Tapinoma Melanocephalum (Ghost Ant)

8/16/2019 Tapinoma Melanocephalum (Ghost Ant)

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5/13/2016 Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)

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Datasheet

Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)

Index

Pictures

Identity

Summary of Invasiveness

Taxonomic Tree

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Description

Distribution

Distribution Table

History of Introduction and Spread

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

Habitat

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

Host Plants/Plants Affected

Growth Stages

Symptoms

Symptoms List

Biology and Ecology

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Plant Trade

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

Environmental Impact

Social Impact

Risk and Impact Factors

Uses List

Diagnosis

Detection and Inspection

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Prevention and Control

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

References

Links to Websites

Contributors

Distribution Maps

Last modified

08 January 2016

Datasheet Type(s)

Invasive Species

Pest

Natural Enemy

Preferred Scientific Na me

Tapinoma melanocephalum

Preferred Common Name

ghost ant

Taxonomic Tree

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Metazoa

Phylum: Arthropoda

Subphylum: Uniramia

Class: Insecta


T. melanocephalum is a small ant

species around 1.5 mm in length

originating from the Old World

tropics. It is considered an invasive

and “tramp” ant species: widely

associated with humans, it has been

moved around the subtropical and

tropical wor...

More...

More information

More information

Summary

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Pictures

Picture Title Caption Copyright

Adults Tapinoma melanoceph alum; adu lt ants o n flower petals in Fiji. Philip J. Lester

Adult Tapinoma melanoceph alum; close-u p of adult o n flower petals in Fiji. Philip J. Lester

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Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius, 1793)

Preferred Common Name

ghost ant

Other Scientific Names

Formica familiaris F. Smith 1860

Formica melanocephalum Fabricius 1793

Formica nana Jerdon

Myrmica (Monomorium) pellucida F. Smith 1857

Tapinoma melanocephalum var. australe Santschi 1928

Tapinoma melanocephalum var. australis Santschi 1928

International Common Names

English: tramp ant

Local Common Names

Cuba: hormiga bottegaria

Japan: awate-konuka-ari

Puerto Rico: albaricoque

USA: black-headed ant; house infesting ant; tiny yellow house ant

EPPO code

TAPIME ( Tapinoma melanocephalum)

Top of page


T. melanocephalum is a small ant species around 1.5 mm in length originating from the Old World tropics. It is considered an invasive and

“tramp” ant species: widely associated with humans, it has been moved around the subtropical and tropical world by human activity. This ant is

also recorded in heated buildings in areas such as Canada and Finland. It is primarily a household pest, nesting in housing and consuming

household food. In areas such as Florida it is considered one of the most important house-infesting pests. However it has been known to affect

agricultural production in situations such as greenhouses, especially if it tends honeydew-producing insects and protects these pests from

biological control organisms. T. melanocephalum is thought to be capable of transporting pathogenic microbes and is often abundant in

hospitals. Some people can suffer a slight, red irritation of the skin following contact with this ant. This ant is listed on the ISSG global invasive

species database.

Top of page

Taxonomic Tree Top of page

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Metazoa

Phylum: Arthropoda

Subphylum: Uniramia

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Formicidae

Genus: Tapinoma

Species: Tapinoma melanocephalum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

This ant was originally described as Formica melanocephalum by Fabricius in 1793. This name was changed in 1857 to Myrmica pellucida after

F. Smith was given collections from Asia by the famous A.R. Wallace; Smith gave the same ant a second genus and species name of Formica

familiaris in 1860. Around this time it was also given the name Formica nana by T.C. Jerdon after collecting it in southern India. There are 63

ant species in the genus Tapinoma. The only other significant and relatively widespread pest species amongst these is Tapinoma sessile (Say)

or the “odorous house ant”.

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Some authors have considered “varieties” or “sub-species” of T. melanocephalum to exist. Two early attempts at describing varieties were

Tapinoma (Micromyrma) melanocephalum var. australe Santschi and Tapinoma (Micromyrma) melanocephalum var. australis Santschi, but

these have been subsequently considered invalid names. Current possible sub-species names occasionally used are Tapinoma

melanocephalum var. coronatum Forel, and Tapinoma melanocephalum var. malesianum Forel. It remains to be determined how appropriate

these sub-species designations are; opinions vary substantially amongst taxonomists.

Description

A gener al description suitable fo r quarantine purposes is given by Harris et al. (2005), and is summarized here.

As opposed to other invasive an ts, T. melanocephalum is monomorphic with an average total length around 1.5 mm, ranging between 1.3 and

1.9 mm. It is distinctively bicoloured (see pictures). The head (including antennae, except for first 2 segments), and sides of alitrunk (or upper

thorax) are blackish-brown; while the dorsal alitrunk (lower thorax) and legs are a pale yellow. The gaster (abdomen) is mostly pale, sometimes

with brown patches.

A mor e technical de scription suitable for quarantine purposes is a s follows. Antennae ar e 12-segmented. First antennal segment (scape) is

long, surpassing the posterior border of head. Eyes are large, with 9-10 ommatidia in the longest row. Mandibles each have 3 large teeth and

about 7 small denticles, with the mandible surface containing the teeth and that near the clypeus rounding gradually into one another (basal

angle absent). The clypeus is without longitudinal carinae; with the anterior margin slightly concave in the alitrunk in profile and almost smoothly

convex, but with a slight metanotal depression. The propodeum is without spines; the upper surface is shorter than the rear surface. One

rudimentary node (petiole) is present, which lacks a distinct forward face and is partially or completely concealed when viewed from above by

forward projection of the first segment of the gaster. The gaster has four segments on its upper surface. There is a dense fine pubescence all

over the ant, with erect setae on clypeus and gastral apex only. Stinger and acidopore are absent.

Top of page

Distribution

The native range of T. melanocephalum is generally thought to be the Old World tropics (Deyrup et al., 2000). However, it has been spread by

humans so widely that it is unclear if its native range is Africa or Asia (Wilson and Taylor, 1967). Molecular phylogenies need to be constructed

to aid in the estimation of its native range. It is a prominent tramp species that has become widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical

zones of the world, up to about 28°N and 23°S, and is often in close association with human settlement. It is also recorded in a number of

temperate locations where it is present (either temporarily or permanently) in heated buildings (e.g., Germany (Steinbrink, 1987), Canada

(Francoeur, 1977), and Finland (Sorvari, 2002)). It would be unlikely to survive outside these buildings in these countries.

Top of page

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting

information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be

selected by going to Generate Report.

Country Distribution Last

Reported

Origin First

Reported

Invasive References Notes

ASIA

Bangladesh Present Wetterer, 2009

Cambodia Present Wetterer, 2009

China Present Introduced 1921 Wetterer, 2009

-Guizhou Present Zheng et al., 2007

Christmas Island(Indian Ocean)

Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Cocos Islands Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

India Present Wetterer, 2009;Lokeshwari et al., 2015

-Indian Punjab Present Bharti & Singh, 2003

Indonesia Present Wetterer, 2009

Iraq Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Japan Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Korea, DPR Present Introduced ISSG, 2012

Korea, Republic of Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Kuwait Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Malaysia

-Peninsular Malaysia Widespread Invasive Loke & Lee, 2004 On Penang Island in universitydormitories

Myanmar Present Wetterer, 2009

Oman Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Pakistan Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Philippines Widespread Invasive Way et al., 1998 Present in rice fields

Russian Federation

-Russia (Asia) Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Saudi Arabia Present Introduced Collingwo od & Agosti,1996

Singapore Widespread Invasive Lee & Kooi, 2004 Household and urban pest

Sri Lanka Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Top of page

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108485http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108557http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108552http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108780http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108550http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108535http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108537http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108529http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108503http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108765http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108514http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108478http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108477http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108476http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108467http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108461http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108455http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108748http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108459http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108389http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108407http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108674http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108398http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108472http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108369


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Taiwan Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Thailand Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

United Arab Emirates Present Introduced Invasive Collingwo od et al., 1997 Common in houses in several towns

Vietnam Present Wetterer, 2009

Yemen Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

AFRICA

Cameroon Widespread Invasive Dejean et al., 1994 Present in secondary rain forest

Cape Verde Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Comoros Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Equatorial Guinea Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Gabon Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Gambia Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Ghana Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Guinea Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Kenya Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Madagascar Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Mauritius Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Nigeria Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Réunion Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Saint Helena Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Seychelles Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Sierra Leone Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Somalia Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Tanzania Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

NORTH AMERICA

Canada

-Manitoba Present, few

occurrences

Introduced Not

invasive

Ayre, 1977 Only indoors

-Ontario Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

-Quebec Localised Introduced Notinvasive

Francoeur, 1977 Records are only from within heatedbuildings

Mexico Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

USA Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

-Florida Widespread Introduced Invasive Clouse, 1999 In agriculture

-Hawaii Widespread Introduced Invasive Clagg, 1957

-Kansas Present Introduced Dubois & Danoffburg, 1994 Cited as unlikely to survive Kansaswinters

-Texas Present Introduced Cook et al., 1994

CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

Anguilla Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Antigua an d Barbud a Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Aruba Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Bahamas Widespread Introduced Invasive Deyrup, 1994

Barbados Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Belize Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Cayman Islands Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Costa Rica Unconfirmedrecord

Wetterer, 200 9; Shepard &Gibson, 1972

Cuba Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Dominica Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Dominican Republic Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Guadeloupe Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Haiti Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Honduras Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Jamaica Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Martinique Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Nicaragua Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Panama Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Puerto Rico Present Introduced Smith, 1965 Associated with rotten coconuts andfeeding on insects

Saint Kitts and Nevis Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Saint Lucia Present Introduced Invasive Wetterer, 2009; ISSG, 2012

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108600http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108483http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108475http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108541http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108530http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108521http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108506http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108465http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108451http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108453http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108441http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108414http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108413http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108405http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108402http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108479http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108387http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108368http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108382http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108363http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108352http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108353http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108838http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108811http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108806http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108804http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108597http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108513http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108663http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108661http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108655http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108388http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108591http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108565http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108562http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108554http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108558http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108546http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108520http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108510http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108498http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108470http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108440http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108436http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108439http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108430http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108442http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108474http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108406http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108397http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108609http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108604http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108350http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108580http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108590


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Saint Vincent and theGrenadines


Trinidad and Tobago Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

United States VirginIslands


SOUTH AMERICA

Brazil

-Bahia Widespread Introduced Invasive Delabie et al., 1995 Pests within houses

-Minas Gerais Widespread Introduced Invasive Rodovalho et al., 2007 A bacterial vector within hospitals

-Rio Grande do Norte Present Introduced Invasive Morini et al., 2007

-Sao Paulo Widespread Introduced Invasive Fowler et al., 1990 Associated with scale insects onbanana crops

Colombia Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Ecuador

-Galapagos Islands Present Introduced Invasive Aesch & Cherix, 2005

Guyana Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Paraguay Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Peru Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Suriname Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Venezuela Present Introduced Gomez-Nunez, 1971 Observed preying on a diseasespreading bug

EUROPE

Austria Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Belgium Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Czech Republic Present Klimes & Okrouhlík, 2015 Ceské Bude?jovice

Denmark Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Finland Present Introduced Notinvasive

Sorvari, 2002 Only observed in heated buildings

France Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Germany Present Introduced Notinvasive Steinbrink, 1987 Present only in heated building s

Italy Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Netherlands Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Norway Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Romania Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Russian Federation

-Russia (Europe) Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Spain Present Introduced Collingwood, 1976

Sweden Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Switzerland Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

UK Present Introduced Vipin Shah et al., 1999 In buildings

OCEANIA

American Samoa Widespread Introduced Vargo, 2000 Present in forest litter but dominatedby other ants

Australia

- Australian No rthernTerritory

Present Introduced Andersen & Reichel, 1994 Holmes Jungle, Tropic forest

-New South Wales Present Introduced Shattuck & Barnett, 2001

-Queensland Present Introduced Invasive Shattuck & Barnett, 2001

-Western Australia Present Introduced Burbidge et al., 1992

Cook Islands Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Fiji Widespread Introduced Invasive Ward & Wetterer, 2006 Throughout islands

French Polynesia Widespread Introduced Invasive Wilson & Taylo r, 1967

Kiribati Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Marshall Islands Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Micronesia, Federatedstates of


New Caledonia Widespread Introduced Invasive Wilson & Taylo r, 1967

New Zealand Present Peacock, 2012; Harris etal., 2005

Northern Mariana

Islands


Palau Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Papua New Guinea Present Wetterer, 2009

Pitcairn Island Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108608http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108540http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108534http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108543http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108505http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108528http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108517http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108427http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108499http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108473http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108533http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108425http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108395http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108625http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108621http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108620http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108619http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108362http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108360http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108431http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108393http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108556http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108421http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108784http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108550http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108548http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108523http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108522http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108464http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108410http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108429http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108424http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108412http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108409http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108370http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108361http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108601http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108568http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108532http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108544http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108448http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108700http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108416http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108399http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108651http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108645http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108636http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108630http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108381http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108603http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108588http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108600


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Samoa Widespread Introduced Invasive Wilson & Taylo r, 1967 In native forest, houses and bananaplantations

Solomon Islands Widespread Introduced BROWN, 1959 In coconut plantations

Tokelau Widespread Introduced Invasive Lester & Tavite, 2004 Primarily in and around houses

Tonga Widespread Introduced Invasive Wilson & Taylo r, 1967

US Minor OutlyingIslands


Vanuatu Present Introduced Wetterer, 2009

Wallis and Futuna

Islands


History of Introduction and Spread

T. melanocephalum is a common tramp species frequently intercepted and spread through trade for well over a century. It spread to much of its

introduced range well before people starting recording its introductions or worrying about ecological impacts. For example, Mayr (1876) records

this ant in Tonga which is well outside of its assumed African or Oriental origin.

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Introductions

Introduced

to

Introduced

from

Year Reas on Introduced

by

Established in wild through References Notes

Naturalreproduction

Continuousrestocking

Florida 1930 Yes Deyrup etal., 2000

Unintentional

Texas Florida 1994 Yes Cook et al.,1994

Unintentional. Probably arrived on a shipment of plants from Florida.

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Risk of Introduction

All known introductions of this a nt have been unintentional. Because of the small size of T. melanocephalum and its ability to nest in a variety of

materials (e.g., potted plants, cut flowers, and luggage), it can easily be transported from one location to another (Appel et al., 2004). Colonies

have been found in a wide variety of situations, including cupboards, instrument case lining, and piles of discarded clothing (Harada, 1990),

meaning that the ant is likely to be associated with a wide variety of freight types. Detailed introduction history information is available from

areas such as New Zealand (Harris et al., 2005; Lester, 2005). T. melanocephalum was intercepted at the New Zealand border 51 times

between 1997 and the end of 2002, and a further 36 interceptions at the border between January 2003 and March 2004. Interceptions range

from fresh produce to electronic equipment. The most prevalent pathways for this ant appear to be fresh produce (53%) and personal effects

(17%), with the Pacific (75%), particularly Fiji and Tonga, being the predominant origin of interceptions into New Zealand. Interceptions from air

freight (> 39%) and associated with air passengers (> 29%) are particularly common for this ant (Harris et al., 2005).

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Habitat

T. melanocephalum appears extremely flexible in the habitats it occupies, although it often appears to need some form of disturbance to survive

in the presence of behaviourally dominant species. It commonly nests in temporary or unstable habitats such as plant stems or clumps of dry

grass (Passera, 1994). It has been sampled nesting at ground level and in trees. In the cooler temperate regions it is only associated with

greenhouses and heated buildings (Smith, 1965; Francoeur, 1977).

T. melanocephalum appears to be a disturbance specialist and in many locations is absent from undisturbed natural habitat (e.g. Fowler et al.,

1994; Deyrup et al., 2000). Where it does occur in natural or semi-natural disturbed vegetation or remnants, it appears to be a minor

component of the community and is never behaviourally or numerically dominant (e.g. Andersen and Reichel, 1994; Dejean et al., 1994; Way et

al., 1998; Vargo, 2000; Lester and Tavite, 2004).

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Habitat List

Category Habitat Presence Status

Littoral Coastal areas Principal habitat Natural

Other Stored products Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial-managed Buildings Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Cultivated / agricultural land Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Disturbed areas Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Industrial / intensive livestock production systems Secondary/tolerated habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Ma na ged fo re sts, p lan ta tio ns a nd or ch ard s Pri nci pal h abi ta t Ha rmfu l (p est o r in va si ve )

Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Urban / peri-urban areas Principal habitat Harmful (pest or invasive)

Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural Natural forests Secondary/tolerated habitat Natural

Riverbanks Secondary/tolerated habitat Natural

Rocky areas / lava flows Secondary/tolerated habitat Natural

Scrub / shrublands Principal habitat Natural

Top of page

Hosts/Species Affected Top of page

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108606http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108605http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108596http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108585http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108582http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108553http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108608


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It is important to note that no reports were found of T. melanocephalum being considered a significant pest of agriculture or horticulture. In

crops it is considered a secondary pest: rather than being a pest itself, it can tend or farm mealybug, scale or aphid populations, protecting

these pests from their natural enemies (Fowler et al., 1990; Appel et al., 2004). This protection can result in large herbivore populations. Unlike

other invasive ants, however, the results of such tending behaviour in terms of economic damage have not been quantified. T. melanocephalum

is also known to consume sugary foods in storage and nectar from plants.

Host Plants/Plants Affected

Family Plant name Context

Arecaceae Cocos nucifera (coconut) Other

Musaceae Musa (banana) Other

Poaceae Oryza (rice (generic level)) Other

Poaceae Saccharum Other

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Growth Stages

Fruiting stage, Post-harvest

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Symptoms

In crops T. melanocephalum is considered a secondary pest: rather than being a pest itself, it can tend or farm mealybug, scale or aphid

populations, protecting these pests from their natural enemies (Fowler et al., 1990; Appel et al., 2004). This protection can result in large

herbivore populations. The specific effects and symptoms on each crop are dependent on the specific mealybug, scale or aphid species being

tended.

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Symptoms List

Sign Life Stages Type

Fruit

abnormal shape

discoloration

external feeding

honeydew or sooty mould

lesions: black or brown

premature drop

Growing point

discoloration

distortion

external feeding


wilt

Leaves

abnormal colours

abnormal leaf fall

external feeding

fungal growth


leaves rolled or folded

necrotic areas

wilting

yellowed or dead

Roots

external feeding

Stems

discoloration of bark

external feeding


Whole plant

discoloration

early senescence

plant dead; dieback

wilt

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Biology and Ecology

Reproductive Biology

T. melanocephalum has polygyne (multiple queened) and unicolonial (separate but cooperatively interacting nests) colonies that can build up

large numbers (Smith, 1965). Nests are found in the soil, rotten wood, decaying parts of trees or under bark, in plant cavities, houses, and in

greenhouses (Smith, 1965). In tropical environments the ants will primarily nest outdoors, in small protected areas, for example, in and under

potted plants, in dead tree limbs, under stones, in palm fronds, and in organic debris (Appel et al., 2004). Individual nests may contain 100-1000

individuals (Harada, 1990) and have numerous reproductive females. New colonies are probably formed by the migration of one or more

reproductive females accompanied by a number of workers. Nuptial flights have not been reported for this T. melanocephalum. Almost no

infighting between members of different colonies or nests has been observed, at least when they originate from the same area (Bustos and

Cherix, 1998). Colonies are almost always in disturbed areas and in and around buildings in Florida (Deyrup et al., 2000). They often occupy

temporary habitats (plant stems, clumps of dried grass, debris) and readily migrate if disturbed or if conditions become unfavourable (Passera,

1994).

Massuretti de Jesus and Correa Bueno (2007) have recently examined the phenology of T. melanocephalum in some detail. T.

melanocephalum have four larval instars from egg-hatching to adult. The development of workers from egg to adult lasted 16-52 days with the

embryonic development longer than larval, prepupal or pupal stages. The highest egg production was 5.3 eggs/day/queen, which is relatively

slow compared to other ant species. However, due to the number of queens in a colony, the colonies may grow substantially faster than other

tramp ant species.

Nutrition

The ants have an omnivorous diet typical of many tramp and pest ant species. In Puerto Rico, Pimentel (1955) observed worker ants destroying

eggs and first-stage larvae of the housefly Musca domestica. Other arthropods that they have been observed to consume are diamondback

moth larvae in India (Chelliah and Srinivasan, 1986), a disease-spreading bug in Venezuela (Gomez-Nunez, 1971), two-spotted spider mites

(Tetranychus urticae) and aphids in glasshouses in Florida (Osborne et al., 1995), western flower thrips and Ecinothrips americanus (Osborne

et al., 1995), and flea eggs and larvae (Tamsitt and Fox, 1966). T. melanocephalum has been frequently observed to tend honeydew producing

homopterans (Appel et al., 2004), including root scales (Smith, 1955) and fruit scales on bananas (Fowler et al., 1990). In Cuba, they are known

to disperse a grass root mealybug on the roots of sugarcane (Smith, 1965). Although the ants feed upon many different household foods, they

seem to show a preference for sweets, having been observed feeding on sugar, cakes, and syrup. They are thus considered an important

house pest (Smith, 1955; Klotz et al., 1995).

Associations

As repor ted above, there are a variety of aphids, scale and mealybug insects ten ded by and associated with T. melanocephalum. Shepard and

Gibson (1972) reported an association between T. melanocephalum and a salticid spider (Continusa sp.) that resembles the ant. The spider builds silken retreats at the periphery of nests, seems to emigrate with the host, and is probably a symbiont (Shepard and Gibson, 1972). The

spiders appear to provide the ants with protection from predators and parasites, while the ant nest is used as a foundation for web construction.

An additional association has recently been reported between the state-endangered Miami blue butterfly, Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri

(Lepidoptera) and T. melanocephalum, where the ant is one of several species observed tending the butterfly larvae (Saarinen and Daniels,

2006).

Environmental Requirements

Very limited information is available relating to environmental requirements and temperature tolerances of T. melanocephalum. Appel et al.

(2004) investigated laboratory tolerances of workers maintained at a range of humidites and temperature ranging from 15-45°C. Low mortality

of T. melanocephalum was observed at 15°C irrespective of the humidity, but the ant was sensitive to desiccation at temperatures of 25°C and

above. In the United States they are found outside of building structures only in south Florida (below about latitude 29°12’N), with populations

recorded in northern states only in glasshouses and other human structures (Thompson, 1990; Deyrup et al., 2000). In Hawaii, T.

melanocephalum is restricted to the dry lowlands (< 900 m) (Reimer, 1994). Climate modelling work has indicated that T. melanocephalum

could only become established in temperate countries such as New Zealand within heated buildings, as recorded in other temperate climates

(e.g. Dubois and Danoffburg, 1994).

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Climate

Climate Status Description Remark

Af - Tropical rainforest climate Preferred > 60mm precipitation per month

Am - Tropical monsoon climate Preferred Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annua lprecipitation(mm}/25]))

As - Tropical savanna climate with dry

summer

Preferred < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Aw - Tropical wet and dry savann aclimate

Preferred < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])

Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year Preferred Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Cs - Warm temperate climate with drysummer

Tolerated Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers

Cw - Warm temperate climate with drywinter

Tolerated Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C,dry winters)

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Air Temperature

Parameter Lower limit Upper limit

Absolute mini mum temperature (ºC) 13

Mean annual temperature (ºC) 25.0 29.2

Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) 30.5 33.2

Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) 18.4 25.8

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Rainfall

Parameter Lower limit Upper limit Description

Dry season duration 0 12 number of consecutive months with


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Category Impact

Cultural/amenity Negative

Economic/livelihood Positive and negative

Environment (generally) Positive and negative

Human health Positive and negative

Economic Impact

T. melanocephalum’ s economic influence is primarily through its tending honeydew-producing homopterans (Appel et al., 2004). These

homopteran associations have included root scales (Smith, 1936; cited in Fowler et al., 1990) and fruit scales on bananas (Fowler et al., 1990),

and a grass root mealybug on the roots of sugarcane (Smith, 1965). In tending these insects T. melanocephalum protects them from natural

enemies and receives a “reward” of honeydew. Large pest populations may develop. However, no work has been undertaken to quantify its

economic impact and no reports have been published indicating it to be a significant pest of horticulture.

Alternatively, T. melanocephalum has a role as a predator of other pest and disease-spreading species. These ants have been observed

attacking diamondback moth larvae in India (Chelliah and Srinivasan, 1986), preying on a disease-spreading bug in Venezuela (Gomez-Nunez,

1971), destroying eggs and larvae of houseflies in Puerto Rico (Pimental, 1955), and consuming two-spotted spider mites ( Tetranychus urticae),

aphids, western flower thrips and Ecinothrips americanus in glasshouses in Florida (Osborne et al., 1995). Again, however, no work has been

undertaken to quantify the positive economic benefits of this predation of plant pests.

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Environmental Impact

Previous reviews of pest ants in North America include T. melanocephalum as a pest only in relation to urban areas (Smith, 1965; Thompson,

1990; Deyrup et al., 2000). T. melanocephalum appears be confined to disturbed habitat and in many locations is absent from undisturbed

natural habitat such as in Florida (Deyrup et al., 2000) or Brazil (Fowler et al., 1994). Where it does occur in natural or semi-natural disturbed

vegetation or remnants it appears to be a minor component of the community and is never numerically or behaviourally dominant. For example,

in Tokelau it is present in low densities in forests but is dominated by other ants (Lester and Tavite, 2004).

In regard to its influence on other ant species, T. melanocephalum has poor interspecific competitive abilities and is unlikely to displace other

ant species in natural environments (Aesch and Cherix, 2005). In São Paulo, Brazil, banana plantations with T. melanocephalum had fewer

other ant species than those without T. melanocephalum (Fowler et al., 1994). However, it was likely that different management practices

allowed T. melanocephalum to become established in some orchards rather than T. melanocephalum extirpating other ants. T.

melanocephalum is a rapid coloniser and may benefit from control of other invasive ant species (Lee, 2002).

At least one positive impact of T. melanocephalum has been observed for biodiversity. Saarinen and Daniels (2006) found that this ant is one of

several species to have been associated with the state-endangered Miami blue butterfly, Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri (Lepidoptera). This

butterfly requires ants to tend the larvae. The presence of T. melanocephalum may actually benefit Cyclargus in this situation.

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Social Impact

The social impact of T. melanocephalum may be through its association with food supplies, or through health effects.

T. melanocephalum has been observed as a significant urban pest capable of infesting residential kitchens and commercial food outlets in large

numbers (Lee, 2002). It can enter buildings through screens and small cracks and be a general annoyance (Deyrup et al., 2000). In a study of

the ant community infesting houses of southern Bahia, Brazil, T. melanocephalum was one of the two most common ant species infesting

houses (Delabie et al., 1995). It was also one of the three common species in south eastern Brazil (Fowler and Bueno, 1995). In Honolulu,

Hawaii, T. melanocephalum was reported as a common household pest in the 1940s, but was seldom collected during the 1950s (Clagg, 1957).No reports were found of it damaging wiring or any other structures within buildings. In Florida, T. melanocephalum is considered one of the

most important house-infesting pests; complaints were primarily due to it being a general nuisance (80%) or infesting food (15%) (Klotz et al.,

1995).

The health impacts of T. melanocephalum vary tremendously. Some people suffer a slight irritation of the skin following contact with T.

melanocephalum (Collingwood et al., 1997). T. melanocephalum may also have a role in disease transmission. It is abundant in hospitals in

South America, and capable of transporting pathogenic microbes including seven types of bacteria, such as Enterobacter cloacae and

Staphylococcus sp. (Olaya and Chacon, 2001; cited in Ulloa-Chacon and Jaramillo, 2003; Fowler et al., 1993). However, just as in horticulture,

T. melanocephalum may have positive impacts for health. It was found to be the primary predator of the eggs of Rhodnius prolixus, the vector of

Chagas disease in coastal Venezuela (Gomez-Nunez, 1971). Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and is a serious public health

problem in Latin America (Gutierrez et al., 2003). This predation on R. prolixus populations by T. melanocephalum may account for the absence

of R. prolixus-associated diseases in this area of Venezuela (Gomez-Nunez, 1971). T. melanocephalum may also feed on flea eggs and larvae

(Tamsitt and Fox, 1966).

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Risk and Impact Factors

Impact mechanisms

Causes allergic responses

Herbivory/grazing/browsing

Induces hypersensitivity

Interaction with other invasive species

Pest and disease transmission

Predation

Impact outcomes

Host damage

Increases vulnerability to invasions

Loss of medicinal resources

Negatively impacts agriculture

Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices

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Negatively impacts human health

Negatively impacts livelihoods

Invasiveness

Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)

Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food

Fast growing

Gregarious

Has high reproductive potential

Highly mobile locally

Is a habitat generalistLong lived

Pioneering in disturbed areas

Proved invasive outside its native range

Tolerant of shade

Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Likelihood of entry/control

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally

Uses List

Environmental

Biological control

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Diagnosis

A technical description suitable for quarantine purposes is as follows. Antennae are 12-segmented. First antennal segment (scape) is long,

surpassing the posterior border of the head. Eyes are large, with 9-10 ommatidia in the longest row. Mandibles each have 3 large teeth and

about 7 small denticles, with the mandible surface containing the teeth and that near the clypeus rounding gradually into one another (basal

angle absent). The clypeus is without longitudinal carinae; with the anterior margin slightly concave in the alitrunk in profile and almost smoothly

convex, but with a slight metanotal depression. The propodeum is without spines; the upper surface is shorter than the rear surface. One

rudimentary node (petiole) is present, which lacks a distinct forward face and is partially or completely concealed when viewed from above byforward projection of the first segment of the gaster. The gaster has four segments on its upper surface. There is a dense fine pubescence all

over the ant, with erect setae on clypeus and gastral apex only. Stinger and acidopore are absent.

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Detection and Inspection

One of the best methods for detecting invasive ants including T. melanocephalum is via baits. They appear to especially like sugary food. Clark

et al. (1982) found that T. melanocephalum was frequently the only ant present on sugar water baits, but also the species most often replaced,

suggesting a rapid utilization foraging strategy. Foragers locate and recruit to food quickly (Clark et al., 1982; Lee, 2002). However, they are

also often displaced when dominant ants discover food resources (Clark et al., 1982), so observations may need to be made of species

dynamics at baits.

The Pacific Invasive Ant Key (PIAKey) manual Pacific Invasive Ants Taxonomy Workshop Manual can both be used in identifying invasive ants in

the Pacific region.

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Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

T. melanocephalum in urban areas can be confused with another common household ant of similar size, Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant).

However, T. melanocephalum has a distinctively lighter abdomen than thorax and head, while the pharaoh ant has a darker abdomen than

thorax and head. Also, unlike T. melanocephalum, M. pharaonis has a post-petiole, although this would be difficult to see without magnification.

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Prevention and Control

Prevention

This is a classic “tramp” species, which has long been commonly associated with the movement of humans and human produce around the

globe. This ant has been associated with humans and moving in goods for such a long time that it is likely to have already spread to much of its

potential global range. Recent incursions into areas such as Finland (Sorvari, 2002) are likely to continue, but in such areas T. melanocephalum

will be restricted to buildings and facilities such as heated greenhouses.

As with all invasive species, prevention is bette r and generally much easier than cure. Management of invasion pathways and goods likely to be

infested is probably the best method for inhibiting invasion. Inspections of cargo and goods previously known to be infested is key to prevention.

Such a monitoring system would enable an early detection system.

A key is being developed for invasive ants in the Pacific by Mr Eli Sarnat, from the University of California at Davis. When completed the key will

be a useful first step in alerting quarantine authorities to the possible presence of T. melanocephalum, but a knowledgeable ant taxonomist

should be consulted to confirm the presence of this ant species.

Control

This section makes extensive use of the review of baiting by Stanley (2004) and Harris et al. (2005).

There are no known or documented reports of eradication of populations of T. melanocephalum (Stanley, 2004). However, eradication has been

undertaken for several other ant species (Hoffman and O’Connor, 2004; Lester and Keall, 2005). The techniques used for those species may

be applicable and effective for T. melanocephalum, although some authors have had difficulties in determining attractive and effective baits for

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this ant (e.g. Hedges, 1996). Key to the majority of ant eradication work is the repeated high-density application of a highly attractive bait laced

with a toxicant. The ants take the bait back to the nest and distribute it to all colony members including the queen.

Research on the use of chemical toxicants for the management of infestations within urban areas has generally been where T.

melanocephalum is one of several pest ants. Under such a scenario, other ant species may initially exclude T. melanocephalum from baits due

to the poor competitive abilities of T. melanocephalum (Aesch and Cherix, 2005; Zheng et al., 2006). If able to access baits, T. melanocephalum

will take baits but it can be difficult achieving effective control (Lee, 2002). In Malaysia, T. melanocephalum was attracted to both peanut butter

and honey (Lee, 2002). Lee and Kooi (2004) recommend using sugar-based attractants in liquid or gel baits to target T. melanocephalum,

although protein and oil-based foods may also be attractive. Lee (2002) reported limited success using paste and granular bait formulations to

control T. melanocephalum and Hedges (1996) also reports difficulties trying to control this species with toxic baits. Boric acid in sucrose water

was effective at eliminating T. melanocephalum in laboratory colonies within 8-12 weeks (Klotz and Williams, 1996; Klotz et al., 1996). In thesame laboratory trial, Maxforce® (hydramethylnon in silkworm pupae protein matrix) had little or no effect on workers or colonies because very

little was consumed (Klotz et al., 1996). In laboratory trials using hydrmethylnon at higher concentrations (Siege®) or Dimlin® (diflubenzuron) in

sucrose liquid baits, only limited control of T. melanocephalum colonies was achieved after 9 weeks (Ulloa-Chacon and Jaramillo, 2003). In

contrast, fipronil in sucrose liquid baits killed all laboratory colonies within a week (Ulloa-Chacon and Jaramillo, 2003).

Clearly baits with a high sugar concentration are preferred by T. melanocephalum and are likely to be the most effective carrier of toxicants.

Sucrose water exploits the natural feeding habits of honeydew-collecting ants and also provides moisture (Klotz et al., 1996). However, liquid

baits are not suitable for broadcast baiting, and must be available continuously, making control very labour-intensive (Klotz et al., 1998). Non-

target issues are also greater when using sweet baits, but this is less of an issue within buildings.

There are no known biological control agents for T. melanocephalum. Biological control agents exist for ants, such as phorid flies (Vazquez et

al., 2006), and may occur for T. melanocephalum. However the influence of such agents in regulating any ant population is yet to be

demonstrated and none are known for T. melanocephalum. Ants are thought to be commonly regulated by interspecific interactions with other

ant species (e.g. Dunn et al., 2007) and this certainly appears to be the case with T. melanocephalum, which appears to be excluded from

habitats with high ant diversity (e.g. Fowler et al., 1994). Enhancing ant diversity within a particular habitat may inhibit or restrict the

establishment of T. melanocephalum.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Clearly much less is known about the biology and control of T. melanocephalum than for many other ants or pest species. Such a gap in our

knowledge may indicate that T. melanocephalum is of low relative importance as a pest species. However, key areas for future work regarding

T. melanocephalum will be:

1. Establishing the direct or indirect (e.g. through tending scale insect populations) economic impact of this ant species, or perhaps the health

impacts ofT. melanocephalum

through its presence in hospital environments;

2. Determining its native range and origin, which would be helpful for selecting biological control agents if health or economic effects are

observed. Molecular techniques could be useful for such work;

3. Examining the native range for biological control agents, such as phorid flies or microbial biological control agents;

4. Further developing ‘best-practice’ sampling techniques to determine the presence of this species;

5. Identifying effective chemical control and bait delivery methods for T. melanocephalum.

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Tapinoma Melanocephalum (Ghost Ant)