T.C. ÇAĞ UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ECONOMICS & ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM MANAGEMENT

Course Name:

TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING (THM 420)

Mersin2015

INSTRUCTOR:Ceyda Melek CESEROĞLUceydamelek@windowslive.com

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TOURISM IMPACTS, PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 2. ed. Peter Mason

Tourism Growth Development and Impacts 2

Tourism Planning and Management Concepts Issues and Players 63

Tools and Techniques in Tourism Planning and Management 141

The Future of Tourism Planning and Management 163

CONTEXT

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Chapter 7

Tourism Planning and Management:

Concepts and Issues

Introduction

To create order in response to social and environmental degradation is still an important rationale for planning today.

As Williams (1998) suggested, without planning there is the risk that an activity will be unlegulated, formless or haphazard and likely to lead to a range of negative economic, social and environmental impacts. Gunn (1988) made a similar point when he claimed that the absence of planning may result in serious malfunctions and inefficiencies.

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Key perspectivesThe nature of planning

According to Williams (1998) the aim of modern planning is to seek optimal solutions to perceived problems and that it is designed to increase and, hopefully, maximize development benefits, which will produce predictable outcomes.

A plan enables us to identify where we are going and haw to get there (emphasis added) - in other words it should clarify the path that is to be taken and the outcomes or end results.

One of the key elements of the process of planning is decision-making. As Veal (1994, p. 3) stated 'planning can be seen as the process of deciding'.

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Strategic planning, however, according to Lang is action-oriented, focused, ongoing, proactive and considers the values of those involved.

Wilkinson (1997) suggested that a plan provides the rationale for and details of how implementation will take place within a country or region, and sets this within a wider economic and social context. He also indicated that planning involves not only the formulation of plans and their implementation, but also their supervision and review.

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Planning and policy are closely related terms…

Wilkinson (1997) linked planning and policy when stating planning is a course of action, while policy is the implementation of the planned course of action.

Policy is usually created by and emanates from a public body or organization. Such public policy is a major concern of government activity. As Wilkinson (1997) indicated, policy is a course of action adopted by an agency, such as a government body. Public policy is, therefore, what governments decide to do or not to do . However, it is important to note that planning is not just a

process conducted by government. Private sector organizations, (in tourism this would include, for example tour operators and airlines), prepare careful plans and usually have a number of policies through which they operationalize these plans.

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Planning and policy in leisure, recreation and tourism

Leisure planning

As tourism is a recreational activity that takes place in leisure time, planning in the leisure area usually includes both recreation and tourism. Therefore, tourism planning can be seen to fit within the wider context of leisure planning and the planning framework for tourism can be seen to fall within leisure.

Today, in relation to tourism provision, there is much overlap between the public and private sectors in many countries, however this tends to create complications in terms of responsibilities for planning.

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Tourism planning

Approximately 25 years ago, the key aims of tourism planning were summarized in the following way;

'to ensure that opportunities are available for tourist to gain enjoyable and satisfying experiences and at the same time to provide a means for improving the way of life for residents and of destination areas' (Matthieson and Wall, 1982, p. 186)

More recently, Williams (1998) suggested a number of general aims for tourism planning …

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Williams (1998) suggested that tourism planning has a number of key objectives,These are, as follows:

The creation of a mechanism for the structured provision of tourist facilities over quite large geographic areas.

The coordination ot the fragmented nature of tourism (particularly in relation to accommodation, transport, marketing and human resources).

Certain interventions to conserve resources and maximize benefits to the local community in an attempt to achieve sustainability (usually through a tourism development or management plan).

The redistribution of tourism benefits (the development of new tourism sites or the economic realignment of places that tourists have begun to leave).

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Much early tourism planning was very site specific and linked to The supply side (or destination end) of tourism activity (Gunn, 1988). This geographical focus helps to explain the rationale often provided for tourism planning.

In seeking to justify a rationale for tourism planning, Jenkins (1991) argued that all countries should have a planning process in place, to make use of resources in a wise and efficient manner.

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However, planning for recreation and tourism is not necessarily a straight- forward process .

Williams (1998) suggested a major problem of tourism planning is that it encompasses many activities and although it may address physical, economic, environmental and business concerns it does not necessarily blend these together well.

Gunn (1988) and Veal (1994) also confirmed that tourism planning is very much a political process.

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Fennell (1999) argued that tourism planning requires a policy, which states the aims and objectives to be implemented in the planning process.

As with policy in generic terms, tourism policy involves a number of ideas and statements that can be implemented via a tourism plan (Wilkinson, 1997).

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Almost 70 years ago, Lasswell (1936) indicated that the core issues in politics are who gets what, where, when, how and why. This view is still highly relevant today, but Richter (1989) argued that tourism policies have rarely been conceived of and scrutinized in terms of Lasswell's core political issues.

Hence, tourism policy may be viewed as 'simple' by those whose job it is to create and implement it (Wilkinson, 1997). However, as Cooper et al. (2005) suggested the process of tourism planning is not simple, although it may well follow a systematic approach. Cooper el al. (2005) indicated that tourism planning in many developed countries and some developing countries follows a number of stages, which are fairly consistent, and these are shown in Figure.

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The process of planning in tourism showing stages and related questions

Stage 1 Recognizing the need for a tourism plan / strategy What Is the Issue/problem being addressed by the plan?Stage 2 Setting objectives/ goals for a specific planning strategy Why do we need (this type of) tourism development?Stage 3 Survey of existing data What do we already know from our sources of information?Stage 4 Implementation of new surveys What new information do we need and how shall we obtain it?Stage 5 Analysis of secondary and primary data What have we learned from our research?Stage 6 Initial policy and plan creationStage 7 Recommendations of the planStage 8 Implementation of the planStage 9 Monitoring, evaluation and reformulation

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Cooper et al. (2005) also stressed that to ensure that the planning process is successful, the nature of the team of planners is very important. They will need a good deal of expertise and experience, they suggested.

The team should contain physical planners, economists, market planners, social scientists, environmental scientists, engineers, draughtsmen and legal experts (Cooper et al., 2005).

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Planning and management

As with the term planning, management also has a number of different definitions.

Gilbert et al. (1995, p. 8) defined the activity in the following way: 'Management is a goal-oriented process that involves the allocation of resources and the coordination of the talents and efforts of a group of people'.

Gilbert et al. (1995) indicated a major link between planning and management. As they noted, one of the key activities involved in managing is planning. They suggested that managing is the first part of a process that also involves Organizing, empowering and controlling.

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If management is perceived as a goal-oriented process, then it is necessary to have some measure of its effectiveness in relation to these goals .

The performance of management is therefore part of the management process and is in effect a measure of the quality of management.

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Tourism management

Many standard works on management make reference to the focus of the activity as being about people. Such works are usually concerned with the management of businesses or companies.

One important aspect of tourism management has a specific focus on people who work in tourism. This is usually referred to as functional management and can be seen as a part of strategic management .

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However, tourism management is also concerned with ways to manage the resources for tourism, the interaction of tourists with physical resources and the interaction of tourists with residents of tourist areas . This focus of tourism management is concerned primarily with tourism impacts in resorts areas or tourism destinations.

It is in such areas that the supply side of tourism (physical resources, built environment and resident population) interacts with the demand side (often summarized as the market side, but made up of tourists, travel agents, tour operators, transport operators, tourist boards and tourism developers).

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The definition of tourism management that is particularly useful is that produced by Middleton (1994).

Middleton's definition is as follows: 'Strategies and action programmes using

and coordination available techniques to control and influence tourism supply and visitor demand in order to achieve defined policy goals’

(Middleton cited in Middleton anda Hawkins, 1998, p,84).

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In practical terms, Middleton and Hawkins (1998) indicated tourism management is concerned with procedures to influence five variables that are as follows: location, timing, access, products and education.

In most countries, controlling visitor numbers at destinations is beyond the influence of either public sector bodies, such as tourist boards or private sector organizations. ln some cases control can be exerted by such methods as high entrance charges to attractions and/ or limited car parking spaces.

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However in the majority of destinations, such draconian measures are not employed. Instead, What Middleton and Hawkins (1998, p. 85), term 'selective influences and control' are used. These are designed to achieve stated and quantified objectives at destinations. They are as follows:

 0 making judgements on carrying capacity;0 selecting and targeting particular market

segments or groups;0 identifying partner organizations in planning and

marketing for tourism; o developing a variety of management techniques

for visitor segments and products;o systematically monitoring results and making any

required changes.

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Figure. Resource constraints and market forces – tourism management controls and influences at destinations (based on Pearce, 1989; Middleton, 1994)

Resource constraints (supply orientation) Regulation of land use Regulation of buildings Regulation of

environmental impacts Provision of infrastructure Control by licensing Provision of information Fiscal controls and

incentives

Market forces

(demand orientation) Knowledge of visitor

profiles, behaviour,needs and trends

Design of visitor products (quality and satisfaction)

Capacity (products marketed)

promotion (image/positioning)

Distribution of products/access for customers

Provision of information Price

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A major concern in relation to the use of selective influences and controls is having the relevant information to make appropriate decisions. Research information for targeting and monitoring at the local level is vital.

It is necessary to start the planning process by gathering information about the issue concerned.

Chapter 8

The key players in tourism planning and management

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Key perspectivesKey players in tourism management

It is possible to suggest that the key players in tourism planning and management are as follows:

the tourists themselves; the host population; the tourism industry; government agencies (at local, regional, nationali

international).

Less obvious players, but nevertheless having very important roles, are voluntary organizations (including charities and pressure groups) and also the media.

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The tourists

Tourists are obviously of key importance in the management of tourism. Unfortunately, tourists are often viewed as the major cause of the problems of tourism. If they are perceived as an homogenous group, then tourists are a relatively easy target for the so-called evils of tourism. They are 'outsiders' and can be blamed by 'insiders' (the local people) for negative consequences of tourism.

However, this is rather a simplistic picture. It is possible to argue that the tourist has both rights and responsibilities. Figure above indicates a number of basic responsibilities

of tourists and also some others that are linked to the concept of sustainability in tourism, while next Figure suggests some tourists' rights.

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Basic responsibilities of the tourist

The responsibility for obeying local laws and regulations.

The responsibility for not taking part in activities which while not illegal, or where the laws are not enforced by the local authorities, are nevertheless, widely condemned by society, such as sex with children.

The responsibility for not deliberately offending local religious beliefs or cultural norms of behaviour.

The responsibility for not deliberately harming the local physical environment.

The responsibility to minimize the use of scarce local resources.

(Source: Swarbrooke, 1999)

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Basic responsibilities of the tourist

Extra responsibilities of tourists in relation to sustainable tourism The responsibility not to visit destinations which have a poor record on

human rights. The responsibility to find out about the destination before the holiday and

try to learn a few words of the local language, at least. The responsibility to try to meet local people, learn about their lifestyles,

and establish friendships. The responsibility to protect the natural wildlife by not buying souvenirs

made from living creatures, for example. The responsibility to abide by all local religious beliefs and cultural

values, even those with which the tourist personally disagrees. The responsibility to boycott local businesses which pay their staff poor

wages, or provide bad working conditions for their employees. The responsibility to behave sensibly so as not to spread infections such

as HIV and hepatitis B. The responsibility to contribute as much as possible to the local economy.

(Source: Swarbrooke, 1999)

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(Source: Swarbrooke, 1999)

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The host community

Such terminology as the host community may be somewhat misleading as it implies that there are guests to complement the supposed hosts. However, as tourists are not always welcome,

a more appropriate term could be local community, resident community or destination community.

Nevertheless, the term host community is now commonly used in tourism literature and so it is employed here.

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An important aspect of any discussion of host communities is that it would wrong to assume that there is such a thing as a host community. As has been discussed above in relation to tourists, the host community is heterogeneous not homogenous.

In accepting that communities are

heterogeneous, Swarbrooke (1999, p. 125) suggests that they could be divided up in terms of:

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elites and the rest of the population indigenous residents and immigrants those directly involved in tourism and those not

involved property owners and property renters younger people and older people employers, employees, self-employed those with private cars, those relying on public

transport affluent and less well-off residents majority communities/minority communities.

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Government agencies Government agencies are frequently referred to as

the public sector of tourism. They are not commercial organizations intent on making a profit, but are organizations that are meant to represent the views of tax payers and electors. Government agencies are funded from taxes and in most

developed countries are run by democratically elected representatives supported by paid civil servants.

In many developed countries there are a multiplicity of government bodies that have a bearing on tourism planning and management. These bodies exist at different scales from national, through regional, down to local.

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The main reasons for the involvement of the public sector in tourism are as follows:

The public sector is mandated to represent the whole population and notjust one set of stakeholders or interest group.

The public sector is intended to be impartial, with no particular vested or commercial interests.

The public sector can take a longer-term view of tourism development than, for example, the private sector.

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The tourism industry is not easy to define. It is complex and has many dimensions. As Middleton and Hawkins (1998) argued, the industry is so large and diverse that some tourism companies would not see themselves as part of the same industry.

Leiper's system's model of tourism shows three sectors: the generating zone, the transition zone and the destination zone. Each of these zones or sectors contains tourism industry organizations.

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The tourism industry is often blamed for causing damage to destinations and showing little willingness to be involved in planning for long-term viability of tourism development.

However, the complexity of the tourism industry makes it difficult to point the finger of blame directly at the cause of problems.

Nevertheless, the tourism industry has been accused of:

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Accusations to Tourism

Being mainly concerned with short-term profit, rather than long-termsustainability.

Exploiting the environment and local populations rather than conserving them.

Being relatively fickle and showing little commitment to particular destinations.

Not doing enough to raise tourist' awareness of issues such as sustainability.

Only getting on the sustainability wagon when it is likely to achieve good publicity.

Being increasingly owned and controlled by large transnational corporations, who have little regard for individual destinations.

(Swarbrooke, 1999, pp. 104-105)

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Other players

Two other sets of actors are important in terms of tourism planning and management. These are voluntary sector organizations and the media.

The voluntary sector is made up of a number of different groups. These include pressure groups, voluntary trusts, some of which have charitable status, and industry associations.

Pressure groups can be further subdivided into those, whose membership is primarily public and those, whose members come largely from within the tourism industry.

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The tourism industry also has a number of pressure groups. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) is such a pressure group and receives support from major tourism companies. It lobbies on behalf of the tourism industry. There are also a number of professional bodies that represent the tourism industry.

The media has potentially a key role in tourism planning and management issues. Much of the media deals directly or indirectly with tourism.