Tanzania State of the Coast 2001: Peopleand the Environment

Published by

Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership

Science and Technical Working Group

Dar es Salaam

October 2001

Produced and designed by A.S Ngusaru, J Tobey, G Luhikula and Colour Print Tanzania Limited.

This publication is available from the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership, Haile Selassie Road, Plot 87, P.O. Box 71686, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, East Africa, and is available electronically on the Coastal Resources Center’s

Worldwide Web site at http://crc.uri.edu.

ISBN: 9987 - 680 - 01 -

Tanzania State of the Coast 2001:People and the Environment

Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership

Science and Technical Working Group

Working Document 5059 TCMP

A joint initiative between the National Environment Management Council, The University of Rhode Island’s Coastal Resources Center, and the United States Agency

for International Development

Foreword

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It is with great pleasure that I introduce this first ever Tanzania State of theCoast Environment report which reflects on the condition of our coastal andmarine endowment as well as the achievements of the past in conservation andsustainable use of coastal and marine areas and resources.

This report highlights the importance of coast for Tanzania society and the nat-ural systems they support. Our coast contains some of the most biologically pro-ductive habitat that is home to a quarter of our population, houses three-quartersof our industrial segment of the economy, contributes about one third of thenational gross domestic product not forgetting Dar es Salaam our largest urbancentre. The coast attracts human populations because it is a focal point for eco-nomic growth and human development.

The socio-economic and ecological importance of the coastal zone is virtuallyunparalleled. This strip of land and water supports a diversity of natural systems,including coral reefs, beaches, estuaries, seagrass beds and mangrove forests.Coastal villages and urban areas rely on these coastal resources for their liveli-hood and quality of life. The value of coastal resources is much greater than thatrepresented by fish catch, maritime commerce, tourism, industry and other eco-nomic activities. There are myriad ecological services and activities whose val-ues are not easily quantifiable such as storm surge protection, water filtration, fish-eries nursery, scenic and cultural amenities, waste discharge and dispersal,industrial and power plant cooling, to name but a few.

Being important economically, socially and biophysically, the coastal area is indeeda national asset that requires special attention. Our coastal resources are underincreasing pressure from the populace that depend on them for food and income.The state of the coast environment is consequently of paramount interest to theGovernment of Tanzania. It is of utmost importance that we apply the best infor-mation and scientific knowledge available onto recommendations on how can webest utilize and manage our coastal resources in an equitable and sustainable man-ner. This report is a major contribution to this body of information and is aninvaluable addition to the issue of sustainable use of our coastal resources, pub-lic awareness, informed decisions, and meaningful policies and strategies.

I take this opportunity to thank all those who made this document possible,including the United States Agency for International Development, the TanzaniaCoastal Management Partnership, and the Coastal Resources Center of theUniversity of Rhode Island. I congratulate the National EnvironmentManagement Council for its leadership in supporting this effort.

Hon. Arcado D. Ntagazwa (MP)Minister of State (ENVIRONMENT)VICE PRESIDENT'S OFFICE

Acknowledgements

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This work was produced by the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership, and was madepossible by the support provided by the Vice President’s Office, the National EnvironmentManagement Council, the Coastal Resources Center of the University of Rhode Island andthe United States Agency for International Development.

The Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) appreciates the expertise and tire-less efforts of the members of the Science and Technical Working Group for producing thisimportant report. At the time of preparation, the Chairperson of the Working Group was thelate Professor Adelaida Semesi. Members of the Working Group include:

Chande Abdillah Marine Biologist, Tanzania Fisheries Research InstituteAlfonse Dubi Marine Civil Engineer, Institute of Marine Sciences, UDSMAnita Francis Marine Biologist, Marine Parks and Reserves TanzaniaJulius Francis Physical Oceanographer, Institute of Marine Sciences, UDSMNarriman Jiddawi Fisheries Biologist, Institute of Marine Sciences, UDSMNobert Kayumbo Marine Biologist, National MuseumsAnna Mayawalla Planner, National Planning CommissionSimeon Mesaki Sociologist, Department of Sociology, UDSMYunus Mgaya Marine Biologist, Department of Zoology and Marine

Biology, UDSMSalim Mohamed Chemical Oceanographer, Institute of Marine Sciences,

UDSMAbu Mvungi Sociologist, Department of Sociology, UDSMZainab Ngazy Economist, Institute of Marine Sciences, UDSMAdelaida Semesi Mangrove Ecologist, Institute of Marine Sciences, UDSMGreg Wagner Reef Biologist, Department of Zoology and Marine Biology,

UDSM

Amani NgusaruOceanographer, University of Dar es Salaam (Secretariat)James Tobey Economist, University of Rhode Island (Technical Advisor)

The contribution of many individuals who assisted in the preparation of this report, includ-ing the graduate students involved in the collection of field survey information and dataanalysis is greatly appreciated. They include Flora Akwilapo, Justin Bamanyisa, EddyEpoda, Sanga Ignantio, Mohammed Kombo, Baraka Lamek, Mbije Nsajigwa,Mohamed Nur, and Saleh Yahya. The assistance of Matt Richmond in the production ofthis report is very much appreciated. TCMP would also like to express sincere gratitudeto those coastal communities in Tanzania that participated in the state of the coast fieldsurvey.

We are also very grateful for partner agencies that provided assistance, advice and support,including the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-Tanzania), District Council offices, andthe United Nations Environment Programme.

Table of Contents

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Page

Executive Summary 4

Introduction 7

Coastal Environment 9

Coral reefs 10

Mangrove ecosystems 16

Marine fisheries 19

Other marine living resources 23

Water quality 27

Coastal erosion 32

Marine Protected Areas and Conservation Efforts 35

Coastal People 38

Demographics 39

Economic status 41

Infrastructure 44

Health 45

Education 46

Gender equality 47

Governance and community organisations 47

References 49

4

This document provides an overview of thehuman and environmental condition of the coastof Tanzania that is so critical to future social andeconomic development. On the environmentalside, information is presented on coral reefs,mangrove ecosystems, marine fisheries, othermarine living resources, water quality, andcoastal erosion. The human resource aspect isorganised by the topics of demographics,economics, infrastructure, health, educa-tion, gender equality, and community organisa-tion. The many ways that the human and environ-mental dimensions of the coast are interwovenare highlighted. This State of the Coast report isthe first for Tanzania and is intended to buildawareness of the importance and key char-acteristics of the coast, provide a baseline ofcoastal condition and change, and lay thegroundwork for future assessments of coastalcondition.

The results show achievements of the past andchallenges for the future. Mangrove forests havebeen fully inventoried, zoned and a managementplan is operational. Many marine reserves, pro-tected areas and coastal management effortshave been established in the last decade.National guidance for sustainable develop-ment of coastal aquaculture has been adopted. Anational Coastal Strategy has been prepared.National awareness regarding all aspects of thecoastal and marine environment has significantlyimproved in the past decade. These are someexamples of significant achievements and arereasons why Tanzania is a leader in East Africain coastal management.

Priorities that need urgent attention are identi-fied in order to maintain and upgrade the criticalmarine habitats and the resource potential of thecoastal zone. Much of the degradation of theinshore marine environment has been caused bydestructive fishing methods and overfishing. Theinshore fishery of Tanzania shows signs of over-

exploitation and in the vicinity of high populationareas shallow reefs are highly degraded.

The demand for fishery resources has been grad-ually increasing with the increase in populationand tourism growth. This has caused an increasein fishing pressure and the use of gear and tech-niques that are destructive and cause damage toreefs. Degraded coral reef evidence is particu-larly prevalent in the shallower depths of 1-10m, especially in the vicinity of urban centres likeTanga, Dar es Salaam and Mtwara, where shal-low reefs are almost completely destroyed. Mostof the destructive methods are illegal, and con-tinue to be used due to lack of surveillance,enforcement and public awareness. The commondestructive methods are the use of dynamite fish-ing, drag nets (juya la kigumi), fine-meshedfishing nets, spearguns, beach seine and poison.

Actions to address the declining trend in fish-eries and coral reef condition proposed andenvisaged include vigorous education and exten-sion, the elimination of extraction of live coralfor construction, monitoring and law enforce-ment, fisheries stock assessment, and promo-t ion o f a l t e rna t ive income generatingopportunities to take pressure off the fragilenear shore environment.

Management efforts , awareness and man-agement of Tanzania mangrove ecosystems haveimproved significantly. However, the humanpressures on mangrove forests require continuedattention. Major pressures include demandfor t imber, fuelwood, production of char-coal, building poles, conversion of forestareas for urban development, salt production,and other land uses. Over-exploitation threatenssome forests near urban centres where thesepressures are high—such as Maruhubi inZanzibar and Kunduchi in Dar es Salaam.

Executive Summary

In addition to mangroves, coral reefs and fish-eries, there are several other important marineresources in Tanzania coastal waters. Theseinclude plankton, seaweeds, seagrasses, marineturtles, marine mammals and coastal birds.These living resources play a major role in thehealth and functioning of coastal and marineecosystems, artisanal fisheries, and theeconomies of coastal people. The most frequentcause of pressure on other marine resources thatare currently exploited—such as shells, seacucumbers, marine turtles, and dugongs, is overharvesting. The nesting populations of turtleshave been declining rapidly due to incidentalfish catch, hunting, and loss of nesting beaches.The alarming decline in sea turtle populationmay continue to extinction unless measures aretaken to stop the trend and protect them.

Management options to ensure the diversity andcondition of marine living resources in Tanzaniainclude prohibition of commercial trade onmarine turtle shells; public education for aware-ness and outreach on the importance of lessen-ing threats to marine living resources; protectionof critical habitats such as turtle breedinggrounds; and enforcement of harvest limitationsand prohibitions. In some cases, actions such asthese can provide positive results in a short peri-od of time. For example, the capture, slaughterand sale of marine turtle products decreasednoticeably in Zanzibar following a successfuloutreach campaign during the 1990’s. Marineturtles are now regularly seen around coral reefsoff Zanzibar.

In urban areas, untreated municipal and industri-al waste threaten the quality of coastal waters .Outside urban areas, sedimentation is thegreatest concern in terms of water quality andmarine life. Sediment is carried by rivers as aresult of natural events such as heavy rains inupland areas, poor agricultural practicesupstream are considered to be the leading cause

of growing levels of sedimentation. Nationalwaste management policy that holisticallyaddresses the waste problem is an essential pre-requisite for effective coastal water quality man-agement in the country.

Shoreline changes—erosion or accretion areknown to be widespread, and in specific loca-tions are severe, but a full assessment of theproblem and priorities for control measures havenot been undertaken. In some specific locations,erosion is known to be severe. For example, sig-nificant erosion over the last few decades hasresulted in the loss of several buildings atAfricana Beach Hotel and homes at Kunduchibeach area in Dar es Salaam where the beach isretreating at the rate of 4 meters per year. Inlocations such as these, the loss of land andcoastal properties is a major threat to coastalcommunities, investment, and economic sec-tors such as tourism and industry.

This State of the Coast report highlights thelinkages between socioeconomic wellbeing andthe environment. Most rural coastal communi-ties depend on nearby water and land to generateincome and provide food. A decline in coastalecosystem productivity has a direct negativeimpact on coastal communities. Hence, pro-tecting environmental resources that peopledepend on for income generation and their verylivelihood is critical to the survival of coastalfamilies, poverty reduction and slowing downrural-urban migration.

Efforts to improve stewardship of coastalecosystem productivity are undermined bydeep-rooted human pressures on the envi-ronment—pressures that are related to thequality of life and welfare of people in coastalcommunities. The assessment of the conditionof the human environment in coastal Tanzaniashows that a large percentage of the populationlives at very low levels of welfare. The level of

Executive Summary

5

per capita income, heal th, nutr i t ion, accessto safe water, education, and basic infrastruc-ture is very low, especially in rural areas. Somecoastal regions are ranked among the mostdeprived in the nation in income, food security,health and education. Lack of communicationand transportation infrastructure in coastalcommuni t i es and l ack o f l ive l ihoodopportunities are reasons for a significant pat-tern of rural-urban migration, particularly to thecity of Dar es Salaam.

The ability to alter unsustainable resource usepatterns that damage the coastal and marineenvironment ultimately requires creating alter-native livelihood opportunities, increasing incomeand food security and raising education levels.Achieving this, in turn, requires fundamentalenabling conditions for human development—workable systems of credit, reliable roads andother transport, electrical power, and telecom-munications.

These underlying challenges to human develop-ment in poor coastal villages and urban centreswill surely not be resolved tomorrow. But mostof the villages surveyed in this study perceivedthat at least some of the trends in key indicatorsof social welfare are improving. It is encourag-ing that there are a growing number of com-munity organisations, village committees, andNGO’s that can provide the foundation forresource management at a local level scale.Another positive trend is the increasing role ofwomen in income generation, contributing tohousehold expenditure, and community deci-sions. All of these trends should be closely moni-tored in the future to track progress and providethe information needed for effective coastalmanagement and sustainable coastal develop-ment.

Executive Summary

6

7

This report provides an up-to-date overview ofthe status and trends in the condition and use ofTanzania’s coastal resources and quality of life incoastal communities. It is based on best avail-able scientific information and local knowledgethat has the goal of helping government agen-cies, donors and practitioners involved in coastalplanning and management to develop and pro-mote sustainable coastal development strategiesand programmes of action.

The preparation of this report builds on work-shops, consultations, literature review, and fieldsurveys carried out by the Science and TechnicalWorking Group. It also builds on the findings ofother TCMP working groups and special teams.It’s creation began in 1999 when the Science andTechnical Working Group initiated a systematicand comprehensive survey of the literature onpriority coastal topics.

Following this in-depth literature survey, rapidrural appraisal methods for collecting first-handinformation from the field were developed.Worksheets for collecting information on keycharacteristics of coastal ecosystems and thewellbeing of coastal people were formulated,field tested, and then completed in one villagein every coastal Dis t r i c t o f ma in landTanzania and administrative unit of Pembaand Unguja, Zanzibar—for a total of 18 coastalvillages. The survey was surely a small sam-pling of villages out of hundreds in Tanzaniacoastal areas, and therefore the findings may notnecessarily be representative of the rest of thecoast. However, by touching down on specificcoastal villages in every district, importantinsight into the condition and problems facingcoastal communities was obtained.

The worksheets are structured around thethemes of condition, trends, and threats for bothnatural and human components of the coast. Thespecific indicators contained in the field work-sheets represent core and essential informationfor participatory baseline surveys and monitoringof the status, trends and threats to human andenvironmental condition of Tanzania coast. To

complete the worksheets, village meetings wereorganised with District officers, village leadersand focus groups—a fishermen focus group anda mixed focus group of men and women.

The worksheets can be used in future surveys of thestate of the coast and will be used by the TanzaniaCoastal Management Partnership in facilitation ofDistrict action plan for planning integrated coastalmanagement.

This report is complete in support of nationalcoastal management in Tanzania. The need forbetter information for decision-making is identi-fied as a priority issue in the draft TanzaniaCoastal Strategy. Reliable information is neededto identify geographic areas of concern andprepare special area management plans, set Districtconservation and restoration priorities, and pro-mote sustainable approaches to siting and devel-opment of the coast to minimise negativeimpacts.

The Strategy recommends the Science andTechnical Working Group be formally estab-lished as an advisory body of the NationalEnvironment Management Council and its pro-posed Integrated Coastal Management Office.The mandate of this group as indicated in thedraft Strategy is to:

• Use best scientific information available to relate status and trends to human causes and consequences• Promote information access and data

sharing by employing a range of communication and dissemination strategies• Strengthen and improve coordination of coastal monitoring and assessment efforts• Increase the base of knowledge for coastal management through studies and investigation, sampling, resource inventories, and monitoring

Introduction

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Field Survey, February-March 2001

Region District Village

Tanga 1. Muheza Kicharikani

2. Tanga Tongoni

3. Pangani Kipumbwi

Coast 4. Bagamoyo Kondo

5. Mkuranga Kisiju

6. Rufiji Myamisati

7. Mafia Chunguruma

D’Salaam 8. Kinondoni Kunduchi Beach

9. Ilala Ferry fish landing site

10. Temeke Mjimwema

Lindi 11. Kilwa Somanga Mbuyuni

12. Lindi Mchinga Mbili

Mtwara 13. Mtwara Msangamkuu

Zanzibar 14. West Fumba

15. North Nungwi

16. South Kizimkazi Dimbani

Pemba 17. Mkoani Mbuyuni

18. Wete Kojani

Field Survey Sites

Focus group discussion with villagers, Zanzibar

60

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

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CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are one of the most diverse and pro-ductive marine ecosystems on earth. They develop

only in t rop i -ca l , shallowareas with clearwaters and sup-port a very highdiversity ofplant and ani-mal species.L o c a l l y ,

‘matumbawe’ refers to corals and ‘miamba yabaharini’ refers to coral reefs. Hundreds ofspecies of hard corals form colonies that makeup the main structures of coral reefs andnumerous coralline algae contr ibute as acementing element. In a d d i t i o n , there arethousands of species of other organisms associ-ated with coral reefs including sponges, softcorals, crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, fishand several other groups of animals as well asalgae and s e a g r a s s e s . The productivity ofcoral reefs is particularly prominent because ofthe high retention of nutrients due to efficientbiological recycling. This is partly achievedthrough the great diversity of species and the

microhabitats they occupy. Someanimals, which typically live inother coastal habitats such as theopen sea, mangrove forests and sea-grass beds are associated with coralreefs only during certain life phases oractivities (e.g. reproduction, nurseryor feeding). Thus the importanceand influence of coral reefs extendsover a much broader geographicalarea.

Distribution and Area

Coral reefs are found on about onethird of the coastline of Tanzania.

Most of these are comprised of fringing andpatch reefs, restricted to a narrow strip (usually1 to 3 km wide) along the coast. The islands ofUnguja, Pemba and Mafia, as well as numeroussmall islands along the coast, are for the mostpart surrounded by fringing reefs. In areasaround river mouths, an absence of a firm seabedand excessive freshwater and sediment dischargeprevent the development of coral reefs. Theareas of greatest concentration of coral reefs areTanga, Pemba, Unguja, Mafia, the Songo Songoarchipelago and Mtwara.

Importance of Coral Reefs

Coral reefs have a number of ecological and eco-nomic values. The most obvious ones are associ-ated with extractive activities such as fishing,shell and other invertebrate collection as well astourism. These natural resources provide coastalpeople with both a source of income and a sourceof protein. The provision of a barrier against waveaction, and the potential as a source of medicalcompounds to fight diseases are important, butmore difficult to quantify. Another use ofcorals, which brings serious negative impacts on

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Indicators-Coral Reefs• Area of damaged reef• Proportion of hard coral

cover that is alive• Diversity of coral form

and coral invertebrates• Abundance of sea urchins

and fish

Coral reefs off Stone Town, Zanzibar

12

the reefs, is the mining of live corals to producelime for building.

Fisheries Coral reefs serve as breeding, nurseryand feeding grounds for many marine animals,including over 500 species of commerciallyimportant fish. Other animals that are depend-ent on coral reefs include lobsters, octopuses,bivalves, gastropods, and sea cucumbers, all ofwhich are important in artisanal fisheries,with some contributing to the export earnings ofthe country. Coral reefs support 70% of artisanalfish production in Tanzania (Ngoile and Horrill,1993). Some of the more common speciescaught are the parrotfish (pono), emperors(changu), groupers (chewa) and goatfish (mkun-daji).

Tourism Coastal tourism is becoming increas-ingly important to Tanzania. Currently develop-ment of this sector is most prominent on theislands of Unguja, Pemba and Mafia, thoughthere is also expansion in Dar es Salaam, Tanga,Bagamoyo and at a few other sites along thecoast. The beaches, seafood and aquatic fea-tures such as coral reefs, attract visitors to thecoast. For example, about 20% of the tourists whovisit Zanzibar annually are specifically attracted byits SCUBA diving and snorkelling suitability. Sincealmost all diving and snorkelling is done aroundcoral reefs, this makes reefs a very important forother tourist attraction activities that bring for-eign currency into the country and provide alivelihood for coastal people.

Coastal protection Coral reefs are mostly situatedalong the exposed areas of the coastline. In theseareas the reefs serve as important barriers to waveaction, thereby helping reduce the severity ofcoastal erosion.

Status and Trends

The coral reefs inTanzan ia a reg e n e r a l l y in r e a -s o n a b l e condi-tion. There arelarge, nearly pristineareas with high coralspecies diversity

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Reefs identified in the village surveys that are pre-ferred fishing areas and important fish nursery sites

• Wamba reef (Muheza)• Yazinga, Dambwe and Maziwe reefs (Pangani) • All the reefs of Tanga municipality• All 15 reefs, including important nursery

reefs of Tua, Tugawe, Kikuyuvi, Kitintali, Kitibue and Kinduki (Mafia)

• Fungu Yasini and Karage reef (Kinondoni)• Dege reef (Temeke)• Keme, Bwejuu, Alubamani, Tua, Tugawe,

Kikuyuvi, Kitintali, Kitibue and Kinduki reefs (Rufiji)• Banda, Chokaa, Zuweji, Banyani, Mwembe

Usi, Semaya, Mchanemuovu, Silima, Totoma and Selemani reefs (Kilwa)• Jome, Lipadeni, Maloo, Nachunjwe, Tomungu, Mongolo and Kele reefs (Lindi)• Chumbie, Kigongo, Mvenuro, Mchopa,

Songa, Viuru, Demo, Nusura, Namwend, Nzara, Nanundu, Naulumba, Nwale, Suweti

and Ngandi reefs (Mtwara)• Kwale and Pungume reefs (Unguja West)• Kipisani, Musemba and Nungwi reefs (Unguja North)• Pungume and Mtende reefs (Unguja South)• Wamba and Misali reefs (Pemba)• Malilini, Kiongweni, Mchanga and Mkuu

reefs (Pemba)

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(about 127 species from 13 families), areas withcoral reefs in good or moderate condition and anumber of smaller heavily degraded areas. Pristineareas are predominantly in the least accessiblestretches of coast and the deeper zones of reefs.Conversely, degraded coral reef envi ron-

ments are particularly prevalent in the shallow-er depths of 1-10 m, especially in the vicinity ofurban centres like Tanga, Dar es Salaam andMtwara, where shallow reefs are almost com-pletely destroyed.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Condition of coral reefs of Tanzania

District

Tanga

Reef Condition

The reefs have been extensively damaged by human impacts with 12% completely destroyed, 12%in poor condition, 52% in moderate condition and 24% in good condition (Horrill et al., 2000). Mostof the damaged reefs are adjacent to areas of high population density. Damage to reefs north of thePangani River is attributed to dynamite fishing (Horrill, 1997).

Dar es Salaam Hard coral cover ranges from 35-81% on fringing reefs at two sites each at Mbudya and BongoyoIslands and at one site at Pangavini Island (Kamukuru, 1997). On Mbudya Island 40-60% of hardcoral cover was reported dead in 1999, largely due to coral bleaching, with a substantial area (15-40%) without coral at all, attributed to dynamite fishing and wave action (Ngowo, 1999).

Zanzibar: Unguja Island

Hard coral coverranged from 11-14% at Mnemba Island on the northeast coast to 53% at Bawe Island off ZanzibarTown (Muhando, 1999). The highest live coral cover around Unguja Island is found on the reefs nearZanzibar Town. Reefs on the southwest side of Unguja, near Menai Bay, generally have lower livecoral cover (12-29%), which can be attributed to the rampant use of destructive fishing methods,except for Pungume Island where it reaches 88% (Horrill et al., 2000).

Pemba Island

Along the western coast coral reef, there is 21-60% coral cover. The eastern fringing reef has about 15% coral coverdue to its exposure to strong wave action. The highest live coral cover is found in Misali Island onthe western side of Pemba, attaining 75% on the northern side and 53% on the eastern side of theisland (Horrill et al., 2000). Misali has high taxonomic diversity (40 coral genera). There has beensome damage to the reefs from dynamite fishing and dragging seine nets.

Mafia Archipelago

On the easternfringing reef hard

coral cover is diverse with good coral cover to 25-30 m. Two large, sheltered, shallow (less than10 m) bays of Mafia Island, Chole and Jujima, have extensive growth of corals (Darwall etal., 2000).

Songo SongoArchipelago, Lindi, Kilwa andMtwara

All coral reefs throughout the Songo Songo Archipelago and most reefs in Lindi and Mtwaraare extensively damaged above a depth of 10 m, primarily by dynamite fishing, though belowthat level, the reefs are prolific with coral growth and abundant with fish (Guard andMasaiganah, 1997). Mpovi and Amani reefs near Kilwa Kivinje, previously very productive(Hasset, 1983) now have large areas of rubble, poor coral cover and low abundance and diver-sity of fish (Hanaphy and Muller, 1997). The reefs with the least degradation are those whichare adjacent to deeper waters such as Poiasi and Pwajuu patch reefs and the outer fringing reefwhich has dense coral growth to 30 m. The northwestern reefs in the Songo Songo Archipelagohave low coral diversity due to high sedimentation from the Mohoro River. In a survey of 13patch reefs average hard coral cover ranged from 25-55% and the average proportion of hard coralthat was alive generally ranged from 70% to 95% (Darwall et al., 1996a, b, c, d).

14

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Coral Reef (red) andMangrove (green) areas

Lime making, Mikindani - Mtwara

Mangrove replanting, Tanga

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Threats to Coral Reefs

The greatest source of stress on coral reefs isrelated to destructive fishing practices. By farthe most destructive type of fishing is the use ofdynamite. This has been practised in Tanzaniafor over 40 years. Each blast of dynamiteinstantly kills all fish and most other livingorganisms within a 15-20 m radius and complete-ly destroys the reef habitat itself within a radius ofseveral meters. There are also indirect impactsdue to turbidity and sedimentation generated bydynamite blasts, which adversely affect marinelife in a much wider area. Some of the fishermenwho use dynamite originate from Dar es Salaamand travel to coral reef areas further away (e.g.Kilwa/Songo Songo reefs), while in other areas,such as Lindi and Mtwara, dynamite fishing isdone by local fishermen, usually the youth.

With numerous blasts occurring daily on reefsall over the country, over a period of manyyears, the overall effect of dynamite fishing oncoral reefs in Tanzania has been devastating.Damaged reefs can take many decades to recov-er and some, in fact, may never recover.

It is uncertain whether the practice will becompletely e l iminated without having apermanent armed patrol of the coast. A recent

survey in Tangaregion has shownthat dynamitefishing wasresponsible for thedamage beyondrecovery of 10%of coral reefs inthe region and70% showed signif-icant damage butcould recover ifprotected. Onlythe remaining 20%of coral reefs were

in good condition (Makoloweka et al., 1997).The impacts of dynamite fishing on coral reefsin Dar es Salaam, Songo Songo and Mtwararegions are probably similar to that in Tanga.

The use of seine nets to capture fish on the bot-tom and around reefs is almost as destructive asthe use of dynamite. These nets, locally calledkigumi or kavogo are used as beach seines on thereef flat or arepulled aroundcoral reefs. Theiruse is destructivefor t h r e e m a i nreasons. Firstly,when used aroundcoral reefs, fisher-men often smashcoral colonies inorder to scare thefish out of hiding.Secondly, drag-ging them over thereef flat as beachseines unavoidablydamages coral andother marine life.Thirdly, the small-mesh size of seine nets resultsin the capture of many juveniles. Capture ofjuvenile fish, when conducted intensively innursery areas, results in depletion of fish stocks,alteration of species composition, loss of speciesdiversity, disruption of food webs, and distur-bance of the natural equilibrium of reef ecosystems.

Destructive practices also include extraction ofliving coral for use in building and in con-version into lime for cement. Live and deadcorals are extracted from reefs using pick axes,crowbars and other implements. The corals arebrought ashore where they are piled into kilnsand burned to produce lime for local buildingand trade. This highly destructive activity is, insome areas, actively encouraged and considered tobe a legitimate alternative income generating

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

In 1997, the number of personsprosecuted for dynamite fish-ing along the entire coast was601. This was expected to fallin 1998 as the FisheriesDivision, with the cooperationof the Navy, launched a nationwide campaign in March andApril 1998 to stem the practice.In June 1998 it was reportedthat in Tanga, Lindi andMtwara regions dynamite fish-ing had stopped. Now there arereports that the practice is onthe rise again

Village perceptionsVillagers reported thatover the last ten years thecoral reef ecosystem condi-tion was decreasing.

“We are grateful to the government action - dyna-mite fishing has stoppedhere and we now canget sardines” Fishersat Msimbati village ,Mtwara

“The village communitiesare taking full responsibili-ty for monitoring dynamitefishing. We have giventhem power and they aremaking sure dynamitefishing does not resur-face again” Mrs. FatumaMikidadi, DC Mtwara.

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activity. It is prevalent in Lindi and Mtwararegions and in Dar es Salaam. At one site in thesouth of the country, it was estimated that some2,000 tonnes of coral are mined per year. The dam-age to shallow inshore reefs in such a case isimmense. Other less harmful activities related tofishing include damage from anchors, the use ofpoisons and boat grounding.

There are other human-caused impacts on coralreefs. Humans cause many types of pollut iondue to industrial and domestic discharge.Other pollution sources include agro-chemicalpollutants and sedimentation brought aboutby deforestat ion, poor agricultural prac-tices and construction act ivi t ies . All thesepollutants can be detrimental to the health ofcorals when carried by seawater to the reefs.

Uncontrolled tourism activities too may adverselyaffect the reef, directly through damage tocorals by careless SCUBA divers, snorkelling andanchoring damage, and indirectly throughincreased pressure on the reefs for food, curios andconstruction materials. The consequences of human-caused degradation ofreefs are a marked decrease in the diversity andabundance of fish, habitat loss, reduction in breed-ing and feeding grounds for fish and otherorganisms, and decline in the aesthetic value ofreefs which reduces their attractiveness to tourists.The end result is a decline in income to coastalcommunities and to the country as a whole.

Natural impacts on coral reefs include storms,crown-of-thorns starfish and coral bleaching.Small outbreaks of the coral-feeding crown-of-thorns starfish have occurred in Tanzania over thelast 30 years, resulting in severe localised dam-age to reefs. Infestations of crown-of-thornsstarfish are partly attributed to the reduction inmajor predators (mostly fish and some large mol-luscs). Between March-September 1998 a signifi-cant coral bleachingevent was document-ed in Tanzania. Thiswas caused by high-er than normal seawatertemperatures andincreased rainfall(lower salinity). Theevent was reported inall parts of the coast with 15 to 100% of hardcorals showing damage (Wilkinson, 1998).Bleaching was worse in shallow waters than indeeper waters. In Zanzibar, more than 60% of hardcorals showed signs of bleaching, while somespecies were seemingly unaffected. Some diveoperators reported a decline in tourist potential dueto the bleaching event.

Management Options

Control and Surveillance. Control of varioustypes of pollution, the elimination of destruc-tive and excessive fishing practices, propermanagement of tourism, and the elimina-tion of extract ion of l ive coral forconstruction are some of the measuresthat must be seriously taken for the protec-tion of coral reefs in Tanzania.Strategies to confront the problem ofdynamite fishing should encompass awide range of actions, such as patrolling,police enforcement, improved

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Badly damaged reefs identified in the village surveys

• Nyuli, Mwambanyama and Wamba reefs (Muheza)• Karange and Jahazi reefs (Tanga municipality)• Mjimile ndogo reef (Pangani)• Mbudya to Fungu Yasini and Mkadya (Kinondoni)• Kuhuri, Sinda reef (Temeke)• Lukumbi, Nondo, Jiwe la Selemani, Nahumbu (Lindi)• Kwale Pungume (Unguja West)• All reefs of Unguja North• Karage, Misamba Uzi reefs (Unguja South)• Kojani Island reefs (Pemba Wete)

Village perceptionsThe major Threates to coral reefs were identified as:• Overfishing• Use of seine nets• Crown-of-thorn• Starfish infesta-

17

legislat ion, increased f ines, confiscat ionof vessels, jail sentences and education and out-reach of local communities.

For severely degraded reefs, restoration isrequired in order to accelerate and ensure recov-ery of degraded coral reefs. The removal of sedi-ments and rubble is one simple method of inter-vention. Another method is the transplantationof coral fragments, whereby fragments are bro-ken from healthy colonies and attached to a suit-able substrate using cement or glue. Artificialsubstrates or reef structures can serve as fishsheltering devices and can also enhance corallarval settlement. Coral reef restoration work ide-ally involves local fishermen and may be combinedwith ecotourism, whereby members of the com-munities receive payment from tourists for guid-ed tours to coral reef and mangrove ecosystemswhile they carry on the restoration activities.

MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS

Mangroves are salt tolerant forest or swampecosystems that occur along tropical and sub-tropical coastlines, usually in sheltered bays,often around river mouths. These forests arecomprised of several species of trees, some ofwhich reach over 25 m in height, usually rooted inmud. Through the action of the roots these foreststrap land-based debris , sediments and suspendedparticulate matter carried to the coast by rivers.They are thus important for the health of near-shore ecosystems like seagrass beds and coralreefs that developbest in clearwaters. Mangroveforests areextremely produc-tive ecosystemsthat also functionas feeding andnursery grounds for

many species of fish, shellfish, prawns, andcrabs. The mangrove forest at the Rufiji deltaprovides nursery grounds for 80 percent ofTanzania’s shrimps. Mangrove forests along theshoreline also provide important protection againstwave and current forces and therefore coastalerosion.

For thousands of years, mangrove ecosystemshave played an important role in the social andeconomic development of coastal communities.Today, this unique but fragile ecosystem is stillthe main provider of various useful productssuch as firewood, charcoal, poles, tannin and tra-ditional medicines. The fisheries within mangroveareas are also a valuable resource to local com-munities. Overall, it is estimated that over150,000 people make their living directly frommangrove resources.

One of the impor-tant features ofmany mangrovespecies is that theycan be "coppiced",whereby careful cut-ting induces the gen-eration of moreshoots and branches,

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Indicators - Mangroves

• Density and height of the forest

• Area that is degraded• Mangrove diversity• Occurrence of

seedlings• Diversity of benthic

fauna and animals in trees

Mangroves are animportant renewableresourse for coastal pop-ulations and are notedfor their ecological roleand high productivity.Mangroves are alsoimportant for the protec-tion of shorelines againsterosion

Reef herons in mangrove trees, Mafia Island

18

thus providing sustainable harvests.Furthermore, the reproduction of mangroves bylive seedlings (vivipary) makes reforestation ofcleared areas through re-planting a viable andsimple restoration technique.

Distribution and Area

In Tanzania, nine species of mangrove trees formthe forests that cover an estimated 133,480hectares. The forests are found along many partsof the coastline from Tanga to Mtwara, occurringon gently sloping shores, and around river estu-aries, creeks and bays. The Rufiji delta supportsthe largest single mangrove forest in easternAfrica, covering 53,000 hectares. Other majormangrove stands occur at the estuaries of thePangani, Wami, Ruvu, Matandu, Mbwemkuru andRuvuma rivers. The islands of Mafia, Ungujaand Pemba also support well-developed man-grove forests.

Status andTrends

Over-exploitationis threateningmany Tanzaniaforests where thedemand fo rmangrove products(mainly poles forbuilding andexport, firewood,and charcoal mak-ing) has beenhigh. Examples offorests particular-ly affected arethose near urbancentres such asMaruhubi inZ a n z i b a r ,K u n d u c h i ,

Mbweni and Mtoni in Dar es Salaam.Fortunately, mangrove ecosystems are quiteresilient, given sufficient time they can recover,especially in areas where cutting has not beenintense.

Today, greater awareness of the value of man-grove resources among resource managers andlocal communities exists and extensive clearanceof mangrove vegetation has been reduced.TheM a n g r o v eM a n a g e m e n tP r o g r a m m e(MMP) has shownthat careful useand sensible har-vest can result inincreased area ofmangrove growth. Threats toMangroves inTanzania

There are a number of threats to the continuedexistence of mangroves that have been clearly identi-fied.

Demand for timber products: The use ofmangrove trees for firewood, production ofcharcoal and for building poles remains animportant economic activity in Tanzania, espe-cially near urban centres. This demand has insome areas resulted in the clearance of man-grove forests. The production of charcoal isviewed as one of the main threats to the remain-ing mangrove forests, especially since all parts ofthe trees can be utilised and there is less incen-

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Mangrove Areas ofMainland Tanzania

District / Forest Region Area (km2)

Tanga and Muheza D 94.0Pangani D 17.6Bagamoyo D 56.4Dar es Salaam R 21.7Kisarawe and Mkuranga D 38.6Mafia D 34.7Rufiji D 532.6Kilwa D 224.3Lindi D 45.5Mtwara D 89.4Pemba Is.a 120.0Unguja Is. a 60.0Total 1334.8Sources: Semesi, 1991 excepta = Ngoile and Shunula,1992. D =District; R=Region

High value mangroveecosystems identified inthe villages surveyed• All mangrove areas

of Rufiji and Bagamoyo• Jangusari and Turiari

mangroves (Temeke)• Fumbwini mangroves

(Unguja South)• Matumbini and

Kisiwa Kikuu mangroves (Pemba)

Mangrove areas before and four years after the establishment of MMPRegion District Area 1989 (ha) Area 1998 (ha)Tanga Muheza, Tanga,

Pangani 11,200 12,000Lindi Kilwa 22,430 26,737Lindi Lindi 4,550 7,301Mtwara Mtwara 8,940 13,350Source: Semesi, 1991.

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tive for selective cutting and sustainable har-vesting.

Urban growth: Therapid growth ofcoastal populationsover the past fewdecades has result-ed in the conversionof large areas ofmangrove forests to ports, towns, settlements,industrial, hotel sites and agricultural lands. Thedevelopment of municipal garbage dumps andlandfill programmes within or adjacent to man-grove forests, for example in Zanzibar Town,have also adversely affected mangrove forests.Frequently, little consideration is given to thepossible adverse effects of urban growth onmangroves.

Demand for salt has resulted in the clearance ofareas behind and within mangrove forests for theconstruction of evaporation ponds for solar saltproduction. This has been identified as one of thegreatest negative impacts on the resources. Solarsalt currently contributes over 75% of the totalsalt produced in Tanzania.

Damage of mangrove forests from oil pollutionand oil spills could in the future become a seri-ous threat as marine shipping, industrial produc-tion and oil processing expand.

Though mariculture, if well planned, would notthreaten mangroves, there is a potential threat foradverse impacts if siting, construction and oper-ation are mismanaged. The numerous deltasand river estuariesalong the coast ofTanzania are ideal-ly suited for theexcavation ofponds for maricul-

ture, notably the culture of prawn. To date limitedefforts have been directed towards this potential—seaweed farming being the only exception. Recentproposals to convert a large part of Rufiji delta mangrovesinto prawn ponds were cancelled due to concernsover the potential impact to the mangrove ecosys-tem.

Management Options

Actions to ensure sustainable use of the valu-able and extensivemangrove forests inTanzania inc ludeharves t res t r ic t ions ,communi ty basedresource management,public education and out-reach on the ecologicalimportance of man-groves, and enhancedcoordination and com-munication betweenresearch institutions.

Restoration, involving re-planting, should be carried out in order to regenerateareas that have been seriously affected. Mangroverestoration has been conducted in various partsof the country by the Mangrove ManagementProgramme, as well as in Tanga and in Mbweniby local coastal management efforts. There isalso a need to promote alternative sources offirewood and building poles, such as Casuarinaforests, to reduce pressure on mangroves. InZanzibar, Casuarina forests have been successful-ly established to offer an alternative source of tim-ber for building poles.

MARINE FISHERIES

About 95% of fishing in Tanzania is conducted byartisanal fishers mainly along inshore areas of

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

The main sources ofpressure on man-groves in Tanzaniainclude:clearance of coastalareas for develop-ment activities,exacerbated byincreased coastalpopulation growth,and, the demand ofmangrove productsfor firewood, char-coal production andbuilding poles

Village perceptionsThe major threats to mangroves were identifiedas:• Cutting for building

poles or boat making• Cutting for fuel for

the coral mining (lime production) industry

• Coastal erosion

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the coast,around coralreefs, mangrovecreeks and overseagrass beds.Gears and ves-sels used aremostly tradi-tional and lowcost, such as outrigger canoes (ngalawa), basicfishing line and hooks (mshipi), basket traps(madema), small nets (bunduki) and spears(mikuki). Several hundred species of fish compriseregular catches, though invertebrates such asoctopus (pweza), squid (ngisi) and sea-cucumbers (majongoo bahari) are also highlyimportant seafood items collected by artisanal fish-ers.

The slightly deeper Zanzibar channel is animportant area for sardines (dagaa) and Indianmackerel that are caught on moonless nights

using purse-seine nets, scoop nets, and lights toattract the fish. The deep Pemba channel is alsoimportant for over one hundred dhows (mashua)that fish for large species, such as yellowfin tuna(jodari) and the sailfish (mbasi) using gill-nets.Both these semi-industrial fisheries rely on out-

board engines.In some casesthe boats, netsand engines arenot owned by thefishers, but byindividuals whodo not fish them-selves.

Inshore shallow areas around the mangrove fringedBagamoyo/Sadani and Rufiji Delta are importantfor the industrial prawn fishery. A fleet of about18 prawn trawlers based in Dar es Salaam repre-sents the only industrial-scale marine fishery in thecountry. Fishing trials using long-lines in 1997-98demonstrated that there is a potentially valuableoffshore fishery of high value migratory fishspecies such as tuna, sailfish, sardines, marlin andswordfish. Foreign industrial vessels are known toillegally fish these waters.

Distribution and Area

The marine fisheries in Tanzania are locatedalong a relatively narrow strip along the coast.The high seas, or the "Exclusive EconomicZone" that extend 364 km (200 miles) out to sea,are so far unexploited by Tanzanian fishermenbecause of lack of suitable vessels.

Importance of Marine Fisheries inTanzania

Local livelihoods: The inshore marine fishery isextremely important to coastal communities inTanzania. The number of full-time fishers in thecountry is estimated at 58,000, with about23,000 on the islands of Zanzibar and about25,000 along the mainland coast of Tanzania.The importance and impact of the fisheryextends much beyond these full-time fishers, andincludes all those involved in boat construction

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Wakojani fishermen netting around coral reefs, Zanzibar

Indicators - Marine Fisheries

• Distance to fishing grounds

• Fish landings• Diversity and size of fish• Abundance, diversity and size of seacucumbers, shells, octopus, squid, and crustacea

Mangrove areas identified inthe village survey as needingconservation and restoration

• Kichevi (Mafia)• Chakomve (Kinondoni)• Jangusari and Turiari(Temeke)• Fumbwini (Unguja South)• Kisiwa Kikuu (Pemba Wete)

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this shortcoming. This problem is not unique toTanzania. In tropical coastal countries world-wide, fisheries are usually comprised of numer-ous species and gear types with catches landedat small isolated sites by thousands of fishers,thus the challenges of obtaining reliable statis-tics often seem un-surmountable and continue toconfront fisheries managers. In Tanzania a furthercomplicating factor is that part of the fishingcommunity migrate up and down the coastdepending on the season, thus fishing effort ineach region changes throughout the year.Reliable trend data on fish catches and effort arerestricted to just a few studies. These have con-firmed that official statistics are unreliable andmust be interpreted with caution.

Fisheries scientists agree that the inshore fisheryof Tanzania shows signs of overexploitation.This can be seen especially in Zanzibar wherestatistics document a declining trend in annualcatch. The total annual catch in Zanzibar wasabout 20,000 tons in 1988, but it has nowdropped to less than 15,000 tons per year. Thefew detailed, long-term studies of somelocalised areas such as Chwaka Bay, Zanzibarand specific reef fisheries of Zanzibar confirmthe declining trend. Interviews with elder fisher-men also confirm that in the past they used tocatch more and larger fish in near-shore waterscompared to today.

According to government statistics, during theperiod between 1984 and 1995, annual fishcatch ranged between 45,000 and 54,000 tonnesfor the mainland. Also during this period, thenumber of fishermen increased each year. Until1990, increased effort resulted in increased catch-es, however, during the last decade, catches havebeen in decline, perhaps signalling that fishstocks are over-exploited.

and repair, and marketing and sale of fish products.For example, many women and children areengaged in the collection of shells and octopusfrom reef and beach areas during low tides and inthe sale and processing of fish products.Almost all people in coastal communities areinvolved in fishing activities in one form oranother. As with many other tropical coun-tries, the fishing community in Tanzania is com-prised mostly of individuals with very little alterna-tive income-earning capacity. Fishing is oftenthe fishers’ primary occupation.

For the coastal dwellers of Tanzania, fisheries areimportant both as a source of food, contribut-ing over 60% of protein consumption, and as a

source of income.The average individ-ual consumption ofseafood in Tanzania isgreater than the com-bined consumption ofpoultry and meat.

Export earnings: The majority of export rev-enue comes from the industrial fishery of shrimpor prawns (kamba). Other international exportproducts include sea cucumber, shells, live lob-sters, crabs, squid, octopus and shark fins. Asiais the primary export destination. The value ofexports from the mainland and Zanzibar exceedsseveral million US dollars annually.

Status and Trends

Obtaining reliable fisheries statistics on theartisanal and semi-industrial fisheries ofTanzania continues to be a serious problem. It isrecognised that obtaining these data, from thehundreds of fish landing sites scattered alongthe 1,400 km of shoreline (including that of thethree main islands: Pemba, Unguja and Mafia)is extremely difficult. The departments respon-sible for collecting fisheries statistics recognise

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Marine fisheries arevery important toTanzania coastal com-munities for income,imployment, and foodsecurity

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COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

"Five years ago when wefished at night for tunawi th our g i l l -ne t s weknew that if the fish did notget caught in the net the firsttime it swam past, it wouldlater on be caught. Now if itdoes not get caught the firsttime it will be caught in thenet of another boat." MakameFaki, Kigomani fisherman,Unguja

Source: Jiddawi and Ngoile (1999)

Some specific fisheries have significantlydeclined. The Zanzibar purse seine fishery ofsmall fish species in the open water (pelagicspecies) and the shark fishery are examples. Thecatch of small pelagic species by the boats of theZanzibar Fisheries Corporation declined from600 tons in 1986 to 91 tons in 1997. Trade inshark fins has also declined and some sharkspecies are now rarely seen in Tanzanian waters.Sharks, and rays, require many years to reachbreeding maturity and only produce a small num-ber offspring each year. They are therefore verysusceptible to over-fishing and local popula-tions may never recover. The collection oflobsters and mangrove crabs is restricted tocoral reef and mangrove areas respectively.Those who harvest these crustaceans are contin-uously searching for new fishing grounds possi-bly indicating that fished areas are being depleted.In Pemba, octopus collecting was traditionally con-ducted on foot. Now fishers use masks to catchoctopus from deeper waters indicating thatshallow, intert idal f ishing grounds havebeen over-exploited.

These trends are worrisome, especially con-sidering that the critical habitat for inshore fish-eries, such as coral reefs and mangroves, arebeing degraded in many areas. In the marineecosystem these various inshore habitats are

23

closely linked geo-graphically ande c o l o g i c a l l ythrough the move-ment of manyspecies, especiallyfish. Thus the lossof mangrove forests,for example, reducesvital nursery groundsfor fish and crus-taceans, and maycause erosion ands e d i m e n t a t i o n ,degrading coral

reefs, essential for inshore fish diversity andhealth.

The industrial prawn fishery has been moreclosely monitored and managed than the arti-sanal fishery because there are relatively fewvessels, the home port is Dar es Salaam, wherethey are easily accessed, and the fishery is impor-tant for export earnings. A closed seasonbetween November-March and prohibitionof night fishing are current managementmeasures. There is concern over the long-termviability of the fishery, and conflicts with arti-sanal fishermen for the same resources exist.Total landings increased from 1,081 tons in1984 to 2,190 tons in 1988, with a correspon-ding increase in effort from 10 to 13 trawlers.However, from 1990 onwards, landings havevaried. Landings dropped from 2,015 tons in1990 to 1,119 tons in 1992, despite an increasein the size of the fleet. This may indicate over-fish-ing in the trawling areas (mostly Rufiji andBagamoyo). Another concern is the high per-centage of catch from prawn trawlers that is dis-carded at sea (nearly a third). The discards con-sist of small immature prawns and other fish thathave a low market value. Most discarded fisheventually die as they are usually injuredbeyond recovery.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

The condition of inshoremarine fisheries is poor,due to harvest beyond sus-tainable levels. This is sup-ported by scientific datashowing a significantdecline in catches over thelast decade in several fish-eries. The status of the off-shore fishery is largelyunknown, due to a num-ber of reasons includinglack of research vessels tocarry out stock assessmentin Tanzania’s open waters

Threats to Fisheries

The demand for fishery resources has been grad-ually increasing with concurrent increase in pop-ulation and tourismgrowth. This hascaused an increase infishing pressure andthe use of gear andtechniques thatcause damage toreefs. Most of the destructive methods are illegal,but continue to be used due to lack of sur-veillance, enforcement and public awareness.The common destructive methods are the use ofdynamite fishing, drag nets (juya la kigumi),fine-meshed fishing nets, spearguns, beach seineand poison.

The use of dynamite was discussed earlier. Theuse of dragged nets is one of the most difficultdestructive fishing methods to control becausethe net used is not illegal. It is the action involvedin the technique of using the net that is a prob-

lem – dragging suchnets over corals andsmashing coral withsticks to chase awayhiding fish – and caus-es severe localiseddestruction. The legis-lation over use ofsuch nets is confusing

Overfished reefs identified in the village surveys

• Nyuli reef (Muheza)• Shengo reef (Tanga municipality)• Lukumbi, Nondo, Jiwe la Selemani, Nahumbu (Lindi)• Mziwila, Dema, Mnito, Mmongo and Oatakua

reefs (Mtwara)• Matumbini, Kwata and Utumbini reefs

(Pemba Mkoani)• Dambwe reef (Pangani) closed for conservation

Village perceptionsThe major thretes tomarine fisheries wereidentified as:

• Overfishing• Siene netting• Sedimentation

The main threats tomarine fisheries resourcein Tanzania includedestructive fishing prac-tices, coastal populationgrowth and increaseddemand for fishery prod-ucts, and ecosystemdegradation (Loss ofmangrove and coral reefhabitats)

24

and needs to be re-examined. The use of poisonleads to indiscriminate destruction of fish breed-ing and nursery grounds and has seriously affectedpopulations by destroying fish larvae and juve-niles. Mangrove cutting and loss of mangrovehabitat has a similar impact on fisheries.Mangroves are an irreplaceable part of the fishlife cycle, providing nursery and breedinggrounds for many ecologically and economical-ly valuable fish and prawn species.

Management Options

Monitoring, control and surveillance: There isa need to establish a reliable fisheries datacollection system. Accurate data on fishingeffort (numbers of fishers, boats, nets) andweight of catches landed are important forunderstanding the fisheries of the coast and foreffective management. There is also a needfor increased monitoring and surveillance on thepart of village and local authorities to increasecompliance with existing laws and regulationsgoverning fisheries.

The use of by-laws concerning localised harvestrestrictions, seasonal closures and gear restric-tions should be promoted. There is also a need tointroduce size limitations on the harvest ofmarine products (such as sea cucumbers andsharks), and to examine and document the move-ment of migratory fishermen in order to betterunderstand the role they play in exploiting thefisheries of the country.

Community awareness and management:Public education and awareness buildingefforts are important to raise the public’s knowl-edge of fishery laws and their justification. Alsoneeded is extension of good practices, such asavoiding the capture or collection of juveniles.Community-based marine reserves and protect-ed areas have been proven to be an effective wayto conserve and restore marine diversity and fishpopulations.

OTHER MARINE LIVING RESOURCES

In addition tomangroves, coralreefs and fish-eries, there areseveral othermarine livingresources inTanzania coastalwaters. Theseinclude: plankton, seaweeds, seagrasses, benth-ic fauna, marine turtles, marine mammals andcoastal birds. These living resources play a majorrole in the health and functioning of coastal andmarine ecosystems and to the economies of coastalpeople.

Plankton is comprised of two major compo-nents: phytoplankton and zooplankton.Collectively they are very important in thefood chain and hence ocean productivity.Many fish and invertebrates are dependent onplankton for food. Phytoplankton growth is usu-ally limited by the availability of nutrients in the

Indicators — Other marine living Resources

• Sighting and diversity of marine mammals

• Marine mammal by-catch

• Turtle sightings, diversity and by-catch• Seabird sightings and

diversity• Seaweed and seagrass abundance

Dolphins, Zanzibar

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

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water. Blooms occur in tropical coastal waterswhen nutrient level are high (e.g. from pollu-tion) and can lead to increased productivity andoccasionally to contamination of shellfish or mas-sive fish kills.

Seaweeds are plants, known as algae. Of the sever-al hundred differentspecies of seaweeds in thecountry, those of the genusEucheuma, are the mostutilised by humans. Theyare used to produce cos-metics and food deriva-tives, are used in healthfoods and have medicinaluses. Naturally growingEucheuma species havebeen harvested for exporttrade for over four decades.Culture technology wasestablished recentlybecause the supply of wild

stocks of Eucheuma does not meet the demand forthe product. Currently, seaweed farming is increas-ingly becoming an important economic activity inmany coastal communities of the country, particu-larly Zanzibar, where women are the main produc-ers. Over 3,000 tonnes are produced each year.

Seagrass communities in Tanzania’s coastalwaters are represented by 12 species. Seagrassesform dense beds that cover large areas of sandyor muddy coastal bottom, from the mid tidemark to a depth of 20 m or more. Their impor-tance results from their ecological interactionswith other ecosystems in the marine environment,especially mangroves and coral reefs, and in theirwide range of physical functions. Their mostnotable role is to provide breeding, nursery andfeeding grounds for many invertebrates andfish species. Seagrass beds also support com-plex food webs both through dead and living

biomass. The fish and shrimp communitiesassociated with seagrass beds are important toboth the artisanal and industrial fishery. Themain physical function of seagrasses isderived from the ability of the roots to bind sed-iments, thereby reducing re-suspension and lateralmovement of sand and mud along the shores. Inthis way, seagrass beds reduce coastal erosion.

Benthic fauna commonly found in Tanzania iscomprised of several invertebrate groups of ani-mals, such as worms, crustaceans, molluscs, seacucumbers, starfish and sea urchins. Some ofthese are of commercial importance to coastalcommunities. For example, several hundredspecies of mollusc are collected either for food(e.g. oysters, mussels, and cockles) or for sale oftheir attractive shells (e.g. cowries). Starfish arecollected and dried for sale as curios to tourists,and sea cucumbers are boiled and dried for exportwhere they are a traditional food item (known asbeche-de-mer or trepang). Marine invertebrates playimportant roles in the ecosystems they occupy.For example, certain shells are predators ofsea urchins and starfish that degrade coral reefswhen present in large numbers.

Marine turtles are represented in Tanzaniacoastal waters by five species. They spend theirlife in the sea and females come out on land onlyfor nesting, during which the clutch of eggs is

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Plankton, seaweeds,seagrasses, benthicfauna, sea turtles,marine mammals,and marine birds arejust part of theother marine livingresources availablein Tanzania coastalwaters. They play amajor role in thesustainablity ofcoastal ecosystemsand the livelihood ofmany coastal comm-munities as a sourceof food and income Seagrass, Mafia

26

buried high in the sand. Marine turtles feed on avariety of marine life including jelly-fish, sea-grasses and sponges. They have traditionallybeen a source of meat and eggs for coastal peo-ple around the world for hundreds of years, andtheir shell has been used for making combs andjewellery for many centuries. More recently,these ancient, long-lived reptiles have become animportant tourist attraction, appreciated by visi-tors both underwater and when nesting.

Coastal birds of Tanzania are varied in formand in the habitats they occupy. Open waterareas such as the Zanzibar and Mafia channels andthe Indian Ocean itself provide rich feedinggrounds for true seabirds such as terns, gannets,brown noddies and boobies. Some of these arepermanently present in Tanzania, nesting onsmall islands off the coast, such as LathamIsland. Other coastal birds include waders andshorebirds that visit Tanzania each year betweenAugust and May to feed on worms and smallcrustaceans on mud flats and beaches along theshores. Seabirds have importance for coastaltourism and for biodiversity conservation.Further, coastal birds play a role in nutrientcycling. For example, the guano produced bycoastal birds has been shown to be critical inmaintaining coastal forests.

Marine mammals are frequently present inTanzania’s coastal waters. There are two main

groups: the cetaceans, which comprise the toothedwhales, including dolphins, sperm whales, andbaleen whales, and sireneans which include thedugong. Dolphin species include the bottlenose,humpback, spotted and common dolphins. Spermwhales are normally migrants throughout the IndianOcean and are only occasionally seen inshore.Baleen whales, of whichthe most common isthe humpback whale,spend the summermonths feeding inAntarctic waters, andthe winter months inthe warmer tropicalwaters off East Africawhere the give birthand nurse their young.

Status andTrends

The harvest of marineinvertebrates, otherthan species of obviouscommercial impor-tance such as octopus,lobsters, prawns,mangrove crabs, isnot monitored or con-trolled. It is thereforedifficult to determinetrends in populationsand indeed the status of these resources.However, available data suggest that stocks ofsea cucumbers, for example, have been drasticallydecreasing as a result of intensive collection.Similarly, extensive collection of molluscs forthe ornamental shell trade has caused thisresource to decline in certain areas.

Marine turtles continue to nest successfully onbeaches of remote, smaller islands along the coast,

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Areas identified in thevillage surveys as hav-ing high diversity ofother marine livingresources

Seagrass beds• Kigomani (Mafia)• Mkwaja, Lukumbi,

Nondo, Mvinjeni and Ngululu (Lindi)

Marine mammal habitat• Kwale and KomaIsland ( M k u r a n g a )dugongs, turtles• Rufiji Delta area -

dugongs• Somanga and

Mbuyuni (Kilwa) dolphins, dugongs

• Unguja West - dilphins

• Unguja North - dugongs, dolphins

• Kizimkazi (Unguja South)- dolphins

• Deep sea channel (Pemba) whales,

Green Turtle on reef, Zanzibar

27

and in protected areas such as Mafia MarinePark, Saadani National Park, and the MisaliMarine Conservation Area. However, the num-ber of suitable, uninhabited beaches, is decreas-ing and it is feared that populations of marineturtle are also decreasing. Accidental catchesin f ishing nets are occasionally documented.The capture, slaughter and sale of marine turtlesproducts notably decreased in Zanzibar follow-ing a successful outreach campaign during the1990’s and marine turtles are now regularly seenaround coral reefs off Zanzibar.

Estimates of dugong numbers in Tanzania aredifficult to obtain but it is unlikely that there aremore than 100 individuals left in the country. Thetrends, based mostly on anecdotal evidence,indicate that their numbers have declined signifi-cantly over the past decades, possibly to thelevel where the populations cannot recover. Thetwo locations where dugong populations arefound in Tanzania are the Pemba–Zanzibarchannels and the Rufiji–Mafia area. They havebeen hunted and killed for their flesh and oil.

Dolph ins , por -poises, and baleenwhales a re no tc o m m e r c i a l l yexploited in Tanzania.With the moratoriumon international whal-ing for humpbackwhales, the numbersvisiting Tanzanian waters each year are likely toincrease. Accidental catches of both whalesand dolphins by fishing nets are a concern.

Threats to Other Marine LivingResources

The most frequent cause of pressure on othermarine living resources that are currently

exploited—such as shells, sea cucumbers, marineturtles, or dugong, is over harvesting.

Marine turtles are slaughtered for their meat, eggsand shell. Harvest and trade in turtle products isillegal in Tanzania but enforcement and compli-ance are limited resulting in a continued threat tothese endangered species, especially on themainland. The nets of prawn trawlers alsoentangle marine turtles notably around the RufijiDelta.

Gillnets are used to catch large species of fishsuch as tuna and bill-fish, though these1,000 m nets also acci-dentally catch marineturtles, dolphins andwhales. The increaseduse of these nets inTanzania is likely toincrease the threat tothese large animals.Threats to the remaining

few dugongs include habitat degradation thatmight affect their food supply, direct hunting,fishing nets and dynamite fishing.

Intensive farming of seaweed can encourage thedisease known as Ice-Ice that significantlyreduced production in the Philippines. Conflictsbetween coastal tourism development and seaweedfarms over the use of the shallow lagoons havealready occurred in Zanzibar. Such conflicts willlikely continue as both coastal tourism and sea-weed farming expand.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Village perceptions

The major thretes toother marine livingresources were identifiedas:

• Net fishing• Bottom trawling• Storms and wave

action

The main sources ofpressure on the othermarine livingresources includeunsustainableresource use anddegradation ofhabitats by humanfactors (oil spills,chemicals, sand min-ing deforestation anddynamite fishing)

28

Management Options

Management options to ensure the diversity andcondition of marine living resources in Tanzaniainclude prohibition on commercial trade ofmarine turtle shells; public education and outreachon the importance of and threats to marine livingresources; protection of critical habitats;enforcement of harvest limitations; andimproved law enforcement.

Intensive seaweed farming should be dis-couraged to avoid Ice-Ice disease (the stressedcondition of Eucheuma) and to reduce the nega-tive environmental impact of Eucheuma onother marine flora and fauna.

Concentrated turtle breeding sites should be pro-moted in national nature reserves or parks, asshould the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices(TEDs) in prawn trawler nets. Gillnet fishermenshould be instructed in methods to release orresuscitate drowned turtles.

Since little is known of the role of sea cucumbers and

molluscs in coastal ecosystems, the sales ofshells and beche-de-mer should be restricteduntil sufficient information on their ecologyand population dynamics are known.

WATER QUALITY

Water quality is an important prerequisite for thesocial and economic development of coastalareas and the health of the people who make useof these waters. Coastal water quality can bereduced through the introduction of sediments, solidwastes or garbage, dissolved nutrients, organicwastes, sewage, chemical wastes and oil, amongothers. Some of these pollutants can cause seri-ous health hazards to humans, marine life, andthe productivity andhealth of coastal habi-tats, including coralreefs, mangroves, sea-grass beds, intertidalsand and mud flats, andbeaches. These habitatssupport variousresources, both living and non-living that are vitalto the economies of coastal communities and thenation as a whole.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Indicators — WaterQuality• Turbidity• Odor• Sediment load• Algal growth

Ras Kilomoni, Dar es Salaam

Marine Species at Risk in Tanzania

In the marine environment, dugongs, turtles, sword-fish, reef sharks, humpback dolphin, various seacucumbers, and seahorse are considered endangeredor threatened in Tanzania. Dugong populations usedto inhabit the seagrass beds surrounding Kilwa andMafia, and off the Tanga region coast. The logger-head turtle (locally known as "mtumbwi" and"ranga") is considered vulnerable while the greenturtle ("kasa" or "nduvi"), hawksbill turtle ("ngam-ba"), olive ridley turtle, and leatherback turtle are allendangered. The hawksbill turtle is considered to becritically endangered. The nesting populations ofturtles have been declining rapidly due to incidentalfish catch, hunting, and loss of nesting beaches. Thealarming decline in sea turtle population may con-tinue to extinction unless measures are taken to pro-tect them

29

Pollutants like oil spills and industrial andmunicipal wastes can have serious effects on man-groves and seagrass beds, which in turn can affect

fisheries resources. Excessnutrients in coastal watersand other water bodies,through sewage dis-charge, often leads toblooms of green sea-weeds that upon theirdeath and subsequentdecomposition rapidlyconsume oxygen result-ing in unsightly andoften noxious smells on

beaches where it occurs.

Status and Trends

In general, the coastal waters in most parts ofTanzania are in relatively good condition.However, studies have confirmed that waters inthe vicinity of the urban areas of Tanga,Zanzibar and Dar es Salaam are polluted, andthat along the coast, other smaller pollutionhotspots also exist. With the steady growth ofcoastal populations and industrial and agricul-tural development of coastal and inland areas,pollution and degradation of water quality isexpected to rise.

Tanga coastal waters witness the proliferation ofseaweeds caused by discharge of nutrient-ladenwaters from a fertiliser factory as well as frommunicipal sewage. Coastal water pollution inTanga is also affected by effluents from sisal pro-cessing factories. Up to twenty sisal plants dis-charge their wastes into the coastal waters viathe Pangani, Sigi, Mruazi / Mnyuzi and MkurumziRivers.

Zanzibar town waters have alarming levels of col-iform bacteria - several hundred-fold above the

internationally accepted levels for safe bathing.Nutrient levels are also higher than normal for

tropical seawatersindicating inputsfrom human relatedactivities.

Dar es Salaamdomestic sewagewaste is one of theleading sources ofmarine pollution inthe city. The wastegenerated by 15% ofthe city residentswho are connected tothe sewer system is

discharged into the sea untreated. As a result,the coastal waters of the city, especially theharbour area, are heavily polluted. High faecaland total coliform levels are a result of thissewage pollution. The situation is made worseby broken sewer pipes which discharge untreat-ed sewage on mud flats near the harbour. Thisis now threatening invertebrates and fishresources in those areas. Seaweed blooms are aregular feature in the waters off the northern endof the beach of Ocean Road in Dar es Salaam.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Water quality isimportant for foodsecurity and the gen-eral health of allcoastal ecosystems.Water quality is intri-cately related to thewell-being of allcommunities inTanzania coastalareas

The quality ofTanzania’s coastal wateris in general quite high.Exceptions are near-shore water frontingmajor towns, wherepollution mainly fromuntreated domesticsewage is localized butsevere. The current pop-ulation increase incoastal towns is expectedto increase pollutionproblems in coastalwaters

30

The majority of coastal communities use pitlatrines for sewage disposal. In urban areas asmall proportion of residents have access to mod-ern toilet facilities butsome have no meansof disposal other thantheir immediate sur-rounding beach orbush. In rural areas aneven greater proportionhave no toilet facilities.

Around Dar es Salaam,the Msimbazi River andCreek are among themain vectors of pollution,carrying pollutantsfrom various sources.

Oi l po l lu t ion f rom a re f ine ry a tKigamboni, and industrial wastes from Keko,Chang’ombe, Kurasini, Mtoni and Temeke are dis-charged untreated into the river and creek. The pol-lutants comprise toxic chemicals such as dyes,paint wastes, strong alkali solutions, pesti-cides, heavy metals, cyanides and detergents.

Studies have indicated various levels of heavymetal pollution in the Dar es Salaam harbourarea. Commonly identified heavy metals foundin the harbour include lead, zinc and copper.Some of these are derived from commercial ship-ping as well as the numerous shipwrecks that fordecades have littered the harbour shores. AroundDar es Salaam numerous small landfill sites andgarbage dumps are located on riverbanks. Highconcentrations of dissolved nutrients leach fromthese sites and end up in coastal waters via riverrunoff.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENTPercentage Distribution of Private Household by type of Toilet

Region RURAL URBAN

Flush Pit Latrine None Flush Pit Latrine None

Tanga 0.8 80.8 18.3 16.2 79.2 4.5Coast 0.9 76.1 23.0 4.8 88.3 6.7D’Salaam 3.8 80.9 15.2 15.9 83.1 1.0Lindi 0.6 77.2 22.2 4.7 85.0 10.3Mtwara 1.0 84.2 14.8 7.4 86.1 6.6Source: Tanzania 1988 Census, Dar es Salaam

Village perceptions

The quality ofTanzania’s coastalwater was consideredby most villages to begood. Some cases afh igh turbidity andsediment loads werereported.

However, it was sug-gested that the trendover the last tenyears was a deterio-ration of water quality.

Type ofIndustry

Food Processing

Textile

Power generation

Metals

Petroleum

Example of Companies

Darbrew Ltd, Tanzania BreweriesLtd, CocaCola Bottles, FahariBottlers, Diaries and Flour mills

Urafiki textiles, Karibu textilesCoastal Industrial Combined Ltd.

TANESCO

NECO, Steel cast, ALAF, BicycleCompany, Steel Rolling mills.

TIPER, Storage Tanks at Ports andTanzania Zambia Pipeline

Location

DSM

DSMTanga

DSM

DSMTanga

Lindi Tanga

Pollution

Organic matters, detergents, suspendedsolids, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, and bacteria

Organic matters, dyes

Oil and lubricants

Solid wastes, suspended solids, zinc,chromium, iron, copper, acids, and alka-lis

Degradable matter, suspended solids,sludge, petrolium hydrocarbons, oils,greases, phenols, acids, alkalis, chromi-um zinc, manganese sulfur, lead, mercu-ry and other metals

Coastal Industries in Tanzania and their Pollutants

31

Threats to Water Quality

Untreated municipal and industrial wastes arecurrently the main threats to the quality ofTanzania’s coastal waters in the urban areas ofTanga, Zanzibar and Dar es Salaam. Othercoastal areas of Tanzania outside these majorcities, though largely free from domestic wastes,do suffer from run-off of agricultural wastes,including pesticides and fertilisers, via riversand streams. Most major rivers in the country drainagricultural lands and deposit their waste loadsinto coastal waters.

In addition to the transport of chemical wastesinto the coastal waters of Tanzania, rivers alsocarry large quantities of sediments to the coast.Though such inputs can be a result of naturalevents such as heavy rains in upland areas, pooragricultural practices upstream have beenknown to play a leading role in degradation ofcoastal waters due to sedimentation. High sedi-ment levels in rivers are often linked to defor-estation and soil erosion. A direct consequenceof this is the smothering of corals and otherorganisms, as well as the reduction of aestheticvalue of the water, making it less attractive foractivities such as tourism and general recreation.

Tanzania has coastal mineral and gas resources aswell as a potentialfor oil reserves thatcould make signifi-cant contributionsto the nationaleconomy. TheSongo Songo gasfield is the first tobe developed. Thiswill include large-

scale offshore gas extraction and an extensivepipeline system that will deliver the product to Dares Salaam. Though gas leaks are unlikely to causeseawater pollution, petroleum exploration incoastal regions including the Selous Basin, RufijiRiver plain, Ruvu basin, and Mandawa basin maypotentially be a source of oil pollution in the future.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Type ofIndustry

Example of Companies Location Pollution

Soap andDetergents

Sisal

Plastics

Cement

Cigarettes

Several Factories

Amboni Ltd, Kikwetu Sisal Estate,Kigombe Sisal Estate.

Amboni plastic, Tegry plastic,Simba plastic, Cotex

Tanzania Portland Cement, TangaPortland Cement

Tanzania Cigarette Company

DSMTanga

LindiTanga

DSMTanga

DSMTanga

DSM

Waste water, organic matter, phosphates,suspended solids, oils and zinc

Organic matters, waste water, sisal organic wastes

Solid wastes

Dust and fumes

Dust and fumes

The main sources of waterquality problems in thecoastal waters of Tanzaniainclude domestic and indus-trial waste especially in Dares Salaam, Zanzibar andTanga; agro-chemicals partic-ularly in Tanga; and, sedi-mentation problems at theentrances of large rivers.

32

Management Options

National waste management policy that holis-tically addresses the waste problem is an essen-tial prerequisite for effective water quality manage-ment in the country. The policy should provideclear guidelines and address all issues pertainingto environmental as well as social aspects ofwaste management and the linkages betweenthem. However, given limited resources avail-able, it is also essential to prioritise manage-ment efforts.

The involvement of the local stakeholders isessential for the successful implementation ofwaste management goals. The national wastemanagement policy should strive to develop andimplement community-based activities andapproaches to encourage environmentalimprovement and management at the local level.This should start with public education to buildawareness on the issues pertaining to waterquality. For example, an education/outreach pro-gram is needed to promote local awareness ofthe health risks associated with eating fishand shellfish from contaminated sites and thedangers of polluted waters. Public-private partner-ships in wastewater management are paramount

in set t ing up a successful water quali tymanagement program.

A national programme of water quality man-agement should include a plan for water qual-ity-monitoring and database management. Inadd i t ion , t a rge ted environmental studiesshould be undertaken to co l lec t base l inedata. Sufficient understanding and informa-tion is needed for effective decision makingon water quality issues.

There is an urgent need for municipal wastetreatment before it is discharged into the sea.Construction of primary and secondary wastetreatment facilities is a priority. Existingleaks in sewage disposal pipes should berepaired and construction of new discharge pipesshould take into consideration near shore watercurrent patterns to ensure that treated sewageeffluent is properly flushed out to the openocean. The government should also encouragelow cost, innovative waste managementtechnology that will further prevent thereduction of water quality. This includes theuse of composting toilets, and guidelines on thedesign and construction of wells and pit-latrines.The use of shallow wells should be discour-aged.

Lack of resources has, at different times, beenidentified as a major factor that has con-tributed to poor water quality and waste man-agement. An option to address this is to put inplace a user-based cost recovery system for suchservices as water supply and sewerage.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Water quality problems identified by the villagesurvey

Areas of heavy sedimentation• Rufiji delta through Msambanyamani river (Mkuranga)• Tidal flats off Mkuranga• Njimbani river (Ilala)

Areas polluted by domestic and industrial waste• Waters off Mkuranga• Ocean road, Dar es Salaam (Waste Water)• Njimbani river, Ilala - Dar es Salaam

(Industrial waste)• Ngombeni, Mkoani - Pemba (Domestic waste)

33

COASTAL EROSION

The total length of thecoastline in mainlandTanzania is about 800km, extending fromthe border withKenya in the north toRuvuma River in thesouth. When the actu-al extent of the shore-line is considered andthe three main islandsof Pemba, Ungujaand Mafia are includ-ed, the length increases to approximately1,400 km.

Wave action and onshore currents influence allshore types. The volume and flow of rivers alsoinfluence shores near estuaries. Sea conditionsand river flow are in turn affected by the sea-sons. The effect of the physical movement ofwaters on the coast causes erosion - a condi-tion whereby the shoreline position changes inspace and time. This condition is most prevalenton stretches of shoreline comprised of sand

beaches. Erosion is generally a result of multiple causes thatcan act independently or in association. Naturalcauses can be due to physical condit ionsor the forces of nature. Natural forces are related tochanges in climate, hydrology and coastal process-es. For example, sediment transport by wavesand currents can often lead to harbour siltationproblems. The potential impacts of naturalforces by themselves may not always be the great-est threat to the stability of coastlines. However,when they occur in conjunction with other fac-tors, such as human activities, they can become aserious problem. Human-related causes of ero-sion include non-sustainable resource use andcoastal development.

The loss of coastalland and property (res-idential houses,offices, hotels, indus-tries, agricultural land,etc.) is a major issuefor coastal manage-ment. Given the poten-tial socioeconomicimpacts of coastal ero-sion, property ownersnormally adopt defen-sive measures thatseek to maintain

shorelines in their present position. This isachieved either by building protective structuresor strengthening the coast through beach nour-ishment. However, since changes in shorelinecan take place over both long and short timeframes, it is important that the nature of thecause be understood before costly protectivemeasures are attempted. For example, experi-ence from Dar es Salaam and Bagamoyo hasshown that groynes constructed to stem themovement of beach sand have not solved ero-sion problems.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Coastal erosion hassignificant social, eco-nomic and ecologicalimportance for coastalcommunities whodepend on the coastlinefor their income, employ-ment and subsistence. Thecoastline must be pro-tected if the tourismbusiness and industrialinfrastructure are to besustained in Tanzania.

Indicators — CoastalErosion

• Annual rate of erosion or accretion

• Frequency of resource use and development activities that contribute to erosion/accretion

Beach erosion, Zanzibar

34

Status and Trends

Shoreline changes are widespread, but the ero-sion rate and character of Tanzania’s coastlinesvary from place to place and from season toseason, depending on the specific coastal con-figuration, sedimentary characteristics and hydrody-namic conditions. A full assessment of the problemand suggestions for control measures has notbeen undertaken. In specific locations, erosion isknown to be severe. For example, significanterosion over the last few decades has resulted in theloss of several buildings at Africana Beach Hoteland homes at Kunduchi beach area in Dar esSalaam where the beach is retreating at the rateof 4 meters per year.

Some of the more badly affected areas in Zanzibarinclude Maruhubi, Nungwi, Paje and Jambiani.Evidence of beach erosion at these sites is visible inthe number of coconut and Casuarina trees thathave been undercut and are collapsed.

Another example of severe erosion is thecomplete disappearance of Maziwi Island in 1987.This may have been the consequence of human-related causes such as the loss of surroundingcoral reefs due to destructive fishing practicesand sea level rise.

Human Factors Promoting CoastalErosion

Lack of understanding of the processes controllingcoastal erosion often increases the damage thaterosion causes to properties. Lack of under-standing results in human settlement, construc-tion and investment in potentially hazardouscoastal areas and inappropriate coastal defenseschemes.

Destructive use of marine resources such asover-exploitation of beach sand for building, the

extraction of livingcoral from nearbycoral reefs, mining ofcoral-rock cliffs, andmangrove cutting,often compound theeffects of coastalerosion. Sand min-ing on riverbeds canlead to depletion ofsand deposits andsediments thatwould otherwise betransported to

neighbouring beaches. Excessive removal ofgroundwater can also contribute to coastal ero-sion.

The removal of seagrass beds for cultivation ofseaweed or to create wider expanses of beach fortourism and recreation can destabilise the sandseabed and enhance the effects of water move-ment thereby increasing coastal erosion. Similareffects result from the removal of mangrovetrees and beach vegetation close to coastal prop-erties to create or increase beachfront.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Areas threatened by shoreline erosion identifiedin the village survey

Potentialy threatened• Rufiji (Simbaulanga, Bunduki, Vikacha and

Nyamisati)• Pangani• Mtwara

Eroding areas that need immediate conservation andrestoration• Area between Msasani through Kunduchi to

Bahari beach north of Dar es Salaam

The main human - related causes of shorelineerosion in Tanzania includeloss of natural shorelineprotection by clearence ofvegetation and live coral extraction, loss of natural nourishment ofbeach sand by mining ofsand on riverbeds, and con-struction of jetties and har-bors causing a change inlocal sediment dynamics

35

Management Options

There are a number of management options thatcan contribute to reducing the effects of coastalerosion in Tanzania. They include guidance andeducation materials on the effects of differentprotective methods; use of development plansand zoning in coastal areas; enforcement of theno development buffer between the shoreline anddevelopment; and the enforcement of other lawspertaining to siting and construction on the shore-line.

The development of a formal strategy to addresissues related to zoning of coastal areas suitable

for various activities is likely to reduce futureproblems. The current practice of permitting excep-tions to existing regulations should be discour-aged.

The preparation and promotion of materials onthe effects of different protection methods onshoreline erosion and of the need for appropriateengineering designs based on solid scientificdata should be encouraged as a means for pro-tecting properties in erosion-prone areas.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Coastal development, Dar es Salaam

36

Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership(TCMP) The Tanzania Coastal ManagementPartnership was established in 1997 to improvenational coastal planning, policy and management,and to coordinate local and national coastalresource management. TCMP works with the exist-ing network of ICM programs and practitionersto promote a par t ic ipa tory , transparentprocess to unite government and community,science and management, and private and pub-lic interests to wisely conserve and developcoastal ecosystems and resources.

Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP)This Park was established in 1995 under theNational Legislation Marine Parks and ReservesAct of 1994. The initial management focus hasbeen on the problem of dynamite fishing in thePark area. In the next several years, the MIMP willwork closely with Mafia Island communities torevise the Park management plan and opera-tionalize the Park Management Council.

Mnazi Bay Marine Park (MBMP) Mnazi Bay is located close to the Tanzania-Mozambique border at the Ruvuma estuary inMtwara. It covers a total area of over 200 km2 witha local population of around 5000 people thatdirectly rely on the reef for food and liveli-hood. The Park area is long (60 km) and narrow (3km), encompassing a fringing reef along theouter mangrove island shelf.

Dar es Salaam Marine Reserve (DMR)This marine reserve is located in the northern partof the city of Dar es Salaam. It includes Fungu

Yasini, Mbudya, Bongoyo and Pangavini Islands.Conservation actions include coral reef restorationin collaboration with local fishing communities andpromotion of ecotourism.

Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation andDevelopment Program (TCZCDP) This program was established in 1994 to pro-motes sustainable use of coastal resources inthe Tanga administrative region. The programworks at both district and village levels to addresscritical coastal issues. Conservation actions includecontrol of destructive fishing practices, closureof reefs to replenish fish stocks, promotionof alternative livelihood options, such as mar-iculture, and mangrove planting. This demon-stration program has shown that manage-ment of coastal resources and developmentactivities can be effectively undertaken at the locallevel.

Kinondoni Integrated Coastal AreaManagement Programme (KICAMP)This coastal management program of Kinondonidistrict in Dar es Salaam was initiated in 2000.The program has identified priority coastalissues and developed a strategy for addressingthem. Priority issues include coastal tourism devel-opment, erosion and dynamite fishing.

Rural Integrated Project Support (RIPS)RIPS is a rural development project located inMtwara and Lindi administrative regions. Theproject works with coastal communities to reducedynami te f i sh ing and ra i se awarenessabout the importance of coastal resources.

Marine Protected Areas and Conservation Efforts

37

Rufiji Environment Management Project(REMP)REMP's goal is to promote the long-term conserva-tion through wise use of the lower Rufiji forests,woodlands and wetlands. The project area is withinecologically rich Rufiji floodplain and severalupland forests of special importance.

Mnemba Island Marine Reserve (MIMR)Mnemba Island Marine Reserve was created for thepurpose of reducing damage to the island’senvironment and marine l i fe . The island isa breeding site for sea turtles.

Menai Bay Conservation Area (MBCA)Menai Bay Conservation Area, gazetted as a con-servation area in 1997, is located in the south westof Unguja Island. It encompasses an area of 47,000ha. which holds extensive areas of coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove forests. Sixteen villagecommunities reside within the protected area. Theconservation areas was created after studies con-ducted in 1991 indicated that the area’s coralresources were being rapid degraded and fish pop-ulations were declining as a result of damagingfishing methods. Management actions have target-ed destructive fishing methods and overfishing.The long-term goal of the project is to conservethe biological process, productivity and eco-sys-tems of the Menai Bay for the benefit of local people.

Chumbe Island Marine Park (CIMP)Established in 1992, the park is managed by aprivate company with assistance from an adviso-ry committee that includes representatives fromgovernment, the University of Dar es Salaam andlocal communities. In 1994, Chumbe Island wasgazetted as a marine protected area thatincludes a reef sanctuary.

Chwaka-Bay-Paje Conservation Area (CBPCA)The Chwaka-Bay-Paje Conservation Area has pre-pared a management plan and established a CoastalResource Management Committee.

Misali Island Marine Conservation Area(MIMCA)MIMCA’s goal is to establish a financiallyself-sustaining marine and terrestrial protected areaat Misali Island, Pemba, based on fishing and eco-tourism.

Marine Protected Areas and Conservation Efforts

Breeding site for birds, Latham Island

38

Marine Protected Areas and Conservation Efforts

60

COASTAL PEOPLE

41

Demographics

The five mainland

coastal regions

encompass about

15 percent of the

country's land area and are home to approximately

25 percent of the country's population, or about 8

million people. At the present rate of coastal popu-

lation growth there could be 16 million people liv-

ing on the coast by the end of this decade.

The last national population census was in 1988. At

that time, the growth rate for mainland Tanzania

overall was 2.8 percent. The Table below shows

population and population density for the year 2000

for mainland Tanzania coastal regions based on

1988 growth rates.

The 1988 census statistics show a significant rural-

urban migration pattern, particularly to the city

of Dar es Salaam. Major reasons are the lack

of communication and transportation infra-

structure in coastal communities and lack of

livelihood opportu-

nities. Especially in

Mtwara and

Lind i r eg ions ,

cash crop plantat ions such as coconut and

cashew nuts occupy large expanses of land leav-

ing nowhere for the young to farm. Fishing

along the coastline often provides little attrac-

tion due to the low level of technology and the

poor condition of gear. It is not easy to make a

living by fishing throughout the year.

Reduc ing migra t ion wi l l r equ i re

strengthening infrastructure, improving the

productivity of current economic activities in rural

coastal communities, and promoting alternative

livelihood opportunities.

Lifetime migration by region, 1988

Region Lifetime Lifetime Net Lifetime

in Migration out Migration Migration

Mtwara 46,299 144,988 -98,689

Lindi 95,200 145,031 -49,831

Tanga 98,747 150,915 -52,168

Coast 103,804 207,716 -103,912

D’Salaam 651,246 150,625 500,621

Source: Tanzania 1988 Population Census, Dar es

Salaam. Lifetime migration refers to changes in individu-

als’ regional domicile over their lifetime.

COASTAL PEOPLE

Indicators — Demographics• Village population• Population density• Migration / Immigration

Village perceptionsIn most of the coastal vil-lages surveyed, populationdensity, and migration areall increasing

42

COASTAL PEOPLE

1988 2000

Population and population density by coastal region

Source: Tanzania 1988 Population Census, Dar es Salaam

Region

Coast

D’ Salaam

Lindi

Mtwara

Tanga

Zanzibar

TANZANIA

Land Area

km2

32,407

1,393

66.046

16,707

26,808

2,460

881,300

Total

Population

638,015

1,360,850

646,550

889,494

1,283,636

642,578

23,174,336

% Growth

rate

2.1

4.8

2.0

1.4

2.1

3.0

2.8

Population

Density per

km2

20

977

10

53

48

260

26

Population

(Predicted)

813,444

2,430,500

800,038

1,023,134

1,671,027

867,473

31,400,138

Population

Density per

km2

25

1,745

12

61

62

353

36

Fish drying, Somanga Village (Kilwa)

43

Economic Status

Some of the coastal

regions of Tanzania

are among the most

deprived in the

country in terms of

infrastructure, per

capita income,

human capabilities,

survival mechanisms

and wellbeing. This

reality is becoming

more widely understood thanks in part to several

complementary policy planning initiatives

devised to tackle poverty and other development

problems. These initiatives should result in

greater focus and increased commitment toward

efforts that address the unique situation of

coastal areas.

The present Poverty Reduction Initiative and

Strategy Paper (PRISP) cuts across many gov-

ernment agencies and involves much of the donor

community. The poverty reduction initiative, co-

ordinated by the Vice-President's Office, has

developed indicators of poverty and established

a Social Economic Database (SED) in the

National Bureau of Statistics to better inform

policy and decision making.

In terms of income per capita, the data show

that, with the exception of Dar es Salaam, the

mainland coastal regions rank low in the country

compared to other regions. It is a fact that in

rural areas, including rural coastal communities,

incomes are lower and poverty is more wide-

spread than in the urban centres. This indicates the

magnitude of the challenges facing Tanzania and

the importance of economic growth to poverty

alleviation.

In the coastal communit ies surveyed for this

report, estimates of typical income varied from

high to low, but the median across all villages is

COASTAL PEOPLE

Indicators — Economic wellbeing• Income• Property ownership• Quality of housing• Food security• Ability to save• Access to credit

facilities• Local investments and access to markets and trade

GNP per capita (1997), regional ranking and value

Rank ValueTanga 5 112,777Coast 7 124,188Mtwara 9 126,873Lindi 10 126,949DSM 20 371,811

Per capita income in 1997 in the most deprivedregions was 95,623 Tshs.

Source: Porvety and Welfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’s Office

Rank “1” impliesmost deprivedregion and “20”least deprived region.

Women preparing fish - Kilwa

44

low to average.

Whereas, five of the

villages surveyed

were ranked as high

or very high in

income level, eight

of the villages cate-

gorised themselves

as very low.

The coastal village

survey indicated

that housing condi-

tion is poor. In most of the villages, poverty

was manifested by poor credit and marketing

facilities, little savings, and lack of property

o w n e r s h i p a n d investments. However, in

many villages the number and variety of groups

engaged in the burgeoning informal sector is on

the increase, particularly in the most recent past.

This is a sign that the future holds more and bet-

ter prospects.

Severe food scarcity

is not a frequently

cited problem in the

coastal communities

surveyed. This con-

trasts from the actu-

al status of the

regions overall.

Indeed Tanga, Coast

(Pwani) and Lindi

regions are among

the most afflicted in

terms of food securi-

ty in the country. This may indicate that coastal

villages have somewhat better food security than

inland communities, because of the marine arti-

sanal fishery.

In two of the villages surveyed there is a local

food deficiency once every year or every other

year. In most of the villages there has either

never been a food shortage, or it occurs infre-

quently (once in ten years). However, if growth

in agricultural yields and fish catch do not keep

pace with population growth, the problems of

food insecurity will become more severe in iso-

lated rural coastal communities in the future.

Regional data also indicate that the nutritional sta-

tus of residents of several mainland coastal

regions is very poor overall. The percentage of

children underweight (below 80 percent of nor-

mal weight) is an indicator of poverty and

affects school enrolment and overal l educa-

tional attainment. The national average of the per-

COASTAL PEOPLE

Food security, regionalranking

Tanga 1Coast 4Lindi 5Mtwara 9DSM 20

Rank “1” implies mostdeprived region and “20”least deprived region.

Source: Poverty andWelfare MonitoringIndicators, VicePresident’s Office

Village survey — income categories

Very low <50,000 Tshs.Low 50,000-100,000Avarage 100,000-200,000High 200,000-500,000Very high 500,000-1,000,000

In most coastal villages, itwas perceived that thetrend in income had deteri-orated in the recent past(over the past year). Butover a longer time frame(ten years) villagers felt

Mafia Port

45

cent of children

underweight is 9.

Lindi, Coast

(Pwani), and

Mtwara regions are

among the regions

with a high percent-

age of underweight

children, that is 12,

15, and 22 percent,

respectively. The per-

centage is 3 and 5

percent for Tanga and Dar es Salaam regions.

The major threats to economic status were per-

ceived by villagers in the survey to be low income,

lack of technology, environmental degradation and

inflation. Lack of technology calls for the need

to embark on concerted efforts to transfer knowl-

edge and demonstrate low cost and appropriate

technologies. To take advantage of the full benefit

of new technologies will also require rural credit

schemes to finance the growth and betterment

of transportation, infrastructure and other

facilities for marketing.

By identifying environmental degradation as

an urgent threat to economic status, coastal

villagers have recognised that economic well-

being and the environment are intimately connect-

ed. Most rural coastal communities depend on

seawater and land to generate income and sub-

sistence. A decline in coastal ecosystem produc-

tivity has a direct negative impact on society.

Hence, protect ing environmental resources

that people depend on for income generation and

consumption is critical to the survival of coastal

families, poverty reduction and slowing rural to

urban migration.

The fishing community in Tanzania, as with

many other tropical countries, is comprised most-

ly of artisanal fishers operating near the shores of

the Indian Ocean. Fishing is their major preoc-

cupation providing them with cash income and

their main source of protein. Many take to the sea

as ordered by custom but also because no other

possibilities exist. It is therefore paramount

that poverty alleviation management strategies

should target alternative income generating

opportunities to take pressure off the fragile near

shore environment. Coupled with this, we must

work toward more environmentally sustainable use

of marine resources, and continue to advance

the conservation of the coral, mangrove, sea-

grass and other habitats that coastal populations

depend on. These actions are decis ive for

coas ta l we l lbe ing and fundamental for

encouraging young people to remain in rural

coastal villages rather than migrate to Dar es

Salaam and other urban areas. The explosive

urban growth in Dar es Salaam has not been

matched with housing and sanitation infra-

structure, leading to an increase in squat-

ter settlements and environmental degra-

dation.

COASTAL PEOPLE

Nutrition level, regional rank-ing

Lindi 6Mtwara 9Coast 11Tanga 17DSM 20

Rank “1” implies mostdeprived region and “20”least deprived region.

Source: Poverty andWelfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’sOffice

46

Infrastructure

Poor infrastructure,

including roads,

water supply, port

facilities, electri-

cal power, and

telecommunica-

tions, is one of the causes of continuing pover-

ty in coastal areas. Problems of infrastructure

have a major impact on economic growth, deci-

sions to migrate, health, education, and sanita-

tion.

Only a very small percentage of rural coastal

households have electricity. The percentage is

higher in urban areas. Two thirds of the villages in

the coastal survey indicated that there is no elec-

tricity use or that such use is very insignificant.

In general, the road system is extremely poor in

coastal regions. For example in the Coast

(Pwani) region as a whole, 89% of the roads are

constructed of either gravel or bare earth and are

impassable during the rainy season. Despite

their poor condition, in all coastal

regions, roads are the most important

means of transportation within regions

and to other regions. In Lindi region,

the poor condition of roads discourages

traffic flow to other regions. The Dar

es Salaam – Lindi road is the "life-

line" of the region's economy but is in

appalling condition. Nine of the vil-

lages surveyed are not fully accessible

by road for a greater part of the year.

The port of Mtwara is strategically well placed

to serve cargo being transported to and from the

regions of Mtwara, Ruvuma and Lindi, as well

as the countries of Malawi and Zambia. This

potential has not been achieved due to poor

roads leading to Mtwara town. Moreover there

is only limited commercial freight and passen-

ger transport between the port of Mtwara and

Dar es Salaam. During the rainy season, the pas-

senger service by boat to Mtwara is the most reli-

able means of travel, though at times erratic.

COASTAL PEOPLE

Indicators — Infrastructure• Road infrastructure• Distance to fresh water• Quality to water supply• Access to electric service• Distance to fuelwood

supplies

Rufiji Ferry

47

Lindi region has two ports—one in the town ofLindi itself and the other in Kilwa. However,they are serviced only by small vessels and merelylink the districts within the region and do not linkthe region with other parts of the country.

The distance to and quality of water was con-sidered by the villages surveyed to range fromunsatisfactory to average. Nine of the villagesconsidered it to be unsatisfactory and in one villageit was ranked as very poor, or obtained withhardship. In this particular village(Kicharikani in Muheza district, Tanga region) itis an eight-hour walk to collect fresh water.

Fuelwood was viewed to be reasonably accessibleoverall in the villages surveyed. But there is awide variation from place to place. Thus, sixvillages report that collecting fuelwood is ahardship, while seven others affirm the abun-dance of fuelwood. At the same time, all villagesfelt that fuelwood had become less accessible inthe relatively recent past. Health

The majority of people along the coast are exposed

to environmental and nutritional related healthproblems. Malaria and water borne diseases aret y p i c a l l ythe greatestthreats tohealth.

In most vil-lages sur-veyed, dis-tance toh o s p i t a l swas per-ceived tobe reason-able. Access to medicine, supplies and the numberof doctors and nurses in relation to the popula-tion served were viewed by coastal villages asinadequate and in most places, were considered tobe deteriorating over time.

Water and health service indicatorsRegion Rural population Population per

with access to health facilityclean and safe water1992 1996

Coast 40.1 4,816D’Salaam 57.4 5,347Lindi 49.5 6,108Tanga 59.7 6,607Mtwara 83.8 7,939Source: Poverty and Welfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’s Office,November 1999.

COASTAL PEOPLE

Indicators — Health• Distance to hospital• Number of hospital stuff• Quality of health service• Prevalence of common

diseases• Health knowledge• Use of Traditional

healers• Life expectancy• Infant and child

mortality rateSailing, Kilwa

48

COASTAL PEOPLE

In many of the vil-lages there was aperception thatheath status interms of prevalenceof common diseaseand life expectancywas deteriorating,with the exception ofinfant and childmortality, which

was considered to be improving.

This is corroborated by official regional data, whichindicate that the infant mortality rate in coastalregions has, on average, consistently improved from1975 to 1995.

Villagers felt that their health knowledge is quitegood and has increased over the past year or so. Aparallel finding is that the use of traditional healers isperceived to have decreased over the past year inover half the villages surveyed.

Infant mortality rate by region (per 1,000)Region Infant Mortality Rate (/1000)

1975 1985 1995 Coast 121 113 105Dar es Salaam 108 105 102Lindi 151 140 129Mtwara 161 138 119Tanga 112 106 100Mainland total 137 115 96Pemba North 128 123Pemba South 123 119Unguja North 132 130Unguja South 121 123

Unguja West 112 113

Source: Poverty and Welfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’s Office, November1999

Education

Lindi is considered

to be the most

deprived of the

mainland adminis-

trative regions in

education, as meas-

ured by primary

school enrolment.

The village survey

did not include

education indica-

tors in this first state

of the coast report,

but villagers were asked about their perception of

the underlying threats to poor educat ion.

The most frequently cited urgent threats to

education in coastal villages were poverty and

child labour, poor motivation and early mar-

riage.

Health regional rankingHealth HealthStatus Services

Lindi 4 18Mtwara 8 12Coast 9 13Tanga 13 13DSM 13 13

Rank “1” implies mostdeprived region and “20”least deprived region.

Source: Poverty andWelfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’sOffice

Gross Enrollment (prim.school), regional rankingLindi 2Coast 9Tanga 12Mtwara 13DSM 19

Rank “1” implies mostdeprived region and “20”least deprived region.

Source: Poverty andWelfare MonitoringIndicators, Vice President’sOffice

Kilwa Masoko Secondary School.

49

COASTAL PEOPLE

Gender Equality

Gender refers to the

roles men and

women play in a

community; i.e. the

differences in tasks,

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ,

cons t ra in t s and

o p p o r t u n i t i e s

between both

groups. These roles

are deeply fixed in

people's minds and hearts but can change and

actually do change over time. Traditionally,

women in coastal communities are mainly

involved in household activities, including col-

lection of fuelwood and water, production of

food and subsistence fisheries, while men are

mainly involved in cultivation of food and cash

crops, fishing and small scale business and

trade.

With only one or two exceptions, women's role

relative to that of men is perceived to be very

low in the villages surveyed in areas of income

generation, land ownership, contribution to house-

hold expenditure, community decision mak-

ing and natural resource management.

Women’s’ role is deemed very high in time

devoted to household activities. In most of the

villages there is a recent trend of an increasing

role of women especially in income generation,

contribution to household expenditure and even

community decisions.

The major threats to gender equality were per-

ceived to be inadequate technologies for

women, inadequate education and capacity, low

representation of women in decision-making

bodies, and early marriage.

Governance and CommunityOrganisations

Coastal villagers surveyed perceived that vil-

lage, local, and central government are well

Gender equality in decision making

Indicators — GenderEquality

Relative role of women in income generation, land ownership, household activities, contribution tohousehold expenditures, community decisions and natural resources management.

Village meeting, Tanga

50

COASTAL PEOPLE

managed and

active. But

c o m m u n i t y

organisat ions

and village

c o m m i t t e e s

were not con-

sidered to be as

strong. In four

villages it was

reported that there are no functioning communi-

ty organisations or village committees. However,

there is a trend across most coastal villages of

increasing quality and quantity of community organ-

isations, village committees, NGOs and donor-organ-

ised activities.

Community clubs and organisations in coastal

communities build trust, civic cooperation, and

overall "social capital". This is important for

environmental planning and human development

because it enhances problem solving capabilities and

performance of institutions.

The major threats to governance and community

organisations perceived to be limited funding, lack

of coordination, conflicting interests and poor plan-

ning, and donor dependence and influence.

Indicators — Governance andCommunity Organisation

• Quality of village, local, and central government

• Number and quality of private, donor, and civil society groups (community organisations, village committees, religious groups, social clubs,

and NGO’s)

diver

51

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