Teacher’s Guide to Archaeology at Meadowcroft Rockshelter...• Archaeologyis the science of studying material evidenceleftbehind by people in the past. Archaeology is a branch of

Teacher’sGuidetoArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterAComponentofFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter

ThisprogramisgenerouslyfundedbytheClaudeWorthingtonBenedumFoundation

Page1of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology

ContentsTeachingArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter...................................................................................2

IntersectionofArchaeologyThemeandDisciplines................................................................................4

ArchaeologyGigaPanInquiry...................................................................................................................5

MajorTermsandConcepts......................................................................................................................6

ArchaeologyatMeadowcroft.......................................................................................................................7

FindingaFieldSchool...............................................................................................................................8

PreparingforaFieldSchool.....................................................................................................................8

ExcavationProcess...................................................................................................................................9

DatingMeadowcroftRockshelter..............................................................................................................12

AssigningTimeTermsforTimeBeforetheWrittenWord.....................................................................12

RelativeDating.......................................................................................................................................13

AbsoluteDating......................................................................................................................................14

DiagnosticArtifacts................................................................................................................................15

ReportingtheStratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter..........................................................................16

TheOfficialReports................................................................................................................................17

Tables.........................................................................................................................................................28

StratigraphicProfileofMeadowcroftRockshelter.................................................................................28

ReportingTimeatMeadowcroftRockshelter........................................................................................29

Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................31


TeachingArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter

WhenplanningtherevisionsforFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter,theAdvisoryteammettheirgreatestchallengeindetermininghowtoproceedwiththethemeofArchaeology.TheprimaryaudiencefortheprojectwasK-12students,butarchaeologyisnotadisciplinethatisdirectlydefinedbyanysetofacademicstandards.Mostoftenitisapproachedasanelectivecourseforsecondaryclasses,ortaughtinsocialstudiesclassesforelementarystudents.However,Meadowcroftisknownfirstandforemostasanarchaeologicalsite.Howthentomakethearchaeologicalaspectsofthesiterelevantandinterestingforschoolstudents?

ThefirstchallengeinansweringthisquestionwastodeterminewhatstudentsshouldknowaboutarchaeologyatMeadowcroft,followedbyhowto“teach”it.ThefollowingpointsprovedusefulindetermininghowtodevelopprogrammingandresourcesfortheArchaeologytheme:

• Archaeologyisthescienceofstudyingmaterialevidenceleftbehindbypeopleinthepast.Archaeologyisabranchofthesubjectanthropology,thescientificstudyofallpeopleandwhattheydo,throughouttheworldandatalltimes.Anthropologystudiestheentirehumanexperience,includingourbiology,waysoflife,languages,andobjects.Anthropologydrawsuponthehumanities,socialsciences,andnaturalsciences.

• Archaeologyisusedtorefertotheprocessusedforexcavatingasitetoacquireevidenceofpastcultures,butalsoasthetermappliedtointerpretationsofwhatculturalevidencemightmean.

• Archaeologyborrowsmethodologiesfromnumerousdisciplines.Inparticular,archaeologyatMeadowcroftwoulddrawonmorethan30disciplines.Generally,theexcavationprocessandtheanalysisofretrieveddataareapproachedusingscientificmethods.Interpretationsoftheevidenceusesmethodsfromsocialstudies.

• AtMeadowcroft,exactingscientificmethodologiesresultedintheretrievalofdatafrom11naturalstratasupportedbyradiocarbondatesexceeding16,000years.Thestratigraphyrevealedacontinuousbutintermittenthumanoccupationoverthose16,000years,indicatingthepresenceofallmajorculturalgroupscommonlyassociatedwithPennsylvania.However,materialevidenceandradiocarbondatesindicatedthepresenceofpre-ClovisPaleo-Indiangroups,disruptingpreviouslyacceptedinformationabouttheidentityofthefirstprehistoricNorthAmericans.

MeadowcroftstaffcompiledseveralideasforarchaeologyprogrammingbasedonsuggestionsbytheAdvisoryteam.Intalkswithpilotteachers,theneedfordividingthearchaeologythemeintoaprocess/methodsprogramandafindingsprogramgainedcredenceforseveralreasons.First,pilotteachersfeltthedivisionemphasizedthescientificprocess,explainingwhyscientificmethodologyandinquiryisso


significanttodiscussionsofMeadowcroft.Second,teachersfeltthatexplorationsofculturalsignificancewereenhancedwhenstudentscouldexplaintheprocessbehinddataacquisition.Third,splittingthethemeensuredbetterprogramflowandtimingforon-siteprogramming.Asaresult,theinformationinthisguideexploresthearchaeologicalprocess,fromthediscoveryofthesite,toitspreparationandexcavation.Theclosingsectionofthisguideexploresthestratigraphyofthesiteandtheevidencescontainedineachlayer.InterpretationsofwhattheevidencemeansandthesignificanceofthePre-ClovisradiocarbondatesandartifactsaredetailedintheCulturalFindingsTeacherGuide.


IntersectionofArchaeologyThemeandDisciplinesThetablebelowsummarizeshowtheArchaeologythemeoftheFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRocksheltercurriculumcanbeusedtoexplorevariousacademicdisciplines.

ArchaeologyInquiryinFirstPeoples Science History Environmentand

EcologyGeography Technologyand

EngineeringArchaeology Althoughoften

groupedwithsocialsciences,archaeologyusesscientificmethodologyandprocedurestounderstandthelivesofhumansinthepast.AttritionofthesandstonecliffanddepositionofsedimentscreatedthestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter(geology).Radiocarbonassaywasusedtoscientificallydateculturalevidenceatthesite.

Thepurposeofarchaeologicalinvestigationistorevealpatternsabouthumancultureoverperiodsoftime.

Geofactsandecofactscontributeevidencetothestudyofarchaeology,particularlyregardingtheavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandhumanresponsetoenvironmentalconditions.

Geographycontributesevidenceaboutthemovementofhumansthroughthelandscape,resourcedistribution,humancharacteristicsofthelandscape,andtheinteractionsbetweenpeopleandtheenvironment.

ArchaeologicalevidenceandstratigraphycanbeusedtodemonstratehowprehistorictechnologiesandpracticeschangedovertimeatMeadowcroft.FieldSchoolsatMeadowcroftinthe1970sutilizedearlycomputertechnologiesinthesystematicorganizationofdataduringtheexcavation.

CulturalFindings(addressedintheCulturalFindingsCurriculum)

Elevennaturallyoccurringstrata(geology)and52RadiocarbonassaysindicateacontinuoushumanpresenceatMeadowcroftover16,000years.

AllknownNew-WorldculturalperiodsarerepresentedatMeadowcroft.Archaeologicalevidenceexplainshowthesecultureschangedovertimeandthesignificanceofthechanges.

TheabundantnaturalresourcesandarelativelystableclimateresultedincontinuousbutintermittenthumanuseofMeadowcroftover16,000years.Prehistoricpeoplesadaptedtominorclimaticepisodesandmodifiedtheiractivityatthesitebasedontheseasons.

Throughout16,000years,humanshavemodifiedtheCrossCreekwatershedtomeettheirevolvingneedsinresponsetothechangingenvironments.

Prehistoricpeopleadaptednewtechnologiesandpracticesinresponsetonaturalandculturalevolution.


ArchaeologyGigaPanInquiryTheFirstPeoplesArchaeologyGigaPaninquiryaddressesthefollowingpointsofinquirywithstudents.

ObjectivesStudentswill...

GradeBands

IndicatorsofMasteryStudentswillbeableto...

• Definearchaeology

• Identifyanddefinethetwocategoriesofculturalevidence:artifactsandfeatures

• Explorehowarchaeologistsuseagridsystemtodocumentthecontextofartifactsandfeatures

• Explorehowarchaeologistscreateachronologyforthesiteusingrelativedating(stratigraphyandtheLawofSuperposition)andscientificdating(radiocarbonassay)

• Discoverthepurposeofthefieldschoolandfieldlab

• Recognizethearchaeologicalmethodologiesandexcavationprocessasstate-of-the-art

11th-12thGrade

• AnalyzethearchaeologicalmethodologiesemployedatMeadowcroftRockshelter

• Differentiatebetweenartifactsandfeaturesandevaluatewhycontextiscrucialtointerpretingthem

• AnalyzeandEvaluaterelativeandscientificdatingmethodsthatareusedtoconstructachronologyofthesite

• Evaluatetheroleandfunctionofafieldschoolinarchaeologicaltraining

• AnalyzethemethodologiesusedatMeadowcroftanddescribehowthesehelpedtoadvancearchaeologicalthinking

8th-10thGrade

• ExplainthearchaeologicalmethodologiesemployedatMeadowcroftRockshelter

• Differentiatebetweenartifactsandfeaturesandevaluatewhycontextiscrucialtointerpretingthem

• Evaluaterelativeandscientificdatingmethodsthatareusedtoconstructachronologyofthesite

• Evaluatetheroleandfunctionofafieldschoolinarchaeologicaltraining

• ExplainthemethodologiesusedatMeadowcroftanddescribehowthesehelpedtoadvancearchaeologicalthinking

5th-7thGrade

• Explainthegoals,processandevidenceofarchaeologyatMeadowcroft

• Describeartifact,featureandcontextandexplainhowtheycontributetoanunderstandingoflifeatasite

• Explainhowarchaeologistsuserelativeandscientificdatingtoestablishchronology;writeanexampleofeachusingdatafromMeadowcroft

• Explainwhyarchaeologistsparticipateinfieldschools• ExplainwhyMeadowcroftisconsideredtobestate-of-

the-art


K-4thGrade

• RecognizetheMeadowcroftisanarchaeologicalsite• Explainthatarchaeologistsstudyartifactsandfeatures;

giveexamplesofeach• Explainwhatchronologyis• Describeafieldschool• Describewhatitmeansthebea“state-of-the-art”

excavation

MajorTermsandConceptsScatteredthroughoutthecurriculumguideandGigaPanexplorationaretermshighlightedinbold.Theseincludekeyvocabularyterms,concepts,anditemsofsignificance.Teacherscanincorporatethetermsinvocabularyandspellinglists

Terms Concepts IdentificationSignificanceArchaeologyArtifactClosed-SiteContextCulturalevidenceCulturalfeaturesDatumDriplineExcavationFeatureFieldDesignationTagsFieldLabFieldSchoolGeoarchaeologyGridSystemMethodologyMulti-disciplinaryStrata

Stratigraphy/LawofSuperpositionRelativeDatingScientificDating

IdentificationSignificanceAlbertMillerMeadowcroftRockshelterMeadowcroftVillageDr.JamesAdovasio


ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftThousandsofyearsagosmallgroupsofpeopletraveledtheCrossCreekValleylookingforfoodandshelter.Thesepeopledidnotusewrittenlanguageandwecannotreadaboutwhattheythoughtorhowtheylivedsowestudyarchaeology.Archaeologyisthescienceofstudyingmaterialevidenceleftbehindbypeopleinthepast.

Archaeologyisabranchofthesubjectanthropology,thescientificstudyofallpeopleandwhattheydo,throughouttheworldandatalltimes.Anthropologystudiestheentirehumanexperience,includingourbiology,waysoflife,languages,andobjects.Theseobjectsmadeormodifiedbyhumansaretheartifactsstudiedbyarchaeologists.Artifactsareobjectsproducedorshapedbyhumancraftinthepast.Mostarchaeologicalartifactsareburiedunderground.Thesecluesarerecoveredthougharchaeologicalexcavations.

Archaeologicalsitesoccurthroughouttheworld.Manymoderncities,roads,andotherstructuresarebuiltdirectlyontopofoldsites.Archaeologistscanoftenpredictwherethesesitesarebecausehumanbehaviorpatternstodayarenotverydifferentthanthesettlementpatternsexhibitedbyprehistoricpeople.Archaeologicalsites,likemodernsites,areoftenwherepeoplecanfindtheresourcestomeettheirbasicneeds,includingwater,shelter,andfood.MeadowcroftRockshelterisapredictablearchaeologicalsitebecause

itmeetsthesebasicneeds.

OnNovember15,1955,AlbertMillerwalkedalongCrossCreekonhisfamily’sfarmjustwestofthetownofAvella.Hisfamilyhadownedandfarmednearly800acrestheresince1795.AlbertintendedtoinvestigatetheRockshelternearthefarm’sboundarybecausemanyteenagerswouldhangoutandcampthere.ScatteredundertheRockshelterwerebottlesandtheremainsofcampfires.ThenMillerstumbleduponagroundhogholecontainingbitsofcharcoalandworkedflint.Heenlargedtheholeandfoundadditionalcharcoalandaprojectilepoint.Herealizedthatthesefindingsandtheideallocationofthesiteasacampprobablymeantthatmoreartifactswerebeneathhisfeet.Albertknewthatthehiddenstoryrequiredcarefulexcavationifthepartsofthestoryweretomakesense.Hewaitedtocross

Figure1AlbertMiller'sJournalnotinghisdiscoveryoftheRockshelter

ReadMoreAbouttheDiscoveryofMeadowcroftRockshelter:

40yearsofArchaeologyattheMeadowcroftRockshelterdiscussesAlbertMiller’sdiscoveryofMeadowcroftRockshelter,hissearchforanarchaeologisttoexcavatethesite,andtheUniversityofPittsburghfieldschoolsheadedbyDr.JamesAdovasio.ThepiecewouldbeusefulascontentforreadingactivitiesthatintroducestudentstoMeadowcroftRockshelter(2pages)

LegacyoftheLandexplorestherolesofDelvinandAlbertMillerinestablishingMeadowcroftMuseumonaportionoftheirfamily’sfarm.IncudesalengthyquotefromAlbertMillerthatdetailshisdiscoveryandinvestigationofagroundhogholeatMeadowcroftRockshelterwhicheventuallyresultedintheprofessionalarchaeologicalinvestigationofthesite.ThearticleisusefulfordiscussionsofpreservationandconservationandforAlbertMiller’sfirst-personexplanationofhisexplorationoftheRockshelter(6pages)


pathswithaprofessionalarchaeologistwhowouldbringthepropermethodologytoanexcavationoftheRockshelter.

FindingaFieldSchoolIn1972,Dr.JamesAdovasio,anarchaeologistattheUniversityofPittsburgh,waschallengedtolocateasitelocatedwithinworkingdistanceofPittsburghtouseasafieldschoolforstudentsintheArchaeologicalResearchProgram.Thesitewastoserveasthefocalpointofamulti-yearresearchenterprise.Thesite’srequirementsincludedaccessibility,manageablesize(under50,000acres),potentiallong-termprehistoricoccupation,andtheabsenceofanypreviousextensiveresearchactivitiesinthearea.Mostimportantly,thesitewastohaveatleastonerelativelyundisturbedclosed-site,eitheracaveorarockshelter.Dr.Adovasio’spreviousresearchwasinclosed-sitecontexts,whichallowforbetterpreservationoforganicmaterials.Suchsitesareoftenoccupiedandreoccupiedintermittentlyforthousandsofyearsandcanbeusedaschronologicalanchorpointsforgivenareas.

Throughoutthewinterof1972-1973,wordcirculatedthroughoutsouthwesternPennsylvaniathattheUniversityofPittsburghwaslookingforarockshelterorcavesitetoconductafieldschool.AprofessoratCaliforniaStateCollege(nowCaliforniaUniversityofPennsylvania)informedDr.AdovasioofaRockshelteratMeadowcroftVillage,areconstructednineteenth-centurystyle“village”developedbyAlbertandDelvinMilleronaportionoftheirfamilyfarm.Afterviewingthesite,Dr.AdovasiodeterminedthatMeadowcroftcouldserveasanexcellentfieldschoolbecauseofitsproximitytoPittsburgh,theintactnatureofthesite,thepresenceoftherockshelterandampleabundantresources,andtheproperty’ssituationandoperationasMeadowcroftVillage.

PreparingforaFieldSchoolTheinvestigationatMeadowcroftRockshelterstartedpriortobreakingground.Firstthearchaeologicalteamconductedsurveysofthelocalfloraandfaunathenmappedthesitetopography.AllvegetationinandaroundtheRockshelter,onthetalus(brokenrockdebris)slopeinfrontoftheshelter,andonthecontiguousuplandslopewasinventoried.ThentheyclearedthelandinandaroundtheRockshelter,strippingallvegetationwithin20m(65.6feet)eastandwestofthemid-pointonthemodern-dayRockshelteroverhangwasstrippedtogroundlevel.

ReadMoreAboutDr.AdovasioandtheMeadowcroftFieldSchoolTheGreatJourneyisanautobiographicalaccountofhowDr.JamesAdovasiocametobeinvolvedwiththetwomosthighlycontestedpre-ClovisNewWorldarchaeologicalsites:MeadowcroftRockshelterandMonteVerdeinChile.Adovasiodetailshisworkwithclosed-sitemethodologiesandperishabletechnologies.Thearticleisofgreatuseinexplainingthetwistingpathsofacareerinacademia;studentsthinkingofpursuingsecondaryandpost-secondaryeducationwillbenefitfromreadingAdovasio’sexperience.Thearticleisusefulforcareerexplorationandpresentsahumanfacetoarchaeology.


Withthephysicalexcavationspacereadied,archaeologistsestablishedagridsystemtoenablethereckoningofallhorizontalcoordinates.Thegridsystemoriginallyconsistedof2m(6.6ft.)squareunits,whichwaslatermodifiedinto1m(3.3ft.)squareunitsduringthe1974andlaterfieldseasons.Inaddition,0.5mand0.25m(1.6and0.8ft.)squareunitswereemployedwhenrequiredformorepreciserecording.Last,apermanentelevationdatumandsubsidiarydatawereaffixedtothenorthwalloftheRockshelterfromwhichallverticalmeasurementsweretaken.Archaeologistswouldrecordthelocationofallexcavateddatabyusingthegridsystemcoordinatesandtheverticaldatawithinthesite.

ArchaeologistsarrivedatMeadowcroftonJune15,1973forthefirstsummerfieldschool.Duringthenextsixfieldseasons(springandsummer),amulti-disciplinaryteamofexpertsworkedside-by-sidewithcollegestudentsforatotalof417excavationdaysof12to14hours.AdditionalworkwasconductedunderDr.AdovasiowiththeMercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitute,MercyhurstCollegeinthe1990sassitemaintenance.

ExcavationProcessDr.Adovasio’steamdesignedtheexcavationatMeadowcrofttogatherallpossibledata.Everystepoftheprocesswasplannedanddocumentedtopreservethecontextofanyrecovereddata.Contextisthethree-dimensionallocationofanartifactorfeatureinrelationtoalltheotherartifacts,features,geofacts,orecofactsaroundit,includingsoil.Theexcavationprocessistediousbecauseoncethesoilisremovedfromasite,itcannotbereplaced.Archaeologyisadestructivescience:evidenceonceremovedcannotberecreated.Greatcareisnecessarytoensurethatallinformationisrecordedandrecordedaccuratelysincetherearenosecondchances.

Excavationsbeganbyopeningasouthtonorthtrenchthatstartedoutsidethedriplineandworkedintothedryportionoftheshelter.Thedriplineisasmallbutdistinctpatterninthesoilthatformswhenrainwaterisfocusedtodripincertainplaces;inthiscase,itisthelineofwherewaterdripsofftheRockshelteroverhang.Thistrenchprofilerevealedthevariousstrataandprovidedabaselinesiteprofilethatspannedtheexteriorandinteriorportionsoftheshelterrelativetothedripline.Thetrenchwasexpandedasthesituationdictatedin1973,andsubsequentfieldseasonsintoitspresentconfiguration.

Archaeologistsexcavatedeachsquareofthegridusingtrowels,dentalpicksorothersmallutensilsasneeded,whilefollowingthenaturalstratigraphyand,whenpossible,microstratigraphyoftheshelter.Whenanaturalstratumwassufficientlythick,itwassubdividedintoarbitrary5or10cmexcavationlevels.Strataandmicro-stratawereinitiallydefinedbysubjectivecriteriaincludingtexture,apparent

ViewlookingwestofMeadowcroftRockshelterpriortoexcavation(PhotographybyDr.JamesAdovasio,May1972)

Page10of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology

composition,friability,degreeofcompactionand,onamorelimitedbasis,color.Objective,quantifiableverificationsoftheintegrityoftheseunitswaslaterprovidedbychemical,grainsize,andcompositionalanalysis.

Standardizedfieldformswereusedtomapandmakenotesabouteachlevelwithineachsquareatthesite.Thedatawerecodifiedandcomputerizedeitheronsite(1974andlater)orinthearchaeologicallaboratoryattheUniversityofPittsburgh.Atthebeginningofthe1974season,phonelineswerestrungintotheshelterandaTTYcomputerterminal(teletype:adesksizedkeyboardwithcomputerpaperfeedthatprintedoutallcommandsandresponses,ithadnovisualmonitordisplay)wassetupintheshelter.TheTTYterminalwasconnectedtotheUniversityofPittsburghmainframeoverthephonelineusinga300-baudacousticalmodem.TheTTYterminalwasusedtoinputdataasitwasgeneratedonthesiteforfasterprocessingandanalysis,whichinturnaidedindetermininghowtheexcavationswouldproceed.Inadditiontostandardizedfieldforms,archaeologistskeptextensivefieldnotes,torecordtheirobservations,thoughtsandnon-standardizedinformation.

Allfillfromthestrataexceptthedeepestoccupationalunit,StratumIIa,wasdry-processedthrough¼inch(0.6cm)meshhardwarecloth.FillfromStratumIIawaswetprocessedwithwaterthrough1/8-inch(0.3cm)meshhardwarecloth.Ifthefillwasfromstratumfillorfromafeatureunrelatedtofiring(i.e.notahearthorfire-floor),itwasprocessedusingwaterflotationthroughgradedsieves.Ifasamplewasderivedfromafirefeature,itwasalsoprocessedthroughgradedsievesusinghydrogenperoxideflotation.Thecombinationofdry/wetscreeningandflotationproceduresresultedintherecoveryofovertwomillionseparateitemsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter.Theseitemscanbesortedintoseveralcategories,includingartifacts,geofacts,andecofacts.

CulturalFeatures,orareasofhumanactivity,werequarteredorcross-sectionedandmappedinthreedimensions.Featuresincludefirepits,garbagepits,workspaces,etc.Theseareascannotberemovedfromthefieldbecausetheymustbedestroyedtobeunderstood.Archaeologistscarefullydocumentedeachculturalfeature.Excavationprofilesweredrawnevery1mor0.5m(3.3or1.6ft.)intervalsthroughouttheexcavation.Thedistributionofrockspallsfromtheshelterroofalsodeterminedtheamountoffloorspaceavailabletoprehistoricoccupantsthroughtime,andspecialcarewasmadetomapvirtuallyallspallsthatwerelargerthan4squaredcentimeters(1.6squareinches).Therecordingandcomputerizationofthecoordinatesforroofspalls,culturalfeatures,otherculturalandnonculturalremains,permittedlaterproductionoflarge-scale“floor”mapsforthestrataandmicrostateoftheshelter.Thesemapshelpedarchaeologists“draw”thehumanandgeologicalactivityatthesiteatanygiventime.

Inadditiontoexcavatingculturalmaterials,archaeologistssearchedforcluesaboutthenaturalenvironmentsurroundingtheRockshelter.Theseecofactsaredatathatrevealsinformationaboutpastenvironmentsandsourcesincludingpollen,plantremains(includingcharcoalfromburnedplants),andanimalbones.MuchoftheecologicaldatafromMeadowcroftwasrecoveredusingthefloatationprocessmentionedabove.Duringtheflotationprocess,excavatedsoilwasplacedinatubwithascreenbottom.Standinginflowingwater,archaeologistssubmergedthebottomofthetubinthewaterwithin


afewinchesoftherim.Finegrainedsoilpassedthroughthesievebottomwithwater.Floatingmaterialswereskimmedandputinapantodry.Anyheavymaterialssanktothebottomandwereremovedforanalysis.Whentheskimmedmaterialsweredry,theywerecarefullysortedintocategoriesthatincludedseeds,grainsofpollen,andotherfragmentsofplants(includingcharcoalfromburnedplants).Theheaviermaterials,whichincludeanimalbonesandmolluskshells,wentthroughasimilarsortingandclassificationprocess.Thedatagatheredfromflotationhelpedarchaeologistsunderstandtheplantsandanimalsthatlivedaroundpre-historicMeadowcroft.

ArchaeologistscollectednumeroussamplestogaininsightaboutthecompositionofgeologicmaterialsinsideandsurroundingtheRockshelter.ThesegeofactshelpedarchaeologistsunderstandhowtheRockshelterstratigraphyformed.Geofactsaredatathatrevealsinformationabouttheageandformationoflandforms.Onegroupofsamplescutfromselectedareasacrossthesite,revealedthecompositionofallmajorstrata.Thesesampleswerealsoanalyzedforgeochemicalcomposition,traceelementanalysis,andmicro-faunalstudy.Anothersamplecollectedyear-roundbeginningin1974andcontinuingthrough1978establishedthetype,characterandvolumeofmodernsedimentationatthesite.Thesefindingswerecomparedwiththetemperature,humidity,precipitationandotherfactorstogaininsightintomodernsedimentationattheRockshelter.Athirdstudymeasuredthesheetwashaffectingthesite,providingagaugebywhichtoexaminethecolluvialpileattheRockshelter.ThefinalgeologicalsamplingstudiedtheerosionattheRockshelterface.

AttheendofeachfieldseasonatMeadowcroft,archaeologistsconstructedawoodenshelterovertheexcavation.Theenclosureprotectedthedigfromweatherandfromvandalism.Allexcavatedmaterialsfromtheseason,includingartifacts,floral,faunal,geologicalsamples,fieldnotes,filmoftheexcavations,andtheTTYterminalweretransportedtotheUniversityofPittsburghorprojectaffiliatedinstitutionsanduniversitiesforanalysisbytheappropriatespecialists.

AnarchaeologicalsitelikeMeadowcroftgeneratesalotofinformation.However,muchoftheinformationisoflittleusetonon-specialistswithoutsomeinterpretation.Archaeologistspublishedaseriesofinterimreportsonthedataderivedfromthe1970seraexcavations.ThematerialsinthesereportsaremorecomprehensivethanmostfinalreportsandprovidemostofthedataandsourcematerialforthiscurriculumandothereducationalprogramsabouttheMeadowcroftRockshelter.Whilesomearchaeologistscontestedtheresultsoftheexcavation(readmoreintheCulturalFindingsResources),allreviewersagreedthatthemethodologyandprocessesemployedontheMeadowcroftprojectwerestate-of-the-artandreflectedbestpracticesforclosedarchaeologicalsites.

DatingMeadowcroftRockshelter

MeadowcroftRockshelter’sstorycoversalongperiodoftime:theearliestgeologicdatesgobacknearly300millionyears.Individualarchaeological,geologicalorecologicalfactsareinterestingandimportant,buttheyoftenrepresentasinglemomentintime.Togainunderstandingofhowandwhythingschanged,archaeologistsandotherspecialistsmustlookforpatternsthatoccuroverbroadspansoftime.GeologichistoryoftheMeadowcroftRockshelterandCrossCreekwatershedoccurredslowlyovermillionsofyears.Bycontrast,theculturalstoryofthesiteiscondensedinthepast16,000years.Thesearevastamountsoftimethatentaildifferentmethodsofreporting.ThediscussionbelowisofferedtohelpexplainthedifferenttermsforexpressingthepassageoftimeandthereasonsfordoingsoindiscussionsofMeadowcroftRockshelter.

AssigningTimeTermsforTimeBeforetheWrittenWord

MeadowcroftRockshelterisprimarilyaprehistoricarchaeologicalsite.Meadowcroftspans16,000yearsofhumanoccupation;onlyaboutthelast300yearscanbecorroboratedwiththewrittenrecord.Mostofhumanhistoryissimilarlyprehistoric,oroccurringbeforetheadventofwrittenlanguage.Archaeologyisthereforetheonlymeanswehaveofunderstandingthelivesofpeoplepriortowrittenhistory.

Sinceprehistoryoccurredbeforewrittenlanguage,archaeologistsmustfindwaystodesignatethepassageoftime.Initially,attheturnofthenineteenthtothetwentiethcentury,thepassageoftimeatarchaeologicalsiteswasbasedontheChristiancalendar.TimewasrecordedbasedonthelifeofChrist:A.D.referredtoAnnoDomini(AfterChrist),whileB.C.referredtoeventsthathappenedBeforeChrist.Similarly,allartifacts,regardlessoforigin,wereidentifiedbycomparisonswiththoseofOldWorldarchaeologypertainingtoancientGreece,RomeandEgypt.However,withanincreaseinprofessionalanthropologicalstudy,theoldstandardsfordatingprovedinadequateandculturallybiased.

Archaeologyhascomealongwayfromthenineteenth-centurytechniquesusedfordatingartifactsandsites.Today,determiningthe

NativeAmericanCulturalPeriodsatMeadowcroftRockshelter

ArchaeologistsatMeadowcroftusefivedesignatorstoexplainthechangesbetweenculturalgroupsatMeadowcroft.Theyare:

HistoricorContact(1550-1750AD)

Woodland(1550-2700BP)

Transitional(2700-4300BP)

Archaic(4300-10,000BP)

Paleoindian(10,000-16,500BP)

TheWoodlandandArchaicperiodsaresubdividedintoEarly,MiddleandLate.Eachculturalperiodhasauniquesetofcharacteristicsthatdifferentiateitfromtheotherperiods.Mostofthecharacteristicsrelatetotechnologyasevidencesinmaterialculture:distinctionsintools,ceramics,basketryandotherartifacts.


ageofartifactsandarchaeologicalsitesremainsanimportantstepininterpretingthesignificanceofasite.Fortunately,methodsforassigningdatesareincreasinglyaccurate:since1950,advancesinatomicsciencehavemadeitpossibletoassignprecisedatesderivedbymeasuringthepassageoftimeittakesforradio-carbon14todecay.Similarly,archaeologistshavedevelopednewsetsofdiagnosticartifactsthatapplytotheNewWorld.Byreportingtimeinrelativeandscientificways,archaeologistsarebetterequippedtocommunicatethepassageoftimeatexcavations.

RelativeDating

Thebasicmethodforassigningagetoarchaeologicalsitesisthroughstratigraphy,thelayeringofrockandsoilinanarchaeologicalsite.TheprinciplebehindstratigraphyistheLawofSuperposition.TheLawofSuperpositionindicatesthatartifactsclosesttothesurfacearenewest,whiledeeperartifactsareolder.Asarchaeologistsexcavate,thestratigraphyofthesiterevealsitself,withlayersofculturalactivitystackedontopofoneanother.Asstrataareuncovered,theyarecarefullydocumentedsincetheactofexcavationremovesthelayers.ArchaeologistsusestratigraphyandtheLawofSuperpositiontoassignrelativedatestoasite.Thedatesdonottellaspecifictime,butinsteaddemonstratethatobject#1isolderthanobject#2because#1wasfoundinalowerlayer.

AtMeadowcroftRockshelter,stratigraphicexcavationentailedsiftingthroughelevenlayersofinformationtodeterminetherelativeagesofeachculturallayerastheyrelatetooneanother.ThereareelevennaturalstrataatMeadowcroft,assignednumericaldesignatorsbeginningwiththeoldestStratum(I)andproceedingtothelatest(XI).StratumIistheoldestanddeepestlayer,whileStratumXIistheuppermostandnewestlayer.Onestrata,StratumIIisfurthersubdividedintoStratumIIaandStratumIIbbyarockfall.

ThefirstpeoplevisitedMeadowcroftRockshelterwhenStratumIIwasthesurfacefloorunderneaththeoverhangingroof.ThesepeopleusedPaleo-technologies,includinglargespearpointsliketheMillerlanceolate.TheystayedattheRockshelterforshortperiodsoftimebeforemovingon.Slowly,othergroupsofpeoplecametothesite,stayedandthenmovedon.Eachtimepeoplecametothesite,theyleftevidenceoftheiractivitiesintheformsofcharcoalfromfires,bonesandseedsfromfood,ortoolsthatwereforgotten.

MeadowcroftRockshelterStratigraphy

Strata CulturalPeriod

XI Historic

X LatePre-historic

IX LatePre-historic

VIII LatePre-historic

VII LateWoodland

VI Late/MiddleWoodland

V Early/MiddleWoodland

IV EarlyWoodland

III Terminal/EarlyWoodland

IIb MiddleArchaic

IIaupper EarlyArchaic

IIamiddle Paleoindian

IIalower Paleoindian

I Culturallysterile


Overalongperiodoftime,geologicalactivityaroundtheRocksheltercausedsedimenttoentertheoverhangandburyevidenceofhumanactivity.Ittook13,000yearsforthe40-130inchesofsedimentthatmakeupStrataIItobedepositedontheflooroftheRockshelter.Eachstratigraphiclayerformedinasimilarfashion:sedimentwouldentertheRockshelter,graduallycoveringthepreviousfloorandburyinganyculturalartifactsintheprocess.

RelativeDatingisbasedonstratigraphy.Asmentionedabove,StratumIIislowerandthereforeolderthanStratumIII.Stratigraphydoesnottellustheageofartifactsinyears,butitdoeshelpustounderstandwhichartifactsareolderbasedontheirverticallocationwithinanexcavationsite.

AbsoluteDating

Incontrasttorelativedating,absolutedatingassignsahighlyaccuratedaterange,measuredinyearsbeforethepresent,toanartifact.Thisdate,orrangeofdates,isderivedfromcarefullaboratoryanalysisthathasoriginsinnuclearresearchduringWorldWarII.Since1950,advancesinthistechnologyhaveenabledscientiststomoreaccuratelymeasurethepassageoftimeexperiencedbyanobject.Thiscommontypeofabsolutedatingisreferredtoascarbon-14(C14)orradiocarbondating.

ArchaeologistsuseCarbon-14datingtodeterminehowoldanorganicsubstanceis.Alllivingthingscontainandabsorbcarbon,bothC12andC14,theunstable,radioactiveisotope.Assoonassomethingdies,theunstableC14beginstodecayintonitrogen.Whenhalf(50%)ofthenormalamountofC14inalivingthinghasdecayedintonitrogen,onehalf-lifeofcarbon-14hadelapsed.Scientistsknowthatthehalf-lifeofcarbon-14is5730years.Bymeasuringthepercentageoftheremainingofcarbon-14,wecancalculatetheageofanartifact.CarbondatesfromtheMeadowcroftRockshelterplacetheearliestculturalevidenceataround16,000yearsold.Whilehighlyaccurate,thecarbon-14datescanonlymeasuretheageoforganicsubstancesuptoabout50,000yearsold.Fortunately,humanoccupationatMeadowcroftfallswithinthatspanoftimeandalltheculturalartifactsatthesitearerelatedtoculturalfeaturescontainingcharcoalderivedfromwood.

Carbon-14datesarerecordedasanumberfollowedbytheletters“YBP”orjust“BP”.Theselettersstandfor“YearsBeforePresent”or“BeforePresent”.Theyear1950isusedasthepresent.Therefore,somethingwiththecarbondate10,000BPwoulddatebackto10,000yearsbefore1950.Asseenabove,Carbon-14datesarenotreallydates.Insteadtheyarenumbersthatreflectthepassageoftimesinceanorganicobjectdied.ThisnumbercanvarybecausetheamountofC-14intheatmospherechangesyeartoyear.Toaccountforthedeviation,Carbon-14datesmustbecalibrated,orcorrected,usingdendrochronological(tree-ring)recordsorcomputersoftwareprograms.MostCarbon-14datesarethereforereportedasanumber±anumber,forinstance,10850±870BP.

ToachievethedatesassignedtoMeadowcroftRockshelter,archaeologistssubmittedonehundred(100)charcoalsamplestotheRadiationBiologyLaboratoryoftheSmithsonianInstitution.OneadditionalsamplewassubmittedtotheDicarbRadioisotopeCompany.Allbuttwoofthesampleswere


derivedfromfirepitsorcharcoallenseswithinthedepositsundertheRockshelter.Theothertwosampleswerebasketryfragments.Radio-carbondatingascribestheinitialoccupationoftheRocksheltertothefifteenthmillenniumB.C.,andthemostrecentradiocarbondatesassociatedwithaboriginalhumanmaterialsisA.D.1265±80(685YBP).

DiagnosticArtifacts

Archaeologistshaveoneadditionaltoolthatiscommonlyusedformakingsenseofwhenhumanscreatedorusedaspecificartifact.Thistechniqueisthecomparisonofcertaintypesofculturalartifactswithotherartifactsofknownageandorigin.Diagnosticartifactsareobjectsthathavestylistictraitsthataredistinctiveduringacertainperiod,usuallytheseartifactsarelithicprojectilepointsorceramics.

Thefunctionsofartifactsremainthesameoverlongperiodsoftimeandthroughdiverseculturalgroups:articlesofclothing,vesselsforfoodstorageandcooking,toolsforhunting,etc.However,astimepasses,changesinstyleimpacttheappearanceofartifacts.Thisisespeciallytrueforartifactsthatsurviveingreatnumbers,suchasceramics,lithics,and,forlatersites,glasswareandmetals.Archaeologistsusethestylisticcharacteristicsofartifactstounderstandtheevolutionofobjects.Theyillustratethesefindingsontypologychartsthatdemonstratewhencertaintechnologiescameintouseandhowtheychangedovertime.Thehistoryofanartifactcanbetracedonthesequencingchart,withdeviationsindicatingpreferencesbetweendifferentgroupsofpeopleorchangesinavailablematerials.Whenadditionalartifactsareunearthedatanyarchaeologicalsite,theycanbecomparedwithknowndevelopmentdatesontypologycharts.Comparisonswithknowntypesallowarchaeologiststomakeinformedestimatesabouttheageofanartifact.

Usuallyallthetechniquesareusedtodescribetheageofanartifact.Usuallyallthetechniquesareusedtoassignadatetoanartifact,rarelyjustonemethodisused.Anobject’splaceinthestratigraphyofasitecanassignarelativedatewhencomparedwithotherobjectswithinthesite.Thecontextoftheartifactcanalsobeusedtoexplainhoworwhentheartifactwasused.Forinstance,anarchaeologistmaydeterminethatapotsherdfoundnearanEarlyWoodlandcookinghearththatisinStratumIVatMeadowcroftmustalsodatetotheEarlyWoodlandperiodbecausetheshardisdirectlyassociatedwiththecookinghearth.TheLawofStratigraphydemonstratesthatthesherdandthehearthmustdatetothesameperiodsincetheyarefoundinthesamelayer.ComparisonswiththestyleofsimilarshardsfromMeadowcroftandothersiteswouldhelptoverifythepot’smanufactureintheEarlyWoodlandPeriod.Finally,byradiocarbon14datingthecharcoalassociatedwiththeshard,anarchaeologistmightfindthatthecharcoaldatesto3050YBPor340±90BCto1100±85BC.Thescientificallyderivedradiocarbondatefromaculturalfeaturesharingthesamecontext,theassociationwithotherdiagnosticartifacts,andtheshard’splacementwithinMeadowcroft’sstratigraphyallsuggestoriginsinthesameperiod.

ReportingtheStratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelterThisessaywascompiledfromseveralofthereportspublishedinMeadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyof

MeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Abibliographyoftheseworksislistedattheendofthisessay.Alldataiscitedtothespecificreportinthetext.

Chronologyisthebackboneofarchaeology.Archaeologistshavenumeroustoolsforestablishingthechronologyofasite,butthesinglemostbasictoolisstratigraphy.Stratigraphyisthelayeringofmaterialsinanarchaeologicalsite.

ThestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelterformedoveralongperiodoftimeasnaturalgeologicalforcesessentiallyfilledtheRockshelterbackin.BytheendofthePleistocene,CrossCreekhaderodeddowntothebedrockthatwouldserveasStratumI,leavingtheRockshelterhighanddryabovethefloodplainofCrossCreek.Gradually,overthousandsofyears,sedimentsweredepositedundertheroofoverhang-fillinginthespacetodepthsofover15feetinsomeareas-untilthegroundlevelwasatthegroundhogholediscoveredbyAlbertMillerin1955.

StratigraphyatMeadowcroftismadeupofcolluvium,fill(sedimentandsoil)depositedbygravityordownslopemovement.Therearenoabruptdemarcationsinthecolluvialfilltoindicatetothenakedeyewhereonestratumstopsandanotherbegins.Instead,eachstratumiscomposedofvariouscolluviallayersandinterfaces.Eachwasmeticulouslyexcavatedusingthebeststratigraphicmethodologyavailableinthe1970s.Precisegeologicalanalysiswasnecessarytodistinguishthelayers,someofwhichweresofinethattheyhadtoberemovedwithrazorblades.Theselayersvaryinthickness,depositionalmode,forceandrate.ThegeologicprocessofcolluvialdepositionisdetailedintheFirstPeoplesGeologymaterials.

Archaeologistsexcavatedfromthe1973surfacedownward,assigningeachstratumanumberedtagastheyencounteredit.Thetagsweremountedtothewalloftheexcavationsitetohelpmaintainthe

ReadingStratigraphyforTeachers

Inthediscussionbelow,bothtextandtablesareusedtosummarizethestratigraphicfindingsatMeadowcroftRockshelter.TeacherscanusethisinformationtoprovidedataforclassroomactivitiesortoexplainwhatstudentsareseeingwhentheyexaminetheGigaPanphotographsoftheinterioroftheRockshelter.

Thetablesareorganizedtodemonstratestratigraphythroughchangeovertime:Radiocarbon(scientific)dates,diagnosticartifacts,andassignedculturalperiodsarenoted.Archaeologistsusetheradiocarbonassaysanddiagnosticartifactstocomparewithotherknownsitesbeforeassigningtheculturalperiod.

ThestratigraphicfindingsareinterpretedintheCulturalSignificanceTeacher’sGuide.


contextforanydataretrievedfromthelayer.Thetagsarelabeledwith“F”+anumber.The“F”standsfor“fielddesignation,”meaningacriticallocationwithintheexcavation.Manyfielddesignationtagsremainintheexcavationsitetoday:eachwhitetagaffixedtothewallisafielddesignationtag.

Meadowcroft’sstratigraphyprovedtobeexceptionallydeepandintact:archaeologistsultimatelyfoundelevenwell-definedstratigraphicunitsatthesite.ThestrataarenumberedfromStratumI(F99),theoldestanddeepestunit,toStratumXI(F3,F8),theuppermostandyoungest.Eachstratumrepresentstheperiodoftimewhenthelayerwasonthesurface.ApplyingtheLawofSuperpositiontothestratigraphy,archaeologistscoulddeterminethatthedeepestmaterials(StratumIIa)wereoldest.Theirpremisewassubstantiatedbyradiocarbonassayswererunonsamplesfromthisandotherstrata,firmlydatingtheelevenstrataandvariousoccupationsoftheRockshelter.

TheOfficialReportsTheofficialreportsonthestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter,summarizedbelow,explainthreeprimarycategoriesofinformation.First,thecomposition,thickness,continuity,andlocationofeachstratasuggeststhegeologicstratigraphyofthesite.ThisinformationexplainsthegeologicforcesthatfilledtheRockshelterbackin,creatingthestratigraphy.Secondly,theorderingofthelayersprovidesageneralmarkerusedforrelativedating,calledtheLawofSuperposition.UsingtheLawofSuperposition,archaeologistscouldconcludethatitemsinStratumIIIareyoungerthanthoseinStratumIIbecausethoseofStratumIIIarefoundaboveStratumII.Thisdatingwasthensubstantiatedwhenpossiblethroughradiocarbonassay,scientificdatingwhichwhencorrected,yieldsanapproximatedatefororganicmaterialsinaspecificlayer.Lastly,thereportsfocusontheappearanceofculturalmaterialsineachlayerandthechangesindiagnosticartifactsandsiteuseatthesiteatatimewheneachlayerwasatthegroundlevel.

Thestratigraphyishererepresentedindescendingorder,asitwouldhavebeenexcavated.StratumXIrepresentsthesurfaceofthegroundwhentheMeadowcroftfieldschoolscommencedin1973.

StratumXIStratumXIwasfoundatthetopofeveryexcavatedunitandisconsideredcontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverliesStratumXinsidethedriplineandStratumIXoutsidethedriplineandinsidethedriplinewhereStratumXdoesnotoccur.Itrangesinthicknessfrom12to15cm(4.7to5.9in)andismostlysiltyclaywithsomelargerparticlesbroughtinbysheetwash.A

SummaryforStratumXI(F3,F8)RadiocarbonDateRange

DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod

175B.P.+50years(A.D.1775,uncorrected;SI3013)

Lithic(Fitzgibbons1982:102):2ChesserNotchedpointsCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds

Historic


singleradiocarbondatewasobtainedoncharcoalfromafeatureinthislevel.Fourfirepits/hearthsandonedogburialwererecordedinStratumXI(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).

TheculturalmaterialsfromStratumXIwereassignedprimarilytotheHistoricEuroamericanPeriod.However,afewprehistoricartifactswerealsorecovered(Stuckenrathetal,1982:78).WatsonwareandMonongahelawaresherdswererecoveredfromslumpedmatrixfromlevelsVIII-XI(depositionsthatmovedfromtheiroriginalpositionbecauseofnaturalsettlingactions).Perishableremainsincludedonequadrilateralunpointedwoodentwig,onesquarecutonequarterroundwoodentwig,onebeveledwoodchip,twoawltipsandoneutilizedantlertine(Stile1982:138).Thelargestamountsofnutshell,intermsofgrossweight,wererecoveredfromStratumXI.Walnut/butternut,hickoryandacornshellswererecoveredalongwithseedsfromCercissp.(rebud)andArctiumsp.(burdock).

StratumX

StratumXisonlyfoundinthewestern3/4softheexcavatedunitsinsidethedriplineanddoesnotoccuroutsidethedripline.ItliesaboveStratumIXandbelowStratumXIinsidethedripline.StratumXvariesinthicknessfrom1to5cm(0.4to2.0in)andiscomposedprimarilyofcoarserparticles(>0.4mm)withsomesiteandclay.Noradiocarbondateswereobtainedforthisstratumsincecharcoalsamplesweretoosmalltoprocess.Itshouldbeyoungerthan600B.PandhasaterminaldatepossiblyduringtheHistoricPeriod.Onlyonefireplace/hearthwasrecordedinthislevel(Stuckenrathetal,1982:79).

ChippedandgroundstoneartifactsfromStratumXwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandPeriodandtherealsoweresomeHistoricEuro-Americanartifacts(Stuckenrathetal,1982:77).Thelaterhistoricartifactswereconsideredintrusiveintothestratum.Nodiagnosticprojectilepointswererecoveredfromthisstratum.As

previouslynoted,aslumpfromStrataVIIItoXIproducedWatsonWareandMonongahelawaresherds.Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedonequadrilateralunpointedwoodentwig,onewoodencube,onebeveledwoodchip,sevenirregularlycutwoodchipsandoneboneawltip(Stile1982:138).

StratumIXStratumIXwasfoundinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItisfoundoverStratumVIIIinsidethedriplineandStratumVIIoutsidethedriplineandinthoseunitsinsidethedriplinewhereStratumVIIIdoesnotexist.ItunderliesStratumXinsidethedriplineandStratumXIoutsidethedripline.Coarserparticles(>0.4mm)composemostofthematrixinsidethedriplinewithsomesilt-andclay-sizedparticles.Outsidethedripline,theamountofsilt-andsand-sizedparticlesexceedsthatofthecoarsermaterials.Oneradiocarbondatewasobtainedoncharcoalfromthis

SummaryforStratumX(F25)RadiocarbonDateRange

Diagnosticartifacts CulturalPeriod

none Lithics:NoneCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds

LateWoodlandHistoric


stratum.ItrepresentsoneofthefourdatereversalsnotedintheMeadowcroftradiocarbonsequenceasitisolderthanthedatefromStratumVIII.Twofirepits/hearthswererecordedinthisunit.

CulturalmaterialsfromStratumIXwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandperiod.DiagnosticCeramicswererecoveredfromaslumpoutsideofthedriplinethatincludedmaterialsfromStrataVIIItoXI.Noperishableartifactsandnoidentifiedfloralremainshavebeenidentifiedfromthisunit.

StratumVIII

StratumVIIIwasencounteredonlyinabout3/4softheunitsonthewesternsideoftheshelterinsidethedripline.Italsowasfoundinafewunitsoutsidethedripline,butitpinchesoutoutsidethedripline.Itisnotaparticularlythickstratumranginginthicknessfrom0.5to5.0(0.2to2.0in).Thematrixisprimarilylarger-sizedparticles(>0.4mm)withsmallerquantitiesofsandpresent.Thestratumrepresentsspallingandattritionfromtheshelterroofthatoccurredafterthe"NewRoofFall".Oneradiocarbondatewasobtainedfromcharcoalrecoveredinafeatureinthestratumandonefirepit/hearthwasrecordedinStratumVIII.

CulturalremainsfromthisstratumweresparseandwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandPeriod.NoceramicswererecoveredfromunequivocalStratumVIIIcontexts.Onepieceofunidentifiablecordageandonebonebeamerwerefoundintheunit(Stile1982:138).Floralremainsweresurprisinglycommoninthisunitwithwalnut/butternutshellsexceedingalltheothernutscombinedbasedonweightofthenutshells.TherealsoweresignificantamountsofAmaranthussp.(amaranth)andCrataegussp.(hawthorn)(Cushman1982:215-317).

SummaryforStratumIX(F9)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural

Period685B.P.+80years(A.D.1265,uncorrected;SI-2363)

Lithic(Fitzgibbon1982:102):1SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1BenningtonCorner-Notched,3JacksReefCorner-Notched,4LevannaTriangular,1MadisonTriangularformsCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds

LateWoodland

StratumVIIISummary(F12)RadiocarbonDateforStratumVIII

DiagnosticArtifacts

CulturalPeriod

was630B.P.+100years(A.D.1320,uncorrected;SI-3023)

Lithic(Fitzgibbon1982:102):1untypedCeramics:none

LateWoodland


StratumVII

StratumVIIwasencounteredinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverlaidStratumVoutsidethedriplineandStratumVIinsidethedriplineandwasunderStratumVIIIinsidethedriplineandStratumIXoutsidethedripline.Itrangedinthicknessfrom20to40

cm(7.9to15.7in)andthematrixwasasandyloam.Culturalfeaturesfromthisstratumincludedninefirepits/hearths,onefirefloor,twoash/charcoallenses,andonespecializedactivityarea(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).

CulturalmaterialsfromStratumVIIwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandoccupationofMeadowcroft.Perishableartifactsfoundincludedfivefragmentaryboneawlsandonebonepunch(Stile1982:138).Wildnutsandseedsrecoveredfromthisunitincludedwalnut/butternut,hickory,acorn,Rubussp.,Amaranthussp.andVacciniumsp.

StratumVI

StratumVIwasencounteredonlyinunitslocatedwithinthedriplineoftheshelter.ItoverlaidStratumVandwasunderStratumVII.Themassive"NewRoofFall"(Fig.19)ontheeasternsideoftheshelteriscontemporarywiththebaseofStratumVI.Largerparticles(>4mm)makeupamajorityofthematrixwithsiltsandclays,composingtherestofthematrix.Thethicknessofthisunitrangesfrom60to140cm(23.6to55.1in).Noradiocarbondateswereobtainedfromthisstratumbecausethecharcoalsamplesfromthefeaturesweretoosmalltoprocess.However,itshoulddatebetweentheendingdateforStratumVof1665B.Pandtheearlydate(whichwillbecitedbelow)fromStratumVIIof1290B.P.Culturalfeaturesencounteredwereclassifiedasninefirepits/hearths,onefirefloorandtwoash/charcoallenses(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).

StratumVIISummary(F13)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural

Period1290B.P.+60years(A.D.660,uncorrected;SI-3026)and925B.P.+65years(A.D.1024,uncorrected;SI-2047).

Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):3untypedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):23Watsonwaresherds

LateWoodland

StratumVISummary(F63,F129)RadiocarbonDateRange


None Lithic((Fitzgibbons1982:102):1LevannaTriangularpointCeramics:Nonefound

MiddletoLateWoodland


CulturalmaterialsfromStratumVIwererathersparse,butwereassignedtothelateMiddletoearlyLateWoodlandperiods.Perishableartifactsincludedoneboneawltipandonebonebeadblank(Stile1982:138).FewfloralremainswererecoveredfromStratumVIthatcouldbeassignedtohumanuseattheshelter.

StratumV

StratumVwasencounteredinallexcavatedunitsandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.StratumVoverlaysStratumIVandisunderStratumVIinsidethedriplineandStratumVIIoutsidethedripline.Thematrixwasasandyloamthatrangedinthicknessfrom20to40cm(7.9to15.7in).CulturalfeaturesencounteredinStratumVincludedtwentyfirepits/hearths,onerefuse/storagepit,oneroastingpit,twofirefloors,sixash/charcoallensesandfourspecializedactivityareas(Stuckenrath,etal.1982:79).

CulturalremainswereassignedprimarilytotheEarlyWoodlandorMiddleWoodlandoccupationofthesite.Perishableartifactsrecoveredwereclassifiedasonesimpleplaitedbasketryfragment,onegroovedandroundedwoodentwig,onecompleteandtwofragmentaryboneawls,onepieceofamodifiedturtlecarapaceandonegroovedandsnappedpieceofbone(Stile1982:138).

WildfloralremainspredominateinthisstratumwithWalnut/Butternutthemostcommonnutshellrecoveredalongwithlesseramountsofhickoryandacorn.ThemostcommonseedremainswerefromRubussp.(blackberry)followedbyAmaranthussp.(amaranth)andChenopodiaceae(goosefoot)(Cushman1982:215-217).

StratumIV

StratumIVwaspresentinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverliesStratumIIIandisoverlainbyStratumV.Itvariesinthicknessfrom30to70cm(11.8to27.6in).

StratumVSummary(F14)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural

Period2155B.P.+65years(205B.C.,SI-2487)nearitsbaseto1665B.P.+65years(A.D.285,uncorrected;SI-3024)atthetopofthestratum

Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):1AdenaOvateBase,1BenningtonCorner-Notched1ChesserNotchedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):5Watsonwaresherds,1Monongahelawaresherd

EarlyWoodlandandMiddleWoodland


Matrixiscomposedofasandyloam.Therewerethirty-fivefirepits/hearths,ninerefuse/storagepits,threeroastingpits,thirteenfirefloors,fifteenash/charcoallensesandthreespecializedactivityareasfoundinStratumIV(Stuckenrath,et.al.1982:79).

MostoftheculturalremainsfromStratumIVwereassignedtotheEarlyWoodlandPeriodPerishableartifactsrecoveredincludedsixfragmentsofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onewoodensnaretrigger,twocuttwigs,onewoodenring,onebeveledwoodedchip,onecompleteandonefragmentaryboneawl,onebonepunch,onebonesnaretrigger,oneutilizedantlertine,onebonefishhook,onefragmentofaboneflute,5piecesofmodifiedturtlecarapaces,onepieceofbonebeadstockandonebonebeamer(Stile1982:138).Themostnotablefloralremainsrecoveredfromthestratumweresquash(Cucurbitasp.)remainsassociatedwithradiocarbondatesof2820B.P.+75years(870B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1668)and2815B.P.+80years(865B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1665)andaspecimenofsixteenrowpopcorninassociationwithradiocarbondatesof2325B.P.+75years(375B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1634)and2290B.P.+90years(340B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2051;Cushman1982:216).Noneofthesecultivatedplantspecimensweredirectlydated.

StratumIII

StratumIIIwasfoundinallexcavatedunitsandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.Itvariesinthicknessfrom30to110cm(11.8to43.3in)andliesoverStratumIIbandbelowStratumIV.SiltandclayarethepredominantmatrixmaterialscomposingstratumIIIwithsomesandalsopresent.SixradiocarbondatesoncharcoalsamplesfromfeaturesinStratumIIIrangedinagefrom.Culturalfeaturesfoundinthestratumincludedtwenty-sixfirepits/hearths,tworefuse/storagepits,eightfirefloors,seventeenash/charcoallensesandonespecializedactivityarea(Stuckenrath,etal.,1982:79).

CulturalremainsfromStratumIIIwereassignedprimarilytotheTerminalArchaic/TransitionalorEarlyWoodlandperiods.Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedonefragmentofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onecompleteandfivefragmentaryboneawls,twoutilizedantlertinesandoneflakedlongbone.The

StratumIVSummary(F16)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod3050B.P.+85years(1100B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2049)to2290B.P.+90years(340B.C.,uncorrected;SI-SI-2051)

Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):2SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1BurnsvilleNotched,1AdenaOvateBase,1Jack'sReefCorner-NotchedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):44HalfMoonwaresherds,2Watsonwaresherds,1Monongahelawaresherd

EarlyWoodland

SummaryofStratumIII(F18)


firstdomesticatedplantremainscamefromStratumIII.Specimensofsquash(Cucurbitasp.)wererecoveredfromthetopofthestratuminassociationwitharadiocarbondateof3065B.P.+80years(1115B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1664;Cushman1982:216).Thequantityofwildnuts,seedsandfruitpitsalsoincreasedinStratumIII(Cushman1982:215-217).

StratumII

StratumIIwascomposedofsandandsiltderivedlargelyfromtherockshelterwallsandcontainedsomelargerroofspalls.Itwascontinuousacrossthesiteandvariedinthicknessfrom40to130cm(15.7to51.2in).StratumIIliesdirectlyabovetheStratumI-IIinterfaceandbelowStratumIII.AmajorroofspallingepisodepermittedseparationofStratumIIintoalowerStratumIIaandupperStratumIIb.StratumIIaisinturnsubdividedintolower,middleanduppersectionsbasedonadditionalroofspallingepisodes.StratumIIbprimarilyrepresentstheupper46to50cmofStratumII.

Atotalofthirty-eightculturalfeatureswereidentifiedinStratumIIa.Theywereclassifiedastwenty-sixfirepits/hearths,fiverefuse/storagepits,oneroastingpit,onefirefloor,oneash/charcoallensandfourspecializedactivityareas(Stuckenrath,etal.1982:79).Therewereonehundredandtwenty-threechippedstoneartifactsrecoveredfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIaincludingoneunflutedlanceolatepointnamedtheMillerLanceolate(Figs.8-9),severalunhaftedbifaces(Fig.17),unifaces(includingtwo“MungaiKnives”,Fig.12rightmostartifactandFig.13),prismaticblades(Figs.15-16)andfragmentsofprismaticbladecores(Fig.14),utilizedflakesanddebitageflakes(Fig.18)(Fitzgibbons1982).

LowerStratumIIa

RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod3255B.P.+115years(1305B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1679)to2930B.P.+75years(980B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2066)

Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102)2BigSandy-like,2BrewertonSide-Notched,3BrewertonCorner-Notched,3BuffaloStemmed,1LehighBroad-like,3Merom-like,3Trimble-like,1AdenaOvateBase,1LevannaTriangular,1KosterCorner-Notched-likeCeramics(Johnson1982:146):5Half-Moonwaresherds1WatsonCord-Markedsherd

TerminalArchaic/TransitionalorEarlyWoodland

SummaryforStratumIIaLower(F46)


Theearliestculturalremains,Pre-ClovisPaleo-Indianmaterials,wererecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa.Aseriesoffiveradiocarbondateswereobtainedfromindisputableculturalfeatures

(i.e.,hearthsorfirefloorfeatures)foundinthestratumrangingfrom16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354)to13,240B.P.+1010(11,290B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2065).A19,600B.P.datewasobtainedonapieceofbarkthatappearedtohavebeencutandwhichmighthavebeenpartofabarkbasket.Alternatively,itmayhavebeencharredbarkfromanancientforestfire.

TheMillerLanceolatepoint,oneMungaiKnifeandmostoftheotherchippedstonespecimenswererecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa.TheoldestbonetoolfromtheshelterwasfromlowerStratumIIaandisacutandcharredfragmentfromawhite-taileddeerantlerbase(Stile1982:137).Itwasrecoveredinafirepit/hearththatalsoprovidedaradiocarbonsampledatedto16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354).AbipointwoodentoolwasrecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa(Stiles1982:35).Itresemblesaforeshaftforacompounddartorspearshaft.

FaunalremainswerenotwellrepresentedfromlowerStratumIIa.Onlyelevenbonefragmentswererecoveredfromtheselevels.Speciesidentifiedincludedwhite-taileddeer,easternchipmunk,southernflyingsquirrel,deermouse,passengerpigeon,toadandcolubridsnake(GuildayandParmalee1982:171).Thechipmunkandpossiblythedeermouseprobablyburroweddownintotheselevels.Allidentifiedspeciesareusuallyfoundintemperateclimatestoday.Floralremainsfromtheearliestlevelsaresparse,butgenerallyarerepresentativeoftemperateclimatespecies.WalnutandoakwoodcharcoalandwalnutnutshellswereidentifiedfromlowerStratumIIa(Cushman1982:214).

MiddleStratumIIa

AroofspallingepisodeseparateslowerStratumIIafromMiddleStratumIIa.MiddleStratumIIarepresentsadditionalPaleo-Indian(i.e.,Clovisandlater)levelsattheRockshelter.AsecondMungaiKnifeandtwograverswererecoveredfrommiddleStratumIIa.

UpperStratumIIa

RadiocarbonDatesinLowerStratumIIa

Diagnosticartifacts CulturalPeriod

16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354)to13,240B.P.+1010(11,290B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2065).

1Millerlanceolate1MungaiKnife

Pre-ClovisPaleo-Indian

SummaryforStratumIIaMiddle(F46)Radiocarbondates Diagnostic

ArtifactsCulturalPeriod

12,800B.P.+870years(10,850B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2489)to11,300B.P.+700years(9350B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2491)

1Mungaiknife

Paleo-Indian(Clovisandlater)


UpperStratumIIaisseparatedfrommiddleStratumIIabyaroofspallingepisode.ThelatterdatebelowwasfromafeaturefoundimmediatelybelowtherooffallepisodethatseparatesupperStratumIIafromStratumIIb.

RemainsfromupperStratumIIarepresenttheEarlyArchaicoccupationsoftheshelter,basedprimarilyontheradiocarbondates.Nodiagnosticpointswererecoveredfromthisunit.However,non-diagnosticlithicremainswereassociatedwiththesehearths,andanearlyMiddleArchaicpointstyle,aKanawhaStemmedpoint,wasfoundinalevelabovethesefeatures.Thus,assignationofupperStratumIIaremainsandfeaturestotheEarlyArchaicPeriodissupportedbytheirlocationbelow

diagnosticearlyMiddleArchaiclithics.

StratumIIb

StratumIIbisfoundaboveupperStratumIIaacrosstheentiresite.Twelveradiocarbondatesweretakenforthislevel.TheremainsfromStratumIIbareassignedtotheMiddleandLateArchaic.Sixfirepits/hearths,threerefuse/storagepits,sixfirefloors,eightash/charcoallensesandtwospecializedactivityareaswerefoundinStratumIIb(Stuckenrath,etal,1982:79).Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedthreepiecesofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onepointedwoodentwig,onecompleteandonetipofboneawlsandoneboneweavingimplement(Stile1982:138).Hickory,walnut/butternutandoaknutshellwererecoveredfromfeaturesandlevelsinStratumIIbalongwithseedsfromAmaranthussp.,Chenopodiumsp.,Polygonaceae,Prunussp.,Rubussp.andVacciniumsp.(Cushman1982:215-217).FaunalremainswererecoveredfromStratumIIbandalllaterstrata,butquantificationbystratumremainstobecompleted.Allspeciesidentifiedfromthepost-Paleo-Indianlevelswerefromspeciesfoundinorrecentlyextirpatedfromthearea(GuildayandParmalee1982).

SummaryforStratumIIaUpper(F46)RadiocarbonDates Diagnostic

ArtifactsCulturalPeriod

9075B.P.+115years(7125B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2061)to8010B.P.+110years(6060B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2064)

Nonefound EarlyArchaic

SummaryofStratumIIb(F46)RadiocarbonDateRange


6670B.P.+140years(4720B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2055)nearitsbaseto3210B.P.+95years(1260B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1681)atthetopofthestratum

Lithic(Fitzgibbons1982:102):1KanawhaStemmed,1Kirkserrated-like,1MorrowMountain-like,1HansfordNotched-like,1BrewertonCornerNotched-like,2BuffaloStemmed,1SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1Merom-like

MiddleandLateArchaic


StratumI-IIinterface

StratumIisseparatedfromStratumIIbyaveneeroffinebluesiltyclaysedimentsderivedfromthebedrockshalecombinedwithroofspallfragments.Interfacedepositswerefoundinunitsinsideandoutsideofthedriplineandareassumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.Noculturalremainshavebeenfoundininterfacedeposits.

RadiocarbonDatesforStratumI-IIInterface(F85)31,400B.P.+1200years(29,450B.C.,uncorrected;OxA-363)30,900B.P.+1100years(28,950B.C.,uncorrected;OxA-364)30,710B.P.+1140years(28.760B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1687)21,380B.P.+800years(19,430B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2121)

StratumI(F99)

StratumIistheloweststratumattheshelterandwasfoundatthebaseofalimitednumberofunitsthatwereexcavatedtothatdepth(roughly16feetbelowthe1973surface).ArchaeologistspresumedthatStratumIiscontinuousacrossthesitebasedonthelimitedexcavationstothatdepth.Itiscomposedofaweatheredblue-grayshale.NoculturalmaterialswererecoveredfromStratumI.

Conclusion

ExcavationsatMeadowcroftRockshelterendedafter1979.Approximatelythree-quartersoftheareaunderthedriplineandone-thirdoftheareaimmediatelyoutsidethedripline(Fig.19)wereexcavatedoverthatperiodoftime(however,noteveryinteriorunitwasexcavatedtothebaseoftheshelter).Itwasdecidedin1979thattheremainingdepositsshouldbepreservedforfutureworkwhennewermethodologiesandtechnologiesmightyieldsignificantnewdata.Since1979,onlymaintenanceworkcleaningupafewslumpsandareaswerewaterleakageoccurredunderthewoodenshelterhasbeenconductedatMeadowcroftRockshelter.ThereremainsignificantdepositsofallelevendefinedstrataatMeadowcroftRockshelterthatcouldbeexcavatedusingnewermethodologiesandtechniquestoaddressnewresearchquestionsandextractinformationanddatanotrecoveredbyexcavationsconductedduringthe1970s.

Stratigraphyisoneofthemostimportanttoolsarchaeologistshaveforunderstandingsiteuseandchangeovertimeforanyexcavation.AtMeadowcroftRockshelter,thegreatdepthandintactnatureofthesiteprovidedcrucialevidenceaboutchangeovertime.EachstratumrepresentsatimewhenthatlayerwasthesurfaceundertheRockshelter.Whenpeoplewouldvisitthesite,theywouldcreateactivityareas(features)andleaveobjectsbehind.Stratigraphyhelpsarchaeologistsmakesenseofhowthesite’susechangedovertime,includingthereasonsforwhypeoplevisited,whattheyatethere,thesizeofgroupsvisiting,andeventhetimeofyeartheyvisited.


Alltheinformationgatheredduringtheexcavationseachyearwerepackedupandreturnedtothelabafterthefieldseason.Archaeologistsspentthenextseveralmonths(andinsomecasesyears)analyzingtheinformationandverifyingtheirinitialhypothesesbeforedeterminingtheculturalsignificance,andsubsequentlytheinterpretation,ofthesite.


Tables

StratigraphicProfileofMeadowcroftRockshelterStrata Tag Varying

ThicknessDepositionMode Deposition

ForcesDepositionRate

XI f3,f8 12-15cm Sheetwash 925yearsX f25 1-5cm Siltyclay SheetwashIX f9 5-15cm Siltyclay SheetwashVIII f12 .5-5cm Largeparticles,

sandSheetwash

VII f13 20-40cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Spalling

365years

VI f63,f129

60-140cm Siltyclay Spalling,Sheetwash

375years

V f14 20-40cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Attrition

625years

IV f16 30-70cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Attrition

760years

III f18 30-110cm Siltyclay Attrition,Sheetwash,Spalls

200years

IIb f46 40-130cm SandandSilt AttritionandHighSpall

4,700years

IIaupper F46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall 13,000years

IIamiddle f46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall

IIalower f46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall

I/II f85 Finebluesilt Quietwater *1 F99 bedrock Birminghamshale

(300MillionYearsOld)

swamp *


ReportingTimeatMeadowcroftRockshelterStratum tag Carbon14 UncorrectedcalendarDates CulturalPeriodXI F3,f8 175YBP AD1775±50 Contact(1550-1750

AD)X F25 LatePrehistoric

IX F9 685YBP AD1265±80 LatePrehistoric

VIII F12 630YBP AD1320±100 LatePrehistoric

VII F13 1290YBP AD1025±65–AD660±60 LateWoodlandVI F63,

f129 Late/Middle

WoodlandV F14 2155YBP AD285±65–205±65BC Early/Middle

WoodlandIV F16 3050YBP 340±90BC-1100±85BC EarlyWoodlandIII F18 3255YBP 980±75BC-1305±115BC Terminal/Early

WoodlandIIb F46(0

cm–46/50cmdepth)

6670YBP 1260±95BC–4720±140BC MiddleArchaic

IIaupper F46 8011-10950YBP 6060±110BC-9350±700BC EarlyArchaicIIamiddle F46 10950-12951YBP 9350±700BC-10850±870BC PaleoIIalower F46 13240-19601YBP 11290±1010BC-17650±2400BC PaleoI/II F85 21380-30711YBP 19430±800BC-28760±1140BC MiddleWisconsinan1 31401 29450 MiddleWisconsinan



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