Taxon Plan for Eastern brown kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli, … · 2018. 4. 10. · species of kiwi are described; North Island brown kiwi, rowi, tokoeka, great spotted and little

DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures

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Taxon Plan for

Eastern brown kiwi

(Apteryx australis mantelli, Eastern)

Strategic plan for the recovery of

Eastern brown kiwi

for the period 2014 – 2019 and beyond,

including key actions required for their

recovery.

Lead author:

Rhys Burns

East Coast Bay of Plenty Conservancy

Rotorua

Version Date: April 2014


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Preface

The 2008-2018 Kiwi Recovery Plan (Holzapfel et al. 2008) provides strategic

direction, at a national level, to ensure the long term viability of all kiwi taxa1. The

Kiwi Recovery Group is responsible for the implementation and review of this

national plan.

Because the Kiwi Recovery Plan provides general national strategic level advice for

many taxa over many regions, it can not practicably spell out management for each

individual taxon to the level of detail required to guide work-plans and thus

implement successful recovery. This is the role of taxon plans.

Taxon plans translate the relevant goals, objectives and actions of the Kiwi Recovery

Plan into a local context for individual taxa at a level of detail sufficient to guide

operational plans. They are ‘best advice’ for all stakeholders regarding goals,

objectives and actions, priorities and opportunities, for the management of individual

taxa. As such, taxon plans are key documents for the implementation of the Kiwi

Recovery Plan.

Although taxon plans are more operationally-focused than the Kiwi Recovery Plan,

they do not provide the level of detail of a workplan. Nor do taxon plans provide

details of best practice information which is instead provided at a national level by the

Kiwi Best Practice Manual (Robertson, et al. 2003).

The accountability for each taxon plan rests with a lead Region, in consultation and

guidance with the Kiwi Recovery Group. In some cases the implementation and

review of taxon plans will be supported by a ‘taxon group’, including, key

stakeholders and participants in the recovery of that taxon.

Taxon plans have been developed in collaboration with key stakeholders for the

taxon, including iwi, landowners, community-led kiwi projects and other

conservancies involved in its recovery. Individual taxon plans have been peer-

reviewed by the Kiwi Recovery Group to ensure that they fulfil their role as integral

parts of the Kiwi Recovery Plan.

Taxon plans have a 10 year term (staggered by 1 year from the recovery plan). They

receive a progress review annually.

1 Species – a formally described (i.e. published in the scientific literature), base unit of taxonomic rank

usually applied to groups of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile off spring. Five

species of kiwi are described; North Island brown kiwi, rowi, tokoeka, great spotted and little spotted

kiwi.

Taxa – Inclusive of any level of taxonomic rank. In this context it includes the five described species

and four genetically distinct provenances of kiwi currently recognised but not formally described,

within each of the species NI brown (Northland, Coromandel, Eastern and Western) and tokoeka

(Haast, Northern and Southern Fiordland and Stewart Island).

Taxon – Singular, referring to single taxa.


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Table of Contents

Preface 2

1. Introduction 7

2. Plan term and review date 10

3. Context 10

3.1 TAXONOMY............................................................................................................................... 10 3.2 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 12 3.3 PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION TRENDS................................................... 15 3.4 THREAT STATUS ........................................................................................................................ 22 3.5 AGENTS OF DECLINE AND CURRENT THREATS ........................................................................... 22 3.6 PAST AND CURRENT MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................... 22 3.7 CULTURAL IMPORTANCE ........................................................................................................... 24 3.8 PUBLIC AWARENESS, KEY STAKEHOLDERS AND ASSOCIATES ................................................... 25 3.9 RECOVERY PRINCIPALS AND PREFERRED OPTION FOR RECOVERY ............................................. 25

4. Goals 27

4.1 LONG TERM RECOVERY GOAL ................................................................................................... 27 4.2 GOALS FOR THE TERM OF THIS TAXON PLAN ............................................................................. 27

5. Implementation 28

5.1 MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 28 5.1.1 TOPIC 1: TAXON PLANNING ................................................................................................... 29 5.1.2 TOPIC 2: KIWI SANCTUARY ................................................................................................... 31 5.1.3 TOPIC 3: ISLAND STRATEGY .................................................................................................. 32 5.1.4 TOPIC 4: BEST PRACTICE ....................................................................................................... 35 5.1.5 TOPIC 5: TAXON PLAN REVIEW SCHEDULE ........................................................................... 37 5.1.6 TOPIC 6: ISLAND BIOSECURITY ............................................................................................. 37 5.1.7 TOPIC 7: SMALL MANAGED POPULATIONS ............................................................................ 39 5.1.8 TOPIC 8: LARGE SECURE POPULATIONS ................................................................................ 40 5.1.9 TOPIC 9: DECLINING POPULATIONS ....................................................................................... 42 5.1.10 TOPIC 10: CARRYING CAPACITY WITH LITTLE SPOTTED KIWI ........................................... 44 5.1.11 TOPIC 11: INBREEDING DEPRESSION .................................................................................. 45 5.1.12 TOPIC 12: DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE ....................................................................... 47 5.1.13 TOPIC 13: GENETIC DIVERSITY .......................................................................................... 49 5.1.14 TOPIC 14: DATA MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................ 51 5.1.15 TOPIC 15: CAPTIVE COORDINATION .................................................................................. 53 5.1.16 TOPIC 16: CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY ....................................................................................... 55 5.1.17 TOPIC 17: BNZ OPERATION NEST EGG

TM .......................................................................... 56

5.1.18 TOPIC 18: GENETICS AND META-POPULATION MANAGEMENT .......................................... 58 5.1.19 TOPIC 19: PRIORITY KIWI MANAGEMENT SITES ................................................................ 60 5.1.20 TOPIC 20: FENCED SITES .................................................................................................... 61 5.1.21 TOPIC 21: KIWI CRÈCHES .................................................................................................. 63 5.1.22 TOPIC 22: KOHANGA KIWI SITES ....................................................................................... 63 5.1.23 TOPIC 23: SMALL UNMANAGED KIWI POPULATIONS ........................................................... 64 5.1.24 TOPIC 24: RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCALLY EXTINCT KIWI POPULATIONS .............................. 66 5.1.25 TOPIC 25: DOG MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................... 67 5.1.26 TOPIC 26: FUNDING KIWI CONSERVATION......................................................................... 68


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5.1.27 TOPIC 27: KIWI AS CONSERVATION FLAGSHIPS ................................................................. 70 5.1.28 TOPIC 28: SYNERGIES WITH OTHER CONSERVATION PROJECTS ......................................... 71 5.1.29 TOPIC 29: INTER-AGENCY CO-ORDINATION ...................................................................... 72 5.2.1 TOPIC 33 : ADVOCACY ......................................................................................................... 78 5.2.2 TOPIC 34: TANGATA WHENUA .............................................................................................. 80 5.2.3 TOPIC 35: COMMUNITY-LED INITIATIVES .............................................................................. 83 5.2.4 TOPIC 36: SPONSORSHIP ........................................................................................................ 86 5.2.5 TOPIC 37: STATUTORY PLANNING ......................................................................................... 87 5.2.6 TOPIC 38: DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS ................................................ 91 5.2.7 TOPIC 39: TOURISM ............................................................................................................... 92 5.2.8 TOPIC 40: VOLUNTEERS ........................................................................................................ 93 5.3 RESEARCH, MONITORING AND INNOVATION ............................................................................. 95 5.3.1 TOPIC 41: RESEARCH PLANNING ........................................................................................... 95 5.3.2 TOPIC 42: GENETICS AND TAXONOMY .................................................................................. 96 5.3.3 TOPIC 43: KIWI ECOLOGY AND POPULATION MODELLING .................................................... 98 5.3.4 TOPIC 44: PEST RESEARCH .................................................................................................. 100 5.3.5 TOPIC 45: MONITORING ...................................................................................................... 102 5.3.6 TOPIC 46: BNZ ONE AND CAPTIVE-RAISED KIWI .............................................................. 104 5.3.7 TOPIC 47: MODELLING PEST DISTRIBUTIONS AND IMPACTS ................................................ 105 5.3.8 TOPIC 48: VULNERABILITY OF KIWI POPULATIONS TO DOGS .............................................. 106 5.3.9 TOPIC 49: TECHNOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 108 5.3.10 TOPIC 50: SITE SUITABILITY FOR KIWI ............................................................................ 109 5.3.11 TOPIC 51: CARRYING CAPACITY ...................................................................................... 110 5.3.12 TOPIC 52: EMERGING THREAT RESEARCH ....................................................................... 111 5.3.13 TOPIC 53: RISK ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL EXTINCTION EVENTS ........................................ 112 5.3.14 TOPIC 54: LIVING WITH KIWI – RURAL AND URBAN ISSUES ............................................ 112 5.3.15 TOPIC 55: SYNERGIES WITH OTHER FLIGHTLESS AND GROUND NESTING BIRDS ............. 113

6. References 116

7. Personal Communications 121

8. Appendices 122

APPENDIX 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 123 TIMELINE AND PRIORITIES FOR RECOVERY ACTIONS FOR EASTERN BROWN KIWI (APTERYX MANTELLI).

.......................................................................................................................................................... 123 APPENDIX 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 139 DETAILS OF CURRENT EASTERN BROWN KIWI MANAGEMENT SITES (AS AT JUNE 2013) .................. 139 APPENDIX 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 140 MAJOR VOLCANIC EVENTS IN TAUPO VOLCANIC ZONE ..................................................................... 140 APPENDIX 4. ...................................................................................................................................... 142 CURRENT CONTACTS (2013) FOR EASTERN BROWN KIWI TAXON PROJECTS ...................................... 142


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Summary

This plan refers to the management of Eastern brown kiwi, one of four recognised

North Island brown kiwi taxa. This is the first plan to guide the conservation of this

taxon in its entirety, and aims to outline and broadly prioritise the actions required for

the recovery of this taxon. While primarily providing a framework and context for

recovery planning, this plan also examines the current conservation status of Eastern

brown kiwi, the management and monitoring techniques currently undertaken,

possibilities for both minimising total population decline and increasing population

densities at managed sites, as well as for restoring the taxon over its known historical

range. This taxon plan also aims to be consistent and supportive of both the Kiwi

Recovery Plan and the newly developed Kiwi Captive Management Plan, as Eastern

brown kiwi are now the only taxon selected for ongoing captive management.

With approximately 6,000 individuals remaining, the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

accounts for approximately one quarter of the estimated 25,000 North Island brown

kiwi. These 6,000 Eastern brown kiwi now appear to be largely distributed within

three discrete populations on the mainland: Western Bay of Plenty; Eastern Bay of

Plenty/Te Urewera/northern Hawke’s Bay; and central Hawke’s Bay. In addition,

there are small scattered populations in small remnant forests, particularly in the

Wairoa District, and additional small populations now reside on three islands (Tuhua,

Moutohora and Mokoia). Eastern brown kiwi conservation management currently

occurs on both public and private land, with an increasing role and responsibility for

kiwi protection being undertaken by community and iwi groups. A large proportion of

the distribution and population of Eastern brown kiwi are found on remote areas of

Public Conservation Land (PCL). This widespread distribution presents challenges for

both DOC and the community in order to maintain and enhance the total population

and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi in the long-term.

The aim of this taxon plan is ‘To restore, and wherever possible, enhance the

abundance, distribution and genetic diversity’ of the taxon, which is consistent with

the long-term goal of the current Kiwi Recovery Plan (2008-2018). The nationally

focussed Kiwi Recovery Plan contains 41 objectives with 92 action points that are

considered necessary to achieve this aim. By comparison, this Eastern Brown Kiwi

Taxon Plan contains 79 objectives and 202 action points. However, as is to be

expected, many of the objectives and actions for this taxon are at a much reduced

scale compared to those in the national plan. The goals for both plans are under three

major themes: Management; Community Relations and Engagement; and Research,

Monitoring and Innovation. Each action point is prioritised, contained within a

timeline and delivery responsibilities are allocated.

Kiwi recovery over the range of Eastern brown kiwi is largely driven by both

community and DOC projects. The location of each project is usually a result of

historic decisions or the desire of individuals to protect kiwi in areas of local interest.

As such, the overall approach to Eastern brown kiwi management could be regarded

as largely piecemeal, with limited co-ordination or prioritisation between projects -

though there are exceptions to this, particularly in the Hawke’s Bay with the ‘Save

our Kiwi Hawke’s Bay’ concept (Ward-Smith, 2005).

Kiwi management projects can vary markedly in a variety of natural or management

characteristics that can then influence the nature of the management that can be


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undertaken. Some parameters have a limited number of distinct options available;

others have management options available along a continuum of choices, while other

characteristics reflect the inherent nature of the site itself. Some of these parameters

are outlined in Table 1, and are indicative of the complexity of managing the entire

Eastern brown kiwi taxon.

Kiwi Management Project Parameters Options

From To

Area of suitable kiwi habitat Small Very large

Kiwi density Low High

Trapping for introduced predators No trapping Only trapping

Poisoning introduced animals None Only control method

BNZONETM

None All

Land tenure Not protected Fully protected and

permitted entry only

Islands available for the population None Entire population

‘Kohanga kiwi’ sites Small Large

Creches (Predator-proof fenced sites for kiwi

juveniles)

Small Large

Predator densities No predators present Very high predator

densities

Habitat surrounding managed area Unsuitable kiwi habitat Highly suitable kiwi

habitat

Pest control regime E.g. continuously, seasonally, or intermittently

Pest diversity None Many

Suitable kiwi habitat Islands/Coastal

forest/grassland

Mountain

beech/tussock

Natural competitors/predators None Few (e.g. weka)

Table 1. The variability of some of the various parameters that can be attributed to current Eastern

brown kiwi projects, hinting at the complexity of management of this taxon.

Therefore there are often a range of management issues between sites, and

consequently a range of management options that may be optimal for different sites.

There are currently approximately 44,000 ha of Eastern brown kiwi habitat under

active management at 19 sites, supporting more than 300 breeding pairs of kiwi. By

2018 it is intended that a minimum of 500 breeding pairs across 11 different

management sites will have comprehensive threat management in place, a further 10

sites will be under active management, and there will be some broad-scale co-

ordination between most projects. In addition, there will be an assessment of both

currently managed and unmanaged sites to determine long-term management

priorities, and co-ordination with the captive management industry of Eastern brown

kiwi will also result in additional value to some projects.

The recovery and protection of Eastern brown kiwi relies on the interest,

understanding, engagement and collaboration of many sectors of the community.

Numerous tangata whenua, community and landowner-led kiwi conservation projects


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have been successfully established, and these need to be nurtured to help realise their

full potential. The long-term sustainability of these projects requires the ongoing

energy and enthusiasm of the groups and individuals involved, and ongoing

resourcing to sustain management efforts.

The recovery of kiwi has greatly benefited from long-term research and technological

developments, and will continue to be dependent on increased understanding of kiwi

biology and ecology, and the development of increasingly cost-effective management

tools. It is essential that the management of Eastern brown kiwi projects maintain a

keen awareness of these developments in the future.

Stoat predation on young kiwi and dog predation on adults (often in isolated

locations) are now the largest issues for Eastern brown kiwi. However, ferret

predation, ongoing habitat clearance and genetic isolation by habitat fragmentation

may also be significant issues at some sites. Developing strategies to cope with each

of these scenarios as they may apply at each different location is an important focus of

this taxon plan.

A key feature of this taxon plan is the proposed establishment of the Eastern Brown

Kiwi Group. The role of the Group will be to facilitate the co-ordination and

implementation of the actions of this taxon plan and provide information and support

to community kiwi projects and practitioners. This will ensure that all agencies,

groups and individuals involved in Eastern brown kiwi recovery have access and

support to technical and best practice information, and have an avenue for

networking. The group will also act as a catch-all for those actions that cannot be

ascribed to any particular group. However, the establishment of this group is

dependent upon agreement by the stakeholders of this taxon.

The term of this plan ranges from 2014 to 2019 and it will be subject to an annual

progress review.

1. Introduction

Kiwi are among the most distinctive, recognised and cherished animals in New

Zealand, despite the fact that few New Zealanders have seen or even heard a kiwi in

their natural habitat. Their unique characteristics have made kiwi a taonga (treasure)

of high significance for tangata whenua. Once numbering in their millions and spread

throughout Aotearoa New Zealand, the abundance and distribution of kiwi has been

dramatically reduced (Butler & McLennan, 1991; Holzapfel et al., 2008) as a result of

human-induced habitat loss and the introduction of mammalian predators (McLennan

et al., 1996).

Kiwi are the only members of the Family Apterygidae, which is endemic to New

Zealand. More generally, kiwi are most closely related to other ratite birds. Kiwi have

been isolated from other ratites for many millions of years, but perhaps surprisingly

appear to be more closely related to the Australian cassowary and emu rather than the

other endemic ratites to New Zealand, the extinct moa (Goldberg et al., 2008; Worthy

& Scofield, 2012).


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Kiwi are a unique species with some extraordinary features for avian fauna. These

include nostrils at the end of a long slender bill, tiny wings with no practical function

and no external tail. The kiwi egg is one of the largest known (in relation to body

size) of any birds, with the yolk nearly two-thirds of the volume. With their typically

non-avian physiological features, including a relatively low body temperature, the

presence of marrow in leg bones, coarse hair-like feathers, facial bristles and their

strong reliance on smell and hearing, kiwi have been likened to be more mammalian

than avian, and have even been described as an ‘honorary mammal’ (Calder, 1978).

There are currently five recognized species of kiwi (Burbidge et al., 2003; Tennyson

et al., 2003), with the North Island brown kiwi comprised of four genetically and

geographically distinct taxa – Northland, Coromandel, Eastern and Western

(Shepherd and Lambert, 2008; Holzapfel et al., 2008). This document focuses entirely

on the protection and recovery of Eastern brown kiwi.

The initiation of large-scale in situ conservation of Eastern brown kiwi can be traced

to 1992 when a Landcare Research/Manaaki Whenua study commenced at Lake

Waikaremoana, Te Urewera National Park, to study the underlying reasons for the

decline of kiwi populations. The most dramatic and largest impact of this study was

the realisation that only 5% of kiwi chicks survive to adulthood, and the primary

reason for this is predation of approximately 50% of all chicks and juveniles by stoats

(McLennan et al., 1996; McLennan et al., 2004). As a result, due to a severe lack of

recruitment of young kiwi into the adult breeding population, mainland kiwi

populations may be declining by 5.8% per year (McLennan et al., 1996) – which is

the equivalent of halving every decade – as older birds die and are not replaced.

This work led to a surge in kiwi-focussed projects throughout the country, buoyed by

the information that management could be targeted to reduce stoat densities to low

levels that would then allow kiwi chicks to survive to adulthood. Parallel development

of Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZ ONETM

) in association with

captive facilities was aimed at producing kiwi chicks without the need for extensive

predator control. Rainbow Springs in Rotorua was prominent in dramatically

increasing the success rate of this method from low initial hatching rates to current

rates of over 95% in some captive institutes.

‘Mainland Island’ projects, particularly those in northern Te Urewera and Boundary

Stream were prominent in further developing and testing kiwi management tools for

Eastern brown kiwi from the mid-1990’s, before the development of ‘Kiwi

Sanctuaries’ in 2001. Five kiwi sanctuaries were initiated for as many different taxa,

but of the four North Island brown kiwi taxa, Eastern brown kiwi was the only one

not to have a kiwi sanctuary initiated.

There are now 19 Eastern brown kiwi projects covering approximately 44,000 ha,

containing approximately 300 kiwi pairs. With a total population of about 3000 pairs

over approximately 1,000,000 ha, this management represents approximately 10% of

the Eastern brown kiwi population and 4.4% of the area occupied by this taxon.

Despite these efforts, both the total Eastern brown kiwi population and geographic

range is continuing to decline.

In addition, the fragmented nature of the Eastern brown kiwi population means there

is some way to go before this taxon can be considered secure. A collaborative


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approach allowing iwi, community and Departmental-funded projects may be a key

factor needed to maximise the gains they have individually made so far.

This is the first plan dedicated to the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon. It

supercedes other plans written for a more local context such as Hawke’s Bay

(Ward-Smith et al., 2005), Bay of Plenty (Owen, 2006) and Whakatane

(Llewellyn, 2005). It outlines goals for the next six years until 2019 and the

actions required to reach these goals. While all actions listed are considered

necessary for the long-term security of Eastern brown kiwi, it is unlikely all will

be achieved n the timeframe of this plan. However, any actions not achieved can

be re-considered when this plan expires, and may help form the basis for the next

Eastern brown kiwi taxon plan. This plan has been developed in consultation with

iwi, key stakeholders and the general public, mainly by a series of meetings held

by the author (Appendix 5).


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2. Plan term and review date

This plan is for the period of six years, to be re-written fully in 2019, but with

provision to be reviewed annually if deemed necessary.

3. Context

This is the first taxon plan for Eastern brown kiwi, so this section will be reviewed

and updated in future Taxon Plans as the understanding of Eastern brown kiwi

recovery improves.

This section gives a general background of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.

3.1 Taxonomy

The Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon is currently recognised as one of four sub-species of

the North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008; Holzapfel

et al., 2008). North Island brown kiwi diverged from Okarito rowi (Apteryx australis)

approximately 6.2 million years ago (Burbidge et al., 2003). This species eventually

invaded the North Island during episodic glacial events that caused the sea level to

lower substantially, forming a land bridge between the two islands, and may have

began to diverge approximately 200,000 years ago (Baker et al., 1995). Caution

should be taken with over-interpreting this data however, as this field of research is

rapidly changing with better technology. Baker et al. (1995) used different techniques

to Burbidge, and best estimates for divergence of rowi and North Island brown kiwi

have now changed from Baker’s initial estimate of 500,000 years ago, to a current

estimate of 6.2 million years ago. Future investigation into North Island brown kiwi

speciation may yet refine these results further. These speciation events are most likely

to have been stimulated by kiwi populations being isolated in genetic refugia by

orogenesis (mountain building) coupled with volcanism, and climate change –

including multiple glaciation events and sea level fluctuations (Wallis & Trewick,

2009).

Currently it is estimated that the divergence of Eastern and Western brown kiwi

occurred approximately 300,000 years ago, and approximately 100,000 years ago

with Northland and Coromandel taxa (Hugh Robertson, pers. comm., data from

unpublished report by Maryann Burbidge and Allan Baker, University of Toronto,

Canada). One of the main drivers for the genetic isolation of Eastern brown kiwi has

been postulated to be volcanism (Shepherd et al., 2007). The Eastern brown kiwi

taxon encompasses significant parts of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), which

appears to separate both the Eastern from Western brown kiwi (Fig. 1). The TVZ has

produced the largest volume of rhyolitic magmatism globally over the past 1.6 million

years (Wilson et al., 1995), releasing 14,000km3 of material (Houghton et al., 1995)

producing tephra layers hundreds of metres thick. Periodic very large eruptions (e.g.

35 000, 26 000 and 2 000 years ago) at multiple caldera, would have resulted in large

areas of the Eastern brown kiwi population and habitat being totally destroyed, buried

in many metres of mud, ash and pumice. This periodic devastation would have


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resulted in vast expanses periodically devoid of kiwi, isolating previously connected

kiwi populations, potentially providing a strong speciation mechanism. A brief history

of recent volcanic eruptions in the Taupo Volcanic Zone is presented later (Appendix

3).

Fig.1. The current known distribution of Eastern brown kiwi showing the Taupo

Volcanic Zone.


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As it is one of the largest taxa remaining, both in terms of population and distribution

(Holzapfel et al., 2008), there is still a high level of genetic variation remaining within

the taxon, despite the large declines over the past 130 years (Shepherd & Lambert,

2008). However, genetic understanding of this taxon is far from complete. Little work

has occurred on intra-taxon genetic variation to ascertain if any significant level of

geographic variation exists. In addition, other factors such as defining where the

absolute boundaries of the taxon occurs, or the presence of hybrid zones with other

taxa have not been addressed.

3.2 Biology and ecology

Biology

As the name implies, Eastern brown kiwi are mainly a drab brown colour, but their

outer feathers also have tints of black and differing shades of brown. Brown feather

shades can vary slightly from dull brown to a more reddish-brown colour, and

occasional white feathers may be present in some individuals, the presence of which

is rare in the north of its range but more common in the Kaweka range (T. Ward-

Smith, pers. comm.; and pers. obs.). Overall, their coat gives them a shaggy

appearance, with the feather colouring aiding their camouflage ability. North Island

brown kiwi have several taxonomic traits separate from other kiwi taxa, such as ‘stiff’

feather tips and long facial bristles (Baker et al., 1995).

As opposed to many birds which have specialised wing and tail feathers, kiwi body

feathers are relatively uniform with less specialisation. Each feather provides two

main functions – a rough outer exterior providing protection from external

environmental assaults, particularly rain and snow – and a downy insulating interior

trapping air next to the skin to provide warmth. Their unfeathered legs and feet are

covered in distinct, usually dark brown, scales.

The heads of Eastern brown kiwi have many long black whiskers projecting around

the face, and the small eyes are brown with round black pupils. Nostrils are at the end

of the bill, and ear openings are hidden beneath feathers on each side of the upper

skull. The bill is long, slender, and pale. Recently the bill of Eastern brown kiwi (and

other taxa) have been found to contain ‘sensory pits’ which allows the bird to detect

vibration of prey such as earthworms underground (Cunningham et al., 2007). The

bill is used nearly exclusively for feeding, calling and preening; it appears to be little

used for fighting, or inflicting any injury, although kiwi can ‘bill snap’ and growl

when annoyed or captured.

Like all kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have small vestigial wings; in adult Eastern brown

kiwi the humerus bone grows to only about 50mm in length, and have a ‘wing claw’ –

a small nail protruding from the end of each wing. The few wing feathers are slightly

modified from the typical body feather in that they have a significantly longer and

thicker calamus (feather shaft). There is no visible external tail, although like the wing

feathers, there are some small, slightly modified feathers present around the pygostyle

(pers obs.).


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Feathers can grow up to approximately 10cm long, and can be replaced throughout

the year, although there is an increase in the density of pin feathers (early stage of

feather replacement) generally in autumn. As kiwi do not fly, this ‘moult’ stage

appears to have little if any impact on the bird’s biology or behaviour. One curious

aspect of kiwi feathers is the ease with which they can be lost when fighting or

attacked by a predator. This is likely a trait that has evolved to enable the kiwi to

escape avian predators leaving them with only talons and beaks full of feathers.

However, this strategy is likely to be ineffective against mammalian predators with

highly developed auditory and olfactory abilities.

Like all other kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have a high degree of sexual dimorphism with

females being typically 10-20% larger than their male counterparts (Table 2). Adult

Eastern brown kiwi are approximately 45-55cm in height with adult males weights

ranging from approximately 1.7 kg to 2.7kg and female adults from 1.9kg to 2.9kg

(pers. obs.; H. Robertson, pers. comm.). Bill lengths for males are typically 85-95mm,

and adult females are typically 95-125mm. Eastern Brown Kiwi are similar in size to

Western and Coromandel brown kiwi, but smaller than Northland brown kiwi (H.

Robertson, pers. comm.; Colbourne & Kleinpaste, 1986). Weights vary during the

year for both adult sexes (Table 2 – North Island brown kiwi), depending on the stage

of egg development, nesting, or the number of nests attempted per year. There is a

considerable overlap in weight between sexes, so this is not in itself a reliable

diagnostic tool to determine the sex of adult Eastern brown kiwi.

Table 2. Morphological measurements of adult Eastern brown kiwi (at sites subject to

no or limited translocations), and comparisons with other kiwi taxa (range with

median in bold). Taxon Original

Site Adult Male

Adult Female Reference

Bill (mm) Weight (g) Bill (mm) Weight (g) Little Spotted

Kiwi

Kapiti Island 68.0 ± 2.13

(n=44) Range:

63.5-71.5

1135 ± 118.8

(n=51) Range:

880-1356

85.1 ± 4.00

(n=24) Range:

75.1-93.8

1351 ± 163.6

(n=41) Range:

1000-1400

Gravid: 1710 ±

143.7 (n=13)

Range: 1430-

1950

Marchant &

Higgins, 1990

Great Spotted

Kiwi

Bill:

throughout

range;

Weight:

Gouland

Downs

96.0 ± 5.79

(n=7) Range:

87.3-99.9

2610 (n=12) 125.8 ± 8.59

(n=13) Range:

105-131

3270 (n=7) Bill: Marchant

& Higgins,

1990;

Weight: J.A

McLennan

Tokoeka Stewart Island 103.2 ± 4.16

(n=9) Range:

94.4-108.2

Feb:

2720 ± 242.6

(n=9) Range:

2300-3060

143.2 ± 7.37

(n=10) Range:

134.0-155.3

Feb:

3115 ± 266.7

(n=10) Range:

2700-3500

R.M. Colbourne

in Marchant &

Higgins, 1990

Rowi Okarito 94.8 ± 4.3

(n=48)

Range: 83.5-

104.2

1924 ± 157

(n=49)

Range: 1575-

2250

125.5 ± 5.9

(n=51)

Range: 109.9-

140.3

2650 ± 316

(n=51)

Range: 1950-

3570

Tennyson et al.,

2003

NI Brown Kiwi

mean

n/a 98.2 ± 6.24

(n=11) Range:

84.8-107.7

2080 (n=13)

Range: 1820-

2590

129.9 ± 10.45

(n=15) Range:

115-149

2490 (n=21)

Range: 2090-

3270

Reid, 1971


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14

Like other kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have powerful legs and toes, with robust sharp

claws. These are used for both effective digging of underground burrows, fighting

with other kiwi, and defence from predators. Eastern brown kiwi are also very fast

and surprisingly agile, even in rough terrain with thick vegetation. They can run at

approximately 15-20km/h (pers. obs.), and can change direction rapidly and can tuck

their heads in to assume a roughly spherical shape and roll down slopes when trying

to avoid predators. They do not appear to be able to jump vertically to any great

degree – certainly less than 1 metre (C. Richardson, pers. comm.)

The breeding behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is similar to other North Island brown

kiwi, with the male alone incubating up to two eggs per clutch, which are typically

laid 2-3 weeks apart. Like all kiwi, the eggs are very large in comparison to the

female’s body weight. The physical and energetic constraints of developing two such

large eggs simultaneously are likely to be the main reasons there is such a marked

delay between laying the different eggs of the same clutch. Two clutches per year are

typical, but some pairs have been known to continuously breed year-round for a

period of 30 months (J. McLennan, pers. comm.). Eggs are incubated for 75-85 days

(Sales, 2005) with chicks hatching usually only 10 days apart. Males usually incubate

every day, but occasionally they may not return to the nest for one day (pers. obs.),

and resume incubation the following day. This appears not to harm embryonic

development of the eggs, although this may possibly only occur late in incubation.

Kiwi chicks hatch fully feathered and have a large internal egg yolk. Chicks remain in

the nest for their first few days but subsequently venture out of the nest for brief

foraging expeditions, which gradually increase in length. After approximately 2-3

weeks, they leave the nest permanently. Therefore, both chicks may be present in the

nest for approximately only one week with the male.

Second clutches can be laid and incubation can commence at any time after the

second egg of the first clutch hatches. This can vary from only a few days to several

weeks or even months. Some pairs only produce one clutch per season, and others

periodically do not breed at all in some seasons, for unknown reasons. Eastern brown

kiwi are thought to live for perhaps 50 years and are likely to be able to breed for

much of this time. Hence an Eastern brown kiwi may have an absolute lifetime

reproductive maximum capacity of 200 eggs. Typically, approximately half of these

eggs will fail to hatch in natural settings, largely due to bacterial infections of the egg

(McLennan, 1997).

Eastern brown kiwi are sensitive to nest disturbance – any activity around the nest

entrance, even during daylight hours – may lead to abandonment of the nest. The act

of placing anything within the nest burrow when the male is present is likely to lead to

abandonment, and capturing the incubating male on a nest (e.g. to attach a transmitter)

will almost certainly result in nest abandonment. Indeed, repetitive handling of male

kiwi – particularly during the breeding season – may cause them to become

increasingly sensitive to even very low levels of human activity near a nest, increasing

the likelihood of nest abandonment over time (pers. obs). Breeding Eastern brown

kiwi males can also develop a large, featherless ‘brood patch’ on their lower belly

during egg incubation, to increase the transfer of their metabolic warmth to the egg

(Colbourne, 2002).


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15

Juvenile Eastern brown kiwi are left to forage by themselves immediately after

hatching, though the adult male may stay with them for a few weeks in the nest

burrow. After that, they are solitary animals, and forage within or adjacent to their

parents’ territory. After approximately 10-12 months of age, when weighing about

1300g, these kiwi begin their major dispersal phase. Detailed information on the

nature of this phase is limited, but some current monitoring information indicates a

net dispersal distance of between 2-6km may be typical (pers. obs; P. Willems, pers.

comm). Any sex-biased dispersal has not yet been clearly demonstrated.

Ecology

Adult Eastern brown kiwi are strictly nocturnal and when not nesting change sleeping

sites every day, which can range from established underground dens, the inside of

decaying logs, to dense above ground vegetation. Adults are predominantly solitary

animals, but can meet up with their mate during foraging hours. Typically, the male

calls in the few minutes after leaving the den or nest site, which is usually within the

first two hours of darkness. Eastern brown kiwi pairs den together on approximately

8% of days (McLennan et al., 1987), predominantly in the May-June period when

first mating occurs.

On the mainland, Eastern brown kiwi typically have territories held by a monogamous

pair of approximately 40ha (McLennan et al., 1987.). It is unknown how small these

territories could decline to, though there is some suggestion (Basse et al., 1999) that

kiwi may have had territories of only 2-5ha (i.e. 40-100 adults km-2

) prior to the

arrival and widespread establishment of mustelids, dogs and cats in New Zealand

forests. Indeed, Ponui Island in the Hauraki Gulf contains a hybrid mix of North

Island brown kiwi, and their population density is estimated at approximately 100

adults km-2

(I. Castro, pers. comm.)

Eastern brown kiwi feed on a wide range of foods, but they typically have an

invertebrate diet, in particular native annelids (Sale, 2005). Other prominent foods

include seeds of a variety of plants, hence in high densities they may have once been

an important dispersal agent for many plants. Kiwi are also known to be meat eaters,

and in captivity are usually fed a high protein diet containing minced ox heart. They

are also known to eat larger prey such as koura /freshwater crayfish (H. Robertson,

pers. comm.).

Kiwi have a distinctive excreta that has a musty ammonia-like aroma. Their

distinctive look and smell can often betray the presence of kiwi in areas where they

are not known to occur. Other field sign includes probe holes (though these may often

be confused with large worm or other insect holes), occasional shed feathers and foot

prints, particularly in soft mud.

3.3 Past and present distribution and population trends

Before human arrival, Eastern brown kiwi were likely to have been found over

approximately 42,000 km2 of the eastern North Island (Fig. 2). At an estimated

maximum density of 100 adults km-2

(Basse et al., 1999), this may have totalled up to

some 4 million individual adults. Since human arrival, both the distribution (Fig.3)

and total population (Holzapfel et al., 2008) of this taxon has declined dramatically,


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16

primarily due to habitat modification by humans and predation by introduced

mammals. Eastern brown kiwi were one of three kiwi species known to inhabit the eastern North

Island prior to human arrival: little-spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) were ubiquitous

(Heather & Robertson, 1996); and rowi (Apteryx rowi) were present at least as far

north as Lake Poukawa in Hawke’s Bay (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008; Fig.2). These

species are likely to have competed with Eastern brown kiwi for resources, perhaps

shaping their distribution and abundance. With the human introduction of predatory

mammals these two species of kiwi have become locally extinct, perhaps due to a

greater susceptibility to predation or lower fecundity rates. Rowi may have been

extinct, and little spotted kiwi were likely near extinction in the North Island by the

time of European arrival, well before the arrival of mustelids (Jolly and Colbourne,

1991; Butler & McLennan, 1991).

In addition to competition, the presence of avian predators are likely to have

influenced the distribution, abundance and behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi.

Contemporary predatory avian species include the North Island weka (Gallirallus

australis), which are known to consume kiwi eggs and possibly young chicks (Jolly,

1989); and ruru/morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae), which may predate young chicks

or juveniles. It is doubtful whether the mainly diurnal New Zealand falcon/karearea

(Falco novaeseelandiae) or harrier/kahu (Circus approximans) have ever had any

significant impact on Eastern brown kiwi. Before human arrival, other predatory

avian species may have included the extinct North Island adzebill (Aptornis

Fig.2. Estimated original and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi


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17

otidiformis), laughing owl/whēkau (Sceloglaux albifacies) and possibly Forbes’

harrier (Circus teauteensis); however only whēkau was known to be nocturnal. The

iconic Haast’s eagle (Harpogornis moorei) was only known to inhabit the South

Island (Tennyson & Martinson, 2006).

Abiotic factors would also have influenced the original Eastern brown kiwi

distribution. In particular volcanism emanating from within the Taupo Volcanic Zone

(Fig. 3) would have produced episodic periods of great disturbance (Wilmshurst &

McGlone, 1996), eliminating kiwi from vast tracts for at least several generations. In


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18

addition, previous ice ages are likely to have limited the distribution of Eastern brown

kiwi towards more coastal refugia, further separating them from other North Island

brown kiwi taxa. The impact of ice ages could have been off-set to some extent by

falling sea levels (up to 120m below current sea level), which would presumably have

significantly expanded the available habitat for Eastern brown kiwi, particularly in the

western Bay of Plenty where the sea level receded to the edge of the continental shelf

up to 50km offshore.

Fig. 3. Examples of two recent large volcanic events within the range of Eastern brown kiwi (adapted

from Wilson 1995, Gravley 2004, Manville 2009, Nairn 2010 and Froggatt 2010).


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19

Other possible isolating mechanisms (Fig. 4) include the presence of large wetlands

and large rivers (e.g. the Hauraki Plains), and extensive linear high cliff systems (e.g.

Rangitikei river), which would effectively form an impenetrable barrier to kiwi. Until

approximately 1750 years ago (Manville et al., 2007), the Waikato River used to flow

over the Hauraki Plains before emptying into the Firth of Thames. This combination

of high river volumes and extensive wetlands may have may have limited kiwi

dispersal west of the Kaimai Ranges.

The Taupo Volcanic Zone and associated volcanic caldera (Fig. 3) also cuts a swathe

through the estimated pre-human Eastern brown kiwi distribution. This geological

feature may have also limited the gene flow between Eastern brown kiwi to the north

and south of this feature, so it is curious that this feature is not currently regarded as a

significant isolating mechanism between Coromandel and Eastern brown kiwi taxa.

There appears to be no obvious isolating mechanism between the understood

distributions of the Coromandel and Eastern brown kiwi taxa; the author is unaware if

the only remaining Eastern brown kiwi population north of the Taupo Volcanic Zone

(at Opuiaki) has actually been specifically genetically tested to ensure it is of Eastern

brown kiwi taxa. There is a chance this population is even a hybrid of the two taxa.

Occasional volcanism would have obliterated large swathes of Eastern brown kiwi

habitat, by direct eruption, pyroclastic flows, hot and lethal gases, and smothering by

significant ash fall. Eastern brown kiwi will have been substantially affected by many

of these eruptions, and presumably would have been confined to one or more refugia

populations - and perhaps could have only survived at a significant distance from the

event, such as the Raukumara ranges. However, these events, while being locally and

regionally catastrophic, are highly sporadic, and are interspersed by many hundreds or

even thousands of years of either no or limited volcanic disturbance (Appendix 3).

Scrub and forest (i.e. kiwi habitat) is believed to return relatively quickly after such

events - only a few hundred years (Wilmshurst & McGlone, 1996). If Eastern brown

kiwi can also return after such relatively short timeframes, over the 100,000-300,000

year timeframe Eastern brown kiwi are believed to have been isolated from other

brown kiwi taxa, it may have been unlikely to be a significant factor in limiting gene

flow between isolated populations. Therefore if volcanism is regarded as the main

isolating factor separating Eastern from Western brown kiwi, it is curious that the

large and prevalent volcanic events erupting from the Okataina and neighbouring

caldera over the past 300,000 years are not also regarded as having a similar effect.

The southern limit of the Eastern brown kiwi may have been limited by the presence

of rowi (Fig. 4), a similarly-sized (Table 1) and therefore directly competing species

of kiwi, before their North Island extinction following human occupation (Shepherd

& Lambert, 2008; Shepherd et al., 2012).

Behavioural factors are also likely to have contributed to shaping the original range of

Eastern brown kiwi, in particular the dispersal behaviour of juvenile kiwi. There is

some speculation that kiwi dispersal is behaviourally limited near the periphery of a

kiwi population. This apparent “fear of silence” describes the behaviour in which

young dispersing kiwi appear to be reluctant to disperse into adjacent areas containing

suitable habitat, but which is empty of kiwi, and hence no kiwi will be heard calling

from this direction (H. Robertson, pers. comm.). If verified, this behaviour would be

expected to maintain the isolation of kiwi populations following release from


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20

conditions causing refugia (e.g. ice ages or volcanic activity) and help explain the

presence of the four North Island taxa.

Fig.4. Factors that may have contributed to the historic distribution of Eastern brown kiwi.

The Maori introduction of kuri (dog, Canis familiaris) and kiore (Polynesian rat,

Rattus exulans) in the 13th

century, are likely to have directly preyed upon and


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21

competed for the food of Eastern brown kiwi, respectively. Kuri predation may also

be one factor that contributed to the very low density of little spotted kiwi in the North

Island by the mid-1800’s, some decades before mustelids were liberated. The

introduction of the more carnivorous Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) in 1769 may

have led to initially very high densities of these rats, and may have even resulted in

some predation of very young kiwi chicks. The later arrival of ship rats in mid-1800’s

(Innes, 2005) largely out-competed Norway rats in forested areas, which ironically

may have resulted in less rodent predation of young kiwi chicks. Recently, Norway

and ship rats appear to have little impact upon North Island brown kiwi (Latham,

2006).

Cats (Felis catus) also established early in European settlement (Gillies & Fitzgerald,

2005) and will also have contributed to kiwi declines. However, cats struggle to

survive in cold, wet conditions with dense vegetation, so have largely failed to

populate large remote backcountry areas in any great density, which today remain the

stronghold for Eastern brown kiwi.

The introduction of ferrets (from 1879; Clapperton & Byrom, 2005), stoats (from

1884; King & Murphy, 2005) and weasels (from 1885; King, 2005) to combat vast

rabbit populations that had built up on productive pastoral lands is likely to have been

the single largest cause of Eastern brown kiwi decline (McLennan et al., 1996; Basse

et al., 1999). Particularly stoats (Mustela erminea), but also weasels (Mustela nivalis)

and now ubiquitous within the forests containing Eastern brown kiwi. The larger

ferrets (Mustela furo) is predominantly found on pastoral grasslands, particularly in

drier sites with high rabbit densities, but are occasionally reported to have penetrated

far into mature native forests. Ferrets are particularly destructive as they can kill adult

kiwi, which the other two mustelid species cannot.

Vegetation clearance by Maori will have reduced the abundance of Eastern brown

kiwi from some areas, particularly the dry Heretaunga plains of Hawke’s Bay, over a

period of centuries. However, it was not until the vastly more intensive and sustained

land clearance following European settlement, which began in earnest from about

1840, that Eastern brown kiwi population and distribution would have begun to

significantly decline due to habitat clearance.

Despite the large range contraction of Eastern brown kiwi, there have in fact also been

small increases in their distribution – conservation management has included

introducing small numbers of birds to Mokoia, Moutohora and Tuhua islands.

Previous management mistakes have also been made, with Northland brown kiwi

introduced into Guavas forest in southern Hawke’s Bay in the 1980’s (Butler &

McLennan, 1991).

With no conservation management, mainland populations of Eastern brown kiwi will

ultimately decline to extinction, largely due to the recruitment rate of juvenile kiwi to

adulthood being below adult mortality levels (McLennan et al., 1996). At current

rates of population decline, about 6% per annum, most Eastern brown kiwi

populations on the mainland could be functionally extinct by mid 21st century in the

absence of any management (Basse et al., 1999).


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22

3.4 Threat status

Miskelly et al. (2008) rated all North Island brown kiwi collectively as Nationally

Vulnerable, with a Criteria of D(1/1), (meaning 5000-20,000 mature individuals, with

a predicted 30-70% population decline over 3 generations), with qualifiers CD

(Conservation Dependant), PD (Partial Decline), and RF (Recruitment Failure). As at

the time of writing, this ranking still applies, both to North Island brown kiwi, and is

likely to apply to the Eastern brown kiwi taxon alone also.

3.5 Agents of decline and current threats

There are a number of demonstrated causes of kiwi population decline – almost all as

a result of human influence. These include:

Stoats – predation of young

Dogs – predation of kiwi of all ages

Ferrets – predation of kiwi of all ages

Cats – predation of young and sub-adult kiwi

Possum trapping using ground-set traps

Habitat modification and loss including fire (although Eastern brown kiwi

have colonised some pine forests)

Small population size (some sites)

Population fragmentation

Pest animal control using toxins (e.g. cyanide)

Volcanism (natural episodic events)

Other possible but largely unproven agents of decline include:

Weasels - possible predation on very young kiwi chicks

Possums

Pigs

Hedgehogs

3.6 Past and current management

Active management of Eastern brown kiwi first commenced as part of a Landcare

Research study at Puketukutuku peninsula at Lake Waikaremoana, Te Urewera

National Park in 1992. This study within the 800ha area was one of the first to

quantify the cause of kiwi chick mortality, and discovered that only approximately

5% of kiwi chicks survived to 1000g (a stoat resilient threshold) in non-treatment (i.e.

non-trapped) areas (McLennan et al., 1996). These studies were instrumental in

proving the leading cause of kiwi decline was recruitment failure of kiwi chicks and

juveniles to adulthood, largely due to severe predation rates by stoats.


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23

This site has continued with ongoing management since this initial study, making it

one of the longest continuous management sites for kiwi in New Zealand. Proving

stoats were the main agent of kiwi decline was a defining moment for kiwi

conservation in New Zealand, and provided the confidence needed for other sites to

begin kiwi management projects targeting stoat control. Other early Eastern brown

kiwi management sites included Northern Te Urewera (1996) and Whirinaki (1998). Progress in developing successful methods of kiwi egg incubation was initially led by

Wellington Zoo, then further refined by Auckland Zoo in the mid-1990’s. Upscaling

and continued improvement – largely led by Rainbow Springs (now Kiwi Encounter)

– enabled Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZONETM

) to be used with

confidence as a successful management tool. This progress enabled sites that didn’t

have the resources to undertake expensive pest control, to only monitor male kiwi,

and harvest their eggs from nests. In combination, this resulted in a proliferation of

kiwi projects of differing scopes, including the establishment of fenced predator-proof

kiwi crèche sites. By 2004, seven Eastern brown kiwi projects were operational, incorporating

approximately 120 pairs of kiwi over approximately 10,000 ha (Table 3).

Site District Agency Managed Area (ha)

No. kiwi pairs

2004 Prs

Max. Potential

Ohope BOP Community 300 6-10 20

Whinray East Coast

Community 400 4 20

NTUERP BOP DOC 5000 50 250

Whirinaki BOP DOC 2000 20 100

Waikaremoana Hawke’s Bay

Community 1000 25 50

Boundary Stream Hawke’s Bay

DOC 1000 2 50

Eastern Kaweka Hawke’s Bay

Community 500 10 25

Max. TOTAL 10,200 122 515

Table 3. Sites of Eastern brown kiwi management in 2004 (modified from McLennan, 2004).

Maximum potential estimated from 1 pair per 20 ha of habitat containing a low density of predators.

Current sites of management are shown in Fig. 5, and a list of parameters for these

sites is provided in Appendix 2. Further significant progress in kiwi management has occurred with the enhancement

of transmitter technology (e.g. Egg timers, Chick timers) and monitoring (Ear in the

Sky), all developed by Wildtech Ltd., while monitoring the Kaweka kiwi population.


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24

Fig 5. Current management sites (as at 2013) for Eastern brown kiwi.

3.7 Cultural importance


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25

Kiwi in general were well respected by tangata whenua; their common occurrence in

many Maori names attests to their status, distribution and abundance. Mythologically,

kiwi are described as the Children of Tane (the God of Forests), and they provided the

demi-god Maui with fire.

The distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon coincides with a considerable

number of iwi. While each iwi has their own relationship with kiwi, many iwi

consider kiwi a taonga (treasure) with a very important cultural status. Woven kiwi-

feathered cloaks (korowai, kakahu or kahu kiwi) are a highly treasured possession

nationally, some of which date back to the early 19th

century. Recent DNA analysis

has shown that almost all of these historic cloaks are composed of North Island brown

kiwi feathers, with over half originating from Eastern brown kiwi (Hartnup et al.,

2011). The use of kiwi feathers for repairing old, or constructing new korowai, is a

highly valued resource.

Sadly, the rohe of some iwi no longer contains natural Eastern brown kiwi

populations, or they have been reduced to small, fragmented populations that are non-

viable without management. Maintaining current kiwi populations, or restoring

recently extirpated populations within their rohe, are likely to be considered a high

priority by many iwi.

3.8 Public awareness, Key stakeholders and associates

The general public perception of Eastern brown kiwi is similar to the general

perception of kiwi nationally (i.e. rare, threatened with extinction, largely

inaccessible) but with some local exceptions. These exceptions can occur where there

is a strongly publicised, visible and successful local kiwi project. In these cases, the

perception is generally more informed and positive about the long-term prospects for

kiwi.

Key stakeholders and associates include The Kiwi Trust (Kiwis for Kiwi), DOC, local

private sponsors (e.g. Tasti Foods, Lowe Corporation), Bay of Plenty Regional

Council, Hawke’s Bay Regional Council, Rainbow Springs, ECOED and iwi.

There is a good level of co-operation between projects, particularly in Hawke’s Bay,

but there is room for even more co-operation, as some sites have little or no co-

operation. Rainbow Springs has close association with nearly all BNZONE sites

within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, and indeed many Western brown kiwi sites also.

Eastern brown kiwi has been selected as the only taxon to be held in captivity in the

long-term. This represents a major advocacy opportunity for this taxon throughout the

country, as eventually approximately all 110 kiwi in captivity will be of this taxon

only.

3.9 Recovery principals and preferred option for recovery

The selection of goals, objectives and actions in this plan have been directed by the

following underlying recovery principles and preferred option of recovery contained

in the Kiwi Recovery Plan.


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26

Prevention of extinction of any species of kiwi as the highest priority.

Intraspecific genetic variation and distribution to be maintained or enhanced

as much as is feasible within the core areas of distribution of each taxon

Where possible, kiwi to be managed within their natural (prehistorical or

historical) range or, if outside the range, with the overall aim of restoring

them to such sites.

Mixed-provenance populations form an integral part of recovery planning

outside the core areas of distributions for each taxon

Kiwi recovery to, wherever possible, focus on gaining maximum benefits to

the wider ecosystem

The preferred option for recovery is to sustainably manage kiwi in their natural range

by reducing their exposure to predators.


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4. Goals

4.1 Long term recovery goal

Long-term goal of the national recovery plan

To restore and, wherever possible, enhance the abundance, distribution and genetic

diversity of all kiwi taxa.

Long-term goal of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon plan

That wherever possible and appropriate, restore or enhance both the abundance and

distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon while also maintaining its genetic

diversity.

4.2 Goals for the term of this taxon plan

4.2.1 Management

Goal 1.1: To halt the decline in the total number of Eastern brown kiwi.

Goal 1.2: To minimise the loss of distribution and genetic diversity of wild Eastern

brown kiwi populations.

4.2.2 Community

Goal 2.1: To increase and sustain community-led projects in Eastern brown kiwi

recovery for populations throughout its range and involving a broad range of

communities found within the boundaries of this taxon.

Goal 2.2: To increase the total sponsorship funding for Eastern brown kiwi recovery

(from 2008).

4.2.3 Research

Goal 3.1: To clarify Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy and provide robust information

guiding management of the taxon’s genetic diversity.

Goal 3.2: To undertake robust population modelling for Eastern brown kiwi.

Goal 3.3: To undertake or support research into tools for sustainable landscape-scale

pest management and monitoring of Eastern brown kiwi.


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5. Implementation

The following section outlines the objectives and actions that are necessary to

implement in order to achieve the above Goals (Section 4). A background and a

summary of issues for a number of topics are arranged under the three themes of:

Management;

Community Relations and Engagement; and

Research, Monitoring and Innovation.

The taxon plan actions are provided to meet the objectives and actions of the national

Kiwi Recovery Plan as well as any additional objectives identified.

Taxon plan actions are numbered, have been prioritised and are time-lined. A

summary table of actions is provided as Appendix 1.

Prioritisation has been assigned according to the following criteria:

Essential: Needs to be carried out within the timeframe and/or at the

frequency specified to achieve the goals for kiwi recovery over the term of

this plan. Highest risk for kiwi recovery if not carried out within the

timeframe and/or at the frequency specified;

High: Necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed and ideally

completed within the term of the plan, with moderate risk if not carried out

within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified;

Medium: Necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed within

the term of the plan, but least risk if not completed within the term of the

plan or within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified.

No actions are ‘extras’; a medium priority does not mean that there are no reasons to

do it. Priorities are given to assist with choice if required.

5.1 Management

Background statement:

Management of Eastern brown kiwi is at the core of recovery planning for this

species. Advances made both within this taxon and nationally over the past decade

have proven that kiwi populations can be effectively managed and populations

increased, at sites ranging from semi-urban to remote backcountry.

Currently, management of Eastern brown kiwi is largely uncoordinated, with the

national Kiwi Recovery Group having an overall strategic role for all taxa. Whether a

formal Eastern brown kiwi group is required for co-ordinating the recovery of this

Taxon is one management issue this initial Plan will address.


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29

5.1.1 Topic 1: Taxon planning

The Eastern brown kiwi taxon is large and complex, with the kiwi population spread over a wide geographic area. Multiple iwi, community groups, and agencies are currently involved in management, with the potential for many more in future. Co-ordination of all activities both locally, regionally and nationally is likely necessary to achieve more efficient and effective kiwi management throughout the range of the taxon for the long-term benefit of the taxon. Issues Issue 1.1: The establishment of an Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group or other entity may be required. The structure, mandate, leadership, accountability, funding and reporting of any such group should be decided by all partners/stakeholders. Issue 1.2: Progress with implementation of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan needs to be monitored against current objectives, and the Plan itself assessed and adjusted against changing circumstances to remain effective. Issue 1.3: Key networks of stakeholders (e.g. tangata whenua, community groups, captive holding institutions, research institutions, councils, sponsors, DOC) are able to influence Eastern brown kiwi taxon planning documents.

Issue 1.4: The Kiwi Recovery Group is still seen as the first port of call for technical, procedural and strategic advice, while any Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group would be focused on the management of issues more specific to the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Issue 1.5: The Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan needs to be consistent with the Kiwi Recovery Plan. Issue 1.6: Development of more formal reporting structures from kiwi projects to the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group, from the Taxon Group to the Kiwi Recovery Group, and vice versa. Objectives and Actions

Recovery Plan Objectives

1.1: To ensure that the current recovery plan remains effective, and has its progress assessed and its direction

regularly reviewed

1.2: To ensure that the Kiwi Recovery Group successfully directs and oversees kiwi recovery at an appropriate scale

1.3: To ensure that stakeholders have access to resources and high quality advice

Taxon Plan Objectives


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30

Objective 1.1: To ensure the current Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan is consistent with and does not contradict the

national objectives outlined in the Kiwi Recovery Plan.

Objective 1.2: To develop a process in which Eastern brown kiwi taxon stakeholders decide if a Taxon ‘Governance

Group’ should be convened (such as the already operational Northland Kiwi Forum Working Group).

Objective 1.3: To decide how such a Governance Group will function (structure, mandate, objectives, funding,

accountability and reporting).

Objective 1.4: The Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Plan will be consistent with the goals, objectives and actions of the

Kiwi Recovery Plan.

Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives

Action Action #

(recovery plan)

Accountability Priority

Prepare a progress report annually against recovery plan objectives,

and communicate across DOC and to other stakeholders

Undertake a full review of the recovery progress in 2013, at half-

way point of the current plan

Review membership of the Kiwi Recovery Group every 2 years

(from 2008), to ensure it reflects key relationships and networks of

kiwi management at all times

Communicate the purpose of the Kiwi Recovery Group in a

consistent manner to DOC staff and all other stakeholders

throughout the term of the plan

Review resources available for advice on all levels of kiwi recovery

planning and fill key gaps as identified throughout the term of the

plan

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Recovery Group

Recovery Group

Recovery Group

Recovery Group

Recovery Group

and BNZ Save

the Kiwi Trust

Essential

Essential

Medium

Medium

High

Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives

# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability

1.1 Undertake a process to determine if an Eastern brown

kiwi taxon ‘Governance Group’ is required in order to

achieve the goals, outcomes and actions of this Taxon

Plan

2013 Essential Recovery Group; Lead

Director Conservation

Services & Director

Conservation

Partnerships (Central

North Island)

1.2 Depending on outcome of Action 1.1, develop Eastern

Brown Kiwi Taxon Group or other Eastern brown kiwi

management structure

2013 Essential All stakeholders

1.3 Prepare a progress report annually against Taxon Plan

objectives and communicate to stakeholders

Annually

(Sept)

Essential Stakeholders or Taxon

Group

1.4 Develop formal lines of communication with the Kiwi

Recovery Group regarding reporting, strategic input in

the Kiwi Recovery Planning Process to any issues

either specific to this taxon or applicable to other kiwi

taxa also

2016

onwards

High Kiwi Recovery Group;

Taxon Group

1.5 The Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan will be consistent

with the goals, objectives, and actions of the Kiwi

Recovery Plan

2013

onwards

Essential Eastern brown kiwi

taxon plan author; Kiwi

Recovery Group


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31

5.1.2 Topic 2: Kiwi Sanctuary

The Eastern Kiwi Taxon does not have a Kiwi Sanctuary, and is the only taxon of the four North Island brown kiwi taxa to not have this management representation. Kiwi Sanctuaries appear to have their own communication network, including a close role with DOC’s Science and Technical group. Therefore, there is a risk that developments in kiwi management may not flow through to Eastern brown kiwi managers in a timely manner, compared to other taxa containing a Kiwi Sanctuary. Eastern brown kiwi projects may also be able to make a valuable contribution to current or proposed research projects. Issues Issue 2.1: All Eastern brown kiwi management projects and kiwi practitioners operate outside the five current Kiwi Sanctuaries; such projects and personnel should be able to link effectively both to and from the Kiwi Sanctuary network Issue 2.2: Kiwi sanctuaries are sites of learning through management and research, yet many projects within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are well positioned to usefully contribute with complementary or additional aspects of kiwi-orientated research. Issue 2.3: A ‘Kiwi Sanctuary’ label may imply these projects are of higher status or importance than other projects; they may either attract more funding, or have their funding status preserved over other (particularly DOC) projects. With no such Sanctuary, Eastern brown kiwi taxon projects may be at higher risk of being unable to retain funding. Objectives and Actions

Recovery Plan Objective

Objective 3.1: To ensure that kiwi sanctuaries continue to be an integral part of kiwi recovery, as sites of successful

management and for learning


Objective 2.1: To ensure there is consistent and timely communication and reporting between Kiwi Sanctuaries and

the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group

Objective 2.2: To enable Eastern brown kiwi projects to undertake collaborative, supporting and additional research

to that undertaken by support Kiwi Sanctuaries, where applicable

Objective 2.3: To determine if the Eastern brown kiwi taxon requires a formal Kiwi Sanctuary

Recovery Plan Action specified to meet objective

Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Based on the findings of the review, prepare a new strategic

plan for kiwi sanctuaries, including their funding structure

and the potential for additional sanctuaries, by 2009

3.3

Recovery

Group/ General

Manager

Research &

Essential


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32

Development

Group



2.1

Develop a formal communication link between Kiwi

Sanctuary projects and Eastern brown kiwi taxon

projects

2013

onwards

High

Kiwi Recovery Group;

Kiwi Sanctuaries;

EBKTaxon Group

2.2

Develop a research strategy for Eastern brown kiwi,

highlighting sites that can be used to augment Kiwi

Sanctuary research

2013

onwards

Medium Kiwi Recovery Group;

Kiwi Sanctuaries; EBK

Taxon Group

2.3 Determine whether a Kiwi Sanctuary could be provided

for within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

2013 Medium Kiwi Recovery Group;

Kiwi Sanctuaries; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.3 Topic 3: Island Strategy

Islands can be a valuable resource for threatened species management. However, as there are usually only a limited number of suitable islands for any given species, they should be managed to provide crucial refugia for as many threatened but ecologically suitable species as possible. Many islands are privately or multiply Maori-owned, and the desires and aspirations of landowners is essential when considering long-term species management options. Islands each have their own unique ecosystems that have been determined by historical or geological processes, recent history of pest invasion, past management, distance from the mainland, island size, location in degrees latitude etc. that may mean introducing a particular new species is incompatible with retaining these features in the long-term. The Department of Conservation has an Island Strategy (DOC, 2010) that this Taxon Plan should be consistent with. Islands within the current and historical distribution of Eastern brown kiwi that may have potential to be used for their management are listed below (Table 4).

Name Size (ha)

Distance to Mainland (km)

Type of island

Currently contains kiwi (yes/no)

Owner Comments

Tuhua (Mayor) 1300 26 Offshore Yes Iwi Fully

vegetated

Moutohora

(Whale)

167 7 Inshore Yes Iwi/DOC High seabird

densities

Whakaari (White) 339 48 Offshore No Private Continuous

volcanism;

little

vegetation

Motiti 710 9 Inshore No Iwi/private Farmed;

horticulture;

dogs


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33

Mokoia (Lake

Rotorua)

135 2.2 Lake (285m

asl)

Yes Iwi Fully

vegetated

Patiti (Lake

Rotomahana)

12 0.26 Lake

(337m asl)

No Iwi

Rahui (Lake

Waikareiti)

26 0.13 Lake (892m

asl)

No DOC Fully

vegetated

Te Kahaatuwai

(Lake Waikareiti)

20 0.25 Lake (892m

asl)

No DOC Fully

vegetated

Motuhoa

(Tauranga

Harbour)

108 0.95 Harbour No Private Farmed;

horticulture

Rangiwahea

(Tauranga

Harbour)


forestry; low-

tide access

from

Matakana

(stoats)

Matakana

(Tauranga

Harbour)


horticulture;

forestry;

dogs; stoats

Ohakana (Ohiwa

Harbour)

46 0.2 Harbour No Private Populated;

horticulture

Uretara (Ohiwa

Harbour)

76 0.1 Harbour No DOC Low-tide

access

Whangaokena 13 1.8 Inshore No Iwi/DOC Possible

crèche; very

steep

Pourewa 40 0.1 Inshore No Iwi Vegetated

Portland 153 1.3 Inshore No Iwi 0.7km

channel to

mainland at

low tide

Bare (Motu o

Kura)

12 1.5 Inshore No Iwi Little

vegetation;

very steep

Table 4. Islands that could be considered for use in the management of Eastern brown kiwi.


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34

Issues Issue 3.1: There are only a few islands found within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon area suitable for kiwi; they are a limited resource, subject to multiple uses and thus may be subject to conflicts between various management options. Issue 3.2: Islands may be suitable for only a single or for multiple aspects of kiwi management (e.g. some islands may only be suitable as kiwi crèche sites). Issue 3.3: Islands used for kiwi management may currently be focused on benefiting local kiwi populations only; consideration of the whole taxon may be applicable. Issue 3.4: Nearly all islands within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are currently privately owned, multiply Maori-owned, or subject to Treaty of Waitangi claims. It is important to ensure that these island’s owners are fully informed on current kiwi management issues and aware of the role each island kiwi population could have in long-term taxon planning. Issue 3.5: Monitoring indicates that some island kiwi populations may have longer time to first breeding, lower breeding success rates, and higher mortality rates than mainland kiwi populations. Issue 3.6: Islands are often subject to greater potential fire risk than mainland sites. Issue 3.7: Due to the small size and carrying capacity of most islands found within the rohe Eastern brown kiwi, Tuhua may be the only Eastern brown kiwi management site that has the potential to be self-sustaining. Objectives and Actions


Objective 4.1: To optimise use of islands for kiwi recovery


Objective 3.1: To develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that is consistent with DOC’s Island Strategy

Document (DOC, 2010) and the current status of kiwi on offshore islands (Colbourne, 2005)

Objective 3.2: To optimise the use of available islands for Eastern brown kiwi recovery

Objective 3.3: To consult, inform and maintain enduring relationships with island owners’ that contain Eastern brown

kiwi

Objective 3.4: To understand the benefits or limitations (ecological, cultural, social and financial) islands pose for

Eastern brown kiwi, and communicate these to stakeholders


Action Action # Accountability Priority


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35

(recovery plan)

Develop an island strategy for kiwi recovery by 2009, which

is consistent with DOC’s national island strategy (in draft at

time of writing) and the national recovery plan

4.1 Recovery

Group/

Research and

Development

Group

Essential



3.1

Develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that

also assesses all possible EBK islands, efficient use of

islands for kiwi management, and islands suitable for

kiwi crèche sites

2013 Essential Eastern brown kiwi

Taxon Group; Project

Managers

3.2

Support research to understand why some island

populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having

low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 50.1,

section 5.3.10)

2013

onwards

High Eastern brown kiwi

Taxon Group; Science

& Technical; Project

Managers

3.3 Work collaboratively with island landowners to

maximally benefit the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, while

maintaining culturally acceptable kiwi management

2013

onwards

Essential Project Mangers

3.4 Develop contingency plans for islands containing

Eastern brown kiwi in case of fire, in association with

pest incursion contingency plans (Note: same as Action

6.2, section 5.1.6 )

2013

onwards

High Project Managers

3.5 Support the continued ecological improvement of

islands containing Eastern brown kiwi (e.g. eradication

of wasps from Tuhua, translocation of threatened

species to islands)

2013

onwards


3.6 Support the progression of the Tuhua Eastern brown

kiwi population towards a true self-sustaining

(management free) state

2018 High Tuhua Project Manager

5.1.4 Topic 4: Best practice

Kiwi recovery on the mainland, islands and captivity has undergone large and ongoing change over the previous 10-15 years in managed areas. It is feasible that similar changes may occur over the next decade, so Eastern brown kiwi taxon practitioners need to constantly be updated as to the latest developments in kiwi management and the opportunities that may arise. The funding for kiwi conservation is limited compared to the size of the task required, so it is important resources are used efficiently and effectively. Issues Issue 4.1: Some current or potential future Eastern brown kiwi groups or individuals may require a more formal training process than currently exists to ensure they are consistently practicing best practice kiwi management Issue 4.2: There is currently not active collaboration between all projects to assure all Eastern brown kiwi projects are maintaining best practice kiwi management


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36

Objectives and Actions


Objective 5.1: To ensure that kiwi management is undertaken to a consistent and high standard

Taxon Plan Objective

Objective 4.1: To ensure that Eastern brown kiwi management is undertaken to a consistent and high standard by

all projects

Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective

Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Undertake an update of the kiwi best practice manual by

2010 and then update annually

Develop and assess variations to current best practice on a

case-by-case basis and communicate these to stakeholders


Provide regular technical best practice workshops (e.g. kiwi

handling, transponder, egg handling) throughout the term of

the plan

Maintain and annually update a database of qualified and

experienced persons (internal and external) working to best

practice standards from 2009

Ensure best practice is referred to and monitored through

local permit systems throughout the term of the plan

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

Recovery

Group

Recovery

Group

Recovery

Group/

BNZ Save the

Kiwi Trust

Recovery

Group

Area

managers/

conservators

High

Medium

High

Medium

High

Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective


4.1 Contribute to regular updates of the Kiwi Best Practice

Manual by liaising with the Kiwi Recovery Group

2013

onwards


4.2 Provide regular technical best practice workshops for all

Eastern brown kiwi practitioners (e.g. kiwi handling,

transponder, transmitter, egg handling, trapping issues)

2013

onwards

High Recovery Group; The

Kiwi Trust; Eastern brown

kiwi Taxon Group;

Project Managers

4.3 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited

to a biannual Eastern brown kiwi taxon hui

2013

biennially

High Eastern brown kiwi

Taxon Group

4.4 Ensure Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to

attend the biannual North Island kiwi hui

2014

biennially

High Conservation Services

Managers; Project

Managers

4.5 Develop a revolving review process of all Eastern

brown kiwi projects to ensure Best Practice

requirements are being met, maintained, and where

applicable, developed

2013

onwards


Managers; Project

Managers; Eastern

brown kiwi Taxon Group


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37

5.1.5 Topic 5: Taxon Plan Review Schedule

Kiwi management will continue to undergo changes as current projects develop, new technology allows greater efficiencies to be made and projects undertake greater collaboration in a taxon-wide approach to Eastern brown kiwi management. This Taxon Plan needs to be periodically updated to take account of the many changes that may occur in future, to ensure it remains relevant throughout the term of the plan. Issues Issue 5.1: A review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan should occur approximately half-way through implementation Issue 5.2: Priorities may need to change to reflect other developments in knowledge, threat status and technology Objectives and Actions


Objective 6.1: To ensure that key supporting plans for kiwi recovery contain up-to-date and relevant information


Objective 5.1: Review the plan half-way through implementation

Objective 5.2: Reprioritise any objectives and/or actions where appropriate, and record where these changes occur


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Develop in 2008 and operate annually a review schedule for

key supporting documents for kiwi recovery

6.1 Recovery

Group

Medium



5.1 Review Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan

2016 High Recovery Group;

Stakeholders; Project

Managers; Eastern

brown kiwi Taxon Group

5.2 Reprioritise Objectives and Actions, and record where

these changes occur

2016 High Eastern brown kiwi

Taxon Group

5.1.6 Topic 6: Island Biosecurity

Eastern brown kiwi have been placed on several different islands for management purposes. Currently all islands used for Eastern brown kiwi


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38

management are free of pest mammals. Maintaining this status, particularly from mustelids, is essential. Some Eastern brown kiwi islands have had multiple pest incursions since being declared pest-free. Undertaking another eradication following an incursion may in some cases be considered far too expensive, resulting in lowered habitat quality for kiwi on these islands. Therefore stringent biosecurity measures need to be continually implemented on all islands containing kiwi. Issues Issue 6.1: An incursion of mustelids, dogs or cats onto an island could quickly cause significant damage to the resident kiwi population. Issue 6.2: Incursions by rodents will devalue the ecological integrity of pest-free islands and ultimately may have some longer term impact upon the kiwi population present on the island. Issue 6.3: Undertaking additional pest eradications following pest incursions on islands that are currently pest-free may be regarded as too expensive in future. Objectives and Actions


Objective 7.1: To maintain the current status of threats to kiwi on islands with kiwi populations


Objective 6.1: To maintain islands containing Eastern brown kiwi in their current mammalian pest-free status


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity plans

and protocols for islands with kiwi throughout the term of the

plan

Develop contingency plans for kiwi populations on islands as

part of taxon plans by 2009

7.1

7.2

Area

managers/

conservators

Area

managers/

conservators

Essential

Essential



6.1 Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity

plans for each island containing Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

Essential Conservation Services

Managers

6.2 Develop contingency plans for each island containing

Eastern brown kiwi in case of pest incursion, in

association with fire contingency plans (Note: same as

Action 3.4, section 5.1.3)

2013

onwards


Managers

6.3 Undertake an assessment of feasibility and likely costs 2013 High Project Managers


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39

for eradication of a variety of pest species on islands

containing Eastern brown kiwi

5.1.7 Topic 7: Small Managed Populations

Small isolated populations of nearly any species can become vulnerable to long-term deleterious effects. For kiwi, small populations that have been reduced at any stage to an effective population of less than 20 individuals (i.e. the total number of individuals that have successfully produced offspring) are particularly vulnerable. These can include deleterious founder effects and inbreeding depression. In addition, without the appropriate management of populations during a recovery phase that is sensitive to and aware of these issues, these effects can be magnified if a limited number of pairs in a small population contribute a large proportion of offspring to the breeding population. This can cause significant long-term genetic issues that perhaps a slower but broader based increase in the total population could largely avoid. For related topics, see Topic 23 (Small, Unmanaged Kiwi Populations) and Topic 24 (Re-establishment of Locally Extinct Kiwi Populations). Issues Issue 7.1: Small populations have features that make them more vulnerable to long-term genetic effects than larger populations. Issue 7.2: Managers of many small populations often try to increase the kiwi population as quickly as possible, and may not have expertise in minimising long-term genetic effects of small populations, e.g. genetic drift, inbreeding depression. Issue 7.3: Each small population has a different suite of issues unique to their site, including the rate of historical population decline and recent management history. Issue 7.4: Management using BNZ Operation Nest Egg can potentially magnify the deleterious effects of small populations by continually harvesting offspring from only a few pairs of kiwi. Issue 7.5: Small populations are likely to require the use of translocations of more distantly related genetic individuals from other sites to increase genetic diversity for the long-term health of the kiwi population, requiring a high level of co-operation and collaboration among groups. Issue 7.6: Management approaches are required that optimise the use of kiwi for the long-term benefit of small kiwi populations while balancing the requirements of any source populations. Objectives and Actions

Recovery Plan Objective(s)


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40

Not relevant for Eastern brown kiwi


Objective 7.1: To manage all small ‘bottlenecked’ Eastern brown kiwi populations in a manner that minimises the

impact of long-term genetic effects common amongst small populations (i.e. less than 20 effective individuals)

Objective 7.2: To use kiwi genetic resources from all sources efficiently and effectively and in an appropriate manner

Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)


7.1 Undertake an analysis of the history of all managed

EBK populations to determine which projects or areas

are likely to have undergone recent bottleneck effects

with <20 individuals remaining at any one time

2014 High Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

7.2 Undertake an analysis of all projects that have ever had

small kiwi populations to determine the contribution all

known original individuals and pairs have made to the

current population (family tree)

2014

High

Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

7.3 Develop a best practice guide and methods for

management of small populations, in consultation with

captive industry and small population genetic experts.

See Actions 42.8 and 46.6 also.

2014

High

Recovery Group;

SCIENCE &

CAPABILITY GROUP;

EBK Taxon group

7.4 Determine site-specific operational management

options for all projects that have undergone small

population bottlenecks and are in danger of long-term

deleterious genetic effects

2014

High

Project managers; Taxon

group

7.5 Identify unmanaged sites with small relict populations of

Eastern brown kiwi, and determine the best use of this

genetic resource for the long-term benefit of the Eastern

brown kiwi taxon.

2013

High

Taxon group

5.1.8 Topic 8: Large Secure Populations

The total number of Eastern brown kiwi is still declining (Holzapfel et al., 2008) despite the large management effort currently being undertaken. To achieve Goal 1.1 (halting decline), a large number of Eastern brown kiwi pairs need to be protected from key agents of decline. This will ensure the taxon is firstly secure from extinction, allowing scope for recovery of the population over time. Additionally, to achieve Goal 1.2 (minimise loss of distribution and genetic diversity), these sites need to be distributed throughout the range of this taxon. Generally, the larger a population the more resilient it is to stochastic effects, with an increased robustness to survive a series of extreme events. Therefore large well managed populations of over 200 individuals may be regarded as secure from extinction in the medium term, and these large populations will need to form the underlying long-term strength and robustness of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. The minimum size for each taxon has been calculated as 500 effective individuals, i.e. several thousand individuals in total (Reed et al. 2003). However, a smaller total population size of 500 breeding pairs has been


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41

selected as more appropriate for each kiwi taxon. This number is seen as more appropriate in the New Zealand context, where species have survived for many generations in populations of much lower size than suggested by Reed et al. (2003). This is due to the theory that populations that have been naturally bottlenecked in the past have already excised most ‘lethal’ genes that may have been present in the original population; if they didn’t, the population would have likely become extinct during the original bottleneck period. Current management sites with the corresponding number of known Eastern brown kiwi are outlined in Appendix 2. Issues Issue 8.1: All sites that could potentially be managed to retain a large viable Eastern brown kiwi population need to be assessed for suitability. Issue 8.2: All kiwi management sites need to be cost-effective. Each additional managed population increases the total cost of kiwi management; with limited funding, inefficient sites may decrease the long-term financial viability of maintaining all sites. Issue 8.3: The majority of managed populations should ideally be able to interact with other populations and are not genetically isolated, i.e. the taxon is managed as a meta-population (see Topic 18 ‘Genetics and Meta-population Management’). Issue 8.4: Current management regimes may not be cost-effective in the long-term at all large population sites, e.g. BNZONETM may decline in relative cost-effectiveness compared to trapping as a population builds. Issue 8.5: There may be a minimum population size, below which future kiwi projects should not be initiated, as the cost per new kiwi produced may be considerably more expensive than areas with current medium to high population densities. Issue 8.6: Some currently managed areas are recovering from a very low population base, and may take many years to recover to a moderate density and size; it may be more cost-effective to prioritise the management of kiwi populations that currently have medium to high densities. Issue 8.7: Most large kiwi populations are generally in isolated areas of unmodified forest (e.g. Kaweka, Te Urewera, Waioeka, Urutawa), which are more expensive to manage due to the cost and time of travel to the site, and then generally limited road access to move around the site, requiring considerable walking by personnel. Objectives and Actions


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42


Objective 9.1: To secure a minimum of 500 pairs of brown kiwi (all taxa), great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka

from the relevant agents of decline. Note: It is assumed that the current effort for these taxa will not decline, i.e. the

majority of projects will continue or increase their efforts throughout the term of the plan.

Taxon Plan Objective(s)

Objective 8.1: To secure a minimum of 500 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi from the relevant agents of decline.

Objective 8.2: Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown

kiwi

Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective(s)

Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Control relevant pests (stoats, ferrets, dogs and cats) at all

managed sites with populations above 200 pairs, and 30% of

sites with populations between 50 and 200 pairs where

management is based on BNZ Operation Nest Egg only

(brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and tokoeka) by 2018

Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator control at

currently managed sites for Coromandel and eastern brown

kiwi through review of existing management and/or increase

in effort by 2010 and then throughout the term of the plan

Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an

additional 200 pairs of eastern brown kiwi by 2010

9.1

9.2

9.5

Conservators

Conservators

Conservators

East

Coast/Hawke’s

Bay, Bay of

Plenty

High

High

High



8.1 Control relevant pests in situ (stoats, ferrets, dogs,

cats) at all managed sites with populations above 100

pairs, and 30% of managed sites with populations

between 50-100 pairs

2018

High

Project Managers

8.2 Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator

control at all currently managed sites with large

populations of Eastern brown kiwi through review of

existing management and/or increase in effort

2013

onwards

High


Taxon Group

8.3 Establish one additional managed site capable of

securing an additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi

2014

onwards

High Director Conservation

Services; Project

Managers; Sponsors;

EBK Taxon Group

5.1.9 Topic 9: Declining Populations

Like most mainland kiwi taxa, the total number of kiwi within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is declining. To achieve Goal 1.1 (Section 4.2), the total population decline needs to be halted. The most challenging aspect of this will be halting the decline of currently non-managed populations.


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43

Pulsed landscape-scale pest control (i.e. 1080 aerial operations) are currently a sparsely used tool in large areas of this taxon. This is mainly due to bovine tuberculosis only being present at the southern edge of the Bay of Plenty region (and absent from Gisborne/East Coast), so does not attract TB Free NZ operations, and also due to aerial 1080 being a contentious issue that is often opposed by tangata whenua and stakeholder groups. Department of Conservation national funding for aerial 1080 has historically been targeted at higher ranked areas in other parts of the conservation estate. Issues Issue 9.1: The total population of Eastern brown kiwi is declining. Issue 9.2: Some managed populations and all unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations are declining. Objectives and Actions


Objective 10.1: To manage a sufficient proportion of the population of brown kiwi (all taxa), great spotted kiwi and

Fiordland tokoeka to ensure that the net rate of loss for each taxon over the whole population is zero


Objective 9.1: To manage and monitor a sufficient proportion of the population of Eastern brown kiwi to ensure that

the net population growth rate over the whole population is not less than 0% per annum


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intervals at

the sites with greatest potential gain, i.e. largest number of

currently unmanaged kiwi (brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and

Fiordland tokoeka)

Establish new and enhance existing projects including those

utilising BNZ Operation Nest Egg, to increase local

population abundance to the point where the population can

be used as kohanga kiwi, a source for other sites (brown

kiwi, great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka)

10.1

10.2

Conservators

Conservators

High

High



9.1 Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intensity

or intervals at the sites with the greatest potential gain

i.e. sites containing the largest number of currently

unmanaged kiwi – see Appendix 2

2018

High


Services; Project

Managers


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44

9.2 Establish or enhance new or existing projects, including

those utilising BNZONE, to increase local population

abundance to the point where the population can be

used as a ‘Kohanga Kiwi’ site (Topic 22) – see

Appendix 2

2018

High


Services; EBK Taxon

Group

5.1.10 Topic 10: Carrying Capacity with Little Spotted Kiwi

Little spotted kiwi (LSK; Apteryx owenii) were sympatric with Eastern brown kiwi until the mid-to-late 19th century, when they became extinct on the North Island’s mainland. Interaction with LSK was perhaps a factor in determining other aspects of Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity. Re-establishment of these natural interactions at some sites, on both pest-free islands and mainland sites, would be both a difficult management challenge and an interesting experiment in monitoring any changes in Eastern brown kiwi behaviour or carrying capacity.

Issues Issue 10.1: LSK and Eastern brown kiwi were naturally sympatric before human arrival, likely evolved together as competitors, and may have had a different influence on ecosystems than is currently observed with a single relatively low density species. Issue 10.2: LSK are susceptible to stoat, ferret, cat and dog predation at all life stages. Issue 10.3: The impact of competition on Eastern brown kiwi by LSK (and vice versa) is largely unknown. Objectives and Actions


Objective 11.1: To increase the number of little spotted kiwi populations, including on the mainland, to accommodate

a further 450 birds


Objective 10.1: To have at least one managed site in which a viable Little Spotted Kiwi population is interacting with

a viable Eastern brown kiwi population


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Identify by 2010 four new sites (at least two of these on the

mainland) for the establishment of new populations of little

spotted kiwi with a combined carrying capacity of 450 birds,

and initiate translocations by 2013

11.1 Recovery

Group/

conservators

High


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45



10.1 Identify any sites containing Eastern brown kiwi that

would be suitable for the re-establishment of a viable

LSK population


EBK Taxon Group

10.2 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have

on Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity

(Note: same as Action 51.3, section 5.3.11)

2018 Medium SCIENCE &

CAPABILITY GROUP;


Taxon Group

5.1.11 Topic 11: Inbreeding Depression

Small populations that become isolated for a considerable period of time can become genetically depauperate through the loss of genetic heterozygosity (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007) – the natural genetic variation that occurs in large populations containing many very distantly related individuals. This process is regarded as being particularly relevant with populations of 20 or fewer individuals and occurs by the increased probability that any individual in a small population will breed with a close relative. This reduces the total genetic diversity present in the next generation. The more generations that are affected by such inbreeding, the more the population tends towards genetic homogeneity, or ‘sameness’. All individuals are thought to carry so-called ‘lethal’ genes - genes that when fully expressed can have significant adverse effects upon the ‘fitness’ (survival rate or ability to adapt to a change in environmental conditions) of individuals. When a small population can only breed with close relatives who also carry the same lethal gene, the expression of these normally recessive genes will become increasingly prevalent, and can lead to a myriad of serious issues such as a decrease in individual viability, reproductive failure, and phenotypic mutation. If widespread, such a population is said to be in a state of inbreeding depression, and if breeding continues without the influx of genetic material devoid of this particular lethal gene, the population may enter an ‘extinction vortex’ (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), with each generation increasingly inbred and eventually unable to produce viable off-spring. Issues Issue 11.1: Small populations of Eastern brown kiwi have experienced a recent genetic bottleneck event and may have lost considerable genetic diversity. Issue 11.2: Some small managed populations of Eastern brown kiwi may have had a few individuals contribute many offspring and so genetically are disproportionately over-represented in the total population. Issue 11.3: Sub-adult kiwi have a tendency to disperse several kilometers from their natal area or release point; they are expensive and difficult to track for the several years until they breed, so that any breeding with close relatives may not be immediately obvious.


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Issue 11.4: The female partners of many transmittered male kiwi are unknown and have never had genetic samples (i.e. feathers) taken; their genetic relationship to their male partners is largely unknown. Issue 11.5: The management of inbreeding depression by translocation of unrelated Eastern brown kiwi may need to be tempered by an appropriate rate of genetic exchange or ‘gene flow’ from an appropriate source population. Issue 11.6: Measuring the genetic diversity of individuals and populations is expensive, and it is likely to be difficult to gain access to expertise to measure and analyse all kiwi populations on an ongoing basis. Issue 11.7: It may be difficult to determine if a sampled population with low genetic diversity is in any real danger of undergoing inbreeding depression. Issue 11.8: Inbreeding depression can appear quickly in a small population, and take many generations of careful management to overcome. Issue 11.9: It may be difficult for some individuals involved in Eastern brown kiwi projects to understand the need for robust genetic management of small populations, with many groups measuring their success solely on the total kiwi population, rather than the total effective population size of genetically unrelated individuals. Objectives and Actions


Objective 12.1: To ensure that new populations of little spotted kiwi are as genetically diverse as possible, whilst

maintaining the genetic diversity of the current Kapiti Island population at its current status


Objective 11.1: To ensure all currently managed Eastern brown kiwi populations have an appropriate level of genetic

diversity at all times and are at minimal risk of developing inbreeding depression


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Research genetic diversity within and between current

populations of little spotted kiwi and evidence of bottleneck

effects by 2009 (Note: refer also to Action 25.3, section 5.3.2)

If research confirms that Long Island little spotted kiwi

population is sufficiently different from Kapiti Island

population, initiate translocation(s) to maximise Long Island

genotype in new populations by 2010

12.1

12.2

Research and

Development Group

Research and

Development

Group, Conservators

Wellington,

Nelson/Marlborough

High

Essential



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47


11.1 Develop procedures for identifying if an Eastern

brown kiwi population is at risk of, or undergoing,

inbreeding depression

2013 High Project Managers; Kiwi

Recovery Group; Science

& Capability Group; EBK

Taxon Group

11.2 Develop a Best Practice template for management

of small Eastern brown kiwi populations, including

those steps required to prevent, minimise and

mitigate any inbreeding depression

2013 High Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon Group

11.3 Develop genetic management plans for all Eastern

brown kiwi projects likely to be subject to small

population effects, particularly those in which the

total minimum population at any time is likely to

have been less than 20 individuals

2013 High Project Managers; Science


Taxon Group

11.4 Measure the genetic diversity within and between

current managed and unmanaged populations of

Eastern brown kiwi for evidence of recent genetic

bottleneck effects (see Topic 42)

2014 Essential Project Managers; Science


Taxon Group

11.5 Ensure projects with small kiwi populations take the

time, and use external expertise if appropriate, to

clearly articulate to members and the interested

public why any potentially controversial

management actions are appropriate for the

genetic management of the small populations

found in these projects

2013

onwards

Essential Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.12 Topic 12: Distribution and abundance

To achieve the goals of this Plan, and contribute towards the goals of the Kiwi Recovery Plan (Holzapfel et al, 2008), fundamental knowledge of the status of Eastern brown kiwi is required. Primarily, a more comprehensive knowledge of the simple distribution and abundance of this taxon is required. Remeasurement of this status over time will be able to discern population trends of the whole taxon. Issues Issue 12.1: The density and total number of Eastern brown kiwi is not accurately known, and the rate of decline of the whole taxon is unknown. Issue 12.2: The historic and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi is not fully known, and any rate of contraction or expansion is difficult to monitor accurately. Issue 12.3: The presence and geographic limits of any naturally occurring ‘hybrid zones’ between Western or Coromandel brown kiwi taxa is unknown. Issue 12.4: It is expensive and methodically difficult to determine the total number, density and abundance of Eastern brown kiwi, particularly in remote areas, with a reasonable degree of accuracy.



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48


Objective 13.1: To manage kiwi over as large a part of their historical range as possible

Objective 13.2: To maintain genetic integrity within species at the appropriate scale

Objective 13.3: To integrate mixed-provenance populations into the national recovery framework for kiwi, using them

as source populations for translocations and designating ‘mixed-provenance zones’, i.e. areas between existing

taxon boundaries where mixing between two taxa could have occurred naturally


Objective 12.1: To have an accurate account of the distribution and relative abundance of Eastern Brown Kiwi

Objective 12.2: To manage Eastern Brown Kiwi over as large a part of their historical range as possible

Objective 12.3: To understand the significance of any ‘mixed-provenance zones’ between Western and Coromandel

kiwi taxa


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Identify in taxon plans opportunities for the establishment of new

populations within the historic range of the taxon in 2009

Optimise low-level, landscape-scale management undertaken for

non-kiwi-specific goals to benefit kiwi over their current

distribution by 2012 and then throughout the term of the plan

Manage currently recognised taxa within species as separate

conservation management units, except in recognised mixed-

provenance zones, throughout the term of the plan

Manage populations within recognised taxa as much as feasible to

maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between

geographic extremes and natural boundaries throughout the term of

the plan

Manage mixed-provenance population on Hauturu/Little Barrier

Island as part of the western brown kiwi taxon throughout the term

of the plan

Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka and Pukaha

Mount Bruce as part of the mixed-provenance zone between the

western and eastern brown kiwi taxa throughout the term of

the plan

Prepare a full list of mixed-provenance populations, their history

and options for continued management (including inclusion in

relevant taxon plan(s) and their potential as source or receiving

populations for translocations) by 2010

13.1

13.2

13.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

13.7

Taxon plan lead

conservators

Area managers/

conservators

Area managers/

conservators

Area managers/

conservators

Auckland

Conservator

Wellington

Conservator

Recovery Group

High

High

High

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium



12.1 Undertake kiwi listening surveys to ascertain the limits

of the current Eastern brown kiwi distribution

2013

onwards


Managers;

12.2 Collect feather, faeces or blood samples near the

outer limits of the known Eastern brown kiwi

distribution, to determine if there is any hybrid zone

with Western or Coromandel kiwi (also see Topic 42)

2013

onwards


Managers; Project

Managers


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49

12.3 Collate all known surveys or observations for kiwi to

have a single depository of information on Eastern

brown kiwi abundance and distribution

2013

onwards


Managers; Project

Managers, EBK Taxon

Group

12.4 Design a survey schedule to improve the

understanding of the distribution and abundance of

Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon Group;

Conservation Services

Managers

12.5 Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka

and Pukaha Mount Bruce as part of the mixed-

provenance zone between the Western and Eastern

brown kiwi taxa

2013

onwards

Medium Rimutaka & Pukaha

Project Managers;

Western brown kiwi

Taxon Group; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.13 Topic 13: Genetic Diversity

The current total genetic diversity of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is to be preserved as much as possible, consistent with Goal 1.2 (Section 4.2). To achieve such a goal, this genetic diversity needs to be measured. Understanding the genetic diversity of existing small isolated populations and their susceptibility to inbreeding depression (Topic 11) is particularly relevant. Due to the relatively limited dispersal potential of Eastern brown kiwi compared to most flight-adapted avifauna, there may also be historically derived and important intra-taxonomic genetic gradients structured within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. The presence of any such structure needs to be researched (see Topic 42) and understood before any large management-induced changes in gene flow within the taxon occurs; as once many translocations have been undertaken their effect on any genetic gradients are likely to be largely irreversible.

Issues Issue 13.1: The historic and current range of allelic and genetic diversity within the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon is not fully known. Issue 13.2: The genetic diversity of recently fragmented, isolated and small Eastern brown kiwi populations is largely unknown (see Issue 23.3 also) Issue 13.3: Due to its large and generally linear (or even Y-shaped) range and variable habitat, coupled with the possibility of limited gene flow in a Continuous Distribution Model (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), there may be some historically meaningful genetic structure present over the geographic range of Eastern brown kiwi. Issue 13.4: The importance of any genetic structuring, and any management restrictions this may entail, needs to be assessed within the context of the long-term sustainability of the taxon as a whole. Issue 13.5: Management of speciation-inducing isolation events (i.e. the deliberate partial or total isolation of some Eastern brown kiwi populations


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50

from the rest of the taxon) may need to be allowed to occur, if these populations are shown or judged to be likely to be undergoing an important and worthwhile natural speciation event. Issue 13.6: The concept of possible geographic genetic gradients within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is controversial and may be a low priority consideration relative to the medium-term security of populations and the taxon as a whole. As such, it may be difficult to attract funding to address this issue. Issue 13.7: There is little direct evidence for the genetic gradient concept at present; however the advanced genetic technology required to determine its presence has only been practically available for a few years. Issue 13.8: It is reasonable to apply a precautionary principle with translocations of Eastern brown kiwi, as high rates of unnatural gene flow could disrupt any existing genetic gradient and be difficult to subsequently overcome. Objectives and Actions


Objective 13.2: To maintain genetic integrity within species at the appropriate scale


Objective 13.1: To determine the current genetic diversity of Eastern brown kiwi populations

Objective 13.2: To maintain the current level of genetic diversity present in the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

Objective 13.3: To determine any meaningful intra-taxon genetic diversity present within Eastern brown kiwi

Objective 13.4: To allow any naturally occurring long-term isolating speciation events to act upon the Eastern brown

kiwi taxon


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Manage currently recognised taxa within species as separate

conservation management units, except in recognised mixed-

provenance zones, throughout the term of the plan

Manage populations within recognised taxa as much as feasible to

maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between

geographic extremes and natural boundaries throughout the term of

the plan

13.3

13.4

Area

managers/

Conservators

Area

managers/

Conservators

High

Medium



13.1 Support research into determining whether nuclear

DNA microsatellites can provide sufficient

understanding of the Eastern brown kiwi genetic

variation (see Topic 42)

2013

onwards

Essential

Recovery Group;

Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

13.2 Support research into determining if any meaningful 2013 Essential Recovery Group;


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51

intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the

range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 18 and Topic

42). This is the same as Action 18.1.

onwards Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

13.3 Manage populations within the Eastern brown kiwi

taxon to maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising

translocations between geographic extremes and likely

natural boundaries to approximate more natural rates

of gene flow between populations

2013

onwards

Essential Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.14 Topic 14: Data Management

Most kiwi projects collect large amounts of data on a variety of topics, particularly kiwi morphological data, growth rates, kiwi territory size, kiwi dispersal, kiwi call rates and pest trapping results. The significance of this data may not always be appreciated at the time of collection by all projects, but collectively all Eastern brown kiwi projects have a vast wealth of useful data. Without careful management, this can easily be lost. The collection, storage and maintenance of data is crucial for many reasons, and gives opportunities to use the data in a variety of ways – many of which may not be obvious currently. Issues Issue 14.1: Each kiwi project collects data independently, has a different, diverse and in some cases (computer programs) incompatible systems of collecting, storing and analysing data; with varying ability to manage these different aspects. Issue 14.2: There is a risk of data being irretrievably lost. A secure, confidential and retrievable repository of Eastern brown kiwi management data is required. Issue 14.3: It is difficult to undertake accurate analysis of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon when data is not held in single repository. Issue 14.4: Some groups may require considerable support to bring data, skills and equipment up to a standard that is consistent with other projects. Issue 14.5: Data collection, storage and retrieval standards in all Eastern Brown kiwi taxon projects should be consistent with those of other kiwi taxa. Issue 14.6: Some projects may not be kiwi-focused, so the standard of data collection may be deliberately less in some sites Issue 14.7: Some projects may deliberately choose a low cost-low intensity option, with a correspondingly intentionally lower standard of information collected.


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52

Issue 14.8: Computer security is required to minimise viruses, worms or other malware infiltrating the data or operating systems of all projects; personnel may need to increase skills in computer use and computer security. Issue 14.9: Data collection and management can be made more efficient by the use of new technology; keeping up to date with this technology is important to improve efficiencies. Objectives and Actions


Objective 14.1: To ensure that data from kiwi recovery projects are managed in a consistent, efficient and effective

manner, and are available for key users


Objective 14.1: To ensure that data from all Eastern brown kiwi recovery projects are collected and managed in a

consistent, efficient and effective manner, and are available for key users


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Develop a database for kiwi sanctuaries as part of the wider

database environment of DOC by 2010

Undertake biennial reviews of data management procedures across

all kiwi sanctuaries, starting in 2010

Investigate the incorporation of data from other DOC and

community-led kiwi projects into a single database by 2011

14.1

14.2

14.3

General

Manager

Research and

Development

General

Manager

Research and

Development

General

Manager

Research and

Development

High

Medium

Medium



14.1 Develop a biennially reviewed and updated Best

Practice document for the collection, security and

long-term storage of Eastern brown kiwi data from all

projects and surveys

2014

biennially

High Project Managers; Kiwi

Recovery Group; EBK

Taxon Group

14.2

Support all Eastern brown kiwi projects to acquire

appropriate skills and equipment to follow the Best

Practice developed in Action 14.1

2013

onwards

High

EBK Taxon Group;

Project Managers

14.3 Develop a database collating all Eastern brown kiwi

data that is nationally consistent with other kiwi taxa

data management standards

2013

onwards

Medium

Project Managers; Kiwi

Recovery Group; EBK

Taxon Group

14.4 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or

other in-field applications that can be transferred to

web-based storage and applications that all key users

can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as

2013

onwards

Medium Science & Capability

Group; Project Managers


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53

49.2, section 5.3.9)

5.1.15 Topic 15: Captive Coordination

Eastern brown kiwi has recently been selected as the only taxon to be sustained by the New Zealand captive industry (Barlow, 2011). Captive institutes often have considerable resources devoted to caring for these birds in captivity. The primary goal of the captive population is advocacy followed by having a sustainable population that can provide birds for release into the wild. Issues Issue 15.1: The considerable resources involved in captive management nationally could be better aligned with supporting the goals of this Taxon Plan, i.e. ensuring the long-term in situ persistence of Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Issue 15.2: Many aspects of kiwi physiology and behaviour can best be researched in controlled captive conditions. Issue 15.3: The Objectives and Actions in this Taxon Plan need to be consistent with the Goals, Objectives and Actions of the Kiwi Captive Management Plan (Barlow, 2011). Objectives and Actions


Objective 15.1: To ensure that captive management supports key recovery planning objectives for all kiwi taxa

Captive Management Plan Vision

Captive management for kiwi is effective through a single provenance population of Brown Kiwi which is numerically

self-sustaining, demographically stable and genetically healthy, maintained in facilities that model excellence in kiwi

husbandry.

The programme through which this population is managed is strongly supported and valued by all holders. It delivers

key advocacy messages widely and effectively, provides a resource for recovery-directed training and research and

fosters the capacity for escalation to a breed for release programme as required.

Captive Management Plan Goals

Captive Management Goal: Transition captive population from Northland, Eastern, Western, and ‘mixed’

provenance Brown Kiwi to a single captive management unit of Eastern provenance Brown Kiwi.

Genetic Goal 1: Retain 90% of wild genetic diversity over 20 years

Genetic Goal 2: Ensure all offspring produced have an inbreeding threshold of below F = 0.125

Demographic Goal 1: Target population size 110 -120 over next 5 years

Demographic Goal 2: Move towards stable age structure


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54

Recruitment Goal: Acquire 6 new Eastern founders through BNZ Operation Nest EggTM

over the next 5 years.

Husbandry & Management Goal 1: All holders meet the minimum standards defined in the Brown Kiwi Husbandry

Manual.

Husbandry & Management Goal 2: Department of Conservation (DOC) Conservancy permitting process supports

the consistent implementation of minimum husbandry standards.

Husbandry & Management Goal 3: To have sufficient kiwi breeding expertise to be able to support the programme

goals.

Participant Support Goal 1: Ensure that the captive management strategy meets both population goals and the

display needs of participating institutions.

Participant Support Goal 2: Maintain a shared understanding and support of the programme’s goals.

Participant Support Goal 3: Establish a network of expertise to support new or inexperienced captive institutions.

Participant Support Goal 4: Ensure that holders are aware of the multiple roles that captive birds can contribute to

species recovery.

Advocacy Goal 1: Develop key advocacy messages through the ZAA Education Specialist Advisory Group (SAG) in

liaison with the National Mentor for Kiwi Advocacy (a member of the Kiwi Recovery Group).

Advocacy Goal 2: Develop a programme wide evaluation process.

Ex situ Research & Training Goal 1: Ensure that appropriate captive kiwi are made available for relevant research

and training initiatives.

Ex situ Research & Training Goal 2: Research on captive kiwi is prioritised through Recovery Group direction.

Conservation Fund Goal: All participants in the programme are encouraged to contribute any institutional based

conservation funding initiatives to the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust.


Objective 15.1: To ensure that captive management of Eastern brown kiwi supports key recovery planning Goals

and Objectives for this taxon and is consistent with the Vision and Goals of the Kiwi Captive Management Plan.


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Clarify the formal link between the Kiwi Recovery Group and

CMaG: ARAZPA as the industry’s official representative

body by 2009

Review the role of KCMAC by 2009

Review the captive management plan by 2009 (and 5-yearly

thereafter), to ensure linkage with the recovery plan and

taxon plan objectives, including the identification of capacity

requirements (BNZ Operation Nest Egg, public viewing

opportunities, crèche sites)

Report on progress towards captive management plan

objectives, and provide recommendations annually to the

Recovery Group and captive holders throughout the term of

the plan

15.1

15.2

15.3

15.4

Recovery

Group/ARAZPA

Recovery

Group/ARAZPA

Recovery

Group/Research

& Development

Group/ARAZPA

Recovery

Group/ARAZPA

Medium

Medium

Essential

Medium


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55



15.1 Clarify the formal link and reporting structures for

captive kiwi between the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon

Group, Kiwi Recovery Group, ZAA and captive

institutes


ZAA; EBK Taxon Group

15.2 Develop a plan consistent with the objectives of the

Kiwi Captive Management Plan that prioritises sites

and issues to enable the captive industry to best

contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi recovery

2014 High Kiwi Recovery Group;

EBK Taxon Group

15.3 Support research into aspects of kiwi physiology,

behaviour and captive management where these can

best be researched in controlled captive conditions

2013

onwards

Medium Captive institutes; EBK

Taxon Group; Science &

Capability Group

5.1.16 Topic 16: Captive Husbandry

Captive husbandry refers to the long-term care of adult kiwi and the 4-6 months it takes to grow chicks from hatching to 800-1000g in weight as part of the BNZ ONETM process by captive institutes. A best practice manual for brown kiwi husbandry (Fraser & Johnson, 2009) has been developed. Issues Issue 16.1: Disease in captive kiwi may be more prevalent than in wild kiwi, with potential to spread this disease through translocation to wild kiwi populations. Objectives and Actions


Objective 16.1: To ensure that best practice for captive husbandry, including minimum standards, is collated,

communicated efficiently and implemented


Objective 16.1: To ensure that best practice for the captive husbandry of Eastern brown kiwi is maintained by all

captive institutions and where necessary improved


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Review and update the kiwi captive husbandry manual by

2008 and biennially thereafter

In collaboration with CMAG: ARAZPA, develop standards for

accreditation and monitoring of captive management facilities

and practitioners, including for BNZ Operation Nest Egg and

breeding for release programmes, by 2010

16.1

16.2

Captive

coordinator/

ARAZPA

Recovery

Group/ kiwi

captive

coordinator/

High

High


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56

Include implementation of best practice as described in the

kiwi captive husbandry manual as part of the permit

conditions for captive facilities by 2010 and then throughout

the term of the plan

16.3

ARAZPA

Area managers/

conservators

Medium



16.1 Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in achieving the

Objectives and undertaking the Actions outlined in the

Kiwi Recovery Plan for the captive husbandry of

Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High Captive institutes; EBK

Taxon Group;

5.1.17 Topic 17: BNZ Operation Nest EggTM

Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZ ONETM) is a tool that enables eggs or very young chicks from wild kiwi to be brought into captivity, then hatched and supported for the most vulnerable stage of its life-cycle. The lack of adult recruitment due to the high mortality rate of young kiwi from predation by introduced mustelids is the greatest single contributor to the demise of wild kiwi populations. BNZ ONETM helps to overcome this bottleneck by providing a high standard of care to enable most kiwi eggs to hatch much higher than wild hatching rates. There are two components to BNZONETM: 1. Incubation sites – eggs are incubated and hatched, then chicks spend 2-3 weeks at these sites until they are above hatch weight; 2. Rearing sites – 2-3 week old juveniles are transferred to predator-free islands, crèche sites, fenced areas or captive husbandry institutes (Fig. 5). Most juveniles are reared for approximately 6 months, or until they reach 800-1000g in total body weight, when they are often transferred to an established kiwi project or wild population where they can behave and function as a natural part of an ecosystem and can contribute to the propagation of subsequent kiwi generations. Eastern brown kiwi are fortunate that there are a number of high quality incubation sites within the area (Fig. 5), but as a consequence of their success, there are limited spaces for eggs at incubation sites. In addition, these sites were developed for the benefit of all kiwi, so eggs are sent from projects from other kiwi taxa. BNZONETM is a short to medium-term solution to declining wild kiwi populations. It is expensive to raise kiwi in this manner (approx $5000 per bird if raised in captivity for 6 months), and the repeated selection of eggs from the same pairs can have long-term consequences, particularly for small populations. (Also see Topic 46). Issues


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57

Issue 17.1: Currently 5 of 14 captive institutes are participating in BNZ ONETM. Issue 17.2: The limited capacity at BNZONETM sites is likely to come under increasing pressure, and may mean other management options may need to be pursued – e.g. pulsing of ONE for each area. Issue 17.3: Effective communications between all partners involved in the BNZONETM process is required, i.e. kiwi projects, DOC and captive BNZONETM institutes. Issue 17.4: The locations and size of captive rearing facilities may need to be optimised to align with current and future needs. Issue 17.5: Any effects arising from hatching and raising multiple kiwi generations in captivity are unknown. Issue 17.6: The viability of eggs and chicks produced by kiwi may decline as pairs age.



Objective 17.1: To ensure that the use of BNZONETM

is effective and undertaken to sufficient standard


Objective 17.1: To ensure that BNZONETM

is targeted to support the highest priority Eastern brown kiwi projects that

are in most need of its services in any breeding year


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Review protocols for all components of BNZ Operation Nest Egg,

including the development of minimum standards as part of best

practice, by 2009 and update biennially

Initiate national coordination for the collection and reporting of

data on the use of BNZ Operation Nest Egg by 2009

Develop guidelines for when and where to use BNZ Operation Nest

Egg instead of, or in conjunction with, other tools by 2010

Develop a 10-year plan for BNZ Operation Nest Egg, including

number and location of incubation facilities and crèche sites, by

2010

17.1

17.2

17.3

17.4

Recovery

Group/ captive

coordinator/

ARAZPA

Recovery Group

captive

coordinator/

ARAZPA

Research &

Development

Group

Recovery

Group/ captive

coordinator/

ARAZPA

Essential

Medium

High

High


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17.1 Support Kiwi Recovery Group national coordination of

BNZONETM

reporting standards

2013

onwards

High


Taxon group

17.2 Consider options to make best use of the limited

resources provided by BNZONETM

incubation sites for

Eastern brown kiwi, and co-ordinate with other taxa

that use these same sites (e.g. biennial pulsing of

projects)

2013

High

Project Managers;

BNZONETM

incubation

sites; Western Brown

Kiwi Taxon Group; EBK

Taxon group

17.3 Determine the likely future requirements of BNZONETM

captive facilities for Eastern brown kiwi, including the

required capacity and optimal location of these

2013

High

Project Managers;

BNZONETM

incubation

sites; EBK Taxon group

17.4 Develop models that show the most cost-effective use

of BNZONETM

for Eastern brown kiwi sites, and

compare with other management tools

2013 High EBK Taxon Group

17.5 Develop a database that collates all BNZONETM

outcomes for Eastern brown kiwi and analyse trends

that may increase management efficiencies

2013 High BNZONETM

incubation

sites; EBK Taxon group

5.1.18 Topic 18: Genetics and Meta-population Management

The management of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon needs to be co-ordinated in a manner beneficial for all populations, and the taxon as an overall entity. Two main options exist: 1. Pragmatic Option - manage the taxon as though it is one population with free gene flow between all parts of the taxon, i.e. unrestrained total intermixing of all parts of the taxon; or 2. Precautionary Option – manage the taxon assuming some meaningful genetic structures or gradients are present within the taxon, approximating natural rates of gene flow by translocating kiwi between nearby populations only, i.e. limited geographic inter-mixing. In the current absence of in-depth genetic knowledge and understanding of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon, these options could be referred to as the ‘pragmatic’ and ‘precautionary’ options respectively. The pragmatic option assumes there is little genetic structure within the taxon, and even if there is, it is of little significance. Actions taken under this scenario may be unable to reversed if the precautionary paradigm is later shown to be true, and there is meaningful and important genetic structure within the taxon. Issues Issue 18.1: A comparison between the ‘precautionary’ versus ‘pragmatic’ approaches to Eastern brown kiwi taxon-wide meta-population management is needed. There is a financial cost associated with a precautionary approach and the associated meta-population management that goes with it, and any gains should be greater than any cost. Issue 18.2: The genetic diversity of the many small isolated remnant Eastern brown kiwi populations found throughout its range is essentially unknown.


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This knowledge is required to determine the best allocation of this resource (e.g. use these birds or their progeny to further support new populations that have already commenced management, translocate them to existing populations, or set up new management areas). Issue 18.3: There is no best practice for sourcing kiwi when establishing entirely new kiwi populations within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Issue 18.4: Clear rules or guidelines are needed for the most appropriate translocation sources for kiwi at each site. Issue 18.5: Eastern brown kiwi may have local genetic variation due to isolation by distance (Wright, 1943), and in a Continuous Distribution Model (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), genetic differences or gradients may develop across the taxon over long periods. Issue 18.6: There is some inconsistent interpretation of what is meant by the Kiwi Recovery Plan Topic 13.4: “fine-scale diversity must be maintained”. Clarification and resolution from the Kiwi Recovery Group on the definition of ‘fine-scale diversity’ and the ability of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group to define this is required. Issue 18.7: The implications of any ‘hybrid zones’ on the management of Eastern brown kiwi is unclear. Issue 18.8: Management of very small populations are a special case due to low genetic variability; meta-population management may not be applicable to these sites in the medium term (e.g. the use of the ‘boomerang’ kiwi chick method, where for each chick that goes to a new site, another returns to original site). Issue 18.9: The ex-Bay of Plenty Conservancy had a plan for their kiwi (Owen, 2006) which involved shifting and sharing birds between sites. The relevance of this in the context of the whole taxon needs to be assessed. Issue 18.10: Genetic bottlenecks need to be ‘unblocked’ quickly to avoid long-term deleterious genetic effects – all sites should have greater than 40 unrelated individual kiwi within a decade. Issue 18.11: Could outbreeding depression be an issue for Eastern brown kiwi? Issue 18.12: A practical, effective strategy for managing this taxon in the context of a declining overall population needs to be developed. Issue 18.13: Determine the likely places kiwi will be translocated to from each kiwi project in the long-term, and decide sources of kiwi based on the two management paradigms.


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Issue 18.14: Meta-population management is more complex and can be difficult for people to understand why such management is important compared to a simpler more pragmatic approach. Objectives and Actions


Objective 18.1: To undertake effective meta-population management of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon



18.1 Support research into determining if any meaningful

intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the

range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). This is the

same as Action 13.2.

2013

onwards

Essential Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

18.2 Develop a plan for the genetic management of the

entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon

2015 Essential Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group; Project

Managers

18.3 Develop clear guidelines for appropriate translocations

between both managed and unmanaged populations

of Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

Essential Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group; Project

Managers

18.4 Develop a plan on future management options for

small non-viable remnant kiwi populations likely to

have rare genetic alleles that can be captured (e.g.

new populations started, add to existing populations,

need to set up new management area) (also see

Topic 23)

2013 High Science & Capability

Group; Kiwi Recovery

group; EBK Taxon

Group; Project

Managers

18.5 Trace the previous translocation history of kiwi in all

managed sites

2013 High Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.19 Topic 19: Priority Kiwi Management Sites

The Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon is distributed over approximately 1,000,000 ha – amongst the largest current distribution of any kiwi taxon. The cost of managing this entire area is prohibitive, so that the highest priority sites could be selected and managed with any contestable or transferable funding. These sites could be selected to maximize the chances of achieving the goals of the Taxon Plan (Section 4.1 and 4.2), at minimal total cost. Issues Issue 19.1: Each current management site or potential management site requires a cost-benefit analysis of costs versus likely outcome at each site, so that the most cost-effective sites are demonstrated. Issue 19.2: Kiwi management sites should be proportionally representative of the current and/or historic distribution of Eastern Brown Kiwi.


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Issue 19.3: It may be more efficient to utilise current management sites and infrastructure to minimise costs before setting up any new sites. Issue 19.4: The current kiwi distribution (Goal 1.2, Section 4.2) should be maintained. Issue 19.5: Are we encouraging too many groups/projects making the entire taxon ultimately unsustainable to manage? Perhaps develop a more strategic approach to prioritise which projects are supported. Issue 19.6: Ranking Eastern brown kiwi projects could result in lower ranked sites struggling to obtain sufficient funding. Issue 19.7: Translocate kiwi to well-funded projects as they may be the only sustainable projects in the medium to long-term. Objectives and Actions


Objective 19.1: To undertake effective management of kiwi populations at the highest priority sites for Eastern brown

kiwi



19.1 Prioritise current and potential management sites by using a

clear set of criteria (e.g. cost-effectiveness, population security,

sustainability, iwi cultural valuable sites and representativeness

of Eastern brown kiwi distribution)

2013 Essential EBK Taxon

Group

19.2 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for

management of Eastern brown kiwi (Same Action as 35.3)

2014 High Kiwi RG; EBK

Taxon Group;

Lead Director

Conservation

Partnerships

(Central North

Island)

5.1.20 Topic 20: Fenced Sites

Fences have proven to be a useful tool for kiwi management over the past decade or more. Fence technology has allowed the creation of small to large areas of habitat to be largely resistant to predator incursion, and, coupled with increased pest control technology, have enabled kiwi to establish viable populations over large areas of mainland habitat. Fences have a range of uses - from mustelid and cat-proof crèche sites (Section 21), where kiwi are raised from very young ages (usually following BNZONETM egg incubation and hatching) to 800-1000g in weight - to large sites where adults can breed in a low predator environment with a correspondingly high reproductive success rate.


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Fence technology has evolved and matured over the past decade from idealistic aims of total prevention of all pests, to the realization that a low level of predators can be sustained if robust populations of kiwi exist within the fence. Cape Kidnapper’s Preserve is an example of this – the fence has a number of gaps which are managed by conventional pest control – and does not necessarily prevent mice from penetrating the fence. Other fences have been used that are not designed to prevent pest incursion, but rather to limit kiwi dispersal, e.g. at Puketukutuku peninsula at Lake Waikaremoana. Here ongoing intensive mustelid control has enabled a high rate of kiwi chick survival, and coupled with the fence constraining juvenile dispersal, has resulted in a large population increase at this site. This high density kiwi population to allows more kiwi to benefit from the same mustelid trapping regime for the same cost. There is also the growing realization that fences are susceptible to damage, predator incursion or even vandalism at all times, and management is required at all times to maintain them. Maintenance of predator-proof fences is substantial, and small holes can open up through a variety of means. The most common cause of damage is treefall, but soil subsidence, stream blockage and slips are all possible. Small cracks or holes can also develop under fences over time, especially during drought conditions. Managing all these contingencies can ultimately be very expensive over the lifetime of the fence which may affect the long-term viability of some projects. Issues Issue 20.1: Fences can be expensive to install, eliminate pests from their interior and maintain. Issue 20.2: The cost-benefit of fences for applicable Eastern brown kiwi projects should be fully costed and compared with other forms of management. Issue 20.3: There are a variety of fence types that can be used for different purposes at different sites. Objectives and Actions


Objective 20.1: To determine the best mix of fenced sites for kiwi crèches, kohanga kiwi and kiwi projects



20.1

Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the different types of

management fences for Eastern brown kiwi compared to other

2013

High

EBK Taxon

Group


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63

management options

20.2 Determine the most cost-effective sites for different fence types

for future management of Eastern brown kiwi (Note: see Topic 21

and Action 21.1)

2013 High EBK Taxon

Group

5.1.21 Topic 21: Kiwi Crèches

Kiwi chicks are very vulnerable to predation by introduced mammals, particularly by stoats, when they weigh less than 1000g (McLennan et al., 1996). Therefore kiwi chicks can be raised in predator-free areas until they reach this weight threshold, and then safely released into sites containing stoats, augmenting resident kiwi populations. Here sub-adult kiwi can continue to grow, behave in a normal manner and undertake their ecological role at these sites. Issues Issue 21.1: The use of islands as kiwi crèches can be very cost-effective. Issue 21.2: The number and site of crèche sites needs to be more strategic than the current approach. Issue 21.3: A Best Practice guide is needed for kiwi crèche site management. Issue 21.4: The cost-effectiveness of crèche sites needs to be compared with other management options, such as the captive raising of chicks and in situ predator trapping. Objective and Actions


Objective 21.1: To optimise the sustainable number, location, size and management of Eastern brown kiwi crèches

to augment natural kiwi populations



21.1 Determine the current and future requirements of kiwi

crèches for Eastern brown kiwi and the best sites for

these to achieve the goals of this Plan (Note: see

Topic 20 and Action 20.2 also)

2013

High

EBK Taxon Group

21.2 Support the development of cost-effective best

practice management for kiwi crèche sites

2013

onwards

Medium


Taxon Group

5.1.22 Topic 22: Kohanga Kiwi Sites

‘Kohanga kiwi’ is a term coined to express the ‘farming’ of kiwi at some sites, where intensive pest control and inhibition of dispersal (fenced areas or naturally isolated sites such as islands) enable kiwi to reach a high density,


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enabling a high number of kiwi sub-adults to be effectively ‘harvested’ and moved to other non-managed areas each year. In this way, a small intensively treated area can effectively continually support a large non-managed kiwi population, by continually adding new sub-adults to a non-managed population each year. Kohanga kiwi is a process in which a high density of kiwi pairs is achieved in a very low pest environment; their ‘stoat-proof’ sub-adult offspring can then be harvested each year to supplement in situ kiwi populations which have little or no management. Issues Issue 22.1: The best sites for Eastern brown kohanga kiwi need to be identified and prioritised. Issue 22.2: The extent to which identified kohanga kiwi sites can contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi populations needs to be modelled and communicated. Issue 22.3: The implementation of kohanga kiwi projects at high priority sites should be supported. Objective and Actions


Objective 22.1: To develop kohanga kiwi sites that can achieve highly cost-effective kiwi management for Eastern

brown kiwi



22.1 Support the development of identified priority kohanga

kiwi sites for Eastern brown kiwi (see Action 19.1)

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon Group

22.2 Develop models for optimizing the size, location and

management methods of kohanga kiwi sites

2013 Medium Research &

Development; EBK

Taxon Group

5.1.23 Topic 23: Small unmanaged kiwi populations

The distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon has declined markedly in the last 150 years. In addition, the taxon has become fragmented, particularly in the east (Hawke’s Bay and Gisborne district) and also western Bay of Plenty (Fig. 2), where extensive clearing of native forest has substantially reduced available kiwi habitat. In addition, incursion by stoats, ferrets and dogs are likely to have had a significant predatory impact upon kiwi populations in these areas.


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As a result, there are substantial areas that may have nonviable remnant kiwi populations. These kiwi populations are vulnerable to imminent extinction, as typically they are found in small areas of fragmented habitat, have small populations, are isolated from interacting with other kiwi populations, and are more vulnerable to the penetration of their habitat by large predators (dogs, cats and ferrets). Additionally, small populations can be more susceptible to stochastic effects including human possum trapping. These populations may however contain significant genetic variation, containing alleles with low representation in current large-scale Eastern brown kiwi management areas, which are more likely to be sited in larger remote inland areas. For largely unexplained reasons, Eastern brown kiwi populations at the extremes of its distribution - yet found within large areas of suitable habitat (Ruahine, Kaimanawa, eastern Raukumara and Kaimai ranges) - have low population densities, and without urgent appropriate management appear to be at imminent risk of extinction. Such small and unmanaged populations may require targeted management regimes in order to halt the decline in the distribution of this taxon and so achieve the aspirations of Goal 1.2 (Section 4.2.1). Also see the related Topic 7 (Small Managed Kiwi Populations). Issues Issue 23.1: The management of small isolated Eastern brown kiwi populations or individuals in small areas of habitat is generally more expensive per bird than large populations. Issue 23.2: In situ management of low density kiwi populations (i.e. small populations in large areas of habitat) is expensive per bird. Issue 23.3: The genetic diversity of these small populations is largely unknown and may offer unique genetic diversity compared to those populations currently benefiting from kiwi management (see Issue 13.2 also).

Objective and Actions


Objective 23.1: To understand and undertake cost-effective management of small, isolated and currently

unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations containing significant genetic diversity



23.1 Identify small currently unmanaged Eastern brown

kiwi populations with the highest risk of extinction

(after completing Action 53.1)

2014 High EBK Taxon Group;

Project Managers

23.2 Estimate the cost of various management options for

small remnant populations currently present in both

small and large areas of remaining forest habitat

2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group


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23.3 Determine cost-effective methods for managing small

Eastern brown kiwi populations in small habitats (e.g.

‘mopping up’ remnant kiwi to capture this genetic

diversity), and decide what to do with these birds (e.g.

start new populations, add to existing populations,

need to set up new management area)

2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group;

Project Managers

5.1.24 Topic 24: Re-establishment of Locally Extinct Kiwi Populations

As the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi has contracted markedly over the past 150 years (Fig. 2), many kiwi populations have become locally extinct. Re-establishing these lost populations to maintain the original kiwi distribution requires an ambitious management approach, which may often need to overcome multiple agents of decline, including unexpected stochastic effects. Only a few attempts have been made to re-establish locally extinct kiwi populations in unfenced sites on the mainland, most notably at Boundary Stream Mainland Island. There were many unexpected issues that arose during this process, and currently, after more than 10 years of effort, the population, while slowly growing, continues to suffer ongoing setbacks and cannot yet be regarded as secure. In addition, severe and extended genetic bottlenecks may threaten the long-term viability of populations that do not expand rapidly after translocations, due to long-term genetic issues that may arise. Issues Issue 24.1: The best sites for re-establishing new populations of Eastern brown kiwi need to be established and prioritised. Issue 24.2: There is currently no best practice management for re-establishing new populations of Eastern brown kiwi.

Issue 24.3: Re-establishing Eastern brown kiwi populations on the mainland is expensive and takes many years. Issue 24.4: The re-establishment of locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations is a lower priority compared to securing and recovering larger existing populations. Issue 24.5: The genetic make-up of newly established Eastern brown kiwi populations is crucial to its long-term success. Extended bottlenecks following translocation may cause long-term genetic issues with translocated populations. Issue 24.6: The use of island sites for re-establishing kiwi populations needs to be considered (see also Topic 6, Section 5.1.6).


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Issue 24.7: The long-term role of all sites that are to have kiwi populations re-established for overall Taxon recovery needs to be clearly decided (e.g. will it always be a ‘sink’ and need continual kiwi imports, or will it be a viable population and contribute to other projects?). Objective and Actions


Objective 24.1: To undertake management to re-establish locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations at priority

sites in order to achieve Goal 1.2.



24.1 Determine sites of past local extinction Eastern brown

kiwi events, i.e. sites where the kiwi distribution is now

non-contiguous


24.2 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of re-establishing

locally extinct kiwi populations, using projects currently

undertaking this process

2013 Medium EBK Taxon Group;

Project Managers

24.3 Develop a Best Practice plan to minimise the costs of

re-establishing locally extinct kiwi populations

2014 Medium Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

24.4 Prioritise sites to re-establish locally extinct Eastern

brown kiwi populations


24.5 Implement Best Practice to re-establish extinct Eastern

brown kiwi populations at priority sites

2015

onwards

Medium Project Managers

5.1.25 Topic 25: Dog Management

The impact of dogs on Eastern brown kiwi populations can be severe. All kiwi are vulnerable to dogs, but the prevalence of pig hunting in particular over large areas of the Eastern brown kiwi distribution, exposes a significant proportion of the kiwi population to significant risk. Pig dogs are of particular concern in the larger more remote backcountry areas of this Taxon, and in some exotic production forestry areas. Dogs in these large forest areas can also be lost during hunting expeditions (particularly in sites only accessible by helicopter), and become feral and in some cases even breed, where they can have a sustained large impact upon resident kiwi populations. Management of this issue is difficult, but kiwi aversion training may help lessen this risk and raise awareness of the issue. Domestic pet dogs in urban and semi-rural areas can also be of significant threat, most likely in smaller forest remnants. Management of these dogs may require a different suite of management options than those for pig hunting dogs. Working dogs in rural areas may also require some management in some forest-pasture margin areas. See also Sections 5.1.32, 5.3.8 and 5.3.14.

Issues


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Issue 25.1: Dogs are a high threat to kiwi. If non-natural adult kiwi deaths could be eliminated, little stoat control may be needed to maintain current large populations. Issue 25.2: A heightened awareness of the need to have dogs go through kiwi aversion training is required. Issue 25.3: Central and local government legislation on dog control and kiwi needs to have greater consequences for offending dogs and people. Issue 25.4: Simpler legislation with higher penalties regarding dogs that cross all reserve and jurisdictional boundaries is needed to improve compliance and reduce dog impacts on kiwi. Issue 25.5: A multi-agency approach to dog control could be useful and effective – use Ohope as a pilot study. Issue 25.6: Dog management in urban areas where kiwi are found is difficult due to the sheer numbers of dogs and various attitudes of owners to dog compliance in kiwi areas. Objective and Actions


Objective 25.1: To minimise the impact of dog predation on Eastern brown kiwi populations



25.1 Support the development of effective legislation at local,

regional and national forums to obtain a high level of protection

for kiwi from dogs

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon

Group

25.2 Support the development of kiwi aversion training for all dogs

likely to come into contact with Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

Essential Project

managers

25.3 Support the development of tools in which to manage the threat

that urban, working, hunting and feral dogs pose to Eastern

brown kiwi

2013

onwards

Essential Project

Managers;

EBK Taxon

Group

25.4 Contribute to the national dog kill database as incidents are

reported to better understand the extent of the impact of dogs

on EBK

2013

onwards

Essential Project

Managers

5.1.26 Topic 26: Funding Kiwi Conservation

Generally, kiwi conservation has high management costs. Costs can be minimised in some special cases by containing management to predator-free islands, but by far the majority of kiwi habitat and management occurs on the mainland where multiple agents of kiwi decline are ubiquitous. Kiwi projects require a long-term outlook, and require sustained funding in order to maintain outputs, achieve project objectives, and contribute to the


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goals of both this Taxon Plan and the Kiwi Recovery Plan. Sustaining appropriate funding levels to all kiwi projects is hugely challenging, for Government-funded, community-run and privately supported projects alike. Issues Issue 26.1: A catastrophic collapse in funding for all Eastern brown kiwi projects will change the long-term outlook for all projects. Issue 26.2: The impact of budgetary cuts on any project could compromise the viability of that project. Issue 26.3: To achieve long-term Goals (Section 4.2), long-term sustainable funding needs to be obtained for Eastern brown kiwi. Issue 26.4: There may be an optimum structure to fund Eastern brown kiwi projects. Issue 26.5: It is likely that a balance of DOC, private and community funding will be required to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan (Section 4.2) Issue 26.6: The total resourcing needed to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan has not been calculated. Issue 26.7: A group or person could be employed to obtain funds for Eastern brown kiwi projects. Issue 26.8: Many projects are heavily reliant on single sponsors e.g. Bank of New Zealand Kiwi Recovery Trust, to maintain their projects. The diversity of sponsors may need to be increased to hedge against competition for resources from other projects, or future closure of that funding stream.



Objective 26.1: To maintain funding to allow sufficient management at all high priority Eastern brown kiwi sites

throughout the life of this Taxon Plan.



26.1 Determine the minimum resource required for all

Eastern brown kiwi projects needed to achieve the

Goals of this Taxon Plan

2013 Essential Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

26.2 Outline options that may be used to achieve the

Goals of this Taxon Plan, with varying levels of

declining funding

2013 Medium Project Managers; Kiwi

Recovery Group; EBK

Taxon Group

26.3 Develop an understanding between all Eastern brown

kiwi projects for them to work collaboratively and co-

operatively with each other to support a minimum

2013

onwards

High Directors Conservation

Services; Directors

Conservation


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70

funding for a few high priority projects, that could be

supported by other projects if individual funding

streams for these projects declines

Partnerships; Kiwi

Recovery group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

5.1.27 Topic 27: Kiwi as Conservation Flagships

Kiwi are an iconic symbol of New Zealand, and are a recognised taonga species for many iwi. As such, the conservation of any kiwi population is likely to be regarded as a high priority by most New Zealanders. As many other species or ecosystems do not share this same level of special treatment that is afforded kiwi, it could be seen as a responsibility of kiwi projects to try to ensure that as many of these important natural elements of our indigenous flora and fauna can also be protected at sites where kiwi can also be protected. This could include undertaking kiwi management at a low priority site for kiwi, because there are significant other natural values present, and such kiwi management would enable funds to be attracted to the project that would otherwise have little chance of being obtained. In addition, many kiwi projects may be able to achieve significant benefits for other native species or the ecosystems the kiwi are located in, by undertaking kiwi management or perhaps even additional management actions. As kiwi are inherently a cryptic species, these other benefits (e.g. increased diurnal native bird numbers) may aid in attracting additional support for the project itself by neighbouring landowners. Issues Issue 27.1: Intensive kiwi management can have larger benefits for other aspects of the environment/conservation Issue 27.2: Kiwi are just one component of sustainable environmental management. Issue 27.3: Other conservation benefits than just for kiwi could result from many kiwi-focussed projects. Issue 27.4: Management efficiencies in monitoring, operational activities, councils; development opportunities Issue 27.5: Kiwi chick survival rate is an excellent measure of stoat control. The adult kiwi call rate may also reflect management success over time.



Objective 27.1: To use the nationally iconic status of kiwi to enable other high priority conservation projects to


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71

become sustainably established



27.1 Prioritise other conservation values present at current

Eastern brown kiwi management sites

2013 Medium Project Mangers; Area

Mangers; Science &

Capability Group

27.2 Assess the conservation values of other sites within

the current and historic distribution of Eastern brown

kiwi, and consider whether attracting funding to

undertake kiwi management at these sites could help

protect these conservation values

2013 Medium Science & Capability

Group

5.1.28 Topic 28: Synergies with Other Conservation Projects

A variety of conservation projects are undertaken within the distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi, and many of these projects are aimed at providing for species other than kiwi. In some cases, additional management could be added to these projects that would also provide significant benefits to kiwi. In addition, sites of non-biodiversity conservation work but with high rates of human activity (e.g. popular tourist sites or walking tracks), could also be assessed for their suitability to support kiwi conservation management. Sites of high human activity sites represent a resource that may be able to be utilised for kiwi conservation management in novel ways. Issue Issue 28.1: There is potential for taking a more holistic approach and developing synergies with other conservation projects. Objective and Actions


Objective 28.1: To maximise the benefits to kiwi from all current and proposed conservation programmes



28.1 Assess the potential of all current and proposed

conservation projects for their ability to concurrently

provide opportunities for additional Eastern brown kiwi

management

2013

onwards


Group; Kiwi Recovery



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5.1.29 Topic 29: Inter-Agency Co-ordination

The resources required to achieve the goals of both this Plan, and the Kiwi Recovery Plan, are considerable. While the Department of Conservation has legal delegation and jurisdiction under the Wildlife Act to promote the protection of Eastern brown kiwi, the management resource requirements of this task are far too great for one organisation alone. Therefore, any resource that can be harnessed to achieve these goals should be utilised. These include the multiple agencies of central Government, (e.g. use the NZ Airforce to aerially monitor transmittered kiwi), as well as regional and local Government agencies. Regional and local councils, as well as TB Free NZ, undertake many pest control operations (e.g. aerial 1080 operations), and optimising both the spatial and temporal components of these operations to maximally benefit kiwi could be of considerable value. In addition, co-management arrangements for kiwi conservation sites could be another powerful tool. Issues Issue 29.1: Other agencies could undertake management at much lower cost as part of their normal activities, e.g. airforce aerially monitoring transmittered kiwi. Issue 29.2: There are potential efficiencies in kiwi management in conjunction with Territorial Local Authorities (i.e. councils) and other agencies. Issue 29.3: Some areas may be able to be closed off for rahui for kiwi protection and management (especially co-managed areas). An education programme may need to be run in association with this. Issue 29.4: Hawke’s Bay Regional Council may want to undertake landscape-scale pest control, including stoats. Hawke’s Bay kiwi practitioners may be able to influence this design to maximise benefits for kiwi. Issue 29.5: TB Free NZ – could undertake kiwi surveys in 1080 areas.



Objective 29.1: To maximise the use of multiple agencies to increase the efficiencies of Eastern brown kiwi

management



29.1 Scope the use of central, regional and local 2013 Medium Project Managers; Kiwi


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73

Government resources to determine how they could

be utilised for Eastern brown kiwi conservation

management

onwards Recovery Group

5.1.30 Topic 30: Mixed-provenance Management

Kiwi populations containing more than one recognised taxon present their own unique management challenges. Some have been deliberately mixed (e.g. Kapiti, Little Barrier Island), by historically well meaning but ultimately misguided conservation attempts when there was little to no understanding of kiwi genetics. It is impossible to “unpick” such mixed-provenance groups into their constituent components, so mixed populations, even if they have a high number of individuals, have a limited capacity to be used to support currently recognised taxa. Other populations have arisen due to inter-breeding of different taxa in captivity, due to the limited understanding of kiwi taxonomy, before the current 11 taxa had been described. The recently established Pukaha Mt Bruce and Rimutaka populations both arose as a result of captive breeding of Eastern and Western taxa, and the decision was taken to use these birds to deliberately establish a mixed-provenance population. Therefore, this Plan also needs to consider the on-going management of these populations, and should be consistent with the Western Taxon Plan (Scrimgeour & Pickett, 2011) for these same populations. Other populations have historically had kiwi deliberately moved between taxa, e.g. Northland Taxon birds found during manuka roller-crushing activities were moved to Hawke’s Bay in the 1970’s (Butler & McLennan, 1991). The implications for current management of such movements are unknown. Other areas may have natural groupings of mixed-provenance populations, where the Eastern Taxon distribution may overlap with Western or Coromandel Kiwi Taxa. Understanding these areas, the implications for management and developing effective tools to manage such populations in perpetuity are likely to be challenging. Issues Issue 30.1: Currently there is no clear understanding if the Eastern brown kiwi taxon contributes to any naturally occurring mixed-provenance populations. Issue 30.2: If there are natural mixed-provenance populations, it is unknown how they are structured at each site, e.g. a transition over 2km, 20km or 200km from one “pure” taxon to another. Issue 30.3: Appropriate management of the Mt Bruce and Rimutaka mixed-provenance sites is required.


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Issue 30.4: The implications for current kiwi management of the deliberate movement of other kiwi taxa into areas occupied by the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are unknown. Issue 30.5: New mixed-provenance sites could be established.



Objective 30.1: To further understand the spatial extent of any naturally occurring or deliberately produced mixed-

provenance populations containing genetic material from the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon

Objective 30.2: To determine how the mixed-provenance Eastern/Western Taxon populations at Mt Bruce and

Rimutaka fits into the long-term management of the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon



30.1 Identify the spatial extent of any natural zones of

mixed-provenance birds, and the management actions

required for such populations

2016

Medium

EBK Taxon Group; WBK

Taxon Group; Kiwi

Recovery Group

30.2 Determine management options for the known mixed-

provenance Pukaha Mt Bruce and Rimutaka

populations that is also consistent with the Western

brown kiwi Taxon Plan

2013

onwards

Medium Director Conservation

Services (Lower North

Island); Project

Managers; WBK Taxon

Group; EBK Taxon

Group;

30.3 Identify historic transfers of non-Eastern brown kiwi

into the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi


5.1.31 Topic 31: Impact of other pest management on kiwi

Death or injury to kiwi as a result of animal pest operations is known to occur occasionally. The death of even one adult breeding kiwi can have a large affect on the viability of smaller populations. As there is little evidence to suggest kiwi are affected by possums, rats, pigs and hedgehogs, any “by-kill” of kiwi in operations targeting these pests cannot be justified as having a net benefit for any kiwi population. There could be some justification however, if there was a low rate of kiwi “by-kill” in some operations which effectively reduced mustelid, cat and dog numbers to low levels, resulting in enhanced breeding and recruitment of kiwi. It is highly desirable that no kiwi are killed or injured in any animal pest operations. There is always some risk when toxins or traps are used, so developing effective methods to reduce and maintain this to very low levels is essential. Monitoring kiwi is a reasonably robust, but expensive, way to determine any negative impact of pest control on the population. With any changes in trapping, toxin or material technology (or even small differences between toxin batches), unexpected by-kill of kiwi could result at any time. See also Topic 37 and Topic 54.


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Issues Issue 31.1: Possum trapping, both performance contract and fur trapping, can catch and injure kiwi in traps. Issue 31.2: The method of bait presentation and the toxic effect of pesticides (e.g. Feratox) can impact upon kiwi. Issue 31.3: Many trap types targeting different pests are widely used and new traps are under development; their effects on kiwi in field conditions are largely unknown. Issue 31.4: There are currently consistent standards across Eastern brown kiwi taxon range, i.e. within DOC estate, council reserves and private land. Objective and Actions


Objective 31: To ensure kiwi-safe pest control methods are undertaken on all land tenures



31.1 Develop a Best Practice manual for both plant and

animal pest control methods aimed at ensuring a

minimal impact on Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards


Managers; Kiwi Recovery

Group Project Managers;

EBK Taxon Group

31.2 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi projects are

undertaking kiwi-friendly pest management Best

Practice

2013

onwards

Essential Directors Conservation

Services; Directors

Conservation

Partnerships;


Managers; Project

Managers

31.3 Advocate for all land owners, land management

organisations (e.g. Federated Farmers) and territorial

local authorities that undertake any pest

management, that kiwi-friendly Best Practice

methods are used

2013

onwards


Partnerships;


Managers; Project

Managers; Partnerships

Managers

31.4 Support research to increase the effectiveness of

pest control methods while not increasing the risk of

harm to Eastern brown kiwi (Also see 44.1)

2013

onwards

Essential Director Conservation

Services; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group; Science &

Capability

5.1.32 Topic 32: Kiwi in non-native habitats While most Eastern brown kiwi are found in more remote native forests where predation by mammalian predators is the key agent of decline, some are found in more developed areas. Extra hazards in these sites include farming-


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associated management (including farm dogs – also see Topic 25 and Topic 48) and production forestry management. Production forestry has been shown to be able to provide suitable habitat for a moderate density of kiwi. Sites with developed forestry roads can increase the risk to kiwi by attracting high numbers of pig hunters with dogs, but there is little information about the direct effect of harvesting operations (every 25-30 years) on the population dynamics of resident kiwi. Also see Topic 54. Issues Issue 32.1: The effect of production forestry management practices (e.g. felling trees, dragging logs, soil compaction with heavy machinery, burning) on resident Eastern brown kiwi is largely unknown. Issue 32.2: Change in predator dynamics through production cycles (e.g. an increase in rabbits in recently planted areas may allows ferrets to become established) is largely unknown. Issue 32.3: Kiwi can be impacted by farming environments and practices (e.g. sheep and cattle dogs, drowning in cattle stops, bush clearance). Objective and Actions


Objective 32.1: To minimise the impact productive land management practices have on Eastern brown kiwi

populations



32.1 Identify areas of production forestry, agriculture and

horticulture containing Eastern brown kiwi

2014 High

EBK Taxon Group

32.2 In conjunction with the forestry industry, develop

management practices that minimise any impact on

Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1)

2014

onwards


Partnerships ; EBK

Taxon Group

32.3 Identify priority areas where forestry companies or

landowners could manage Eastern brown kiwi, either

with predator control or BNZONETM

management


Taxon Group

32.4 Support research to monitor Eastern brown kiwi

populations and predator densities through cycles of

production forestry management (see Topic 54)

2013

onwards

Medium Director Conservation

Partnerships; Science &

Capability Group

32.5 Working with industry, develop risk profiles that

various agricultural and horticultural practices may

have on Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1)

2013

onwards



32.6 Work with industry and individual landowners to

minimise any potential impacts of productive land

management upon Eastern brown kiwi (See Topic 38

& 54).

2013

onwards


Partnerships; Project

Managers; National Kiwi

Mentor; EBK Taxon


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Group


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78

5.2 Community Relations and Engagement Background Statement Community relations is an essential element of long-term kiwi management. Kiwi are in the enviable position of being highly valued by the great majority of New Zealanders, and are therefore likely to support the long-term management of kiwi populations. Maintaining and increasing this support is an important, ongoing task that increases the chances of long-term persistence and recovery of this taxon. Engaging communities to undertake practical hands-on kiwi management is another step again beyond mere education and information, but has been overwhelmingly successful in many cases (e.g. Waikaremoana Hapu Restoration Trust, Whakatane Kiwi Project). Increasing the number of communities that are prepared to spend time, money and effort in undertaking meaningful, sustained and successful kiwi conservation management is an ongoing challenge, yet vital for the long-term persistence and recovery of the taxon throughout its current range (Goal 1.2).

5.2.1 Topic 33 : Advocacy

Kiwi advocacy refers to informing the public about kiwi issues. A well informed and educated public will lead to kiwi being increasingly seen as an important natural component of our surroundings. This should translate into the public wanting to afford more protection to kiwi at more sites. Issues Issue 33.1: Media coverage is very important, and strategies are needed to maximise coverage of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. More specific issues may include:

Can a ‘whole of taxon’ approach work better than each project going to media alone?

Does the taxon co-ordinate media exposure so not all projects are competing for media space? (e.g. a 1 month spotlight on each project?)

Use the Taxon Group to approach media outlets for an overview on what is happening with this taxon.

Issue 33.2: People need to see kiwi and connect with kiwi to appreciate kiwi. Issue 33.3: People need to engage with the bird for people to own and protect the various projects. Issue 33.4: Political action may be seen as necessary by some groups – to maintain or increase funding levels by local, regional and central Government. Issue 33.5: Heightened national awareness campaign to protect kiwi.


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Issue 33.6: Websites can be an effective way to provide public advocacy and awareness. Issue 33.7: Eastern brown kiwi are found in a large area of private land. Issue 33.8: Eastern brown kiwi taxon groups could link with the national advocacy co-ordinator, captive institutes (that will all hold Eastern brown kiwi) and the Kiwi Captive Co-ordinator. Issue 33.9: Education

Strong education, i.e. more opportunities for people to see kiwi in daylight.

Using schools and wananga to help

Education/powerpoint to local community Objectives and Actions


Objective 18.1: To increase awareness and support for kiwi protection through the provision of high-quality advocacy

for kiwi projects at all levels


Objective 33.1: To increase awareness and support for Eastern Brown kiwi protection through the provision of high-

quality advocacy for kiwi projects at all levels


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Coordinate advocacy nationally, including the development of

resources and provision of advice, through a National Mentor

for Kiwi Advocacy throughout the term of the plan

Establish a regional support structure for local kiwi projects,

including for advocacy, by 2010 and maintain this throughout

the term of the plan (Note: Same as Action 20.2, section

5.2.3)

Develop an advocacy section in each taxon plan that outlines

methods and tools by 2009

18.1

18.2

18.3

Recovery

Group/ BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

National

Mentor for Kiwi

Advocacy

Taxon plan

lead

conservators

Essential

High

Essential

Taxon Plan Action required to achieve objective


33.1 Develop a media strategy to maximise coverage of kiwi to as

many Eastern brown kiwi projects as possible

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon

Group

33.2 Develop strategies to maximise exposure of Eastern brown kiwi

to local groups (e.g. kiwi releases)

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon

Group; Project

Managers

33.3 Develop a web-based advocacy approach for Eastern brown kiwi 2013

onwards

Medium EBK Taxon

Group; Project

Managers


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33.4 Develop an advocacy strategy with captive institutions (who will

provide key advocacy opportunities) to promote Eastern brown

kiwi

2014

onwards

High EBK Taxon

Group; Captive

Institutions

5.2.2 Topic 34: Tangata Whenua

Tangata whenua have a strong and unique relationship with kiwi, and are vital for their sustained conservation. This is particularly so for Eastern brown kiwi, where a high proportion of their range coincides with culturally strong Maori communities, where kiwi are highly regarded as a taonga (treasure). The special relationship Maori have with kiwi, enshrined in legislation by the Treaty of Waitangi, coupled with the large areas of multiply-owned Maori land within the range of Eastern brown kiwi, means every encouragement should be given to enabling and empowering these landowners to successfully manage kiwi on both their lands, and also other lands where feasible. Iwi managed projects may be the greatest potential area for the growth of kiwi conservation over the term of this Plan and beyond. The known distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon at least partly encompasses the rohe of approximately 26 iwi. Most large areas of Maori multiply-owned land that still retain indigenous vegetation – sites of likely tangata whenua managed projects – are in relatively remote areas, making management of these projects challenging in many respects. Tangata whenua have a strong cultural and spiritual connection to kiwi, and may have a different approach or set of priorities to aspects of kiwi conservation and management than other conservation groups. Issues Issue 34.1: Not all Eastern brown kiwi projects have significant iwi interactions. Issue 34.2: Iwi are partners with the Crown, not stakeholders. Issue 34.3: There are suitable areas for additional Eastern brown kiwi conservation projects within the rohe of some iwi which currently do not have an Eastern brown kiwi project. Issue 34.4: Growth in iwi conservation could be substantial in the next decade and beyond. Issue 34.5: Treaty settlements are likely to have an impact on managing kiwi on DOC public conservation land. Issue 34.6: Tangata whenua have a strong sense of kaitiakitanga (guardianship, stewardship) for kiwi, which should be widely acknowledged, respected and promoted.


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Issue 34.7: Local contacts are very important for tangata whenua so they can deal with people they know. Good lines of communication to discuss sensitive subjects and transparency of relationships is essential. Issue 34.8: Tikanga protocols of each iwi/hapu should be acknowledged and supported in the management of Eastern brown kiwi. Issue 34.9: The Waikaremoana kiwi project could be used as a model for iwi management of kiwi (e.g. the relationship between LWHRT and DOC) for other tangata whenua groups to aspire to, and see what is possible. Issue 34.10: Tangata whenua may be able to access funding options for kiwi that are not available for other groups, including landscape-scale management. Issue 34.11: Training outcomes for tangata whenua:

Wildlife/resource project management (Nga Taonga tuku iho)

Training at schools

Tangata whenua employment

Inter-generational transmission of traditional knowledge

Maori world view (especially of kiwi) recognised and understood

Issue 34.12: The use of toxins is not necessarily wanted by tangata whenua, however naturally occurring toxins may be considered as acceptable. Application of toxins is a big issue for tangata whenua. Issue 34.13: The ‘bloodline’ of kiwi should be kept intact – this is especially an issue when translocating kiwi across iwi/hapu boundaries. Kiwi from one area may be more suited to that area than other areas (i.e. have they “evolved” to better suit one place)? Issue 34.14: Tangata whenua may have issues with how projects name individual kiwi, and also the current label “Eastern brown kiwi”. There may be a more suitable name more acceptable and meaningful to tangata whenua. Issue 34.15: Use of kiwi as a resource to maintain strong cultural links to kiwi e.g. korowai (cloaks). Issue 34.16: Balancing of science and cultural perspectives in Recovery Plans – especially translocating kiwi. Issue 34.17: Tangata whenua have a passion for kiwi which should be acknowledged, developed and promoted. Issue 34.18: The most important Maori management issues are toxins (1080), dogs, whakapapa, korowai and bones. Issue 34.19: The Maori version of components of the Taxon Plan needs to be incorporated (including proverbs).


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Issue 34.20: Tangata whenua involvement should be regarded as a priority for the future management of this taxon. Issue 34.21: Developing enduring and trusting relationships between tangata whenua and other Eastern brown kiwi stakeholders can only be good for the long-term future of Eastern brown kiwi. Objectives and Actions


Objective 19.1: To ensure that iwi are involved at all levels of kiwi management and research in an interactive way

and in a way appropriate to all parties’ commitments and expectations


Objective 34.1: To ensure that iwi are involved at all levels of Eastern Brown kiwi management and research in an

interactive way


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Include tangata whenua in the development and

implementation of taxon plans throughout the term of the

plan

Identify opportunities and current barriers for the involvement

of tangata whenua in kiwi recovery throughout the term of the

plan

Ensure that agreed processes for involvement of tangata

whenua in kiwi management are observed throughout the

term of the plan

19.1

19.2

19.3

Taxon plan

lead

conservators

Area

managers/

conservators

Area

managers/

conservators

Essential

Essential

Essential



34.1

Include tangata whenua in the implementation of the

Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Plan, and ensure their

perspectives on kiwi are reflected in the Plan

2013

onwards

Essential

Eastern brown kiwi Taxon

Plan author, Director

Conservation

Partnerships, EBK Taxon

Group, Kahui Kaupapa

Atawhai

34.2

Acknowledge the kaitiakitanga role of tangata

whenua in Eastern brown kiwi conservation, and in

consultation with tangata whenua develop

appropriate tikanga (protocols) for kiwi management

at each site

2013

onwards

High

Project managers

34.3

Develop protocols and a standard model for tangata

whenua involvement in all Eastern brown kiwi

conservation projects

2013

onwards

Essential

Project managers, EBK

Taxon Group

34.4

Provide opportunities for tangata whenua to

increase their involvement and skills in Eastern

2013

onwards

Essential


Taxon Group


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83

brown kiwi conservation management, and identify

current barriers for their involvement

34.5

Develop and annually refine protocols that address

issues particularly sensitive to Maori (e.g. toxins,

dogs, whakapapa, korowai, bones) regarding

Eastern brown kiwi conservation management

2013

onwards

Essential


Taxon Group

34.6

Support the maintenance and development of the

cultural use of dead Eastern brown kiwi by tangata

whenua

2013

onwards

High


Taxon Group

34.7

Work with Nga Whenua Rahui to identify areas of

high Eastern brown kiwi conservation potential on

private Maori land, and provide support to

landowners to undertake this work

2013

onwards

High

EBK Taxon Group

34.8 Consult with tangata whenua (and other

stakeholders) regarding the applicability of the taxon

name “Eastern brown kiwi”

2013 High EBK Taxon group

34.9 Support tangata whenua in accessing funding for

Eastern brown kiwi projects

2013

onwards


Partnerships, Project

managers, EBK Taxon

Group, Kahui Kaupapa

Atawhai

5.2.3 Topic 35: Community-led Initiatives

There are currently 8 community-led (i.e. not central or local Government agency-led) kiwi projects within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon (Appendix 2). These projects reflect a strong desire by members of the general public to be involved in kiwi conservation, and as such should be encouraged to become sustainable in the long-term, and to enable other projects to proliferate. Community involvement is critical to achieving the Goals of this Taxon Plan (Section 4.2), enabling populations of Eastern brown kiwi throughout its range to be represented by conservation management projects. Issues Issue 35.1: Consistent methods and best-practice (with local variations as required) are needed to support and build community capacity and increase community skills. Issue 35.2: An optimal structure or model by which to run a sustainable Eastern brown kiwi Community Group project may help groups to maximise efficiencies. Issue 35.3: Engagement by communities is critical for ongoing Eastern brown kiwi survival, e.g. the Whakatane kiwi population is very close to an urban area.


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Issue 35.4: Changing behaviours (especially with dogs and dog owners) to be sensitive to the requirements of Eastern brown kiwi is a long-term community issue. Issue 35.5: Community groups are diverse and inspirational. Issue 35.6: Local groups often just want to know what action they can take to help kiwi. Issue 35.7: Support from relevant agencies to community groups is required to maximise efficiencies and maintain momentum. Some further issues include:

Regular meetings of all practitioners in Eastern brown kiwi taxon.

Some groups need considerable support to increase skills and provide ongoing support (e.g. Pakihi Care Group). Energy and enthusiasm are there but need support at times.

A clear and achievable path for community practitioners to obtain certification to handle and band kiwi.

National co-ordination to help Community Groups set up Care Groups (how to set up Care Groups).

Care groups need to be cared for – especially dogs.

Regular updates sent out to groups (especially regarding technology and traps).

Issue 35.8: Sustaining community groups is essential to their long-term survival. Some issues include:

Budget cuts, succession issues, recession issues

Annual cost for typical project: $100K management, $70-150K predator control, $10K publicity, $30K field expenses, $15K kiwi crèches, plus aversion training $3000 (advertising plus trainer – 6 days) = $300K total. In addition, volunteer hours need to be recorded.

Lump sum invested could give long-term certainty (e.g. Whakatane Kiwi Project needs about $6 million lump sum to return enough $ per year off investments to sustain the project).

Resources could be found or collated to fully support one project at a time until it reached a financial position whereby its long-term outlook is sustainable; perhaps one eastern brown kiwi project every 1-5 years could achieve this status, and then no longer be financially supported by the wider group.

Issue 35.9: Identification and development of new community-led kiwi projects

The pros and cons of various options for the required large 200 kiwi pair site have not yet been developed.

The Mahia peninsula site could be a promising site, but there is a lot of discussion required between both iwi and residents; this could be an ideal location for the 200 kiwi pair site.


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Issue 35.10: Developing enduring relationships between tangata whenua, community groups and the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group (see Topic 34 also).



Objective 20.1: To ensure that community involvement in kiwi protection is optimised, sustained and follows best

practice


Objective 35.1: To ensure that Community Group involvement in Eastern brown kiwi protection is optimised,

sustained and follows best practice


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Provide regular opportunities to strengthen networks and

information sharing among community-led projects, including

regional/national meetings (‘kiwi hui’) for kiwi practitioners

and other stakeholders throughout the term of the plan

Establish a regional support structure for local kiwi projects,

including for advocacy, in 2010 and maintain this throughout

the term of the plan (Note: Same as Action 18.2, section

5.2.1)

Provide regular suitable forums and training opportunities to

share information on best practice, sustainability, strategic

planning and funding for community-led initiatives throughout


Provide community groups with information on priority areas

for management of kiwi by 2010 and then throughout the

term of the plan taxon plan

Include community groups, where applicable, in the

development and implementation of taxon plans throughout


20.1

20.2

20.3

20.4

20.5

Recovery

Group/ BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

National

Mentor for Kiwi

Advocacy

BNZ Save the

Kiwi Trust/

Recovery

Group

Recovery

Group/ BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust/ lead

conservators

Taxon plan

lead

conservators

Essential

High

Essential

High

Essential



35.1 Establish an Eastern brown kiwi support structure for

local kiwi projects, including for advocacy

2013

onwards

High

Kiwi Mentor; EBK

Taxon Group

35.2 Provide regular suitable forums and training

opportunities to share information on best practice,

sustainability, strategic planning and funding for

community-led initiatives

2013

onwards

Essential

Kiwi RG ; EBK Taxon

Group; Conservation

Partnerships Managers

35.3 Provide community groups with information on priority 2014 High Kiwi RG; EBK Taxon


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86

areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi (same

Action as 19.2)

Group; Conservation


5.2.4 Topic 36: Sponsorship

Sponsorship is vital for ongoing kiwi conservation. While much can be achieved by voluntary labour, effective kiwi conservation requires at least some degree of monetary investment. However, sponsorship can come in all forms, and non-financial support can be as important as financial support. All projects require a sustainable outlook. Sponsorship can help to achieve this sustainability. Each project should pursue their own sponsorship drives, but equally the Eastern brown kiwi group could prioritise projects, in order to achieve sustainable management of the whole of taxon. Issues Issue 36.1: Corporate sponsorship. Should be just “sponsorship” not just corporate sponsorship Issue 36.2: Financial and non-financial sponsorship should be included



Objective 21.1: To ensure that the strategic direction of the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust is consistent with the national

kiwi recovery plan

Objective 21.2: To ensure that the benefits and responsibilities through the formation of the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust

are fully realised

Objective 21.3: To increase the support (financial and otherwise) for kiwi recovery through sponsorship


Objective 36.1: To increase the support (financial and otherwise) for Eastern brown kiwi recovery through

sponsorship


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Review and communicate the focus and role of BNZ Save

the Kiwi Trust in national kiwi recovery in 2009 then every 3

years thereafter

Undertake joint development and implementation of national

strategies by the Kiwi Recovery Group and BNZ Save the

21.1

21.2

General

Manager

Marketing and

Communications

Group/ BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

Recovery

Group/ BNZ

Essential

Essential


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87

Kiwi Trust throughout the term of the plan

Promote within DOC and externally the role of BNZ Save

the Kiwi Trust as a key participant in kiwi management


Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their obligation

under the sponsorship agreement with BNZ throughout the

term of the plan

Develop strategies in 2009 to double the amount of

corporate sponsorship funding for kiwi recovery available by

2013

21.3

21.4

21.5

Save the Kiwi

Trust

Area managers/

conservators

Area managers/

conservators

General

Manager

Marketing and

Communications

Group/ BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

High

High

Essential



36.1 Promote within DOC and externally the role of The

Kiwi Trust as a key participant in kiwi management

2013

onwards


Services; Director

Conservation

Partnerships; Project

Managers

36.2 Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their

obligation under the sponsorship agreement with The

Kiwi Trust and main sponsors

2013

onwards


Services; Conservation

Services Managers

36.3 Support projects in developing strategies to increase

the amount of sponsorship funding for Eastern Brown

Kiwi recovery

2013

onwards


Partnerships;

Conservation

Partnerships Managers;

Project Managers

5.2.5 Topic 37: Statutory Planning

Statutory plans from local, regional and central government agencies form the basis of many aspects of land management. The current known distribution of the Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon encompasses or is close to the border of 19 Councils (Fig. 10 and 11): 12 District Councils (Central Hawke’s Bay, Tararua, Manawatu, Rangitikei, Wairoa, Opotiki, Whakatane, Kawerau, Western Bay of Plenty, Hauraki, Matamata-Piako, South Waikato), two City Councils (Napier, Tauranga) and five Regional Councils (Horizons (Manawatu-Wanganui), Hawke’s Bay, Waikato, Gisborne, and Bay of Plenty). Statutory plans generated by these councils are powerful instruments that determine land use and council policy on many issues. These plans represent the opportunity to influence such arrangements within the jurisdiction of each council, and as such it is important to advocate for kiwi conservation measures to be included as part of this planning process whenever applicable.


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88

Fig. 10.. Eastern brown kiwi distribution in relation to Territorial Local Authorities .


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89

Fig. 11. Eastern brown kiwi distribution in relation to Regional Councils Issues Issue 37.1: Effect of District Plans on projects – now and in future, e.g. housing development near kiwi areas could affect the viability of some projects. Issue 37.2: Dog and pest management issues.


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90

Issue 37.3: Vegetation clearance and development issues. Issue 37.4: Dog management on DOC-managed public conservation land. Issue 37.5: Kiwi management issues in DOC’s Conservation Management Strategy planning documents. Issue 37.6: Possum trapping on council reserves and private land containing kiwi. Objectives and Actions


Objective 22.1: To avoid, remedy or mitigate threats to kiwi and their habitat by promoting legislative and policy

changes to statutory authorities


Objective 37.1: To avoid, remedy or mitigate threats to Eastern Brown Kiwi and their habitat by promoting legislative

and policy changes to statutory authorities


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Raise awareness of kiwi threats associated with land use

and how statutory planning and policy can support kiwi

recovery by 2009 and then throughout the term of the plan

Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of kiwi habitat

and of kiwi from predation in district plans by 2009 and

then throughout the term of the plan

Provide local authorities with information on priority areas

for management of kiwi by 2009 and then throughout the

term of the plan

22.1

22.2

22.3

Area managers/

conservators/BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

Area managers/

conservators/BNZ

Save the Kiwi

Trust

Area managers/

conservators

High

High

High



37.1 Raise awareness of threats to Eastern brown kiwi

associated with land use practices and encourage

submissions to statutory planning and policy that

can support Eastern brown kiwi recovery

2013

onwards

High

Conservation Partnerships

Managers; Conservation

Services Managers

37.2 Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of

Eastern brown kiwi habitat and of kiwi from

predation in District Plans

2013

onwards

High

Directors Conservation

Partnerships ; Conservation

Services Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

37.3 Provide local authorities with information on priority

areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High


Managers; Conservation

Partnerships Managers;


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EBK Taxon Group

37.4 Encourage District and Regional Councils to

financially support identified priority sites for Eastern

brown kiwi management

2013

onwards


Partnerships; Conservation


5.2.6 Topic 38: Development of Environmental Standards

Closely associated with Topic 32, this topic concerns the development of environmental standards on private land – primarily on production lands (farming and forestry). Eastern brown kiwi may be affected by environmental protection standards that are not tailored to their unique requirements – see also Topic 54. Issue Issue 38.1: RMA, Council plans Objectives and Actions


Objective 23.1: To optimise opportunities for kiwi protection on private production land through inclusion in

appropriate environmental standards

Taxon Plan Objective(s)

Objective 38.1: To optimise opportunities for Eastern brown kiwi protection on private land through inclusion of

appropriate environmental standards


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock

farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection

methods, and promote their consideration in the development

of standards and certification criteria by 2009 and then


23.1 Area

managers/

conservators/

BNZ Save the

Kiwi Trust

Medium



38.1 Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock

farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection

methods, and promote their consideration in the development of

standards and certification criteria. (Also see 32.2)

2012

onwards

High Directors

Conservation

Partnerships;

Conservation

Partnerships

Managers;

EBK Taxon


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Group

5.2.7 Topic 39: Tourism

Tourism operators can be a useful way of both educating the public about kiwi and their management issues, and attracting income for kiwi conservation projects. Kiwi can be a powerful drawcard for tourists, due to their unique nature and quintessential iconic status. Some projects are naturally better placed than others to cater for the tourism market, mainly due to location and ease of access issues. Different types of management approaches can also lend themselves to being more tourism-friendly, e.g. kiwi crèche sites, ONE sub-adult kiwi releases, adult kiwi captive management. However, all kiwi projects have a potential for tourism activities, and some projects may also receive substantial benefits from these activities that may enable the project to be more independently sustained. Some tourism operations may require Wildlife Act approval through the Department of Conservation, and all activities should be consistent with the goals and objectives of this Plan. Issues Issue 39.1: The endangered status of kiwi adds to its tourism attraction. Issue 39.2: The tourism potential of all in situ Eastern brown kiwi sites has not been assessed. Issue 39.3: The appropriate use of Eastern brown kiwi in captivity, crèches, and enclosures has not been assessed for tourism potential. Issue 39.4: Successful Eastern brown kiwi tourism operations would require excellent marketing and associations with many different groups. Objective and Actions


Objective 39.1: To further develop the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi



39.1 Assess the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi

projects and sites

2013 High Project managers;

EBK Taxon Group

39.2 Develop a Tourist Guide to Eastern brown kiwi projects,

and make it available at tourist operations, including high

volume kiwi-oriented tourist sites (e.g. Rainbow Springs,

Te Puia)

2014 High Project managers;

EBK Taxon Group

39.3 Support kiwi projects to more easily attract tourists, e.g. 2013 Medium Project Managers;


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web-based advocacy and advertising onwards National Kiwi Mentor

39.4 Support projects in their ability to develop aspects of

their projects that increase their attractiveness to fee-

paying tourists

2013

onwards

Medium Project Managers;

EBK Taxon Group

39.5 Support marketing of Eastern brown kiwi projects to

increase both domestic and international tourists

2013

onwards

Medium Project Managers;

EBK Taxon Group

5.2.8 Topic 40: Volunteers

The use of volunteers on kiwi conservation projects can come in a variety of forms, and can add immense value to projects. This resource can be vital to the sustainability of many projects. Volunteers can undertake a variety of tasks, from low skilled one-off work to highly skilled work over many years. Volunteers can be locally based, or projects can attract people from all over New Zealand and even internationally. Indeed, some projects may even attract “volunteers” willing to pay for their experience of working with Eastern brown kiwi. Volunteers differ from community groups (Topic 35) in that, while many community groups are composed of people who give voluntary labour, not all volunteers work for Community Groups, or are long-term members of such groups. Issues Issue 40.1: Volunteers are a limited resource for projects. Issue 40.2: Some projects attract lots of volunteer hours, others receive none. Issue 40.3: There is no co-ordinated kiwi volunteer programme within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Objective and Actions


Objective 40.1: To increase the amount of effective volunteer hours for Eastern brown kiwi projects



40.1 Develop an Eastern brown kiwi volunteer programme

network that can share volunteer resources between

projects in a prioritised order

2013

onwards

High

Project Managers; DOC

Community Relations

managers; EBK Taxon

Group

40.2 Develop a database of volunteers within the Eastern

brown kiwi Taxon to be available to projects to attract

volunteers when they are required

2013

onwards

High


Taxon Group

40.3 Develop a certification system for volunteers who

achieve designated skills in various aspects of

Eastern brown kiwi conservation management

2013

onwards

Medium

Project managers;

National Kiwi Mentor;



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EBK Taxon Group

40.4 Develop an easy to access volunteer programme for

Eastern brown kiwi targeting both overseas and

domestic volunteers

2013

onwards

Medium Project managers;

National Kiwi Mentor;


EBK Taxon Group


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5.3 Research, Monitoring and Innovation

Background Statement: Research and innovation is a key component for the future successful management of Eastern brown kiwi. There are a huge range of unknown components of Eastern brown kiwi biology, such as behaviour, genetics, and physiology. Research should be designed to help answer these unknown aspects, and to give greater certainty in helping to guide future management of this Taxon. Innovation is important in using current and emerging technology to make kiwi management more cost-effective.

5.3.1 Topic 41: Research Planning

Planning for research is a strategic approach needed to prioritise the most important components of kiwi research that can ultimately provide the greatest gains in Eastern brown kiwi knowledge and management. Issues Issue 41.1: Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in undertaking research on Eastern brown kiwi. Issue 41.2: Efficiencies and effectiveness can be increased by supporting and linking with other organisations and agencies in undertaking appropriate research on Eastern brown kiwi. Objectives and Actions


Objective 24.1: To identify, communicate and support key research needs for kiwi recovery


Objective 41.1: To identify, communicate and support key research needs for Eastern brown kiwi recovery


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Develop (by 2010) and review (in 2013 or more regularly if

required) a research plan for kiwi, and communicate this to

researchers (internal and external to DOC) as part of kiwi

recovery planning

24.1 Research &

Development

Group

High




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41.1 Develop a research plan for Eastern brown kiwi that is

updated biennially and communicate this to

researchers (internal and external to DOC) and project

managers

2013

biennially

High Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.2 Topic 42: Genetics and Taxonomy

The emerging recombinant DNA and genomic sequencing technologies that have combined in recent years to revolutionise the genetic knowledge of various species will continue at an increasing pace, and this will have great benefit for kiwi management. There are a wide variety of research questions regarding the genetics of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon that need to be addressed in order to guide management approaches. Issues Issue 42.1: The absolute geographical limit of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is unknown (e.g. low country to west of Ruahine ranges is of unknown provenance). Issue 42.2: The presence of any hybrid zones is unknown, and how these should be managed is unclear. Issue 42.3: The presence of any genetic structure within the taxon that should be preserved (i.e. gene flow between different areas) is unknown. Issue 42.4: The genetics of small populations (i.e. development of family trees) at each site following management has not been catalogued in each case. Issue 42.5: The optimum use of kohanga kiwi, kiwi crèches, and islands for increasing the genetic robustness of in situ kiwi populations has not been determined. Issue 42.6: The inbreeding coefficients of small populations, both managed and unmanaged, are largely unknown. Issue 42.7: The genetic diversity of all Eastern brown kiwi populations or management sites is unknown. Objectives and Actions


Objective 25.1: To formally clarify the taxonomy of kiwi

Objective 25.2: To maximise the genetic diversity of kiwi within each taxon within the bounds of natural rates of

genetic exchange and to ensure that new populations are established with the best possible composition of founders


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Objective 42.1: To formally clarify the taxonomy of Eastern brown kiwi

Objective 42.2: To undertake research that informs management of the best options to maximise the genetic

diversity of large populations of Eastern brown kiwi populations:

a. within the bounds of natural rates of genetic exchange;

b. within agreed parameters for small populations; and

c. to ensure that new populations are established with an optimum composition of founders, appropriate to the long-

term purpose of the new population being established.


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Complete research on kiwi taxonomy by 2010 and formally

publish findings

Support/lead research on the genetic diversity of

translocated, captive, BNZ Operation Nest Egg-based and

island populations by 2013

Research the implications of bottlenecking, fine-scale

diversity and genetic homogenisation by 2013

25.1

25.2

25.3

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Essential

High

High



42.1 Provide support for any Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy

research as necessary

2013

onwards

Essential

Project Managers;


Group

42.2 Support or lead research on the genetic diversity of

translocated, BNZ Operation Nest EggTM

-based and

island populations of Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

Essential


Group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

42.3 Support research into the presence and implications

(management and cultural) of any genetic

bottlenecking, in situ fine-scale diversity within the

Taxon, and genetic homogenisation caused by

previous translocations of Eastern brown kiwi

populations (including island translocations and

captive releases)

2014

onwards

Essential


Group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

42.4 Determine the genetic diversity of all managed Eastern

brown kiwi populations, particularly those with small

populations or previously suffering severe bottlenecks,

but also non-managed populations, and devise

appropriate management approaches to resolve any

significant issues

2015

onwards

High

Project Managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

42.5 Ensure captive populations contain enough genetic

variation to be able to contribute in the long-term to

recovery of Eastern brown kiwi populations (see also

Topic 15)

2013

onwards

High Kiwi Captive Co-

ordinator; EBK Taxon

Group

42.6 Determine the entire current geographic extent of the

Eastern brown kiwi taxon, by selective genetic

sampling throughout the known, suspected range of

the taxon

2013

onwards

High

Project Managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group


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98

42.7 Research the presence and implications of any hybrid

zone areas incorporating Eastern brown kiwi, and

define where any zone is currently present

2015

onwards

High


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

42.8 Develop protocols to maximise the genetic diversity of

all Eastern brown kiwi projects and populations when

required and appropriate (e.g. kohanga kiwi sites,

islands, captive populations, new populations, and in

situ populations) – also see Action 7.3.

2015

High

Project Managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group; Kiwi Captive

Co-ordinator

42.9 Support research into geological processes that are

reflected in the geographic distribution of alleles within

the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

2016

onwards


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.3 Topic 43: Kiwi Ecology and Population Modelling

This topic refers to the ecology of kiwi, including life history and behaviour, along with changes in the size and age structure of kiwi populations over time. Information from both managed and unmanaged sites are required to develop computer simulations that can then be modelled to more accurately predict these many aspects of kiwi biology. Issues Issue 43.1: Few current Eastern brown kiwi population models exist for each project which have high confidence levels (and can especially also cope with stochastic (irregular, unpredictable) dog or ferret impacts). Issue 43.2: The rate of Eastern brown kiwi population decline in different unmanaged areas is largely unknown. Issue 43.3: Both realistic and maximum achievable targets have not been determined. Project managers want to know the kind of targets they should be achieving for each project. Issue 43.4: The time needed to realistically achieve long-term targets for most projects is largely unknown. Issue 43.5: Population modelling of large Eastern brown kiwi populations and the entire taxon itself (including both managed and unmanaged sites) has not been undertaken (e.g. total Kaweka population is still declining). Issue 43.6: Kiwi are a management-dependent species on the mainland – their distribution may contract to only managed sites over time. Modelling the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi in 10, 50, 100 and 500 years time will be useful for gaining a perspective of long-term management. Issue 43.7: Analysis of the carrying capacity of each site has not been determined – e.g. using parameters of size, terrain and vegetation. Issue 43.8: There has been no comparative population and economic modelling of large projects that are employing novel approaches (e.g. a ‘Core


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Areas’ approach has not been compared to other more conventional approaches). Issue 43.9: The cost-effectiveness of the fenced peninsula model at Waikaremoana needs to be modelled and communicated. Issue 43.10: The dispersal behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is required to be incorporated into population models. Issue 43.11: Variation in behaviour may sometimes be geographically influenced – e.g. there appears to be quite different sub-adult dispersal behaviours at Makahu compared to Makino (both in the Kaweka ranges). Issue 43.12: The effect of population density on the dispersal behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is unknown. Objectives and Actions


Objective 26.1: To ensure that robust population modelling is undertaken for all taxa

Objective 26.2: To increase our understanding of the ecology and behaviour of kiwi


Objective 43.1: To undertake robust population modelling of each Eastern brown kiwi project, spatially distinct

population, and the Taxon as a whole.

Objective 43.2: To increase the understanding of Eastern brown kiwi ecology and behaviour


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Initiate/improve collection of baseline data for modelling of

great spotted kiwi and southern Fiordland tokoeka by 2010

Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate

results from available data (including banding and territory

mapping) for all species by 2013

Liaise with research providers to initiate/support research on

the ecology and behaviour of all kiwi species, with a

particular focus on South Island species, throughout the term

of the plan

Research (including through research by management)

reasons for low fecundity and small effective population size

for rowi and Haast tokoeka, and develop management

prescriptions based on these findings by 2011 (Note: Same

as Action 8.5, section 5.1.8)

26.1

26.2

26.3

26.4

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

High

Essential

Medium

Essential




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100

43.1 Support research to understand the natural dispersal

behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi populations,

particularly those in large forested areas, resulting in a

high level of confidence in dispersal-dependent

population models

2013

onwards

High

Project managers; EBK

Taxon Group

43.2 Liaise with research providers to initiate or support

research on the ecology and behaviour of Eastern

brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High Project managers; EBK

Taxon Group

43.3 Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate

results from available data (including banding and

territory mapping) for each managed population, each

sub-population and the taxon as a whole

2013

onwards

High

Project managers; EBK

Taxon Group

43.4 Determine predation parameters (including likely

scenarios of stochastic ferret and dog impacts)

required to maintain current kiwi populations at each

project

2013 - 2015

High

EBK Taxon Group;

Project managers

43.5 Undertake population modelling using different

management scenarios in large areas

2013 - 2014

Medium

EBK Taxon Group

5.3.4 Topic 44: Pest Research

Eastern brown kiwi are vulnerable to a variety of introduced mammalian pests; the impact of each species often differs according to the age class of kiwi. While a great deal is known about pest agents of decline, these may differ both spatially and temporally, and be sustained or stochastic in the nature of their impact. Researching more effective means to reduce pest impacts on mainland Eastern brown kiwi populations is likely to be the primary means by which advances in kiwi management can be made throughout the duration of this Plan. Issues Issue 44.1: Any change in predator/pest dynamics as a trapping programme progresses is largely unknown. Issue 44.2:The control of non-mustelid pests may have positive or negative impacts upon Eastern brown kiwi populations. Issue 44.3: The impact of 1080 operations on pig numbers is largely unknown (they might increase in post-operation years). Issue 44.4: The impact of pigs on mustelid traps can be significant and site-dependent. Issue 44.5: The cause of death of many Eastern brown kiwi mortality events is unknown.


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Issue 44.6: Ferret and dog predation is sporadic but catastrophic for many eastern brown kiwi populations. Objectives and Actions


Objective 27.1: To improve the cost-effectiveness of pest control management

Objective 27.2: To reduce the impact of dogs on kiwi populations


Objective 44.1: To improve the cost-effectiveness of pest control management

Objective 44.2: To reduce the impact of dogs and ferrets on Eastern brown kiwi populations


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Support and/or lead the development of traps, bait, toxins

and delivery systems for control of mustelids, rats, cats and

dogs in kiwi areas throughout the term of the plan

In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator control

programmes, support/initiate the development of integrated

pest management techniques that support broader

biodiversity maintenance and enhancement while fulfilling the

goal for kiwi recovery throughout the term of the plan

Implement aerial 1080 at two or more additional sites by

2011, and monitor effects for kiwi and the wider ecosystem

Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi

avoidance training for dogs and standardise the technique

according to research findings by 2010

27.1

27.2

27.3

27.4

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Essential

Essential

Essential

Essential



44.1 Support the development of traps, lures, bait, toxins

and delivery systems for the control of mustelids, cats

and dogs which do not increase the risk of harm to

Eastern brown kiwi

2013 onwards

Essential

Project managers;


Group; Eastern

Brown Kiwi Group

44.2 In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator

control programmes, support/initiate the development

of integrated pest management techniques that

support broader biodiversity maintenance and

enhancement while fulfilling the goal for Eastern

brown kiwi recovery

2013 onwards

Essential

Project Managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.3 Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi

avoidance training for dogs and support the

standardisation of the technique according to

research findings

2013 onwards

Essential


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.4 Support/lead research to understand ferret biology,

particularly habitat preferences, dispersal, and

2013 onwards

Essential

Project Managers;



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102

distributional overlaps with existing Eastern brown

kiwi populations

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.5 Research the impacts on other pest species (e.g.

rabbits, rats, pigs) that may result from sustained or

intermittent predator management at Eastern brown

kiwi projects

2013 onwards

High


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.6 Research ways to minimise the impact of ferrets and

dogs (including feral dogs) in both managed and

unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi areas

2013 onwards

High


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.7 Support/lead research to determine cost-effective

mechanisms to individually identify dogs or ferrets

that may be present in kiwi areas, particularly those

individuals that may have caused a stochastic

predation event

2013 onwards

High


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.8 Research means to reduce or avoid pig interference

on mustelid traps

2013 onwards Medium


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.9 Research means to reduce or avoid rats being caught

in and ‘clogging’ mustelid traps

2013 onwards Medium


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

44.10 Research any change in pest avoidance behaviour to

traps, and more effective means to avoid this

occurring

2013 onwards Medium Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.5 Topic 45: Monitoring

Monitoring kiwi is an expensive component of kiwi management, and there are several different methods used for different purposes. The most important techniques use radio transmitters to determine the location and status of individual birds, and call count monitoring schemes to determine adult population trends. Radio transmitters can be used at each life-stage for chicks, juveniles, sub-adults and adults, but monitoring of each requires different levels of resourcing, largely dependent upon the frequency with which they must be tracked down and their transmitter re-strapped to accommodate leg growth. Recent developments in transmitter technology – Egg timers, chick timers and “Ear in the Sky” – have all stemmed from initial work on Eastern brown kiwi populations, and have resulted in large increases in cost-efficiency, both with the Eastern brown kiwi taxon and other kiwi taxa nationwide. Imminent new developments in sound recording appear likely to result in similar increases in efficiency and data quality of kiwi call rates and population trends. Issues Issue 45.1: The cost-effectiveness of all aspects of kiwi monitoring needs constant improvement. Issue 45.2: The confidence by which Eastern brown kiwi call count monitoring methodologies reflects true population trends is uncertain.


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Objective 28.1: To ensure that sufficient and robust information is available to assess the status and trends of kiwi

species and key populations


Objective 45.1: To ensure that sufficient and robust monitoring information is available to assess the status and

trends of key populations of Eastern Brown Kiwi, and also the taxon in its entirety


Action Action #

(recovery plan)


Continue the nationwide Kiwi Call Count Scheme and 5- or

10-yearly monitoring of banded populations in moderate- to

high-density populations throughout the term of the plan

Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale monitoring

methods for use in sparse populations by 2013

Support/lead research into identification of individuals, e.g.

automated call recognition, genetic fingerprinting from faeces

or feathers, by 2013

Support/lead research into the link between index methods

(e.g. call counts) and the actual abundance of kiwi by 2013

28.1

28.2

28.3

28.4

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

Research and

Development

Group

High

High

Medium

High



45.1 Continue to support the nationwide Kiwi Call Count

Scheme by undertaking call counts according to

standard operating procedure at all applicable sites

2013

onwards

Essential

Project Managers

45.2 Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale

monitoring methods

2013

onwards

High

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

45.3 Support/lead research into the relationship between

index methods (e.g. call counts) and the absolute

density or abundance of Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

45.4 Support/lead research into cost-effective techniques

of monitoring the rate of dispersal of Eastern brown

kiwi populations, using different techniques, e.g. ‘Ear

in the Sky’, GPS transmitters

2013

onwards

High

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

45.5 Support/lead research into methods of determining

landscape-scale population density and population

trends of Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see Action 52.2)

2013

onwards

High

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

45.6 Support/lead research into understanding variation in

current Eastern brown kiwi density, and if this relates

to predator density, terrain, vegetation type, etc.

2013

onwards

High

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group


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45.7 Support/lead research into the identification of

individual kiwi, e.g. automated call recognition,

genetic fingerprinting from faeces or feathers

2013

onwards

Medium

Project managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.6 Topic 46: BNZ ONE and Captive-Raised Kiwi

One of the major successes over the past two decades of kiwi management has been the emergence of captive management to hatch wild kiwi eggs, and raise chicks for release into the wild when above a stoat-vulnerable weight threshold. While this approach has generally worked well for the projects involved and led to greater understanding of kiwi egg incubation, it remains an expensive management technique, which has led to other issues arising. Issues Issue 46.1: The cost-effectiveness of different chick release weights (including survival rates) has not been fully optimised. Issue 46.2: ONE kiwi chicks have a different growth rate to wild chicks, and adult captive-raised birds are smaller than their wild counterparts. Issue 46.3: Any long-term effect on survival, productivity and growth rates on captive-raised chicks that shed significant amounts of weight when released into the wild is not known. Issue 46.4: The relative breeding success and survival rates of captive-raised to wild-raised eastern brown kiwi is not fully understood. Issue 46.5: There may be methods of making captive-raised kiwi less vulnerable to predation (e.g. before release, train them to avoid mustelids and dogs). Issue 46.6: The relative cost-effectiveness of BNZONETM captive-raised compared to BNZONETM crèche-raised and non-incubated wild raised Eastern brown kiwi has not been fully demonstrated. Issue 46.7: Best practice for use of BNZONETM in different sized kiwi populations (e.g. prevent over-expression of genetics from a small proportion of the population that happen to have transmitters attached) has not been developed – see Topic 7. Issue 46.8: The relative cost-effectiveness of undertaking BNZONETM or mustelid trapping for different sites at different stages of their project development has generally not been assessed. Issue 46.9: Disease management in captive-reared kiwi, especially with many kiwi confined to a small area.


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Issue 46.10: Any effects arising from hatching and raising multiple kiwi generations in captivity are unknown. Objectives and Actions


Objective 46.1: To increase the cost-effectiveness of BNZONETM

and raising kiwi in captivity

Objective 46.2: To develop captive techniques that result in similar growth rates and adult size of wild-raised Eastern

brown kiwi


# Action Timeframe Priority Delivered by

46.1 Support/lead research into disease management in

captive-reared kiwi (also see Topic 52)

2013

onwards

Essential

Captive practitioners

46.2 Support/lead research into the diet of captive kiwi chicks

and juveniles that minimises morphological differences

between captive and wild-raised Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High

Captive projects;

BNZ ONETM

projects

46.3 Research the long-term multi-generational effects of

BNZONETM

and captive rearing on productivity and

ultimate adult weights of resulting Eastern brown kiwi

2013

onwards

High

BNZ ONETM

project

managers

46.4 Research methods that can improve the survival of

captive-raised kiwi to mustelid and dog predation upon

release into the wild

2013

onwards

Medium Captive practitioners;


Group

46.5 Develop models to determine the relative cost-

effectiveness and optimum times to implement

BNZONETM

, crèche or in situ Eastern brown kiwi

management for each project

2013

onwards

High EBK Taxon Group

46.6 Research the optimum use of BNZONETM

in small to

large Eastern brown kiwi populations that limits genetic

bottlenecks (see Action 7.3 and 42.8)

2013

onwards


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.7 Topic 47: Modelling Pest Distributions and Impacts

Eastern brown kiwi are distributed over approximately 10,000 km2 over a variety of terrain, vegetation types and environmental conditions. Consequently, there is considerable variation in the prevalence of different pest animals over this area, leading to differing predation pressures between sites. It is important to understand these different predation pressures, and model these at different sites, to develop priorities for kiwi management. Issues Issue 47.1: Some Eastern brown kiwi populations are vulnerable to ferret predation – exactly where these stochastic effects are likely to occur has been difficult to predict.


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Issue 47.2: Some areas containing Eastern brown kiwi may be more vulnerable to ferret impacts than others, even over relatively short distances (e.g. Makahu more vulnerable than Makino in the Kaweka Ranges). Issue 47.3: The effects of other introduced animals that may act as stoat competitors or prey (e.g. cats, pigs, weka, rabbits, hares, rats and mice (i.e. stoat food), and weasels) on stoat and ferret density and behaviour is largely unknown. Issue 47.4: The effects of total kiwi habitat size and its relationship to predator density (i.e. edge effects, island biogeographic theory) are largely unknown. Issue 47.5: The current ferret distribution is likely to be at least partially the result of historic releases, including from fitch farms in the 1980’s. Objectives and Actions


Objective 47.1: To understand spatial and temporal variation in predator impacts on populations within the Eastern

brown kiwi taxon.

Objective 47.2: To use predator density modelling to determine likely success rates of kiwi management at different

sites.



47.1 Undertake modelling of kiwi mammalian predators and

other pest distributions and densities, and correlate

this to likely kiwi survival outcomes over time at

current known kiwi densities


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

47.2 Undertake pest density modelling to help inform

current and future priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi

management


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.8 Topic 48: Vulnerability of Kiwi Populations to Dogs

While the primary agent of decline in Eastern brown kiwi has been shown to be stoats (REF – McLennan) through the predation of young kiwi, this results in the slow decline of kiwi populations, reflecting the low rate of juvenile kiwi recruitment to adulthood that then affects total reproductive output. Dog (and ferret) predation is very different in that it can often result in the sudden and dramatic decline of adult kiwi populations. These declines can result in sudden local extinction events, and are usually episodic in nature, so are difficult to predict. Dog predation is quite different from ferret predation in that it is entirely associated with human behaviour: dogs can only access kiwi by the action, or inaction, of their human owners. Feral dogs, that are a result of


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these indiscretions, are nearly always a problem particular to the isolated vast tracts of Te Urewera and Raukumara. Issues Issue 48.1: The vulnerability to sites from dogs of all types (e.g. pig dogs, farm working dogs, companion dogs (pets), and feral dogs has not been determined at all sites. Issue 48.2: The effectiveness of dog aversion tools is unknown. Issue 48.3: More effective education tools to protect kiwi from dogs need to be developed. Issue 48.4: A map of likely feral dog sites has not been developed. Issue 48.5: There are limited techniques to determine the presence, abundance and control of feral dogs over the full range of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Issue 48.6: Techniques to prevent the establishment of feral dogs have not been fully developed. Issue 48.7: Vast areas of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are found in remote sites that do not receive any aerial 1080 control. This method is effective at controlling any feral dog population through secondary poisoning. Objective and Actions


Objective 48.1: To limit the effect of dog predation on all Eastern brown kiwi populations to a negligible level



48.1 Support/lead the development of tools to enhance the

effectiveness of kiwi aversion methods for dogs

2013

onwards

Essential Conservation dogs co-

ordinator; National

Kiwi Mentor; Project

Managers; Science &

Capability Group

48.2 Develop increasingly effective information and

education tools to protect kiwi from dog predation

2013

onwards

Essential National Kiwi Mentor;

Project Managers;

EBK Taxon Group

48.3 Support the prosecution of people who own dogs

proven to kill kiwi

2013

onwards


Services; Director

Conservation

Partnerships; Policy &

Regulatory Services

Group

48.4 Develop a risk profile map of all areas containing 2013 Essential EBK Taxon Group


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Eastern brown kiwi and determine their vulnerability to

recreational hunting dogs, farm working dogs, pets and

feral dogs

48.5 Develop Best Practice methods that ensure project staff

can take DNA samples from any kiwi carcass which

can then identify dogs at an individual level

2013 Essential Project Managers;


Group

48.6 Support/lead research to develop methods that

significantly reduces the likelihood of feral dogs

establishing within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

distribution

2013

onwards

High Project Managers;


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

48.7 Support/lead research to develop techniques to

determine the presence, abundance, and control of

feral dogs over the range of the taxon

2013

onwards


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

48.8 Develop Best Practice protocols to monitor hunting

dogs, and other protocols to be used when dogs go

missing and may subsequently become feral

2013

onwards

High Project Managers;

EBK Taxon Group

5.3.9 Topic 49: Technology

All aspects of kiwi management and research has the potential to be affected by technology. Technological advances should be aimed at ultimately making kiwi conservation increasingly more cost-effective, resulting in more kiwi being protected and monitored for the same funding levels. Issues Issue 49.1: Very remote sites can be expensive to manage for kiwi. Issue 49.2: Current kiwi call count techniques are intensive, expensive, weather dependent and observer-dependent. Issue 49.3: Little of remote monitoring of Eastern brown kiwi currently occurs. Issue 49.4: Current trapping for mustelids, cats and dogs is intensive and expensive. Issue 49.5: An estimate of kiwi densities, population, sex and age structure needs intensive monitoring – DNA technologies have the potential to enable this to occur at much lower cost than current monitoring regimes. Objective and Action


Objective 49.1: To use advances in technology to make conservation management of Eastern brown kiwi

increasingly more cost-effective



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49.1 Ascertain aspects of kiwi conservation management

that would benefit the most by advances in technology,

cost these out, prioritise them and support/lead

research into developing these to practitioners

2014

onwards


Group; Project

Managers; EBK taxon

Group

49.2 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or

other in-field applications that can be transferred to

web-based storage and applications that all key users

can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 14.4,

section 5.1.14)

2013

onwards


Group; Project Managers

5.3.10 Topic 50: Site Suitability for Kiwi

Eastern brown kiwi inhabit a wide range of environments, from warm coastal forests to alpine grasslands. Some of these sites may be better suited to kiwi than others; conversely some sites may be marginal or even unsuitable for the long-term persistence of kiwi due to a range of pressures that are difficult, expensive or impractical to counter. This is especially so for very low populations and projects attempting to reinstate locally extinct kiwi populations – they have significantly declined at these sites for a reason, and attempting to overcome these agents of decline may be very difficult compared to areas where they still persist in reasonable densities. In addition, island sites that historically had no kiwi population may also be unsuitable for kiwi in the long-term due to a variety of factors. Issues Issue 50.1: There may be mineral deficiencies on the mainland limiting kiwi distribution or on islands limiting kiwi success (e.g. low breeding success on Moutohora Island). Issue 50.2: The impact of high seabird or weka densities on Eastern brown kiwi island populations is largely unknown (e.g. Moutohora and Mokoia). Issue 50.3: It may be difficult to overcome high stoat densities that result from beech mast seeding events. Issue 50.4: There may be sites with naturally low rat (and stoat) densities (e.g. 1000m+ asl) that may act as mainland refugia for Eastern brown kiwi. Objective and Actions


Objective 50.1: Determine the natural features ecosystems containing Eastern brown kiwi that may result in high or

low chances of kiwi persistence


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50.1 Support research to understand why some island

populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having

low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 3.2,

section 5.1.3)

2013

onwards


Group; Project managers;

EBK Taxon Group

50.2 Determine likely abiotic factors, competition with other

species, areas of natural low predator densities, and

natural events (including masting events and

volcanism) that may either limit or enhance the likely

persistence of Eastern brown kiwi

2016

onwards


Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.11 Topic 51: Carrying Capacity

Due to variation in ecosystem productivity, site size or location, the type of ecosystem a kiwi population inhabits may largely determine the maximum density they can ultimately achieve. Even though dispersal may prevent densities ever building to a theoretical maximum (except in islands or fenced enclosures), over time the maximum density could be deduced. Then the percentage of the maximum density achieved at each project (percentage of the maximum achievement) could be calculated. Issues Issue 51.1: The maximum obtainable density of kiwi in different environments is unknown. Issue 51.2: The impact that competition from largely non-predatory pests (e.g. rats, possums, pigs) and native species (e.g. North Island weka, Little Spotted Kiwi) has on Eastern brown kiwi carrying capacity is not known. Objective and Actions


Objective 51.1: Determine the maximum realistic carrying capacity of Eastern brown kiwi populations found in

different ecosystem types.



51.1 Support/lead research into developing efficient methods

to measure the absolute density of different populations

of Eastern brown kiwi

2015

onwards


Group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

51.2 Support/lead research to deduce the maximum carrying

capacity of Eastern brown kiwi in different ecosystems

with differing densities of native and introduced

competitors

2016

onwards


Group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

51.3 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have on

Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity


Group; Project


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(Note: same as Action 10.2, Section 5.1.10) Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.12 Topic 52: Emerging Threat Research

Kiwi are under threat almost exclusively from recent human-induced actions, including habitat clearance and importation of predatory mammals to New Zealand. There is no guarantee, however, that these threats will remain static. Firstly, kiwi may have endemic diseases or parasites that may periodically cause mortality or sickness. Secondly, the threat of even more introduced predators, competitors or diseases from overseas in a rapidly homogenizing world ecology linked to largely uninhibited trade and global human movement could bring yet unknown long-term threats to kiwi. Climate change is another factor with uncertain repercussions that kiwi will have to adapt to in upcoming decades and millennia. Issues Issue 52.1: New threats (e.g. rabbits, chinchilla, new mammal species establishing in new areas which may support mustelids; new larger cat genetics establishing in wild cat populations; endemic disease emergence, especially of populations under stress; imported diseases) may emerge at any time that may affect kiwi in unexpected ways. Issue 52.2: Current surveys would not detect any catastrophic declines in unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations from unknown threats. Issue 52.3: The future impact of climate change on various aspects of Eastern brown kiwi populations and biology (e.g. pest distributions, new disease occurrences such as mosquito-borne diseases) is largely unknown. Objective and Actions


Objective 52.1: Maintain vigilance, and develop plans to counter any emerging threats to Eastern brown kiwi



52.1 Support/lead research and develop a plan that

accounts for the monitoring, planning and

implementation of likely new threats to Eastern brown

kiwi

2014

onwards

Medium EBK Taxon Group

52.2 Support/lead research of whole-of-taxon survey and

monitoring to detect any sudden catastrophic declines

in Eastern brown kiwi populations (Also see Action

45.5)

2015

onwards

Medium Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group


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5.3.13 Topic 53: Risk Assessment of Local Extinction Events

Eastern brown kiwi are subject to different pressures at different sites throughout its current range, making some more prone to extinction. Assessing the likely result of these pressures on resident kiwi populations is necessary to determine the likelihood of local extinction events occurring, and whether these can be cost effectively countered. Issue Issue 53.1: A risk assessment of sites likely to lose a functional kiwi population in the next 5, 10, 20 years and more has not been undertaken. Objective and Action


Objective 53.1: To determine the likelihood of local Eastern brown kiwi populations becoming extinct over the next

few decades



53.1 Explore modelling of Eastern brown kiwi populations

using likely scenarios and parameters to determine

extinction risk of local Eastern brown kiwi populations

(also see Action 23.1 – to be completed after Action

53.1)

2013 - 2014 High Science & Capability

Group; EBK Taxon

Group

5.3.14 Topic 54: Living with Kiwi – Rural and Urban Issues

Most areas with high human populations do not have kiwi - they have long disappeared due to the combined effects of habitat loss and predator impacts. Remarkably, however, some urban areas do retain Eastern brown kiwi populations, the most notable being Ohope and Whakatane. As kiwi populations recover, however, kiwi may begin to come into ever more contact with urban populations, and the inherent dangers to kiwi they present. Likewise, rural communities also have many characteristics that may pose a risk to kiwi. If we are to live with Eastern brown kiwi close to human populations in the long-term, we may need to seek ways to modify our collective behaviour and reduce hazards to enable these kiwi to survive. Also see Topic 31 and Topic 32. Issues Issue 54.1: Rural dogs (working dogs) may kill kiwi. Issue 54.2: Urban dogs (pets) can kill kiwi.


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Issue 54.3: Farm activities such as habitat loss (logging trees, burning), machinery and cattle stops can all present hazards to kiwi. Issue 54.4: Cats (pets) and feral cats resulting from illegal releases can all kill kiwi. Issue 54.5: Vehicles can represent a significant mortality hazard for kiwi. Issue 54.6: Pest control, especially trapping and poisoning (also see Topic 31) can injure and kill Eastern brown kiwi. Issue 54.7: Kiwi in small blocks of forest – dispersal of young into hazardous surroundings and inbreeding is a major issue. There are multiple management issues for kiwi in rural environments within small blocks of bush (e.g. bush remnants can act as refugia for Eastern brown kiwi on pastoral lands, where a pair of kiwi can live in bush by daytime, and come out at night to feed). Refugia every 200-300m apart in pastoral lands may be able to maintain a viable kiwi population (Potter, 1990). Objective and Actions


Objective 54.1: To develop methods, practices and behaviours in which human populations do no further harm to

nearby Eastern brown kiwi populations



54.1 Research and identify current and potential issues of

human behaviours and land use that may affect

Eastern brown kiwi

2013 - 2014

High


Taxon Group

54.2 Develop alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ behaviours and land

use practices that currently put Eastern brown kiwi at

risk

2013 - 2014

High


Taxon Group

54.3 Implement the alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ approaches at

priority sites and according to the likelihood of each

being achieved

2014

onwards


5.3.15 Topic 55: Synergies with Other Flightless and Ground Nesting Birds

Kiwi are arguably the most iconic bird species in New Zealand, and so have a special place in the hearts and minds of New Zealanders and international visitors alike. Being flightless, they are more vulnerable to a range of threats than other avian species that are capable of flight. However, other flightless or ground nesting birds may also be vulnerable to these same threats. Kiwi projects can have a two-fold positive outcome for these species: 1. attract funding to the site where these species reside, if they share habitat with Eastern brown kiwi;


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2. cost-effective threat management is developed and implemented for kiwi at other sites, and these same management approaches can be replicated at the site of other vulnerable ground species. Likewise, if other species can attract research on pest control funding at sites that also contain kiwi, there will be benefits to kiwi also. Issue Issue 55.1: There are potential synergies and linkages to other research and pest control programmes being undertaken for other species, particularly vulnerable flightless or ground-nesting bird programmes. Issue 55.2: There are possible benefits to other threatened species found in the same sites as Eastern brown kiwi where pest control occurs. Objective and Actions


Objective 55.1: To maximise benefits to other threatened ground birds by undertaking kiwi management at priority

sites



55.1 Identify and prioritise sites containing threatened

ground birds or other species subject to similar threats

that Eastern brown kiwi are prone to


Taxon Group

55.2 Develop management techniques that benefit both

Eastern brown kiwi and other sympatric flightless birds

2015

onwards

Medium Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group

5.3.16 Topic 56: Population Spillover from Kiwi projects Successful management of Eastern brown kiwi projects will increase kiwi densities within the managed area. In some projects, where suitable kiwi habitat is larger than the managed area, the kiwi density outside the managed area may also increase as successfully managed young kiwi disperse out of the managed area. As this is a direct result of management, this should be included as a measure of the success of management. Quantifying the extent of any ‘spillover’ will be important in the long-term to understand and promote the successes of management projects. Issues Issue 56.1: The density of kiwi surrounding Eastern brown kiwi management projects is largely unknown.


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Issue 56.2: A quantitative measure of the extent of dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi from projects is unknown. Issue 56.3: The frequency and extent of very long dispersal events is unknown. Issue 56.4: The spatial placement of different Eastern brown kiwi projects in relation to each other may or may not allow gene flow from natural dispersal events. Issue 56.5: The natural rate of gene flow between sites – both managed and unmanaged – may be able to be approximated by management. Issue 56.6: The rate of sex-linked dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi is unknown. Issue 56.7: The survivorship of dispersing Eastern brown kiwi outside managed areas is largely unknown. Issue 56.8: The presence of any factors that limit Eastern brown kiwi spillover at each management site is largely unknown. Objective and Actions


Objective 56.1: To quantify the spillover of kiwi from all Eastern brown kiwi management projects

Objective 56.2: To understand if there are any significant natural barriers to Eastern brown kiwi dispersal



56.1 Research and model the extent of natural dispersal

events by Eastern brown kiwi at mainland

management sites

2013

onwards

High


Group; Project

Managers; EBK Taxon

Group

56.2 Quantify the extent and nature of spillover from

Eastern brown kiwi mainland management sites

2013

onwards

High Project Managers; EBK

Taxon Group


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6. References

Allendorf, F.W. and Luikart, G. 2007. Conservation and the Genetics of Populations. 642pp. Blackwell Publishing. Barlow, S. 2011. Captive Management Plan for Kiwi. Zoo Aquarium Association: Australasian Species Management Program, 42pp. Auckland. Basse, B., McLennan, J.A., and Wake, G.C. 1999. Analysis of the impact of stoats, Mustela erminea, on northern brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli, in New Zealand. Wildlife Research, 26: 227-237. Burbidge, M.L., Colbourne, R.M., Robertson, H.A., Baker, A.J. 2003. Molecular and other biological evidence supports the recognition of at least three species of brown kiwi species of brown kiwi. Conservation Genetics, 4: 167-177. Butler, D. & McLennan, J. 1991. Kiwi Recovery Plan. Threatened Species Recovery Plan Series No.2. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 35pp. Calder III, W.A. 1978. The Kiwi. Scientific American, 329 (1): 132-142. Clapperton, B.K. and Byrom, A. 2005. Feral ferret. In: C.M. King (Ed.): The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, Second Edition, pp.294-307. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Colbourne, R. 2002. Incubation behaviour and egg physiology of kiwi (Apteryx spp.) in natural habitats. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 26 (2): 129-138. Colbourne, R. 2005. Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) on offshore New Zealand islands. Populations, translocations and identification of potential release sites. DOC Research & Development Series, 208. 24 pp. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Colbourne, R. and Kleinpaste, R. 1986. Study of kiwis in exotic forest. Unpublished Report. NZ Forest Service.

Cunningham, S., Castro, I. and Alley, M. 2007. A new prey-detection mechanism for kiwi (Apteryx spp.) suggests convergent evolution between paleognathous and neognathous birds. Journal of Anatomy 211(4): 493–502. Department of Conservation. 2010. The Island Strategy. Guidelines for managing islands administered by the Department of Conservation. Department of Conservation, Christchurch. 56pp. Fraser & Johnson, 2009. Brown kiwi captive management plan. Unpublished report, Department of Conservation.


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Froggatt, P. Taupo Volcanic Centre Geology. From website: http://gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/New-Zealand-Volcanoes/Volcano-Geology-and-Hazards/Taupo-Volcanic-Centre-Geology Gillies, C. and Fitzgerald, B.M. 2005. Feral cat. In: C.M. King (Ed.): The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, Second Edition, pp.308-326. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Goldberg, J., Trewick, S.A. and Paterson, A.M. 2008. Evolution of New Zealand’s terrestrial fauna: a review of molecular evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 3319-3334. Gravley, D.M. 2004.The Ohakuri pyroclastic deposits and the evolution of the Rotorua Ohakuri volcanotectonic depression. PhD Thesis, University of Canterbury. Hartnup, K., Huynen, L., Te Kanawa, R., Shepherd, L.D., Millar, C.D. and Lambert, D.M. 2011. Ancient DNA Recovers the Origins of Mäori Feather Cloaks. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 28: 2741-2750. Heather, B.D. and Robertson, H.A. 1996. The field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Auckland, Viking. Houghton, B.F., Wilson, C.J.N., McWilliams, M., Lanphere, M.A., Weaver, S.D., Briggs, R.M. and Pringle, M.S. 1995. Chronology and dynamics of a large silicic magmatic system: central Taupo Volcanic Zone. New Zealand. Geology 23: 13-16. Holzapfel, S.A., Robertson, H.A., McLennan, J.A., Sporle, W., Hackwell, K. and Impey, M. 2008. Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) recovery plan. Department of Conservation, Wellington. Innes, J.G. 2005. Ship rat. 2005. In C.M. King (Ed.) The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, Second Edition, pp.187-203 Jolly, 1989. A field study of the breeding biology of the little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) with emphasis on the cause of nest failures. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 19: 433-448. Jolly, J.N. and Colbourne, R.M. 1991. Translocation of the little spotted kiwi (Apterxy owenii) between offshore islands of New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 21: 143-149. King, C.M. 2005. Weasel. In: C.M. King (Ed.): The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, Second Edition, pp.287-294. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. King, C.M. and Murphy, E.C. 2005. Stoat. In: C.M. King (Ed.): The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, Second Edition, pp.261-287. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.


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Latham, J.E. 2006. The ecology of ship rats (Rattus rattus) on Ponui Island: implications for North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). MSc thesis. University of Auckland. Llewellyn, M. 2005. Whakatane Kiwi Management Plan 2005-2015. Unpublished report. Manville, V., Hodgson, K.A. and Nairn, I.A. 2007. A review of break-out floods from volcanogenic lakes in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics, 50: 131-150. Manville, V., Segschneider, B., Newton, E., White J.D.L. 2009. Environmental impact of the 1.8 ka Taupo eruption, New Zealand: Landscape responses to a large-scale explosive rhyolite eruption. Sedimentary Geology, 220, 318-336. McLennan, J.A., Rudge, M.R. and Potter, M.A. 1987. Range size and denning behaviour of brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli, in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 10: 97-107. McLennan, J.A., Potter, M.A., Robertson, H.A., Wake, G.C., Colbourne, R., Dew, L., Joyce, L., McCann, A.J., Miles, J.A., Miller, P.J., Reid, J. 1996. Role of predation in the decline of kiwi, Apteryx spp., in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 20: 27-35. McLennan, J. 1997. Ecology of brown kiwi and cause of population decline in Lake Waikaremoana catchment. Conservation Advisory Science Notes No. 167. Department of Conservation, Wellington. McLennan, J.A. 2004. Management of Kiwi in Hawke’s Bay: which way forward? Unpublished report. 27 p. McLennan, J.A., Dew, L., Miles, J., Gillingham, N. and Waiwai, R. 2004. Size matters: predation risk and juvenile growth in North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 28: 241-250. Nairn, I.A. 2010. Okataina Volcanic Centre Geology. From website: http://gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/New-Zealand-Volcanoes/Volcano-Geology-and-Hazards/Okataina-Volcanic-Centre-Geology Owen, K. 2006. Kiwi plan for Bay of Plenty. Department of Conservation. Potter, M.A. 1990. Movement of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) between forest remnants. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 14: 17-24. Reed, D.H.; O’Grady, J.J.; Brook, B.W.; Ballou, J.D.; Frankham, R. 2003: Estimates for minimum viable population sizes for vertebrates and factors affecting those estimates. Biological Conservation 113: 23–34.


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Robertson, H.A.; Colbourne, R.M. 2003. Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) best practice manual. Internal report (QD code 1428). Department of Conservation, Wellington (unpublished). 101 p. Sales, J. 2005. The endangered kiwi: a review. Folia Zool., 54: 1-20. Scrimgeour, J., and Pickett, A.J. 2011. Taxon plan for Western brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). 46pp. Department of Conservation, Whanganui. Shepherd, L.D., Perrie, L.R. and Brownsey, P.J. Fire and ice: volcanic and glacial impacts on the phylogeography of the New Zealand forest fern Asplenium hookerianum. Molecular Ecology, 16: 4536-4549. Shepherd, L.D. and Lambert, D.M. 2008. Ancient DNA and conservation: lessons from the endangered kiwi of New Zealand. Molecular Ecology, 17: 2174-2184. Shepherd, L.D., Tennyson, A.J.D. and Lambert, D.M. 2012. Using ancient DNA to enhance museum collections: a case study of rare kiwi (Apteryx spp.) specimens. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, DOI:10.1080/03036758.2012.732585. Tennyson, A.J.D.; Palma, R.L.; Robertson, H.A.; Worthy, T.H.; Gill, B.J. 2003: A new species of kiwi (Aves, Apterygiformes) from Okarito, New Zealand. Records of the Auckland Museum 40:55–64. Tennyson, A.J.D. and Martinson, P. 2006. Extinct Birds of New Zealand. 180 pp. Te Papa Press Wallis, G.P. and Trewick, S.A. 2009. New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent. Molecular Ecology, 18: 3548-3580 Ward-Smith, T., Te Kahika, E., McLennan, J., Bramley, A. 2005. “Save our Kiwi Hawke’s Bay” Management Plan. Unpublished report. Department of Conservation, Napier Wilmshurst J.M., McGlone M.S. 1996. Forest disturbance in the central North Island, New Zealand, following the 1850 BP Taupo eruption. The Holocene, 6, 399–411. Wilson, C.J.N., Houghton, B.F., McWilliams, M.O., Lanphere, M.A., Weaver, S.D. and Briggs, R.M. 1995. Volcanic and structural evolution of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a review. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 68: 1-28. Worthy, T.H. and Scofield, R.P. 2012. Twenty-first century advances in knowledge of the biology of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes): a new morphological analysis and moa diagnoses revised. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 39: 87-153. Wright, S. 1943. Isolation by distance. Genetics, 28: 114-138.


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7. Personal Communications

Castro, Isabel. Lecturer, Massey University, Palmerston North. McLennan, John. Kiwi Scientist, Havelock North.

Richardson, Carmel. Kiwi Encounter, Rotorua. Robertson, Hugh. Kiwi Scientist, Department of Conservation, Wellington. Ward-Smith, Tamsin. Cape Kidnapper’s & Ocean Beach Preserve, Napier. Willems, Paddy. DOC, Puketitiri, Hawke’s Bay.


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8. Appendices

.


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Appendix 1

Timeline and priorities for recovery actions for Eastern Brown Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).

Shaded areas are years when actions should be implemented. Priorities: Essential - to be done within specified timeframe and/or frequency to achieve the goals for kiwi recovery over the term of this plan. Highest risk for kiwi recovery if not done within the specified timeframe and/or frequency High - necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed and ideally completed within the term of the plan, with moderate risk if not done within the specified timeframe and/or frequency Medium - necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed within the term of the plan but least risk if not completed within the term of the plan or within the specified timeframe and/or frequency

Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

1.1 Undertake a process to determine if an Eastern brown kiwi taxon “Governance Group” is required in order to achieve the goals, outcomes and actions of this Taxon Plan

Essential

1.2 Depending on outcome of Action 1.1, initiate Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon group

Essential

1.3 Prepare a progress report annually against taxon plan objectives and communicate to stakeholders

Essential

1.4 Undertake a full review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan (Note: same as Action 5.1, section 5.1.1)

1.5 Develop formal lines of communication with the Recovery Group regarding reporting, strategic input in the Kiwi Recovery Planning Process to any issues either specific to this taxon or applicable to other kiwi taxa also

High

2.1 Develop a formal communication link between Kiwi Sanctuary projects and Eastern brown kiwi taxon projects

High

2.2 Develop a research strategy for Eastern brown kiwi, highlighting sites that can be used to augment Kiwi Sanctuary research

Medium

2.3 Determine whether a Kiwi Sanctuary could be provided for within Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

3.1 Develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that also assesses all possible EBK islands, efficient use of islands for kiwi management, and islands suitable for kiwi crèche sites

Essential

3.2 Support research to understand why some island populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 50.1, section 5.3.10)

High

3.3 Work collaboratively with island landowners to maximally benefit the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, while maintaining culturally acceptable kiwi management

Essential

3.4 Develop contingency plans for islands containing Eastern brown kiwi in case of fire, in association with pest incursion contingency plans (Note: same as Action 6.2, section 5.1.6 )

High

3.5 Support the continued ecological improvement of islands containing Eastern brown kiwi (e.g. eradication of wasps from Tuhua, translocation of threatened species to islands)

High

3.6 Support the progression of the Tuhua Eastern brown kiwi population towards a true self-sustaining (management free) state

High

4.1 Contribute to regular updates of the Kiwi Best Practice Manual by liaising with the Kiwi Recovery Group

High

4.2 Provide regular technical best practice workshops for all Eastern brown kiwi practitioners (e.g. kiwi handling, transponder, transmitter, egg handling, trapping issues)

High

4.3 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to a biannual Eastern brown kiwi taxon hui

High

4.4 Ensure Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to attend the biannual North Island kiwi hui

High

4.5 Develop a revolving review process of all Eastern brown kiwi projects to ensure Best Practice requirements are being met, maintained, and where applicable, developed

High

5.1 Undertake a full review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan (Note: same as Action 1.4, section 5.1.1)

High

5.2 Reprioritise Objectives and Actions, and record where these changes occur

High

6.1 Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity plans for each island containing Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

6.2 Develop contingency plans for each island containing Eastern brown kiwi in case of pest incursion, in association with fire contingency plans (Note: same as Action 3.4, section 5.1.3)

Essential


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

6.3 Undertake an assessment of feasibility and likely costs for eradication of a variety of pest species on islands containing Eastern brown kiwi

High

7.1 Undertake an analysis of the history of all managed EBK populations to determine which projects or areas are likely to have undergone recent bottleneck effects with <20 individuals remaining at any one time

High

7.2 Undertake an analysis of all projects that have ever had small kiwi populations to determine the contribution all known original individuals and pairs have made to the current population (family tree)

High

7.3 Develop a best practice guide and methods for management of small populations, in consultation with captive industry and small population genetic experts

High

7.4 Determine site-specific operational management options for all projects that have undergone small population bottlenecks and are in danger of long-term deleterious genetic effects

High

7.5 Identify unmanaged sites with small relict populations of Eastern brown kiwi, and determine the best use of this genetic resource for the long-term benefit of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

High

8.1 Control relevant pests in situ (stoats, ferrets, dogs, cats) at all managed sites with populations above 100 pairs, and 30% of sites with populations between 50-100 pairs

High

8.2 Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator control at all currently managed sites with large populations of Eastern brown kiwi through review of existing management and/or increase in effort

High

8.3 Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi

High

9.1 Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intensity or intervals at the sites with the greatest potential gain i.e. sites containing the largest number of currently unmanaged kiwi – see Appendix 2

High

9.2 Establish or enhance new or existing projects, including those utilising BNZONE, to increase local population abundance to the point where the population can be used as a ‘Kohanga Kiwi’ site (Topic 22) – see Appendix 2

High

10.1 Identify any sites containing Eastern brown kiwi that would be suitable for the re-establishment of a viable LSK population

Medium

10.2 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have on Eastern Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity (Note: same as Action 51.3, section 5.3.11)

11.1 Develop procedures for identifying if an Eastern brown kiwi population is at risk of, or undergoing, inbreeding depression

High

11.2 Develop a Best Practice template for management of small Eastern brown kiwi populations, including those steps required to prevent, minimise and mitigate any inbreeding depression

High

11.3 Develop genetic management plans for all Eastern brown kiwi projects likely to be subject to small population effects, particularly those in which the total minimum population at any time is likely to have been less than 20 individuals

High

11.4 Measure the genetic diversity within and between current managed and unmanaged populations of Eastern brown kiwi for evidence of recent genetic bottleneck effects (see Topic 42)

Essential

11.5 Ensure projects with small kiwi populations take the time, and use external expertise if appropriate, to clearly articulate to members and the interested public why any potentially controversial management actions are appropriate for the genetic management of the small populations found in these projects

Essential

12.1 Undertake kiwi listening surveys to ascertain the limits of the current Eastern brown kiwi distribution

High

12.2 Collect feather, faeces or blood samples near the outer limits of the known Eastern brown kiwi distribution, to determine if there is any hybrid zone with Western or Coromandel kiwi (also see Topic 42)

High

12.3 Collate all known surveys or observations for kiwi to have a single depository of information on Eastern brown kiwi abundance and distribution

Essential

12.4 Design a survey schedule to improve the understanding of the distribution and abundance of Eastern brown kiwi

High

12.5 Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka and Pukaha Mount Bruce as part of the mixed-provenance zone between the Western and Eastern brown kiwi taxa

Medium

13.1 Support research into determining whether nuclear DNA microsatellites can provide sufficient understanding of the Eastern Brown Kiwi genetic variation (see Topic 42)

Essential

13.2 Support research into determining if any meaningful intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). Same as Action 18.1

Essential


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

13.3 Manage populations within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon to maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between geographic extremes and likely natural boundaries to approximate more natural rates of gene flow between populations

Essential

14.1 Develop a biennially reviewed and updated Best Practice document for the collection, security and long-term storage of Eastern brown kiwi data from all projects and surveys

High

14.2 Support all Eastern brown kiwi projects to acquire appropriate skills and equipment to follow the Best Practice developed in Action 14.1

High

14.3 Develop a database collating all Eastern brown kiwi data that is nationally consistent with other kiwi taxa data management standards

Medium

14.4 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or other in-field applications that can be transferred to web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 49.2, section 5.3.9)

Medium

15.1 Clarify the formal link and reporting structures for captive kiwi between the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group, Kiwi Recovery Group, ZAA and captive institutes

Medium

15.2 Develop a plan consistent with the objectives of the Kiwi Captive Management Plan that prioritises sites and issues to enable the captive industry to best contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi recovery

High

15.3 Support research into aspects of kiwi physiology, behaviour and captive management where these can best be researched in controlled captive conditions

Medium

16.1 Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in achieving the Objectives and undertaking the Actions outlined in the Kiwi Recovery Plan for the captive husbandry of Eastern brown kiwi

High

17.1 Support Kiwi Recovery Group national coordination of BNZONE

TM reporting standards

High

17.2 Consider options to make best use of the limited resources provided by BNZONE

TM incubation sites for Eastern brown kiwi,

and co-ordinate with other taxa that use these same sites (e.g. biennial pulsing of projects)

High

17.3 Determine the likely future requirements of BNZONETM

captive facilities for Eastern brown kiwi, including the required capacity and optimal location of these

High

17.4 Develop models that show the most cost-effective use of High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

BNZONETM

for Eastern brown kiwi sites, and compare with other management tools

17.5 Develop a database that collates all BNZONETM

outcomes for Eastern brown kiwi and analyse trends that may increase management efficiencies

High

18.1 Support research into determining if any meaningful intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). Same Action as 13.2

Essential

18.2 Develop a plan for the genetic management of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon

Essential

18.3 Develop clear guidelines for appropriate translocations between both managed and unmanaged populations of Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

18.4 Develop a plan on future management options for small non-viable remnant kiwi populations likely to have rare genetic alleles that can be captured (e.g. new populations started, add to existing populations, need to set up new management area) (also see Topic 23)

High

18.5 Trace previous the translocation history of kiwi in all managed sites, including community groups

High

19.1 Prioritise current and potential management sites by using a clear set of criteria (e.g. cost-effectiveness, population security, sustainability, iwi cultural valuable sites and representativeness of Eastern brown kiwi distribution)

Essential

19.2 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi (Same Action as 35.3)

High

20.1 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the different types of management fences for Eastern brown kiwi compared to other management options

High

20.2 Determine the most cost-effective sites for different fence types for future management of Eastern brown kiwi

High

21.1 Determine the current and future requirements of kiwi crèches for Eastern brown kiwi and the best sites for these to achieve the goals of this Plan (Note: see Topic 20 and Action 20.2 also)

High

21.2 Support the development of cost-effective best practice management for kiwi crèche sites

Medium

22.1 Support the development of identified priority kohanga kiwi sites for Eastern brown kiwi (see Action 19.1)

High

22.2 Develop models for optimizing the size, location and management methods of kohanga kiwi sites

Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

23.1 Identify small unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations with the highest risk of extinction (after completing Action 53.1)

High

23.2 Estimate the cost of various management options for small remnant populations currently present in both small and large areas of remaining forest habitat

Medium

23.3 Determine cost-effective methods for managing small Eastern brown kiwi populations in small habitats (e.g. ‘mopping up’ remnant kiwi to capture this genetic diversity), and decide what to do with these birds (e.g. start new populations, add to existing populations, need to set up new management area)

Medium

24.1 Determine the sites of past local extinction events of Eastern brown kiwi, i.e. sites with non-contiguous kiwi distribution

Medium

24.2 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of re-establishing locally extinct kiwi populations, using projects currently undertaking this process

Medium

24.3 Develop a Best Practice plan to minimise the costs of re-establishing locally extinct kiwi populations

Medium

24.4 Prioritise sites to re-establish locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations

Medium

24.5 Implement Best Practice to re-establish extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations at priority sites

Medium

25.1 Support the development of effective legislation at local, regional and national forums to obtain a high level of protection for kiwi from dogs

High

25.2 Support the development of kiwi aversion training for all dogs likely to come into contact with Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

25.3 Support the development of tools in which to manage the threat urban, working, hunting and feral dogs pose to Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

25.4 Contribute to the national dog kill database as incidents are reported to better understand the extent of the impact of dogs on EBK

Essential

26.1 Determine the minimum resource required for all kiwi projects needed to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan

High

26.2 Outline options that may be used to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan, with varying levels of declining funding

Medium

26.3 Develop an understanding between all kiwi projects for them to work collaboratively and co-operatively with each other to support a minimum funding for a few high priority projects, that could be supported by other projects if individual funding streams for these projects declines

High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

27.1 Prioritise other conservation values present at current Eastern brown kiwi management sites

Medium

27.2 Assess the conservation values of other sites within the current and historic distribution of Eastern brown kiwi, and consider whether attracting funding to undertake kiwi management at these sites could help protect these conservation values

Medium

28.1 Assess the potential of all current and proposed conservation projects for their ability to concurrently provide opportunities for additional Eastern brown kiwi management

Medium

29.1 Scope the use of central, regional and local Government resources to determine how they could be utilised for Eastern brown kiwi conservation management

Medium

30.1 Identify the spatial extent of any natural zones of mixed-provenance birds, and the management actions required for such populations

Medium

30.2 Determine management options for the known mixed-provenance Mt Bruce and Rimutaka populations that is also consistent with the Western brown kiwi Taxon Plan

Medium

30.3 Identify historic transfers of non-Eastern brown kiwi into the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi

Medium

31.1 Develop a Best Practice manual for both plant and animal pest control methods aimed at ensuring a minimal impact on Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

31.2 Ensure all kiwi Eastern brown kiwi projects are undertaking kiwi-friendly pest management Best Practice

Essential

31.3 Advocate for all land owners, land management organisations (e.g. Federated Farmers) and territorial local authorities that undertake any pest management, that kiwi-friendly Best Practice methods are used

High

31.4 Support research to increase the effectiveness of pest control methods while not increasing the risk of harm to Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 44.1)

High

32.1 Identify areas of production forestry, agriculture and horticulture containing Eastern brown kiwi

High

32.2 In conjunction with the forestry industry, develop management practices that minimise any impact on Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1)

High

32.3 Identify priority areas where forestry companies or landowners could manage Eastern brown kiwi, either with predator control or BNZONE

TM management

Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

32.4 Support research to monitor Eastern brown kiwi populations and predator densities through cycles of production forestry management (see Topic 54)

Medium

32.5 Working with industry, develop risk profiles that various agricultural and horticultural practices may have on Eastern brown kiwi (Also see 38.1)

Medium

32.6 Work with industry and individual landowners to minimise any potential impacts of productive land management upon Eastern brown kiwi (See Topic 38 & 54)

High

33.1 Develop a media strategy to maximise coverage of kiwi to as many kiwi projects as possible

High

33.2 Develop strategies to maximise exposure of Eastern brown kiwi to local groups (e.g. kiwi releases)

High

33.3 Develop a web-based advocacy approach for Eastern brown kiwi Medium

33.4 Develop an advocacy strategy with captive institutions (who will provide key advocacy opportunities) to promote Eastern brown kiwi

High

34.1 Include tangata whenua in the implementation of the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Plan, and ensure their perspectives on kiwi are reflected in the Plan

Essential

34.2 Acknowledge the kaitiakitanga role of tangata whenua in Eastern brown kiwi conservation, and in consultation with tangata whenua develop appropriate tikanga (protocols) for kiwi management at each site

High

34.3 Develop protocols and a standard model for tangata whenua involvement in all Eastern brown kiwi conservation projects

Essential

34.4 Provide opportunities for tangata whenua to increase their involvement and skills in Eastern brown kiwi conservation management, and identify current barriers for their involvement

Essential

34.5 Develop and annually refine protocols that address issues particularly sensitive to Maori (e.g. toxins, dogs, whakapapa, korowai, bones) regarding Eastern brown kiwi conservation management

Essential

34.6 Support the maintenance and development of the cultural use of dead Eastern brown kiwi by tangata whenua

High

34.7 Work with Nga Whenua Rahui to identify areas of high Eastern brown kiwi conservation potential on private Maori land, and provide support to landowners to undertake this work

High

34.8 Consult with tangata whenua (and other stakeholders) regarding High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

the applicability of the taxon name “Eastern brown kiwi”

34.9 Support tangata whenua in accessing funding for Eastern brown kiwi projects

35.1 Establish an Eastern brown kiwi support structure for local kiwi projects, including for advocacy

High

35.2 Provide regular suitable forums and training opportunities to share information on best practice, sustainability, strategic planning and funding for community-led initiatives

Essential

35.3 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi (same Action as 19.2)

High

36.1 Promote within DOC and externally the role of The Kiwi Trust as a key participant in kiwi management

Essential

36.2 Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their obligation under the sponsorship agreement with The Kiwi Trust and main sponsors

Essential

36.3 Support projects in developing strategies to increase the amount of sponsorship funding for Eastern brown kiwi recovery

High

37.1 Raise awareness of threats to Eastern brown kiwi associated with land use practices and encourage submissions to statutory planning and policy that can support Eastern brown kiwi recovery

High

37.2 Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of Eastern brown kiwi habitat and of kiwi from predation in District Plans

High

37.3 Provide local authorities with information on priority areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi

High

37.4 Encourage District and Regional Councils to financially support identified priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi management

High

38.1 Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection methods, and promote their consideration in the development of standards and certification criteria. (Also see 32.2)

High

39.1 Assess the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi projects and sites

High

39.2 Develop a Tourist Guide to Eastern brown kiwi projects, and make it available at tourist operations, including high volume kiwi-oriented tourist sites (e.g. Rainbow Springs, Whakarewarewa)

High

39.3 Support kiwi projects to more easily attract tourists, e.g. web-based advocacy and advertising

Medium

39.4 Support projects in their ability to develop aspects of their Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

projects that increase their attractiveness to fee-paying tourists

39.5 Support marketing of Eastern brown kiwi projects to increase both domestic and international tourists

Medium

40.1 Develop an Eastern brown kiwi volunteer programme network that can share volunteer resources between projects in a prioritised order

High

40.2 Develop a database of volunteers within the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon to be available to projects to attract volunteers when they are required

High

40.3 Develop a certification system for volunteers who achieve designated skills in various aspects of Eastern brown kiwi conservation management

Medium

40.4 Develop an easy to access volunteer programme for Eastern brown kiwi targeting both overseas and domestic volunteers

Medium

41.1 Develop a research plan for Eastern brown kiwi that is updated biennially and communicate this to researchers (internal and external to DOC) and project managers

High

42.1 Provide support for any Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy research as necessary

Essential

42.2 Support or lead research on the genetic diversity of translocated, BNZ Operation Nest Egg

TM-based and island populations of

Eastern brown kiwi

Essential

42.3 Research the presence and implications (management and cultural) of any genetic bottlenecking, in situ fine-scale diversity within the Taxon, and genetic homogenisation caused by previous translocations of Eastern brown kiwi populations (including island translocations and captive releases)

Essential

42.4 Determine the genetic diversity of all managed Eastern brown kiwi populations, particularly those with small populations or previously suffering severe bottlenecks, but also non-managed populations, and management approaches to resolve any significant issues

High

42.5 Ensure captive populations contain enough genetic variation to be able to contribute in the long-term to recovery of Eastern brown kiwi populations. (Also see Topic 15)

High

42.6 Determine the entire current geographic extent of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, by selective genetic sampling throughout the known, suspected range of the taxon

High

42.7 Research the presence and implications of any hybrid zone areas incorporating Eastern brown kiwi, and define where any zone is

High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

currently present

42.8 Develop protocols to maximise the genetic diversity of all Eastern brown kiwi projects and populations when required and appropriate (e.g. kohanga kiwi sites, islands, captive populations, new populations, and in situ populations) – also see Action 7.3

High

42.9 Support research into geological processes that are reflected in the geographic distribution of alleles within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon

Medium

43.1 Support research to understand the dispersal behaviour of kiwi populations, particularly those in large forested areas, resulting in a high level of confidence in dispersal-dependent population models

High

43.2 Liaise with research providers to initiate or support research on the ecology and behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi

High

43.3 Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate results from available data (including banding and territory mapping) for each managed population, each sub-population and the taxon as a whole

High

43.4 Determine predation parameters (including likely scenarios of stochastic ferret and dog impacts) required to maintain current kiwi populations at each project

High

43.5 Undertake population modelling using different management scenarios in large areas

Medium

44.1 Support the development of traps, lures, bait, toxins and delivery systems for the control of mustelids, cats and dogs in Eastern brown kiwi areas

Essential

44.2 In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator control programmes, support/initiate the development of integrated pest management techniques that support broader biodiversity maintenance and enhancement while fulfilling the goal for Eastern brown kiwi recovery

Essential

44.3 Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi avoidance training for dogs and support the standardisation of the technique according to research findings

Essential

44.4 Support/lead research to understand ferret biology, particularly habitat preferences, dispersal, and distributional overlaps with existing Eastern brown kiwi populations

Essential

44.5 Research the impacts on other pest species (e.g. rabbits, rats, pigs) that may result from sustained or intermittent predator management at Eastern brown kiwi projects

High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

44.6 Research ways to minimise the impact of ferrets and dogs (including feral dogs) in both managed and unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi areas

High

44.7 Support/lead research to determine cost-effective mechanisms to individually identify dogs or ferrets that may be present in kiwi areas, particularly those individuals that may have caused a stochastic predation event

High

44.8 Research means to reduce or avoid pig interference on mustelid traps

Medium

44.9 Research means to reduce or avoid rats being caught in and ‘clogging’ mustelid traps

Medium

44.10 Research any change in pest avoidance behaviour to traps, and more effective means to avoid this occurring

Medium

45.1 Continue to support the nationwide Kiwi Call Count Scheme by undertaking call counts according to standard operating procedure at all applicable sites

Essential

45.2 Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale monitoring methods

High

45.3 Support/lead research into the link between index methods (e.g. call counts) and the actual abundance of Eastern brown kiwi

High

45.4 Support/lead research into cost-effective techniques of monitoring the rate of dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi populations, using different techniques, e.g. ’Sky Ranger’, GPS transmitters

High

45.5 Support/lead research into methods of determining landscape-scale population density and population trends of Eastern brown kiwi

High

45.6 Support/lead research into understanding variation in current Eastern brown kiwi density, and if this relates to predator density, terrain, vegetation type, etc.

High

45.7 Support/lead research into identification of individual kiwi, e.g. automated call recognition, genetic fingerprinting from faeces or feathers

Medium

46.1 Support/lead research into disease management in captive-reared kiwi (also see Topic 52)

Essential

46.2 Support/lead research into the diet of captive kiwi chicks and juveniles that minimises morphological differences between captive and wild-raised Eastern brown kiwi

High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

46.3 Research the long-term multi-generational effects of BNZONETM

and captive rearing on productivity and ultimate adult weights of resulting Eastern brown kiwi

High

46.4 Research methods that can improve the survival of captive-raised kiwi to mustelid and dog predation upon release into the wild

Medium

46.5 Develop models to determine the relative cost-effectiveness and optimum times to implement BNZONE

TM, crèche or in situ

Eastern brown kiwi management for each project

High

46.6 Research the optimum use of BNZONETM

in small to large Eastern brown kiwi populations that limits genetic bottlenecks (see Action 7.3 and 42.8)

Medium

47.1 Undertake modelling of kiwi mammalian predators and other pest distributions and densities, and correlate this to likely kiwi survival outcomes over time at current known kiwi densities

Medium

47.2 Undertake pest density modelling to help inform current and future priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi management

Medium

48.1 Support/lead the development of tools to enhance the effectiveness of kiwi aversion methods for dogs

Essential

48.2 Develop increasingly effective information and education tools to protect kiwi from dog predation

Essential

48.3 Support the prosecution of people who own dogs proven to kill kiwi

Essential

48.4 Develop a risk profile map of all areas containing Eastern brown kiwi and determine their vulnerability to recreational hunting dogs, farm working dogs, pets and feral dogs

Essential

48.5 Develop Best Practice methods that ensure project staff can take DNA samples from any kiwi carcass which can then identify dogs at an individual level

Essential

48.6 Support/lead research to develop methods that significantly reduces the likelihood of feral dogs establishing within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon distribution

High

48.7 Support/lead research to develop techniques to determine the presence, abundance, and control of feral dogs over the range of the taxon

High

48.8 Develop Best Practice protocols to monitor hunting dogs, and other protocols to be used when dogs go missing and may subsequently become feral

High

49.1 Ascertain aspects of kiwi conservation management that would benefit the most by advances in technology, cost these out,

High


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

prioritise them and support/lead research into developing these to practitioners

49.2 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or other in-field applications that can be transferred to web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 14.4, section 5.1.14)

Medium

50.1 Support research to understand why some island populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 3.2, section 5.1.3)

High

50.2 Determine likely abiotic factors, competition with other species, areas of natural low predator densities, and natural events (including volcanism) that may either limit or enhance the likely persistence of Eastern brown kiwi

Medium

51.1 Support/lead research into developing efficient methods to measure the absolute density of different populations of Eastern brown kiwi

High

51.2 Support/lead research to deduce the maximum carrying capacity of Eastern brown kiwi in different ecosystems

Medium

51.3 Support research to identify any impact LSK have on Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity (Note: same as Action 10.2, section 5.1.10)

Medium

52.1 Develop a plan that accounts for the monitoring, planning and implementation of likely new threats to Eastern brown kiwi

Medium

52.2 Implement whole-of-taxon survey and monitoring to detect any sudden catastrophic declines in Eastern brown kiwi populations (Also see Action 45.5)

Medium

53.1 Undertake modelling using likely known parameters to determine extinction risk of local Eastern brown kiwi populations (also see Action 23.1 - to be completed after Action 53.1)

High

54.1 Identify current and potential issues of human behaviours and land use that may affect Eastern brown kiwi

High

54.2 Develop alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ behaviours and land use practices that currently put Eastern brown kiwi at risk

High

54.3 Implement the alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ approaches at priority sites and according to the likelihood of each being achieved

High

55.1 Identify and prioritise sites containing threatened ground birds or other species subject to similar threats that kiwi are prone to

Medium

55.2 Develop management techniques that benefit Eastern brown kiwi and other sympatric flightless birds

Medium


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Action #

Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19

56.1 Research and model the extent of natural dispersal events by Eastern brown kiwi at mainland management sites

High

56.2 Quantify the extent of spillover from Eastern brown kiwi management sites

High

r\DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 139

Appendix 2

Details of Current Eastern Brown Kiwi Management Sites (as at June 2013)

Project

Name

Kiwi

Pairs

Area

(ha)

Project

Management

Organisation

Type

Year

commenced

Management

Type

Mean

Annual

Pair

Popn

Growth

Rate

(last 5

years)

Nearest 2 other

projects, kiwi

walking distance

(km)

DOC Region

Opuiaki 2 2100 DOC 2002 Trapping 25 Otanewainuku Central NI

Tuhua 2 2500 DOC/iwi 2004 Island biosecurity;

translocations

n/a Central NI

Mokoia 3 135 Iwi 2000 Island biosecurity n/a Central NI

Whakatane

Kiwi Project

25 2300 Community/

DOC/Regional

Council

2001 BNZ ONETM;

trapping;

20 Omataroa;

30 TUMI

Central NI

Otanewainuku 1 1000 Community 2004 Trapping

Translocations

25 Opuiaki

25 Mokoia

Central NI

Omataroa 5 4500 Iwi 2004 BNZ ONETM;

trapping

20 Whakatane

60 Otanewainuku

Central NI

Moutohora 2 161 Iwi/ DOC/

Regional

Council/

Community

2003 Island biosecurity n/a Central NI

TUMI

(Otamatuna/

Mangaone)

100 4500 DOC 1996 Trapping 35 Whakatane;

40 Ruatahuna

Central NI

Whinray 3 400 Community/

DOC

1998 BNZONETM,

trapping

40 TUMI

60 Whakatane

Lower NI

Motu 0 2 Community 2007 Fenced 2 Whinray

40 TUMI

Lower NI

Ruatahuna 2 1000 Iwi 2004 BNZONETM 9 Whirinaki

18 Puketukutuku

Central NI

Whirinaki 10 5000 DOC 1996 BNZONETM 9 Ruatahuna

18 Maungataniwha

Central NI

Puketukutuku 70 800 Iwi/ DOC 1992 Trapping, BNZ

ONETM, dispersal

fence

18 Maungataniwha

18 Ruatahuna

Central NI

Maungataniwha 30 3000 Private 2006 BNZ ONETM;

trapping

20 Boundary Stream;

17 Puketukutuku

Lower NI

Boundary

Stream

5 1000 DOC 1999 Trapping 25 Maungataniwha

5 Opouahi

Lower NI

Opouahi 0 100 Community/

DOC

2006 Fenced crèche 0 5 Boundary Stream;

50 Kaweka

Lower NI

Kaweka 80 17,000 Community/

DOC

2001 BNZ ONETM;

crèche;

ferret trapping

35 Boundary Stream;

40 Ruahine

Lower NI

Cape

Kidnapper’s

2? 2500 Private 2007 Fenced; trapping 60 Kaweka

70 Ruahine

Lower NI

Ruahine 2? 8000 Community 2007 BNZONETM;

trapping

40 Kaweka

70 Cape Kidnapper’s

Lower NI


Appendix 3

Major volcanic events in Taupo Volcanic Zone

Eruptions that are likely to have impacted upon Eastern brown kiwi during the past

approx. 300,000 years

Volcanic Centre Date

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

Cubic km expelled

Square km covered

Okataina 10 Jun 1886 5 2

Taranaki 1655 4

Okataina 1310 (+12 yrs) 5 7.5

Taupo 232 (+5 yrs), Mar 15 (+20 days) 6? 100 (35 DRE) 31,000

Taranaki 150 3?

Taupo 200BC 4+ 2

Tongariro 550BC (+200yrs) 5 1.2

Taupo 1010BC (+200yrs) 4+ 2

Taupo 1050BC 4

Taupo 1250BC 3

Taupo 1460BC (+40yrs) 6 19

Okataina 1750BC 4+ 0.7

Taupo 2500BC 3

Taupo 2600BC 4 3

Taupo 2800BC 3

Taupo 2850 BC 3

Taupo 2900 BC 4

Taupo 3070 BC 4

Taupo 3120 BC 3

Taupo 3170 BC (+200yrs) 4 1

Taupo 3420 BC 3

Okataina 3580 BC (+ 50 yrs) 5 19

Taupo 4000BC 3

Taupo 4100BC 4

Taupo 4700 BC 4

Mayor Island 5060 BC (+ 200yrs) 5 1?

Taupo 5100 BC 3

Okataina 6060BC (+50 yrs) 5 21

Okataina 7560 BC (+18 yrs) 5 15

Ruapehu 7840 BC (in or before) 4 3.5

Taupo 8130 BC (+200 yrs) 5 4

Taupo 9210 BC 4

Taupo 9240 BC (+ 75 yrs) 5 3

Tongariro 9350 BC 5

Tongariro 9450 BC 5

Taupo 9460 BC (+ 200 yrs) 5 5

Tongariro 9650 BC 5

Okataina 11.9ka 6 15T; 4LF

Okataina 13.1ka 5+ 7T; 1 LF

Okataina 14.7ka

Okataina 19.1ka


Okataina 21.1 ka 43T; 8 LF

Taupo 22.6ka 1170 (530 DRE)

Taupo 23.5ka 2.5

Taupo 25.1ka 7

Okataina 26.5ka 8.1

Okataina 26.7ka 16

Okataina 28.0ka 19.9

Okataina 29.0ka 8 2

Okataina 31.9 ka 6 16.2



Okataina 35.9 ka 6 10

Okataina 37.1 ka 6 11

Taupo 38 5 5

Taupo 39 5 1

Taupo 40.0 5 2

Okataina 42.0 7? 100

Okataina 61.0 6? 80

Likely much active volcanism unknown in this period due to poor strata retention during ice age period

Maroa 210 ka 5? 1?

Maroa 230 ka 5? >1 DRE 10

Reporoa 230 ka 7 100 DRE 800-1870

Kapenga 240 ka 7 100 DRE 500

Rotorua 240 ka 7 145

Maroa 260 ka 5 2

Maroa 270 ka 5 2

Kapenga 280 ka 7 100 DRE 360

Maroa 280 ka 5? 1?

Okataina 280 ka 7 150 3200

Kapenga 300 ka 7? 50 DRE

Maroa 330 ka 8? 500 DRE

Maroa 340 ka 8 1500 DRE 13,000

Okataina 340 ka 6 >25

DRE = dense rock equivalent (multiply by ~3 to obtain approximate bulk volumes) T = tephra LF = lava flow VEI: number (n) refers to 10

n km

3 volume expelled.


Appendix 4.

Current contacts (2013) for Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon projects

Project

Name

Project

Management

Type

Contact

Name

Address Phone

Number

E-mail Website

Opuiaki DOC Jeff Milham C/- DOC (07) 571 2724 [email protected]

Otanewainuku Community

Whakatane

Kiwi Project

Community/

DOC/Regional

Council

John Sutton C/- DOC [email protected]

Tuhua DOC/iwi Jeff Milham C/- DOC (07) 571 2724 [email protected]

TUMI

(Otamatuna)

DOC Hemi

Barsdell

C/- DOC [email protected]

Kaweka Community/

DOC

Paddy

Willems

C/- DOC [email protected]

Opouahi Community/

DOC

Wendy

Rakete-

Stones

ECOED

Maungataniwha Private Pete Shaw n/a n/a n/a n/a

Puketukutuku Iwi/ DOC Lisa Waiwai

Whirinaki DOC Sarah King C/- DOC

Whinray Community/

DOC

Fiona Fisher n/a n/a n/a n/a

Motu creche Community Fiona Fisher n/a n/a n/a n/a

Mokoia Iwi

Moutohora Iwi/ DOC/

Regional

Council/

Community

John Sutton

Cape

Kidnapper’s

Private Tamsin

Ward-Smith

n/a n/a n/a n/a

Ruahine Community/DO

C

Viv

McGlynn

Ruatahuna Iwi Bruce

Bancroft

n/a n/a n/a n/a


Appendix 5.

List of meetings held in the development of this Taxon Plan

Date Location Purpose

26/7/07 Rotorua Initial taxon meeting

29/9/09 Napier Hawke’s Bay Scoping Meeting

28/10/09 Murupara South-western Te Urewera Scoping Meeting

29/10/09 Whakatane Bay of Plenty Scoping Meeting

23/11/09 Napier Hawke’s Bay Scoping Meeting #2

23/11/09 Tuai Waikaremoana Scoping Meeting

17/3/10 Waimana Northern Te Urewera Scoping Meeting

13/4/10 Whakatane Whakatane Kiwi Trust Scoping Meeting

Documents

Taxon Plan for Eastern brown kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli, … · 2018. 4. 10. · species of kiwi are described; North Island brown kiwi, rowi, tokoeka, great spotted and little