......... Why are you in the United States? needs English for job 4 ........... What do you like about the United States? likes class, likes Americans 5 .......... What do you dislike about the United States? doesn't like cafeteria food 8 .......... How do you like this school? very much, good English class 9 ........... What do you like to do in your free time? visits sights, rides bicycle

2 Write F or O in front of your questions and notes. Then number your questions in the order you want to write the sentences in your paragraph.

3 Show your organization to the person you interviewed. Does he or she agree with it? Does he or she want to add any information?

2.2 Writing Topic Sentences The topic sentence tells the main ideas of the paragraph. In your paragraph about the person you interviewed, the purpose of the topic sentence is to introduce your partner and tell something important about him or her. Don't begin paragraphs with "I am going to write about ..." or "This paragraph is about ..." Begin your paragraph with "(Name of student) is a member of (name of class) at (name of school)." Write your topic sentence below. .........................................................................................................................................

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3 Developing Cohesion and Style 3.1 Connecting Ideas

Good writers connect the ideas in their paragraphs. A paragraph with connected ideas has cohesion. Good writers also use clear and simple language. This makes their writing easy to read. A paragraph with clear and simple English has good style. Look at the reporter's article and circle the words and, but, so, and also.

International Student at Eastern Community College Yoshi Hiramoto is one of 350 International students at Eastern Community College. He is from Chiba, a seaport near Tokyo. Mr. Hiramoto is 34 years old and is a sales manager for a hospital equipment company. His company sells equipment to American hospitals, so he needs English for his work. Mr. Hiramoto likes the United States very much. He also likes the students at his school. He thinks his English class is excellent, but he thinks the food in the cafeteria is terrible. In his free time Mr. Hiramoto likes to bicycle and visit tourist sights near the school.

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3.2 Using and to Connect Phrases When you want to say two things about a subject, use the word and to connect the verb phrases. Example: Mr. Hiramoto is 34 years old and is a sales manager for a hospital equipment

company. Brenda works during the day and goes to school at night.

3.3 Using also to add Information When two sentences give similar ideas, you can use the word also in the second sentence. Find the also in the reporter's paragraph about Yoshi Hiramoto. Also usually goes before the main verb in the sentence, but it goes after the verb be. Example: Mr. Hiramoto likes the United States very much. He also likes the students in his school. Janet is in my English class. She is/also in a music class.

3.4 Using and, but, and so to Connect Sentences You can connect two sentences with and, but, or so. Use a comma before these words when they connect two complete sentences. • And introduces additional information. Example: Some schools offer everything from Asian studies to zoology. + They have many recreational facilities and student services. =

Some schools offer everything from Asian studies to zoology, and they have many recreational facilities and student services.

• But introduces contrasting information. Example: He thinks his English class is excellent. + He thinks the food in the cafeteria is terrible. = He thinks his English class is excellent, but he thinks the food in the cafeteria is

terrible. • So introduces a result. Example: His company sells equipment to American hospitals. + He needs English for his work. = His company sells equipment to American hospitals, so he needs English for his

work. Practice 1 Connect the sentences with and or but.

1 Alberto lives with his sister. He drives her to school every afternoon. .............................................................................................................................................

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2 Maria can speak English well. She needs more writing practice. .............................................................................................................................................

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3 Western Adult School is in a beautiful location. It doesn't have very good library facilities. .............................................................................................................................................

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4 The school offers a good program in business. Its recreational facilities are excellent. .............................................................................................................................................

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Practice 2 Connect the sentences with so or but.

1 She has to work all day. She doesn't have time to do all her homework.

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2 He likes his English class. He doesn't think the American students are very friendly.

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3 Her company is opening an office in the United States. It needs English speaking

workers.

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4 She likes school life. She is homesick for her family.

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4 Writing the First Draft When you write something important, you should write it at least two times. The first time you write is called the first draft. Write this draft quickly. Think about your ideas. Don't worry too much about grammar or form. Write a paragraph about the person you interviewed. Use your organization and topic sentence from Exercise 2 and 3 of 2.1 (Ordering Information in a Paragraph). You can also use some of your sentences with and, so, but, and also. Don't worry about writing everything correctly in this first draft. You can check it and rewrite it later.

5 Editing Practice Editing for Content and Form • The first time you edit, focus on the content of the writing: the writer's ideas, and how they

are organized and connected. • The second time, focus on the form of the writing: the way the writing looks on the page, and

the writer's grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Rules for Sentence and Paragraph Form

1 Write the title in the center of the first line. 2 Capitalize all important words in the title. 3 Don't capitalize small words like a, the, to, with, and at in titles, except at the beginning

of a title. 4 Skip a line between the title and the paragraph. 5 Indent (leave a space) at the beginning of every paragraph. 6 Begin every line except the first at the left margin. (Sometimes a line for the left margin

is on the paper. If it isn't, leave a space of one inch.) 7 Leave a one-inch margin on the right. 8 Use a period (.) at the end of every sentence.

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9 Leave a small space after the period. 10 Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 11 Also capitalize names of people and places. 12 If the last word of a line doesn't fit, use a hyphen (-) to break it. You can break a word

only between syllables. (e-quip-ment) 13 Periods and commas (,) must follow words. They can't begin a new line. 14 Every sentence in the paragraph follows the sentence before it. Start on a new line only

when you begin a new paragraph. 15 In formal writing, most paragraphs have four to ten sentences. A paragraph usually has

more than one or two sentences.

6 Editing Your Writing Editing Checklist 1 Content

a Is the information about your partner interesting? b Is it complete? c Is it correct?

2 Organization a Are all the sentences about one topic? b Is the order of the sentences easy to follow?

3 Grammar a Are your sentences clear and simple? b Are your verbs correct? Remember that third-person singular verbs end with –s in the

present tense. Also check that your negative verb forms are correct. c Are singular and plural nouns correct? d Is the word order in your sentence correct?

4 Form a Is your punctuation correct? b Is your spelling correct? c Are your paragraph and sentence forms correct?

7 Writing the Second Draft Rewrite your article using neat handwriting and correct form. Check the grammar and form one final time. Then give your article to your teacher for comments and corrections. When your teacher returns your paper, ask him or her about any comments or corrections you don't understand. The next time you write, look back at your teacher's comments. Follow your teacher's instructions, and try not to make the same mistakes again.

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Tips for Writing Reports and Documents in English

1 Two fundamental aspects in foreign languages a Spiritual aspects: differences in the way of thinking b Technical aspects: vocabulary, technical terms, etc.

If the spiritual aspects, sentence structure, and grammar are similar in two languages, (for example, English and French), major point to master another language reduces only to the task to enrich his/her vocabulary. However, for Cambodian, to master other languages, English is to understand the way of thinking different from Cambodian. Example: He is tall. (In Cambodian expression “is” is not added.)

Expression “make effort” is incorrect while “make every effort or make an effort or make efforts” is correct.

2 English for scientists and engineers whose mother language is not English Communicative skill to accomplish his/her activity in the present time Components of the skill: Listening, Reading, and Speaking, Writing To receive information To transmit information • Ability for presentation and discussion • E-mail and FAX; necessary to write a brief reply in a very short time • Understanding

The famous title of Beatles song, “Let it be.” What does it mean? Remarks: a Speaking does not mean to speak as a traveler but to discuss with scientists or engineers on the subjects of his/her work.

Knowledge of mathematical formulae, economical terms, as well as other technical terms b Writing is the most difficult of the four skills. This situation may be the same for case of mother language. c What we should always bear in mind is to write correct and decent sentences. For this purpose, in the first step to prepare manuscript, to write short sentences is a useful technique for writing. If you are successful in writing grammatically correct sentences, in the second step,

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you can combine two or three sentences you have written to obtain a more concise and legible expression. 3 Technical points for writing English in scientific field

a Formality or uniformity of the style in manuscript Attention to this issue is quite important when one submits official documents or scientific papers to journals. If the prepared manuscripts contain many errors in formality, rejection of the submitted manuscript is generally admissible. Examples of formality

- Spacing After punctuation marks (for example, a comma, full stop, colon, etc.), prepositions, or conjunctions; you have to put a space. But before them you don’t. X, Y, and Z. A, B, C, D is … Your sister studies law , your brother studies math , and you study economics . (incorrect) Your sister studies law, your brother studies math, and you study economics. (correct) Where did you go on Khmer New Year ? (incorrect) Where did you go on Khmer New Year? (correct)

- Indent The first letter in this case must be capital. - Capitalization A proper name, a beginning word of a paragraph/a sentence/a title

must be written in capital. It is also possible to write capital letters of each word in a sentence, except prepositions, conjunctions, etc. If studying hard, your future will be good. English for Business Studies

- Syllabication (Word processor follows this rule) - Personal or non-personal expression - Form of enumeration

b Main checking points of your manuscript - Pattern of the sentence S + V, S + V + C, S + V + O, etc. (Delete adverb and adjective in order to see the structure of sentence.)

- Singular or plural forms, articles So much attention is unimportant for those who are not accustomed to writing sentences in English. The error in these issues seldom leads to significant misunderstanding. (Here again, to delete adverb/adjective is advisable to see the structure of sentence.) a green earth an earth (strange!); the earth the green earth (correct)

- Consistency of tense, and errors in the past form and participle of verb Find found (correct) finded (incorrect)

c Useful expressions showing negative results described in an affirmative form. The problem still remains unsolved.

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The analysis based on the hydrodynamic equations was unsuccessful. + be insufficient + lead to a poor result + play only a minor role

4 Official greetings

You should always bear in mind you are the representative of your affiliation and/or society in which you are a member. Correct, decent and non-colloquial expression is recommended. Exercises

1) Following sentence is grammatically correct. However, more concise expression is generally used or preferable.

When water is cooled, it becomes ice. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Following sentences are grammatically incorrect. How do you correct them? He speaks English very well. Because he has long been in America.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… Figure I is at 25oC, while Figure 2 is at 50oC.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 3) Following expressions sound a little strange, although the meaning is understandable.

How do you correct the expression? In this institute we educate the most recent scientific knowledge.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… We are now available various highly developed instruments for analysis.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… (In case of inquiring the possibility to have a position as a post Doctoral fellow) Please give me your answer promptly.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… For environmental problems, removal of harmful components in the fuel should be carried out.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Overview of Essay Organization General writing improvement strategies

Writing is a skill like playing tennis. You have to practice. There is a lot of extra work you can do on your own to help you become a better writer. Doing these activities, you'll practice your writing, practice your penmanship, and practice forming opinions.

1 To improve your writing, pay attention when you read. Notice how the author of your book organizes thoughts and expresses ideas. "Gone with the Wind" is a famous American novel by Margaret Mitchell. Many years after she died, a sequel was published. The author of that sequel wrote out, by hand, the entire 1037 pages of "Gone with the Wind" three times! She wanted to mimic the style of Margaret Mitchell. She wanted to get a feel for the way Mitchell put sentences together.

You can do the same thing. Take the model essays given by your teacher and write them out by hand. Write them several times until you get a feel for the use of transition phrases and other cohesions. Try to understand how the details support the topic sentences. Pay attention to the introductions and conclusions.

Once you have copied the model essay several times, think about whether you agree or disagree with the opinion of the author. Then create your own essay on the same topic. Compare your essay with the model essay. Show your essay to a friend or teacher.

2 Read more. A lot of research has shown that reading improves your writing. Reading will

build your vocabulary and your understanding of the way ideas are expressed. Read every chance you get.

3 An essay is made up of sentences. If you have some extra time, for example, while

waiting for someone, don't just stare at the wall. Write! You don't have to write an essay; write just a sentence or two. Look around you, what do you see? Write what you see: The wall is painted light yellow. Write what you think about it: Yellow is too colorful for me; I'd prefer gray. Write why you think so: Yellow is too bright; it's hard to relax in a yellow room.

4 Buy a notebook to record your thoughts and your writing. Don't use this notebook for

anything but writing practice. This notebook will be your private classroom. 5 Keep a journal. Record the events of the day. Tell what happened and what you felt about

the events. Record what you thought about the events and what conclusions you reached. This will give you practice in writing about your opinions. Review these notes periodically to see if any of these opinions can be used in your essays.

Date every entry. Put the time of day you are writing. Dates will help you remember the event more clearly later on. A date is a detail, and details are important to good writing.

Keep every other page blank. If you want to rewrite an entry or to expand on one, you will have the space. This will give you practice in revision.

The journal does not have to be serious. It can be anything from words, to poems, to jokes, to a complete essay. It can be about your school, your family, or you. The important thing is to write.

6 When events happen, take notes. Later in the day reread your notes and turn them into

sentences. Turn the sentences into paragraphs.

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7 Write every day. Give yourself a gift of time. Spend five minutes a day writing, and do it faithfully everyday. Once a week, assign yourself a topic and write an essay in thirty minutes.

8 Go back over your writing frequently. The more you write, the better writer you will

become. You may think of a better, or a different, way of expressing a thought. Use the blank page to experiment with different ways of expressing the same idea.

9 When you rewrite, imagine you are writing for a different audience. The first time you

wrote for yourself. How would you change your writing if your friends were to read it? Your teacher? Your mother? A stranger?

Generalization of Essays Let's examine each part of the essay.

Topic Sentence

Body (Supporting Sentences)

The Paragraph

Conclusion (Concluding Sentence)

The Essay

THESIS STATEMENT General Statement

TOPIC SENTENCE Supporting Sentences



CONCLUDING SENTENCE(S) Final Thoughts

Introductory Paragraph

Body Paragraphs

Concluding Paragraph

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The introduction The introductory paragraph is a very important part of your essay for the following

reasons: 1 It captures the examiner's attention and interest. 2 It suggests what the essay is going to be about. 3 It sets the tone of your essay, allowing the examiner to know from the beginning the stand

that you are taking with regard to the topic. 4 Bearing in mind that the examiner will be faced with hundreds of scripts to be read and

marked, first impressions are very important. Your introductory paragraph is, in a sense, the examiner's first impression of your work. Your introduction need not be long. It must, however, make clear reference to the topic

that you are doing so that after reading the first paragraph, your examiner will know exactly which essay topic you are doing.

The introduction must also relate to the main body of your essay. As a writer, you may be able to see how the introduction is linked to the main essay but the examiner may not be able to see that. It is your job to show the connection clearly.

When writing your introduction, there are certain things to avoid. a) Avoid an introduction that is composed only of the single topic sentence. A paragraph

consists of a number of sentences linked together by connectors. The introductory paragraph should therefore consist of more than one sentence. It should, however, not be too long and rambling. A paragraph consisting of six to eight sentences will serve as a good introductory paragraph.

b) Your introductory paragraph should not be a mere repetition of the title. It should introduce to the examiner the subject matter that you will cover as well as the stand that you will be taking. It is also not very intelligent merely to say, 'I agree with the topic.'

c) Do not complain about or apologize for the essay that you will be writing. Some students think that an apology is licence for them to write too briefly. They therefore attempt to overcome their ignorance by making the lame excuse: 'There are so many factors contributing to the increase in student unrest that it is unrealistic to do a complete discourse of it in a mere 600-word essay. I will therefore attempt only to discuss the issues of ...'

Method of introduction There are various ways of introducing an essay, depending on the subject matter of the essay. Some essay topics are best introduced in a very factual manner while others may be more effectively introduced with an anecdote or an illustration. You will need to practice in recognizing which form of introduction is most suitable for the essay topics given to you. The following section deals with the different ways in which you can write your introduction. Practice writing different kinds of introductions until you are comfortable with them. Agreement A direct statement of support for the position cited in the title provides a good introduction. It shows, from the beginning, the viewpoint that you are going to take. Question: 'Consumerism creates a vast amount of waste materials and contributes to air and

water pollution.' Discuss.

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In order to live in reasonable good health, there are four fundamental environmental requirements. They are clean surroundings, fresh air, pure water and the efficient disposal of domestic and industrial waste. Looking at the consumer products that we have nowadays, it is obvious that these products do create a vast amount of waste, resulting in air and water pollution. Dissent Another technique is to state your disagreement with the opinion expressed in the essay title. You may begin by describing a popular opinion that you think is erroneous and then give your own viewpoint. You have to be very careful if you intend to use this form of introduction, especially if you intend to disagree with something that is already generally accepted. Question: Some parents say: 'Why should I send my daughter to the university? She is sure

to get married and not work.' Do you agree with this? People in the past discriminated against women, considering them to be the inferior or weaker sex. Had not this been the case, the Women's Liberation Movement would not have come about. Even now, however, in the realm of education, if a choice has been made, parents prefer sending their sons to sending their daughters for a university education. It is true that education is a very heavy investment and parents have to consider the returns of education. This, however, should not be the main criterion. Factual Background An introduction offering factual statements to provide some background or justification for the proposition of the essay is one common and acceptable way of introducing an essay. You must, however, be very sure of your facts and they must be relevant. Question: What are some of the problems faced by the poorer nations? What can be done to

help them get out of their poverty? One of the reasons for poverty in the Developing World is the high rate of population growth in these countries. Coupled with this is also the low employment rate. India, for example, had a population of 835 million in 1988 but the labor force was only 450 million which means a 50% dependency ratio. Moreover, two-thirds of the population are illiterate, making it difficult for the country to advance and benefit from technological advancement. Few foreign multi-national corporations have invested in India because they cannot own more than 40% of an Indian subsidiary. Questions to define a problem Introducing an essay with a series of questions to lead to the main topic can be effective. This technique, however, has to be used with caution because it can appear to be rhetorical and affected. Remember that whatever questions you have asked in the opening paragraph must be answered in the course of your essay. Question: 'War and Freedom'. Are the two inseparable? Can there be a moral basis for war in a world of freedom? This is one of the questions which disturbs many people today. Can we reconcile the doctrine of military force – the idea of killing men in war – with the ultimate purpose of having freedom? Every statesman claims to wish to put an end to the use of force, yet we practice war as intensely as we love freedom. How are we to reconcile these paradoxes?

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Analysis Sometimes an essay topic requires you to analyze carefully what is asked and you may wish to present that analysis as your introductory paragraph. This form of introduction is especially useful if the topic given to you is long and you want to divide the essay into different parts and indicate which parts will have greater emphasis. Question: Assess the danger that industrial society may collapse by the middle of the twenty-

first century through the exhaustion of raw materials. (When doing this topic, you may whish to circle or underline the words 'danger', 'collapse' and 'exhaustion of raw materials' to help remind you of the areas that you need to discuss.)

Industrialization has brought much change to our society. Labor intensive industries have given way to capital intensive industries, which depend totally on energy and raw materials. Because of the success of these industries, and their heavy dependence on raw materials, there is the fear that the industrial world will collapse because of the rapid depletion of these raw materials.

A striking illustration or relevant incident Sometimes using an amusing anecdote which illustrates an attitude important to the theme of your topic may serve as a good introduction. Question: Write an essay on 'love'. A story about a philosophy professor illustrates the difference between showing love and simply talking about it. The professor had no children of his own. Whenever, he saw a neighbor scolding a child for misbehavior, he would chide the parent, saying, 'You should love your child and not punish him. He's just a child.' One hot afternoon, the professor was repairing the concrete driveway outside his house. Tired after several hours of hard work, he went back inside. Out of the corner of his eye, he saw a mischievous little boy putting his foot in the fresh concrete. The professor rushed over, grabbed the boy and was about to spank him when one of the neighbors shouted, 'Hey, professor, didn't you say that you must always love a child?' At that, the professor yelled back, 'I do love him in the abstract but not in the concrete!' It is easy to talk sentimentally about love but much more difficult to talk about it and put it into practice in everyday life. Using quotations A quotation, if appropriate, can be a striking beginning for an essay. If you are quoting from someone famous or from a literary source, make sure that the quotation is accurate. Avoid using quotations that have become common phrases or clichés, as this no longer produces the desired effect. Question: How important a human virtue is courage? 'Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak,' Winston Churchill once said. He then added, 'Courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.' Churchill was talking about politics. This advice, however, is also applicable to students who often have the courage to stand up and speak but lack the courage to sit down and listen. If we are to learn all we can, we need a lot of both kinds of courage.

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The conclusion Just as there are important factors to bear in mind when writing the introductory paragraph, there are also certain considerations to bear in mind when writing the concluding paragraph. A good conclusion:

a) Should relate directly to the theme and what you have written in the previous paragraphs. It should not introduce a new idea. It makes the concluding remarks so that the examiner knows that you have come to the end of your argument and he knows where you stand. It should not leave the argument in mid-air.

b) Should unify separate parts of the essay by relating them to the main topic. c) Should not be rambling and repetitive. d) Should not end with an apology, with such feeble remarks as 'This is merely my own

opinion and I'm probably not the best qualified person to discuss this issue. I wish the arguments could be better presented but this is the best that I can come up with.' If you conclude your essay with such a defeatist attitude, believing that you have failed, the examiner will think so, too. As with introductions, there are also different ways of writing conclusions, from formal

deductions to illustrative incidents. Just as a good introduction gives a good impression of your essay, an intelligent conclusion leaves your examiner satisfied that he has read a well written essay. A good conclusion brings your essay to a logical conclusion as well as tying it all together.

Methods of conclusion The following are some possible ways of concluding an essay:

a) Conclude with a restatement (but not a repetition) of the position for which you have been arguing.

b) Summarize the major ideas you have discussed in the essay. A summary serves the purpose of (i) bringing your essay to a good conclusion and (ii) reminding the examiner of the main ideas that you have discussed.

c) Draw a conclusion from the facts that you have presented. This is especially effective if you are doing an argumentative essay and you are defending one point of view. You therefore reinforce the side that you are defending. The introductory paragraph is important because that is where your essay makes its first

impression on the examiner, but the concluding paragraph is equally important because that is where the examiner has to make his assessment, and award his marks.

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Selecting and Organizing Language Now that you have selected and organized your content, you can focus on the actual writing. We will consider the traditional division of an essay into introduction, body, and conclusion and decide what goes into each of them. But it is also necessary to be aware of what is the appropriate style of these essays, and how to deal with problems of grammar and vocabulary. 1 The Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to let the reader know: - the topic - the aspect of the topic - the stand taken by the writer In other words, the introduction actually contains the conclusion. For example, if the topic is:

Topic A: Do children watch too much television nowadays? You should let your reader know in the introduction whether your answer is yes or no. The rest of the essay then provides support for your argument. The structure of the introduction follows a common pattern. To introduce the topic and explain why it is worth talking about, you will normally need a statement like this: Topic A: Television is so common that nowadays it is hard to imagine life without it. That is, the first sentence typically makes a general statement about a situation. The next statement then narrows the topic down to the specific aspect the writer will deal with. For Example: However, as many people have pointed out, most children spend too much

time in front of television, and this is harmful. The second sentence often contains the word but or however to show that the writer has something new or different to say. For example, if the first sentence is:

Many people complain nowadays that children spend a great proportion of their lives watching television.

Then the second sentence would be more likely to present the opposite view, such as, This may be true in some cases, but it is certainly not common enough to be a serious problem.

It is, however, not always the case that the second sentence contains a but or however. It may also support and strengthen the first sentence. Here are some examples: Topic A: Do children watch too much television nowadays? Television has become so much a part of our lives, that many people do not realize how many hours they actually spend watching it. In fact, it has been pointed out that most children watch far more television than is good for them.

Topic B: The environment has been said to be the single most important issue in the world today. Discuss.

People are gradually becoming aware of the fact that we are destroying our natural environment. We should realize that none of the other problems we face are more important than this one. Language Use

In introductions the tense is normally the present (e.g. complain) or present perfect (e.g. have pointed out) It is best to avoid repeating the exact words of the topic. If you paraphrase you will make a much better impression. Look at the examples above and see how even the simple words in Topic A: watch too much television have been paraphrased in the examples to become: spend too much time in front of television and: spend a great proportion of their lives watching television. Here is another example from Topic B:

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There are many problems facing the world today, including warfare, population growth and famine. However, none of these problems is as serious as the destruction of our natural environment. In the above examples, the writer's argument (i.e. the conclusion) is made clear in the second sentence. The introduction therefore contains one statement which introduces the topic and a second statement which presents the author's stand, or attitude to the topic. Sometimes this statement, also known as the thesis or proposition, occurs in the third sentence.

Exercise 1 The following are five introductions to the essay topic: Technology can contribute to human misery as well as to human success.

However, they have been jumbled. Find the first and second sentences which belong together in each case, to make five different introductions. 1 Every country in the world is aiming for technological development. 2 It is not, however, the technological development which causes the problems, but

rather the fact that societies do not make the necessary adjustments. 3 For most people, technological development means an improvement in their life-style. 4 However, their governments are usually not able to control the severe negative effects

of this development. 5 Whenever technological progress is made, there are always people who complain

about the problems that this creates. 6 However, it is wrong to blame technology for our social problems. 7 Technology has brought many changes in people's lives, not all of which are

beneficial. 8 There are always people who will argue against any kind of technological change. 9 In fact, in many cases, people have suffered enormously because of these changes. 10 However, while some people enjoy an easier life, others are usually made unemployed

as a result of new technology. Exercise 2 Here are three topics on the same subject, followed by six possible opening sentences. Match each topic with the best opening sentence. 1 Children's viewing of television should be controlled. 2 Television does more harm than good. Do you agree? 3 Discuss the role of television in modern society. a) Television is a relatively recent invention, but it has become a basic aspect of life in

all modern societies. b) In modern society, everyone likes watching television. c) Children usually have their favorite television programs, which they like to watch

regularly. d) Children in many countries watch television for several hours each day, so it is

important to think about what it is they are watching. e) Although television can be a valuable source of entertainment and information, it also

has serious drawbacks. f) Television is a system of conveying both sound and picture waves from a studio or

other source into people's homes.

Exercise 3 Select the best two sentences from the following to introduce the topic: Computers have provided great benefits for modern society.

1 Most people would like to own a computer. 2 Computers have changed our lives more than any other modern invention. 3 Computers have provided great benefits to modern society. 4 Computers are a relatively invention.

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5 In fact, anyone who has a computer will be able to do many things with it. 6 However, some people still do not know how to use them. 7 They have improved all aspects of our lives by saving us a great deal of time and

space. 8 Moreover, they have been very helpful for modern society. Language Use

Useful expressions for the thesis statement or proposition include: advantageous aspect beneficial benefit damaging dangerous detrimental disadvantage drawback

effect factor harmful important phenomenon problem result useful valuable

These expressions can be in positive or negative effects. Note: Make sure that you know the exact meaning and the correct use of any of these terms that you want to use. Check them with your learner's dictionary.

2 The body The body will typically consist of about three paragraphs presenting points to support your argument. You will have worked out your ideas in the planning stage when organizing your brainstormed ideas. Now it is simply a matter of presenting one main point to each paragraph. A paragraph is like a mini-essay, since it is also a unit of writing. It means that, like in an essay, you must let your reader know as soon as possible what your proposition or statement is, and then support it. This is usually done with a topic sentence. Computers have provided great benefits to modern society. Discuss. Let us use the first system of organization we identified: Save time, space and therefore money through a) storing and retrieval of information (e.g. business, libraries); b) calculations (e.g. accounting, science, engineering); c) word processing (e.g. students). Our first paragraph would be about storing and retrieval. A topic sentence could be: The most important use of computers is in the storing of information which can be retrieved quickly and easily when it is needed. We could then go on with: For example, in any kind of business, ... The next paragraph introduces the point about calculations. Here is a possible topic sentence: Another very common use of computers is to make quick and accurate calculations. Followed by: This is especially true in the fields of science and engineering, where ... As you can see from the above, the body of the essay usually consists of several paragraphs, each with a topic sentence, which is normally the first sentence in the paragraph and which is followed by supporting detail or examples. Exercise 4 Write topic sentences for the body of the following essays. a) Modernization is leading to the destruction of the earth as a home for humans and

animals. Discuss. b) Television does more harm than good according to many critics. What is your opinion?

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3 The Conclusion The conclusion need not be long. In fact, it can be as short as one sentence. A good conclusion will not be merely a repetition of the main topic statement of the essay, or of your proposition statement in the introduction, since that is rather boring to read. Nevertheless, it should contain some kind of a summary of the main argument or proposition of the essay. It is also a good idea to include a comment on the implications of your conclusion. If, for instance, you make a recommendation, you can comment on what may happen if your recommendation is not followed. For example (for the topic: Children's viewing of television should be controlled):

Therefore it is important to limit the amount of television that children watch, otherwise they will suffer educationally and socially as they grow up.

Or: Therefore, if children's television viewing is sensibly supervised it will allow them to enjoy certain programs as well as to develop the skills that they need.

Note the paraphrases for the word control. As with the introduction, if you want to stay close to the topic statement, it is desirable to attempt to paraphrase it. In some cases you can even avoid a paraphrase completely by summarizing in a new way. For example:

Children do not always know what is best for them, and in this case, as in many other cases, the guidance of parents is essential if they are to grow up as well-balanced people.

In some cases, a conclusion may consider possible future outcomes. For example: Computers have clearly been extremely helpful and we can expect that in the future they will improve our lives even more.

Or Although atomic energy can never run out, unlike fossil fuels, it is clear that other, less dangerous sources of energy will need to be developed for future generations.

Language Use

It will be useful for you to make sure that you know how to use various terms expressing implications correctly. That is, expressions like otherwise, in this case, under these circumstances, followed by the future tense. For predictions, the future tense is generally used, and expressions like: it is likely that, in all probability etc. can be useful.

Exercise 5 Write concluding statements for the following essay topics. 1 Most subjects can be learned more effectively from a computer than from a classroom

teacher. Discuss. 2 Television does more harm than good according to many critics. Do you agree? 3 Good health is more important than any other aspect of life. Discuss. 4 Computers have improved the quality of our lives. Do you agree?

4 Generalizations It is clear that your essay will contain a number of generalizations. Both in the planning stages and in the writing of your introduction, topic sentences and conclusion, you will probably be dealing with some kind of generalization rather than giving specific, concrete details. For example, a statement like: Computers are essential in many businesses. is a generalization. This statement is not: In my family business we use several computers. However, there is a danger of over-generalization. Over-generalizations (or sweeping generalizations) do not help your argument, because they give the impression that you are not very thoughtful. Consider these examples: i) Everybody uses computers nowadays.

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ii) No one can run a business without computers. iii) Computers are the solution to all our problems. These are clearly exaggerations, and do not help your argument. You should avoid using like that. Exercise 6 Put a cross (×) after the sentence which expresses an over-generalization. You may find it easier to discuss this with someone. 1 All children like sweets. 2 Everything is becoming too expensive nowadays. 3 You can't trust the police. 4 Few students want to become teachers. 5 Nuclear power is harmful. 6 Nuclear power is beneficial. 7 Nuclear power is both harmful and beneficial. 8 Men are generally stronger than women. 9 Men don't know how to cook as well as women. 10 Politicians are usually corrupt. Exercise 7 Read the following essays and think about which one is more satisfactory. Pay special attention to the generalizations. To what extent has modern technology improved the world? A Modern technology has improved the world in three very important ways. It has

given people more time, it has saved enormous amounts of human energy, and it has made it possible for everyone to communicate with each other easily.

Time and effort have been saved in the workplace and in the home. In manufacturing, for example, it is no longer necessary to spend hours on planning and designing products because computers can do this quickly. Farmers do not need to plant or harvest slowly by hand; they can use equipment like light aircraft for sowing seeds and large harvesting machines to do the work quickly. Housewives can spend more time with their friends, while the washing machine washes their clothes for them. In the same way, energy is saved. There is no need for hard physical work any more, because modern machines can do it all. Because of modern technology people can relax, where before they had to work very hard. Another great improvement has been in communications. Because of communication systems such as telephones, fax machines, television etc., and the use of satellites, we can know what is happening at any time in all parts of the world. This leads to better understanding, so there is no need for wars, and countries can help each other. For example, if there is an earthquake in one country, people in other countries can find out about it immediately and can send help to the victims. For all these reasons the world is now a much better place than in earlier times, because of the advantages brought by modern technology.

B Everyone thinks that the world has improved through modern technology but this is not true because nowadays there are no more traditional skills and everybody is becoming the same, no matter what country they live in, and above all there are no more spiritual values left.

In the olden days, when people had to make their own buildings, their own clothes,

and their own entertainment, they had many traditional skills. Each area had its own style of architecture, for example, and people were proud of their craftsmanship. Now all the houses are made of concrete and glass and steel and they all look the same, no matter where you are. All over the world people wear the same mass-

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produced clothes and they even watch the same mass-produced entertainment on their television sets. You can hear the same pop songs in every country in the world, and the local people no longer produce their own traditional cultural forms of music and dance. Everyone does disco.

This means that people all over the world are becoming the same. Everybody sees

the same films and hears the same music and so they all start to think the same. All they want is more of the same consumer goods, no matter where they live. This means that the world is losing the diversity of culture and of thinking that there used to be. In the end no one will have any new or individual ideas because modern communication techniques, such as satellite television, means that we are all brainwashed in the same way by the big multinational owners of the mass media. In other words, they can control us.

Modern technology makes people lazy and greedy for more consumer goods, and so

they lose their spiritual values. They become selfish and do not even care about members of their own families. They put small children into nurseries, their sick people into hospitals and their old parents into old people's homes and then they forget about them. Modern technology can look after them, they think.

5 Modifiers

One way to prevent statements from being over-generalizations is to use modifiers. Consider these examples: 1 Computers are widely used nowadays. 2 Many people use computers nowadays. 3 No one can run a modern, large-scale business without computers, nowadays. 4 Computers may offer the solutions to many of our problems in the future. 5 Computers will probably offer the solutions to many of our problems in the future. 6 It would be useful if everyone could learn to use a computer. There are several methods for modifying statements: a) Adjectives or adverbs to express a quantity, or frequency or degree of emphasis, e.g.

many people ... many of our problems widely used nearly everyone

b) Expressions of possibility or probability, including modal verbs. e.g. computers will probably offer ... computers may offer ...

c) Modified expressions of desirability (instead of must or should), e.g. it would be useful if ...

d) Adjectives or other expressions that show that the statement is limited in applications, e.g. a modern, large-scale business

It is not possible to list all the many expressions of modification that can be used, but it is important for you to be aware of the need to avoid sweeping generalizations by using appropriate modifiers. There are varying degrees of modification, from low emphasis to high emphasis, and it is important to get your meaning across as precisely as possible. For example, consider these: Computers could be more widely used in the future. Computers may perhaps be more widely used in the future. Computers are likely to be more widely used in the future. Computers will probably be more widely used in the future.

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Computers are highly likely to be more widely used in the future. Computers are highly likely to be more widely used in the future. Computers will definitely be more widely used in the future.

For which of the above would you find most reasonable? While some students make an error by not modifying their statements enough, others go to the other extreme and modify statements too much. Here is an example:

Alternative energy probably seems to be the answer to any future energy crisis. In this case probably seems to be is overdoing it. Better would be:

Alternative energy will probably be the answer... Or even: Alternative energy is likely to be ... Even: Alternative energy seems to be the answer ... is rather weak and uncertain, especially if it is intended to be the conclusion to an essay. Exercise 7 Discuss ways of increasing or reducing the strength of the following statements so that they become acceptable generalizations. 1 Television encourages violence. 2 Overpopulation will probably cause many problems in the future. 3 Our environment is being totally destroyed. 4 People are only interested in money nowadays. 5 Maybe the continuing destruction of the rainforests will increase the greenhouse

effect. 6 Students who go to study abroad could perhaps find that they have some unexpected

experiences. Language Use

Beware of the common error of using more for emphasis. More is a comparative terms. For example: People are more interested in money. It does not mean People are very interested in money. It should mean more than before or more than in something else, but since it is not indicated what is being compared, the sentence really means nothing. For emphasis, very should be used.

6 Connectors

In order to make the essay flow smoothly, and to help our reader to understand the logical connections between ideas, it is helpful to use connectors occasionally, both between paragraph and between sentences. Connectors can show: 1 Addition: both ... and ..., also, not only ... but also ..., furthermore, moreover, in addition 2 Contrast: but, however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the other hand, in spite of, instead of 3 Simple listing: firstly, secondly, in addition, finally, in conclusion 4 Effects or results: therefore, consequently, for this reason, as a result, because of 5 Other important connectors: for example, for instance, such as, similarly, in fact, in

particular 6 Conclusion: in conclusion, therefore, consequently, generally speaking, clearly, it is

clear, on the whole, in other words Note: You can combine therefore with other connectors: e.g. It is clear, therefore, that ..., Generally speaking, therefore ...

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Language Use a) However, therefore, and for example must begin a new sentence. They cannot

be used to link clauses in a sentence. (e.g. Computers are useful, however they are still expensive is wrong.) You can link them with a semi-colon (;) but you may forget that. It is, therefore, safer to begin a new sentence with these words. It is, however, worth remembering that using these words not at the beginning of the sentence, but in the second position, with commas on either side, makes the style more interesting. This, for example, can be seen in the preceding two sentences.

b) Students often experience problems with the use of such as. This phrase means the same as for example but is used in the same way as like. That is, it cannot be followed by a clause, but only by a noun. Example: there are several alternative sources of energy that we can develop, such as solar energy, wind power and hydroelectric power.

c) In conclusion is a very unimaginative way to begin your conclusion. There is nothing wrong with it if you cannot think of anything better, but it is not very interesting.

d) Some teachers have emphasized the need for plenty of connectors, and some students have listened to them. The result can be unsatisfactory if too many connectors are used, particularly read! In particular, the listing style, where each paragraph begins with Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly and then Finally (or In conclusion) is very unimaginative.

Look at the following two examples: a) There are several ways in which computers benefit society. Firstly, they are

useful for storing and retrieving information. For example, a small disk can contain the equivalent of many pages of print. Therefore they are very useful for business. Moreover, they are also useful for libraries and booking offices, such as in airlines. Furthermore, they are useful for students to use at home. Secondly, computers are useful for making calculations, etc.

b) There are several ways in which computers benefit society. Firstly, they are useful for storing and retrieving information. A small disk can contain the equivalent of many pages of print. They are therefore very useful for businesses as well as libraries and booking offices, such as in airlines. Students can also use them at home. Another major use of computers is in making calculations, etc. Both are correct, but the latter is rather more interesting to read than the former.

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Date line (June 12, 19..)

3-4 lines

Heading and inside address (for more formal letters)

Ms. Arlene C Anderson

Director, Human Resources

Geosync Engineering, Inc.

3475 North Maple St.

2 lines

Salutation (Dear Ms. AnderSon,)

2 lines

Body (opening, middle, close paragraphs)

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2 lines

Complimentary close (sincerely, ....)

4 lines Signature

Name

(Address)

2 lines

Postscript, Enclosures, Copies)

Formats for Letters 1 Full Block

• All lines are set flush with the left margin. • No paragraphs are indented.

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2 Block

Complimentary close

4 lines Signature

Name

Address

2 lines

P.S.

cc:

2 lines

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2 lines

Body..........................................................................................................

Salutation,

Heading and inside address

2 lines

3-4 lines

Date .........................................

• Date line is flush with the right margin. • Heading or inside address, salutation, reference lines, and paragraphs set flush with the

left margin. • Complimentary close and signature are aligned with the date.

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3 Semiblock

................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................

2 lines

Complimentary close (middle)

4 lines

2 lines

P.S.

cc:

Signature

Date ........................................

2 lines


2 lines

Salutation,

2 lines

Body..........................................................................................

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• Date is flush with the right margin. • Heading or inside address and salutation are set flush with the left margin. • Paragraphs are indented. • Complimentary close and signature line are slightly to the right of the page's center.

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4 Simplified

................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................

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4-5 lines (no complimentary close)

Signature

6 lines

Date:.........................................

4 lines


3 lines

Name of what you want to say in the body (no salutation)

3 lines

Body.......................................................................................................

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• No salutation or complimentary close. • All lines begin flush with the left margin. • Date is six lines below the letterhead. • Inside address is four or more lines below the dateline. • Subject line is typed in all caps, there lines below the inside address and about the body of the

letter. • Writer's name and title are typed in caps, four or five lines below the body of the letter.

By HAP Phalthy 73


alligator /'æligeitə/ : RkBa ant /ænt/ : Rsemac bat /bæt/ : RbeCov bear /biə/ : xøaXμ úM ¬eQμal¦;

she-bear : xøaXμ ú MjI ; bear-cub : kUnxøaXμ ú M

beast /bi:st/ : BBYkstV bed bug /bedbʌg /: segáIc bee /bi:/ : Xμ μ úM beetle /'bi:tl/ : stVkEBa© big clam /big klæm/ : RKMe):ak black soft-shelled turtle : kn§ay boa /'bouə/ = python /'paiӨn/ : Bs;føan; bob cat /bɔb kæt/ : xøaRtI budgie /'bʌʤi/ : sarikaEkv buffalo /'bʌfəlou/ : RkbI ¬eQμal¦ ;

buffalo albino /- æ l'bi:nou/ : RkbIeXøóc ; cow buffalo : RkbIjI ; wild buffalo : RkbIéRB young buffalo : kUnRkbI ;

burrowing toad /'bʌrouiη toud/ : hIug butterfly /'bʌtəflai/ : emGMe)A buzzard /'bʌzəd/ : ExøgRsak camel /'kæml/ : GUdæ ¬eQμal¦;

she-camel : GUdæjI cat /kæt/ = puss /pus/ : qμa ¬eQ μal¦;

she-cat : qμajI ; kitten /'kitn/ = pussy /'pusi/ = pussy-cat kUnqμa ; linx /liηks/ : qμaéRB

caterpillar /'kætəpilə / : dgáÚvemGMe)A centipede /'sentipi:d/ : Ek¥b cicada /si'ka:də/ : ér clam /klæm/ : elossmuRT cobra /'koubrə/ : Bs;Evk cockroach /'kɔkrouʧ / : knøat conch /kɔnʧ / : xügs½gá cow /kau/ : emeKa ;

bull /bul/ = ox /ɔks/ : eKaeQμal ; calf /ka:f/ = young bull : kUneKa ; steer /stiə/ = bullock = castrated bull : eKaeRkov ; stud bull /stʌd bul/ : eKa)a ; wild ox /waild ɔks/ : eKaéRB/ TenSag

crab /kræb/ : kþam crane /krein/ : stVeRkol crawfish /'krɔ:fiʃ / = crayfish /'kreifiʃ / :

bgág/ kMBisTwksab creature /'kri:ʧə/ : stVelak cricket /'krikit/ : cRgwt crocodile /'krɔkədail/ : RkeBI crow /krou/ : Ek¥k cub /kʌb/ : kUneta/ kUnxøaXμ úM/ kUnke®Ba¢ag deer /diə/ : eRbIs/ kþan; ;

fawn /fɔ:n / : kUnQøÚs

large deer : eRbIs ; roe (deer) /rou -/ = musk-deer /mʌsk/

= buck /bʌk/ : QøÚs ; small deer : kþan; ;

Animals

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stag /stæg/ = hart /ha:t/ : kþan;eQμal ; doe /dou/ : kþan;jI ;

dog /dɔg/ : Eqá ¬eQμal¦ ;

bitch /biʧ / : EqájI ; puppy /'pʌpi/ = pup /pʌp/ =

whelp /welp/ : kUnEqá donkey /'dɔηki/ = ass /æs/ = jackass /'ʤækæs/ :

laeQμal ; jenny /ʤini/ : lajI dove /dʌv/ : llk dragon /'drægən/ : naK dragonfly /'drægənflai/ : knÞúMruy

drake /dreik/ = duck /dʌk/ : TaeQμal ; female duck : TajI ; duckling /'dʌkliη/ : kUnTa ; wild duck : TaéRB

eagle /'i:gl/ : \®nÞIy_ earth worm /ə:Ө wə:m/: Cenøn egret /'i:grit/ = stork /stɔ:k/ : kuk elephant /'elifənt/ = bull elephant : dMrI ¬eQμal¦;

cow elephant : dMrIjI ; elephant calf : kUndMrI ;

elephant albino : dMrIs ;

hippopotamus /hipə'pɔtəməs/ : dMrITwk ; wild elephant : dMrIéRB fallow deer /'fælou diə/ : rmaMg fawny owl /fɔ:ni aul/ : emom firefly /'faiəflai/ : GMBilGMEBk fish /fiʃ / : RtI

big cat fish : RtIsNþay big dell fish : RtIr:s; carp /ka:p/ : RtIKl;raMg cat fish : RtIrMGil

dace /deis/ : RtIq<wn eel /i:l/ : GnÞg;/ RtIx¢wg fighting fish : RtIRkwm flounder /'flaundə/ : RtIGNþatEqá large fish : RtIqøaMg shark /ʃ a:k/ : RtIqøam small cat fish : RtIkBa©úH small dell fish : RtIPÞk; sole /soul/ : RtIGNþatEqásmuRTFM² stingray /stiηgrei/ : RtIRbEbl sunfish /sʌnfiʃ / : RtIkMBt

trout /traut/ : RtIRBYl walking cat fish : RtIGENþg whale /weil/ : RtI)aELn

flea /fli:/ : écEqá fly /flai/ : ruy fox /fɔks/ : ke®Ba¢ag frog /frɔg/ : kEgáb gecko /'gekou/ : tukEk gibbon /ʤibən/ : eTac giraffe /ʤi'ra:f / : stVkEvg goat /gout/ = he-goat = billy goat /'bili gout/:

BEBeQμal ; dam /dæm/ = she-goat =

nanny-goat /'næni gout/ : BEBjI ; kid /kid/ : kUnBEB

goose /gu:s/ : k¶an grasshopper /'gra:shɔpə/ : kNþÚb hawk /hɔ:k/ = falcon /fɔ:lkən / : sÞaMg hedgehog /'heʤhɔg/ : stVkaMRbm:a hen /hen/ : emman; ; chick /ʧik/ : kUnman;

By HAP Phalthy 75


chicken /'ʧikin/ : man;CMTg; cock /kɔk/ : man;Kk

heron /'herən/ : Rksa hornet /'hɔ:nit/ = wasp /wɔsp/ «m:al; horse /hɔ:s/ : esH ¬eQμal¦;

mare /mℇə / : esH b¤lajI ; filly /'fili/ : kUnesHjI ; foal /foul/ : kUnesH ;

colt /koult/ : kUnesHeQμal ;

bronco /'brɔηkou/ : esHéRB inchworm /inʧwə:m/ : dgáÚv)ak;xñg infusoria /in'fju:zəriə/ = mosquito larva

/məs'ki:tou 'la:və/ : dgáÚvTwk insect /'insekt/ : stVl¥it intestinal worm /in'testinl wə:m/ : RBUn kite /kait/ : Exøg lady bug /'leidibʌg/ = lady bird : GeNþIkmas large lizard = iguana /'igwa:nə/ : TnSg lark /la:k/ : stVRkYcGWut leech /li:ʧ / = bloodsucker : eQøIg leopard /'lepəd/ : xøaFM/ xøadMbg lion /'laiən/ : eta

lion cub : kUneta lioness /'laiənes/ : etajI

lizard /'lizəd/ : bgáÜy/ Eføn/ CIgck;/ tukEk

lobster /'lɔbstə/ : bgág louse /laus/ : éc mammal /'mæml/ : fnikstV mantis /'mæntis/ : kNþÚbesH midge /miʤ/ = gnat /næt/ : suc/ mmg; mole /moul/ : stVkMBIgdUg mongoose /'mɔŋgu:s/ : sáar

monkey /'mʌηki/ = ape /eip/ : sVa mosquito /məs'kti:tou/ : mUs mouse /maus/ : kNþúr mussel /'mʌsl/ : RKMcMBuHTa newt /nju:t/ : stVRtkYt otter /'ɔtə/ : eP owl /aul/ : TITuy oyster /'ɔistə/ : gav palm worm /pa:m wə:m/ = palm grub /pa:m grʌb/ : dgáÚvdYg panther /'pænӨə/ = jaguar /'ʤægjuə/ : xøaxin parakeet /'pæ rəki:t/ : esktUc² parrot /'pæ rət/ : esk partridge /'pa: triʤ/ : stVrMeB peacock /'pi:kɔk/ : ek¶ak pelican /'pelikən/ : Tug pig /pig/ = swine /swain/ :RCUk ;

boar /bɔ:/ : RCUkeQμal\teRkov hog /hɔg/ = swine : RCUksac; piglet /'piglit/ : kUnRCUk sow /sau/ : RCUkjI wild boar : RCUkéRB

pigeon /'piʤin/ : RBab porcupine /'pɔ:kjupain/ : stVRbm:a pupa /'pju:pə / : dwkeDO quail /kweil/ : stVRkYc rabbit /'ræbit/ : TnSay hare /hℇə / : TnSaysøwk ; leveret /'levərit/ = young hare : kUnTnSay raccoon /rə'ku:n/ : sMeBac rat /ræt/ : kNþúrERbg

By HAP Phalthy 76


reptile /'reptail/ : stVlμÚn rhinoceros /rai'nɔsərəs/ : rmas rooster /'ru:stə/ : man;eQμal scorpion /'skɔ:piən/ : xÞÜy sea gull /si: gʌl/ = gull : rMeB sheep /ʃi:p/ = ram /ræm / : ecom ¬eQμal¦ ewe /ju:/ : ecomjI

lamb /læmb/ : kUnecom shrimp /ʃ rimp/ : bgÁa silkworm /silkwə:m/ : dgáÚvnag small snail /smɔ:l sneil/ : ex©A snail /sneil/ : xüg snake /sneik/ = serpent /'sə:pənt/ : Bs; spider /'spaidə/ : BIgBag

squid /skwid/ = cuttlefish /kʌtlfiʃ / : mwk octopus /'ɔktəpəs/ : RtImwkFM squirrel /'skwirəl/ = chipmunk /'ʧ ipmʌηk/ :

kMRb:uk starfish /sta:fiʃ / : Rkcab;smuRT swan /swɔn/ : hgS ;

pen swan : hgSjI ; cob /kɔb/ : hgSeQμal

tadpole /'tædpoul/ : kUnk¥úk teal /ti:l/ : Rbvwk termite /'təmait/ = white ant : keNþór tiger /'taigə/ : xøa ¬eQμal¦ ;

tigress /'taigris/ : xøajI ; tiger baby : kUnxøa puma /'pju:mə/ = cougar /'ku:gə:/ : xøaBN’etñat

toad /toud/ : KIgÁk; tortoise /'tɔ:təs/ : GeNþIk turkey /'təki/ : man;)araMg turtle /'tə:tl / : GeNþIksmuRT vulture /'vʌlʧə / = turkey buzzard : tμat weevil /'wi:vl / : xμÚt wild beast /waild bi:st/ : stVéRB wolf /wulf/ : cck ¬eQμal¦ ;

she-wolf : cckjI ; wolf-cub : kUncck

woodpecker /wud 'pekə/ : stVRtesH woodpigeon /wud'piʤin / BeBC worm /wə:m/ = grub /grʌb/ : dgáÚv zebra /'zebrə / : esHbgág;

By HAP Phalthy 77


apple /'æpl/ Epøb:m banana /bə'na:nə; US bə'nænə/ eck

betel nut /bi:tl nʌt/ Epøsøa black pepper /blæk 'pepə/ eRmc

cashew /'kæʃu:/ sVaycnÞI cassava /kə'sa:və/ kþÜc

cherry /'ʧəri/ s Wr I coconut /'kəukənʌt/ dUg

cone /kəun/ EpøRsl; corn /kɔ:n/, maize /meiz/ eBat

custard apple /'kʌstəd æpl / eTob)ay

date /deit/ EpøelIμú durian /djuəriən/ FUern

evergreen / 'evə gri:n/ edImeGvWRKIn ¬minRCuHsøwk¦

fig /fig/ EpølVa flax /flæks/ éFμ golden plum /'gəuldən plʌm/ m:ak;R)aMg

grape /greip/ TMBaMg)ayCUr grapefruit /greipfru:t/ RkUcføúg gummy rice /gʌmi rais/ RsUvdMeNIb

jackfruit /ʤækfru:t/, breadfruit /bredfru:t/ xñúr jujube /'dju:dju:b/, plum /plʌm/ EpøBuRTa jute /dju:t/ RkecA kaffir lime /'kæfə laim/ RkUcesIc

kapok /'keipɔk/ EpøKr lancet /'lænsit/ ePJóv

lekima fruit /lekimə fru:t/, persimmon esda lemon /'lemən/ RkUcqμarelOg

lime /laim/ RkUcqμar litchi, lychee [lai’ʧi:/ EpøKUeln

longan /lɔŋga:n/ emon

maize /meiz/ eBat

mandarin (orange) /'mændərin ɔrinʤ/ RkUcXVic

mango steen /'mæŋgəu sti:n/ EpømgÇút

mango /'mæŋgəu/ sVay

mangrove swamp /mæŋgru:v swɔmp/ Epøekagkag

milk fruit /milk fru:t/ EpøTwkedaH

mulberry /'mʌlbri; US -beri/ Epømn

olive /'ɔliv/ EpøGUlIv

orange /'ɔrinʤ/ RkUc

otaheite apple /əuteihi:t æpl/ máak; peach /pi:ʧ/ EpøEb:s

peanut /'pi:nʌt/ sENþkdI pear /peə/ EpøB½r pineapple /'painæpl/ mñas; pomegranate /'pɔmigrænit/ EpøTTwm

rambutan /ræmbju:tən/ savm:av

rice /rais/ RsUv

rose apple /rəuz æpl/, wax jambu /wæks ʤæmbju:/ CMBU sandorica /sændəurikə:/ RkBIgraC

sapodilla /sæpɔdilə/ l μút

soursop /'sauəsɔp/ eTob)araMg

star fruit /sta:fru:t/ s<W star gooseberry /sta: 'guzsbəri/ knÞÜt

strawberry /'strɔ:bri; US -bəri/ EpøRsþb‘ÅrI tamarind /'tæmərind/ EpøGMBil

tangerine /'tænʤə'rin/ RkUcXVic

tea /ti:/ Et

wheat /wi:t/ RsUvsalI wood apple /wud æpl/ RksaMg, xVit zalacca /zæləkə:/ sirman;

Fruit

By HAP Phalthy 78


Curriculum Vitae (GB) Photo 4 × 6 or Résumé (US) (Model)

Name : Surname, First name

Date of birth : Date, month (in letter), year

(because 11/1 /1982 : GB reads 11 January 1982

: US reads 1 November 1982

Nationality : Cambodian (Khmer)

Marital status: Single or married

Address : No…, Street…, Group…, Sangkat…, Khan… , Phnom Penh.

Telephone number: 012 ……

Fax : 023 ……

E-mail : ……………

Objective: For example ‘A job in international marketing’, or ‘A traineeship in trading’…

Work experiences: Give dates (months or years) and name of employer. Be specific

about your duties if they have any relevance to a business career.

Education : In reverse order, e.g.

1998-2002: Bachelor’s Degree in ………of Economics/Law

1995-1998: High school

1992-1995: Secondary school

Primary school is probably not important.

(You should write a certificate obtained, if possible and then name of school with

its address. If you have short term training courses, you can add after education.)

Languages:

- Mother tongue : Khmer

- Foreign languages : English (good at reading, listening, writing, and speaking)

: French (Fair)

Additional information : MSDOS

Hobbies and interests : Movies

References or testimonials (US): The names and addresses (and phone and fax numbers if

possible)

By HAP Phalthy 79