www.elsevier.com/locate/hydromet

Hydrometallurgy 7

Teaching corrosion via the internet using a variety of tools to

enhance learning

Michael L. Free *

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, 135 S. 1460 E. Room 416, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0114, United States

Received 4 September 2002; received in revised form 22 July 2003; accepted 8 August 2003

Available online 15 August 2005

Abstract

Internet-based education is rapidly expanding because of its flexibility, convenience, and cost efficiency. On-line education

is likely to continue to expand rapidly and become an increasingly significant component of higher education throughout the

world. However, much of the course material that is available through the internet has been designed around information

dissemination rather than learning. This paper discusses the planning, development, delivery, and evaluation of an on-line

corrosion course developed at the University of Utah.

D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Corrosion; Internet; On-line education

1. Introduction

The University of Utah’s on-line corrosion course,

Metallurgical Engineering 5600—Corrosion Engi-

neering, was developed to make an existing corro-

sion course more accessible to students without

compromising the educational quality or course

objectives. The internet and WebCT software pro-

vided the vehicles for accessibility, and appropriately

designed educational tools provided the means to

ensure educational quality and meet the established

0304-386X/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2003.08.008

* Tel.: +1 801 585 9798, fax: +1 801 581 4937.

E-mail address: mfree@mines.utah.edu.

course objectives. The course has as its learning

objectives:

! Develop a sound understanding of corrosion theory

and applications

! Understand the basic types and mechanisms of

corrosion

! Be able to select appropriate materials and techno-

logies for corrosion minimization

! Be able to estimate the rate and cost of corrosion.

The learning objectives for this course are simple,

but the achievement of these objectives requires

appropriate learning material and assessment tools

that are based on sound pedagogical principles.

9 (2005) 31–39

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–3932

2. Pedagogical principles

Most on-line or internet-based courses are similar

in design to correspondence courses with the inter-

net connection providing a pathway for disseminat-

ing course material and collecting student work.

While this type of approach offers more rapid

information exchange than typical correspondence

courses, it underutilizes the powerful potential of

computers and the internet for enhanced learning

opportunities.

Each student is unique in his or her style of

learning, yet all students learn through auditory,

kinesthetic, and/or visual perception modes. Re-

search indicates that use of the auditory mode in a

form such as reading will result in information

retention levels between 10% and 26%, auditory

and visual mode usage leads to 50% retention,

and use of all three modes results in 90% retention

(Stice, 1987). Traditional lecturing, however, tends

to rely primarily upon the auditory (audio and text

material) (Waldheim, 1987), and visual (charts,

graphs, pictures, etc.) modes. Thus, the addition of

demonstrations and hands-on learning opportunities

is needed in the classroom to more completely

utilize the perception modes and enhance informa-

tion retention.

The effectiveness of demonstrations and hands-

on learning opportunities is recognized as an

important part of the science learning cycle (Wan-

kat and Oreovicz, 1993). The science learning cycle

consists of an exploration step in which students

with an inadequate or incorrect notion of a scien-

tific principle are exposed to a phenomenon that

cannot be explained by their present knowledge

base. Often the exploration step begins with a

demonstration or a laboratory exercise that leads

to the realization that the present knowledge base

is incorrect or inadequate and must be either dis-

carded or revised. The learning process then con-

tinues by an introduction to the concept that

explains the observed phenomenon. The concept

introduction is generally made in a lecture format

that may involve both auditory and visual percep-

tion modes. The final step in the learning process

is concept application. The application of the con-

cept is most often accomplished through homework

exercises, laboratory sessions, and class projects, each

of which tends to involve multiple perception modes

that enhance the ability of students to recall the

information.

Additional evidence for the need to enhance the

application learning step, which includes hands-on

opportunities, is prevalent in various forms in cur-

rent literature. In a recent National Research Coun-

cil report (National Research Council, 1995), two of

the most important areas for improvement in engi-

neering education were identified as the need to

shift the emphasis towards design, decision making,

and leadership skills—each of which involve multi-

ple modes of perception. Other research shows that

student interest and learning ability are significantly

greater when case studies are presented and eva-

luated than when traditional lecturing is provided

(Herreid, 1994). Improvements in learning can also

be enhanced using evaluations that are based upon

understanding rather than recall (Duit and Treagust,

1995). Keys to retaining students with initial inter-

est and aptitude in engineering are also centered

upon multiple modes of learning that include active

involvement and cooperative learning (Felder,

1993), both of which are often accomplished

most effectively in laboratory and/or group project

settings.

The use of repetition is well known in improving

information retention (Brown, 2000; Farzarinc,

1996; Pickard, 1996; Globerson and Gold, 1997;

Rehn et al., 1995). However, repetition is likely

most influential when material is presented in dif-

ferent ways each time it is repeated (Brown, 2000).

In other words, when the same concepts are pre-

sented in different ways using different media, the

retention is likely to be greater than when the same

concepts are repeated using the same presentation

method. Computers provide a wonderful tool for

repetition using different modes of presentation,

and on-line course material can take full advantage

of such presentation opportunities (Farzarinc, 1996;

Rehn et al., 1995).

Another important aspect of learning is the pre-

sentation of material in a logical manner that begins

with principles that are understood and builds gra-

dually upon the foundation of prior knowledge. In

other words, students must take necessary prerequi-

site courses, and instructors must build appro-

priately upon the student knowledge base.

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–39 33

3. On-line course design and implementation

As discussed in the previous section, education

research indicates that more effective teaching and

learning occur when multiple modes of perception

are utilized to present course content to students in

different ways in a logical manner. Consequently,

educational material that utilizes multiple modes of

perception should be the foundation upon which on-

line education should built to maximize learning

opportunities. Consideration of pedagogical principles

in the design of the on-line corrosion course led to the

establishment of the following guidelines:

! Course content should be provided in an appro-

priate, logical sequence.

! Cooperative learning experiences should be provided.! Appropriate comprehension assessments, which

are based more upon understanding than recall,

should be utilized.

! Repetition by different methods and media should

be incorporated into the course.

! Students learn most effectively when multiple

modes of perception are utilized.

Following the pedagogical guidelines, the course

was designed with PowerPoint lecture modules that

contain animation and sound in each slide, assign-

ments, quizzes, tests, group projects, a virtual labora-

tory, an image library, an e-mail communication

utility, solutions to homework and test problems, as

well as supplemental information.

4. Course tools and the incorporation of learning

principles

4.1. Lecture modules

The on-line corrosion course content is organized

and delivered using 18 PowerPoint lecture modules

that are animated and contain a complete, automated

sound track. Each module or unit covers a specific

topic that is important to corrosion. Beginning mo-

dules cover basic background information such as

thermodynamics and kinetics. Later modules cover

specific types of corrosion, such as pitting and en-

vironmentally induced cracking. Other modules are

devoted to case studies and assessment techniques.

The lecture modules incorporate visual and auditory

modes of perception as well as the minor kinesthetic

influence of the computer keyboard or mouse that is

utilized by the student to move from one slide to the

next.

4.2. WebCT courseware

WebCT is a software package used to administer

internet courses. WebCT provides the interface bet-

ween the student and the on-line course and the

instructor. It provides a user-friendly platform for

organizing and presenting course material using a

central course web page interface. A part of the course

web home page is presented in Fig. 1. Many tools for

assessment, material dissemination, communication,

security/access control, and grading are provided as

part of the overall WebCT package as seen in Fig. 1.

WebCT provides many of the necessary tools to faci-

litate the incorporation of important pedagogical prin-

ciples in the on-line corrosion course.

4.3. Quizzes

On-line quizzes with immediate grading upon

submission provide a rapid means of assessing stu-

dent comprehension of course concepts. Each of the

18 quizzes is designed to provide one question for

each concept in the module. However, each question

is randomly selected from a pool of questions that

assess student comprehension of one concept. Calcu-

lated and multiple choice questions are used in the

quizzes as illustrated by the sample questions pre-

sented in Fig. 2. All of the calculated questions

utilize parameter values that are randomly generated

by the WebCT software package that compares the

student response to the value calculated by the com-

puter using the randomly generated parameter values

in an instructor provided formula. Consequently,

each quiz is unique for each student each time it is

taken. However, each quiz is designed to test the

student’s understanding of each important concept.

Students are allowed to take each quiz up to three

times. The highest score is recorded for grading

purposes.

Quizzes provide another method of presenting

course material, which assists learning through con-

Fig. 2. Computer screen image from one of the quizzes found in the on-line corrosion course.

Fig. 1. Computer screen image from the on-line corrosion course WebCT home page showing the part of the course web home page containing

most of the course tools.

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–3934

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–39 35

tent repetition, as well as an important assessment

tool. In addition, students are required to engage

important problem solving and information retention

skills, making the quizzes a very valuable learning

enhancement tool.

4.4. Virtual laboratory

A virtual laboratory was created for the on-line

corrosion course to provide a simulated laboratory

experience in which the visual, auditory, and kines-

thetic modes of perception are utilized. The virtual

laboratory is designed to simulate a laboratory experi-

ence from a visual and decision making perspective.

Students must first visit a stockroom as shown in Fig.

3 to select the items such as the chemicals and

electrodes that are necessary to perform an electro-

chemical corrosion experiment. The students are then

required to properly place and connect the electrodes

and wires that are needed for the experiment. Fig. 4

shows the experimental part of the virtual lab as it is

being assembled by the student. Students are also

required to put in appropriate quantities of chemicals

Fig. 3. Computer screen image from the stock

and water. The tests are run after selecting appropri-

ate test parameters such as rotational speed of the

rotating disk electrode, and the electrochemical

potential scan rate. A sample image of the virtual

lab after the experiment is set up and performed is

shown in Fig. 5.

The virtual corrosion laboratory provides impor-

tant learning opportunities in which different modes

of perception are utilized in a format that is differ-

ent than those provided by the other course tools.

The virtual laboratory allows students to set up,

perform, and acquire incorrect data when the experi-

ment is set up incorrectly. Students are also required

to analyze the data provided by the virtual labora-

tory experiments.

4.5. Group projects

Each student in the on-line corrosion course is

required to complete three corrosion assessment pro-

jects. Students are divided into groups of three. Each

student in the group is assigned to be the group leader

for one of the assessment projects. Each student is

room of the virtual corrosion laboratory.

Fig. 4. Computer screen image from the experimental laboratory portion of the virtual corrosion laboratory after partial assembly of the

laboratory equipment.

Fig. 5. Computer screen image of the experimental portion of the virtual corrosion laboratory after assembly and performance of an

electrochemical corrosion experiment.

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–3936

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–39 37

also correspondingly assigned as a group member for

the remaining assessment projects. Student perfor-

mance is evaluated by each group leader, and each

group leader’s performance is evaluated by the group

members. Performance evaluations comprise approxi-

mately 33% of the project grade.

The group projects provide a method of interaction

and cooperative learning as well as an opportunity to

develop and evaluate leadership and team member

skills.

4.6. Supplemental software

Supplemental software in the form of spreadsheets

with macros is made available to students to assist in

electrochemical corrosion test result prediction and in

statistical analysis of corrosion data. The supplemen-

tal spreadsheet materials provide an additional method

of presenting information in which the visual and

auditory senses are utilized.

4.7. Supplemental information

In order to provide another mode of material

presentation from a different perspective, additional

materials were recommended or provided to students.

The textbook, Principles and Prevention of Corrosion

by Jones (1996) was recommended as an excellent

supplemental information source to students. Other

material, such as more detailed explanations for the

thermodynamic and assessment sections of the

course were prepared and made available through

the course web site. This information provides an

opportunity for repetition of important concepts

using a mode of presentation that is different than

the lecture modules.

4.8. Image library

An image library containing images of corroded

materials was organized by corrosion type and pre-

sented in a corrosion image library. The purpose of the

library was to provide an opportunity for students to

view the effects of the main types of corrosion and to

learn to identify important features associated with the

various types of corrosion as seen in real world rather

than theoretical examples. The image library engages

primarily the visual perception mode and presents

examples in a format that is different from the lecture

modules.

4.9. E-mail communications

Communication between the instructor and the

students was facilitated by an e-mail system tool

provided through WebCT. The e-mail tool also pro-

vided the ability for students to communicate with

each other.

4.10. Solution sets to homework problems and exam

questions

Typed solution sets for homework problems and

exam questions were provided for students after sub-

mission of homework and exams to increase oppor-

tunities for students to understand the course concepts.

The solution sets provided additional exposure to

course concepts in a different format, thereby provid-

ing repetition of course concepts in a different manner

than other forms of presentation.

4.11. Proctored exams

All students taking the on-line corrosion course for

college credit were required to take proctored exams

in order to provide appropriate verification of course

concept mastery. Students were allowed to choose

testing centers that were convenient to them or

employment supervisors as proctors. All proctors

were required to provide a signed written statement

verifying that the student took the exam under the

conditions stated by the instructor. Exams were pro-

vided directly to the proctors by fax or e-mail imme-

diately prior to the scheduled exam time.

4.12. Course feedback

Students gave the corrosion course and instructor

high ratings (3.9/4.0). Thirty-two students have taken

the course during the 2001 and 2002 calendar years,

although 12 of those students attended in-class lec-

tures and demonstrations. Evaluation forms filled out

by students did not have questions that would allow

for a direct comparison of on-line and traditional

course delivery modes. However, student comments

and performance with respect to different aspects of

M.L. Free / Hydrometallurgy 79 (2005) 31–3938

the course provide significant insights into the effec-

tiveness of the on-line corrosion course. These

insights indicate that:

! Students with excellent English communication

preferred in-class lectures, although they are ge-

nerally very satisfied with the on-line version of the

corrosion course.

! Students that have difficulty with English commu-

nication preferred the on-line corrosion course

because of the ability to repeat lecture segments

multiple times.

! Students enjoyed the flexibility of the on-line

course. (More students enrolled for the course

during the on-line summer offerings (20) than for

the in-class version that was offered during Spring

Semester (12). (Note that the corrosion course is

not required by any department at the University of

Utah.)

! Performance of students taking the on-line version

of the course was identical to those taking the

traditional in-class version of the course. (85F10

and 85F8 for on-line and in-class student course

scores, respectively, out of maximum score of

100.) However, one student’s score from the on-

line group of 16 students was removed as a statis-

tical outlier because it was more than 4 standard

deviations from the average. Note that 4 of the on-

line students took the course for continuing educa-

tion (non-college) credit and were not required to

take proctored exams, so their scores were not

included in the averages reported.

! Group project work was difficult to administer

without specific module completion deadlines and

significant grade weighting on group interactions

and evaluations.

5. Conclusions

On-line courses can provide quality education to

students when pedagogical principles for enhanced

learning are applied through appropriate implementa-

tion of educational tools. The use of appropriate edu-

cational tools in on-line courses does not appear to

compromise student performance relative to those

offered in traditional in-class courses. Students with

schedule constraints can be offered additional flexi-

bility through on-line course delivery that can have

the added benefit of increasing course enrollment.

Students with language difficulties prefer on-line

course delivery due to the additional opportunity to

review the lecture multiple times, rather than only

once by traditional in-class delivery. However, the

additional flexibility offered by on-line courses should

be moderated by some specific deadlines to encourage

an appropriate course pace. Setting some module

completion deadlines facilitates student interactions

that are not otherwise feasible when students are on

independent completion schedules.

Acknowledgements

Partial financial assistance for the development of

the on-line corrosion course was provided by the Uni-

ted States National Science Foundation (Grant DMR-

9983945). Computer programming for the virtual cor-

rosion laboratory was performed by David P. Harding,

who was funded by the University of Utah. Professor

R. Peter King developed the virtual laboratory tem-

plate that formed the backbone of the virtual corrosion

laboratory. The author also wishes to acknowledge the

on-line education enthusiasm of Professor Saskia Duy-

vesteyn, who demonstrated the use of portions of the

WebCT quiz tool to the author and was an important

promoter of quality education in the Department of

Metallurgical Engineering at the University of Utah.

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