Appendix

Table A.1. Chemical Symbols for the Elements

Ac Actinium Es Einsteinium N Nitrogen Sc ScandiumAg Silver Eu Europium Na Sodium Se SeleniumAl Aluminum F Fluorine Nb Niobium Si SiliconAm Americium Fe Iron Nd Neodymium Sm SamariumAr Argon Fm Fermium Ne Neon Sn TinAs Arsenic Fr Francium Ni Nickel Sr StrontiumAt Astatine Ga Gallium No Nobelium Ta TantalumAu Gold Gd Gadolinium Np Neptunium Tb TerbiumB Boron Ge Germanium O Oxygen Tc TechnetiumBa Barium H Hydrogen Os Osmium Te TelluriumBe Beryllium He Helium P Phosphorous Th ThoriumBi Bismuth Hf Hafnium Pa Protactinium Ti TitaniumBk Berkelium Hg Mercury Pb Lead Tl ThalliumBr Bromine Ho Holmium Pd Palladium Tm ThuliumC Carbon I Iodine Pm Promethium U UraniumCa Calcium In Indium Po Polonium V VanadiumCd Cadmium Ir Iridium Pr Praseodymium W TungstenCe Cerium K Potassium Pt Platinum Xe XenonCf Californium Kr Krypton Pu Plutonium Y YttriumCl Chlorine La Lanthanum Ra Radium Yb YtterbiumCm Curium Li Lithium Rb Rubidium Zn ZincCo Cobalt Lr Lawrencium Re Rhenium Zr ZirconiumCr Chromium Lu Lutetium Rh RhodiumCs Cesium Md Mendelevium Rn RadonCu Copper Mg Magnesium Ru RutheniumDy Dysprosium Mn Manganese S SulfurEr Erbium Mo Molybdenum Sb Antimony

558 Appendix

Table A.2. SI Multiples

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E 10−1 deci d1015 peta P 10−2 centi c1012 tera T 10−3 milli m109 giga G 10−6 micro µ106 mega M 10−9 nano n103 kilo k 10−12 pico p102 hecto h 10−15 femto f101 deka da 10−18 atto a

Table A.3. Derivative SI Units

Expression in TermsQuantity Name of Unit of Basic Units

Area Square meter m2

Volume Cubic meter m3

Frequency Hertz (Hz) s−1

Density (concentration) Kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3

Velocity Meter per second m/sAngular velocity Radian per second rad/sAcceleration Meter per second squared m/s2

Angular acceleration Radian per second squared rad/s2

Volumetric flow rate Cubic meter per second m3/sForce Newton (N) kg m/s2

Pressure Newton per square meter (N/m2) kg/m s2

or pascal (Pa)Work energy heat torque Joule (J), newton-meter (N m) kg m2/s2

or watt-second (W s)Power heat flux Watt (W), Joule per second (J/s) kg m2/s3

Heat flux density Watt per square meter (W/m2) kg/s3

Specific heat Joule per kilogram degree (J/kg deg) m2/s2 degThermal conductivity Watt per meter degree (W/m deg) kg m/s3 deg

or (J m/s m2 deg)Mass flow rate (mass flux) Kilogram per second kg/sMass flux density Kilogram per square meter-second kg/m2 sElectric charge Coulomb (C) A sElectromotive force Volt (V) or W/A kg m2/A s3

Electric resistance Ohm (�) or V/A kg m2/A2 s3

Electric conductivity Ampere per volt-meter (A/V m) A2 s3/kg m3

Electric capacitance Farad (F) or A s/V A3 s4/kg m2

Magnetic flux Weber (Wb) or V s kg m2/A s2

Inductance Henry (H) or V s/A kg m2/A2 s2

Magnetic permeability Henry per meter (H/m) kg m/A2 s2

Magnetic flux density Tesla (T) or weber per square meter (Wb/m2) kg/A s2

Magnetic field strength Ampere per meter A/mMagnetomotive force Ampere ALuminous flux lumen (lm) cd srLuminance Candela per square meter cd/m2

Illumination lux (lx) or lumen per square meter (lm/m2) cd sr/m2

Appendix 559Ta

ble

A.4

.SI

Con

vers

ion

Mul

tiple

s

Acc

eler

atio

n(m

/s2)

ft/s

20.

3048

gal

0.01

Free

fall

(g)

9.80

665

in/s

20.

0254

Ang

le[r

adia

n(r

ad)]

Deg

ree

0.01

7453

29Se

cond

4.84

8137

×10

−6M

inut

e2.

9088

82×

10−4

Gra

de1.

5707

96×

10−2

Are

a:(m

2)

Acr

e40

46.8

73H

ecta

re1

×10

4

Are

100.

00m

i2(U

.S.s

tatu

te)

2.58

9998

×10

6

ft2

9.29

0304

×10

−2yd

20.

8361

274

Ben

ding

Mom

ento

rTo

rque

:(N

m)

Dyn

ecm

1×

10−7

lbf

in0.

1129

848

kgf

m9.

8066

50lb

fft

1.35

5818

ozf

in7.

0615

52×

10−3 E

lect

rici

tyan

dM

agne

tism

a

Am

pere

hour

3600

coul

omb

(C)

EM

Uof

indu

ctan

ce8.

987

×10

11he

nry

(H)

EM

Uof

capa

cita

nce

109

fara

d(F

)E

MU

ofre

sist

ance

8.98

7×

1011

(�)

EM

Uof

curr

ent

10am

pere

(A)

Fara

day

9.65

×10

19co

ulom

b(C

)E

MU

ofel

ec.p

oten

tial

10−8

volt

(V)

Gam

ma

10−9

tesl

a(T

)E

MU

ofin

duct

ance

10−9

henr

y(H

)G

auss

10−4

tesl

a(T

)E

MU

ofre

sist

ance

10−9

ohm

(�)

Gilb

ert

0.79

57am

pere

(A)

ESU

ofca

paci

tanc

e1.

112

×10

−12

fara

d(F

)M

axw

ell

10−8

web

er(W

b)E

SUof

curr

ent

3.33

6×

10−1

0am

pere

(A)

mho

1.0

siem

ens

(S)

EM

Uof

elec

.pot

entia

l29

9.79

volt

(V)

ohm

cent

imet

er0.

01oh

mm

eter

(�m

)

560 AppendixTa

ble

A.4

Con

tinu

ed

Ene

rgy

(Wor

k):[

joul

e(J

)]B

ritis

hth

erm

alun

it(B

tu)

1055

Kilo

calo

rie

4187

Cal

orie

4.18

kWh

3.6

×10

6

Cal

orie

(kilo

gram

)41

84To

n(n

ucle

areq

uiv.

TN

T)

4.18

4×

109

Ele

ctro

nvol

t1.

6021

9×

10−1

9th

erm

1.05

5×

108

erg

10−7

Wh

3600

ftlb

f1.

3558

18W

s1.

0ft

poun

dal

0.04

214

Forc

e[n

ewto

n(N

)]D

yne

10−5

Oun

ce-f

orce

0.27

8K

ilogr

am-f

orce

9.80

6Po

und-

forc

e(l

bf)

4.44

8K

ilopo

nd(k

p)9.

806

Poun

dal

0.13

82ki

p(1

000

lbf)

4448

Ton-

forc

e(2

000

lbf)

8896

Hea

tB

tuft

/(h

ft2

◦ F)

1.73

07W

/(m

K)

cal/c

m2

4.18

×10

4J/

m2

(the

rmal

cond

uctiv

ity)

Btu

/lb23

24J/

kgca

l/(cm

2m

in)

697.

3W

/m2

Btu

/(lb

◦ F)=

cal/(

g◦ C

)41

86J/

(kg

K)

cal/s

4.18

4W

(hea

tcap

acity

)B

tu/f

t33.

725

×10

4J/

m3

◦ Fh

ft2/B

tu0.

176

Km

2/W

(the

rmal

resi

stan

ce)

cal/(

cms

◦ C)

418.

4W

/(m

K)

ft2/h

(the

rmal

diff

usiv

ity)

2.58

×10

−5m

2/s

Len

gth

[met

er(m

)]A

ngst

rom

10−1

0M

icro

inch

2.54

×10

−8A

stro

nom

ical

unit

1.49

5979

×10

11M

icro

met

er(m

icro

n)10

−6C

hain

20.1

1M

il2.

54×

10−5

Ferm

i(fe

mto

met

re)

10−1

5M

ile(n

autic

al)

1852

.000

Foot

0.30

48M

ile(i

nter

natio

nal)

1609

.344

Inch

0.02

54Pi

ca(p

rint

er’s

)4.

217

×10

−3L

ight

year

9.46

055

×10

15Y

ard

0.91

44

Appendix 561Ta

ble

A.4

Con

tinu

ed

Lig

htcd

/in.2

1550

cd/m

2la

mbe

rt3.

183

×10

3cd

/m2

Foot

cand

le10

.76

lx(l

ux)

lm/f

t210

.76

lm/m

2

Foot

lam

bert

3.42

6cd

/m2

Mas

s[k

ilogr

am(k

g)]

Car

at(m

etri

c)2

×10

−4O

unce

(tro

yor

apot

heca

ry)

3.11

0348

×10

−2G

rain

6.47

9891

×10

−5Pe

nnyw

eigh

t1.

555

×10

−3G

ram

0.00

1Po

und

(lb

avoi

rdup

ois)

0.45

3592

4H

undr

edw

eigh

t(lo

ng)

50.8

02Po

und

(tro

yor

apot

heca

ry)

0.37

32H

undr

edw

eigh

t(sh

ort)

45.3

59Sl

ug14

.593

9kg

fs2

/m9.

8066

50To

n(l

ong,

2120

lbs)

907.

184

Oun

ce(a

voir

dupo

is)

2.83

4952

×10

−2To

n(m

etri

c)10

00

Mas

spe

rU

nitT

ime

(Inc

lude

sFl

ow)

perm

(0◦ C

)5.

721

×10

−11

kg/(

Pas

m2)

lbs/

(hp

h)SP

C(s

peci

ficfu

el1.

6896

59×

10−7

kg/J

cons

umpt

ion)

lbs/

h1.

2599

×10

−4kg

/sTo

n(s

hort

)/h

0.25

199

kg/s

lbs/

s0.

4535

912

kg/s

Mas

spe

rU

nitV

olum

e(I

nclu

des

Den

sity

and

Cap

acity

)(k

g/m

3)oz

(avo

irdu

pois

)/ga

l6.

236

oz(a

voir

dupo

is)/

gal

7.48

9(U

.K.l

iqui

d)(U

.S.l

iqui

d)oz

(avo

irdu

pois

)/in

.317

29.9

9Sl

ug/f

t351

5.37

88lb

s/ga

l(U

.S.l

iqui

d)11

.982

6kg

/m3

Ton

(lon

g)/y

d313

28.9

39

Pow

er:w

att(

W)

Btu

(Int

erna

tiona

l)/s

1055

.056

Hor

sepo

wer

(ele

ctri

c)74

6ca

l/s4.

184

Hor

sepo

wer

(met

ric)

735.

499

erg/

s10

−7H

orse

pow

er(U

.K.)

745.

7H

orse

pow

er(5

50ft

lbf/

s)74

5.69

99To

nof

refr

iger

atio

n35

17(1

2,00

0B

tu/h

)

562 AppendixTa

ble

A.4

Con

tinu

ed

Pres

sure

orSt

ress

[pas

cal(

Pa)]

Atm

osph

ere,

stan

dard

1.01

325

×10

5D

yne/

cm2

0.1

Atm

osph

ere,

tech

nica

l9.

8066

5×

104

Foot

ofw

ater

(39.

2◦F)

2988

.98

Bar

105

Poun

dal/f

t21.

4881

64C

entim

eter

ofm

ercu

ry(0

◦ C)

1333

.22

psi(

lbf/

in.2

)68

94.7

57C

entim

eter

ofw

ater

(4◦ C

)98

.063

8To

rr(m

mH

g,0◦

C)

133.

322

Rad

iatio

nU

nits

Cur

ie3.

7×

1010

becq

uere

l(B

q)R

em0.

01si

ever

t(Sv

)ra

d0.

01gr

ay(G

y)R

oent

gen

2.58

×10

−4C

/kg

Tem

pera

ture

◦ Cel

sius

T(K

)=

t(◦ C

)+

273.

15K

◦ Fah

renh

eit

T◦ (

C)=

[t(◦ F

)−

32]/1

.8◦ C

◦ Fah

renh

eit

T(K

)=

[t◦F+

459.

67]/1

.8K

◦ Ran

kine

T(K

)=

T(◦

R)/

1.8

Vel

ocity

(Inc

lude

sSp

eed)

(m/s

)ft

/s0.

3048

mi/h

(int

erna

tiona

l)0.

4470

4in

./s2.

54×

10−2

rpm

(rev

olut

ions

/min

)0.

1047

rad/

sK

not(

inte

rnat

iona

l)0.

5144

4

Vis

cosi

ty:(

Pas)

Cen

tipos

e10

−3lb

fs/

in.2

6894

.757

(dyn

amic

visc

osity

)C

entis

toke

s10

−6rh

e10

1/(P

as)

(kin

emat

icvi

scos

ity)

pois

e0.

1Sl

ug/(

fts)

47.8

8026

Poun

dals

/ft2

1.48

8164

Stok

es10

−4m

2/s

lbs/

(fts

)1.

4881

64

Vol

ume

(Inc

lude

sC

apac

ity)

(m3)

Acr

e-fo

ot12

33.4

89G

ill(U

.S.)

1.18

2941

×10

−4B

arre

l(oi

l,42

gal)

0.15

8987

3in

.31.

6387

06×

10−5

Bus

hel(

U.S

.)3.

5239

×10

−2L

iter

10−3

Appendix 563Ta

ble

A.4

Con

tinu

ed

Cup

2.36

588

×10

−4O

unce

(U.S

.flui

d)2.

9573

53×

10−5

Oun

ce(U

.S.fl

uid)

2.95

735

×10

−5Pi

nt(U

.S.d

ry)

5.50

6105

×10

−4ft

32.

8316

8×

10−2

Pint

(U.S

.liq

uid)

4.73

1765

×10

−4G

allo

n4.

5460

9×

10−3

Tabl

espo

on1.

478

×10

−5(C

anad

ian,

U.K

.liq

uid)

Gal

lon

(U.S

.liq

uid)

3.78

54×

10−3

Ton

(reg

iste

r)2.

8316

58G

allo

n(U

.S.d

ry)

4.40

488

×10

−3yd

30.

7645

5

a ESU

mea

nsel

ectr

osta

ticcg

sun

it;E

MU

mea

nsel

ectr

omag

netic

cgs

unit.

564 Appendix

Table A.5. Dielectric Constants of Some Materials at Room Temperature (25◦C)

Material κ Frequency Material κ Frequency(Hz) (Hz)

Air 1.00054 0 Paraffin 2.0–2.5 106

Alumina ceramic 8–10 104 Plexiglas 3.12 103

Acrylics 2.5–2.9 104 Polyether sulfone 3.5 104

ABS/polysulfone 3.1 104 Polyesters 3.22–4.3 103

Asphalt 2.68 106 Polyethylene 2.26 103–108

Beeswax 2.9 106 Polypropylenes 2–3.2 104

Benzene 2.28 0 Polyvinyl chloride 4.55 103

Carbon tetrachloride 2.23 0 Porcelain 6.5 0Cellulose nitrate 8.4 103 Pyrex glass (7070) 4.0 106

Ceramic 14–110 106 Pyrex glass (7760) 4.5 0(titanium dioxide)

Cordierite 4–6.23 104 Rubber (neoprene) 6.6 103

Compound for 300–5000 0 Rubber (silicone) 3.2 103

thick-film capacitorsDiamond 5.5 108 Rutile ⊥ optic axis 86 108

Epoxy resins 2.8–5.2 104 Rutile || optic axis 170 108

Ferrous oxide 14.2 108 Silicone resins 3.4–4.3 104

Flesh (skin, blood, 97 40 × 106 Tallium chloride 46.9 108

muscles)Flesh (fat, bones) 15 40 × 106 Teflon 2.04 103–108

Lead nitrate 37.7 6 × 107 Transformer oil 4.5 0Methanol 32.63 0 Vacuum 1 —Nylon 3.5–5.4 103 Water 78.5 0Paper 3.5 0

Table A.6. Properties of Magnetic Materials

Residual Coercive TemperatureMEP Induction Force Coefficient

Material [G Oe × 106] [G × 103] (Oe × 103) (%/◦C) Cost

R.E. Cobalt 16 8.1 7.9 −0.05 HighestAlnico 1, 2, 3, 4 1.3–1.7 5.5–7.5 0.42–0.72 −0.02 to −0.03 MediumAlnico 5, 6, 7 4.0–7.5 10.5–13.5 0.64–0.78 −0.02 to −0.03 Medium/highAlnico 8 5.0–6.0 7–9.2 1.5–1.9 −0.01 to 0.01 Medium/highAlnico 9 10 10.5 1.6 −0.02 HighCeramic 1 1.0 2.2 1.8 −0.2 LowCeramic 2, 3, 4, 6 1.8–2.6 2.9–3.3 2.3–2.8 −0.2 Low/mediumCeramic 5, 7, 8 2.8–3.5 3.5–3.8 2.5–3.3 −0.2 MediumCunife 1.4 5.5 0.53 — MediumFe–Cr 5.25 13.5 0.6 — Medium/highPlastic 0.2–1.2 1.4 0.45–1.4 −0.2 LowestRubber 0.35–1.1 1.3–2.3 1–1.8 −0.2 Lowest

Source: Adapted from Sprague, CN-207 Hall Effect IC applications, 1986.

Appendix 565

Table A.7. Some Materials at Room Temperature

Material ρ TCR (α) Material ρ TCR (α)

(×10−8� m) (×10−3/1) (×10−8� m) (×10−3/1)

Aluminaa > 1020 Palladium 10.54 3.7Aluminum (99.99%) 2.65 3.9 Platinum 10.42 3.7Beryllium 4.0 0.025 Platinum 18.2

+ 10% rhodiumBismuth 106 Polycrystalline glassa 6.3 × 1014

Brass (70Cu, 30Zn) 7.2 2.0 Rare earth metals 28–300Carbon 3500 −0.5 Silicon (3.4–

(very sensitive to 15)× 106

purity)Chromium plating 14–66 Silicon bronze 21.0

(96Cu, 3Si, 1Zn)Constantan 52.5 0.01 Silicon nitride 1019

(60Cu, 40Ni)Copper 1.678 3.9 Silver 1.6 6.1Evanohm (75Ni, 20Cr, 134 Sodium 4.75

2.5Al, 2.5Cu)Germanium 46 × 106 Stainless steel (cast) 70–122

(polycrystalline)Gold 2.12 3.4 Tantalum 12.45 3.8Iridium 5.3 Tantalum carbide 20Iron (99.99%) 9.71 6.5 Tin 11.0 4.7Lead 22 3.36 Titanium 42Manganese 185 Titanium 48–199

and its alloysManganin 44 0.01 Titanium carbides 105Manganin 48 Tungsten 5.6 4.5

(84Cu, 12Mn, 4Ni)Mercury 96 0.89 Zinc 5.9 4.2Mullitea 1021 Zircona > 1020

Nichrome 100 0.4 Zirconium and its 40–74alloys

Nickel 6.8 6.9

aVolume resistivity.

Table A.8. Properties of Piezoelectric Materials at 20◦C

PVDF BaTiO3 PZT Quartz TGS

Density (×103 kg/m3) 1.78 5.7 7.5 2.65 1.69Dielectric constant, εr 12 1700 1200 4.5 45Elastic modulus (1010 N/m) 0.3 11 8.3 7.7 3

d31 = 20Piezoelectric constant (pC/N) d32 = 2 78 110 2.3 25

d33 = −30Pyroelectric constant (10−4 C/m2 K) 4 20 27 — 30Electromechanical coupling constant (%) 11 21 30 10 —Acoustic impedance (106 kg/m2 s) 2.3 25 25 14.3 —

566 Appendix

Table A.9. Physical Properties of Pyroelectric Materials

Curie Thermal Relative Pyroelectric PyroelectricMaterial Temperature Conductivity Permitivity Charge Voltage Coupling,

Coeff. Coeff. k2p (%)

(◦C) (W/mK) (εr ) (C/m2 K) (V/mK)

Single CrystalsTGS 49 0.4 30 3.5 × 10−4 1.3 × 106 7.5LiTa03 618 4.2 45 2.0 × 10−4 0.5 × 106 1.0

CeramicsBaTiO3 120 3.0 1000 4.0 × 10−4 0.05 × 106 0.2PZT 340 1.2 1600 4.2 × 10−4 0.03 × 106 0.14

PolymersPVDF 205 0.13 12 0.4 × 10−4 0.40 × 106 0.2

Polycrystalline LayersPbTiO3 470 2 200 2.3 × 10−4 0.13 × 106 0.39

(monocrystal)Note: The above figures may vary depending on manufacturing technologies.Source: From Meixner, H., Mader, G., and Kleinschmidt, P. Infrared sensors based on the pyroelectricpolymer polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Siemens Forsch. Entwicl. Ber. Bd. 15(3), 105–114, 1986.

Table A.10. Characteristics of Thermocouple Types

SensitivityJunction Materials (at 25◦C) Temperature Applications Designation

(µV/◦C) Range (◦C)

Copper/constantan 40.9 −270 to 600 Oxidation, reducing, inert, Tvacuum; preferred below0◦C; moisture resistant

Iron/constantan 51.7 −270 to 1000 Reducing and inert Jatmosphere; avoidoxidation and moisture

Chromel/alumel 40.6 −270 to 1300 Oxidation and inert Katmospheres

Chromel/constantan 60.9 −200 to 1000 EPt (10%)/Rh–Pt 6.0 0 to 1550 Oxidation and inert S

atmospheres; avoidreducing atmosphere andmetallic vapors

Pt (13%)/Rh–Pt 6.0 0 to 1600 Oxidation and inert Ratmospheres; avoidreducing atmosphere andmetallic vapors

Slver–Paladium 10.0 200 to 600Constantan–tungsten 42.1 0 to 800Silicon–aluminum 446 −40 to 150 Used in thermopiles and

micromachined sensors

Appendix 567

Table A.11. Thermoelectric Coefficients and Volume Resistivities of Selected Elements

Element α(µV K−1) ρ (µ� m)

p-Si 100–1000 10–500p-Poly-Si 100–500 10–1000Antimony (Sb) 32 18.5Iron (Fe) 13.4 0.086Gold (Au) 0.1 0.023Copper (Cu) 0 0.0172Silver (Ag) −0.2 0.016Aluminum (Al) −3.2 0.028Ptinum (Pt) −5.9 0.0981Cobalt (Co) −20.1 0.0557Nickel (Ni) −20.4 0.0614Bismuth (Bi) −72.8 1.1n-Si −100 to −1000 10–500n-Poly-Si −100 to −500 10–1000

Source: Adapted from Schieferdecker, J., et al. Infrared ther-mopile sensors with high sensitivity and very low tempera-ture coefficient. Sensors Actuators A 46–47, 422–427, 1995.

Table A.11a. Thermocouples for Very Low and Very High Temperatures

Materials Useful range Approx. sensitivity(◦C) (µV/◦C)

Iron–constantan Down to −272 −32Copper–constantan Down to −273 −22.9Cromel–alumel Down to −272 −23.8Tantalum–tungsten Up to 3000 6.1Tangsten– Up to 2900 2.8

tangsten(50)molybdenumTangsten–tangsten(20)rhenium Up to 2900 12.7

Table A.12. Densities (kg/m3) of Some Materials at 1 atm Pressure and 0◦C

Best Laboratory Vacuum 10−17 Silica 1,938–2,657

Hydrogen 0.0899 Graphite recrystallized 1,938Helium 0.1785 Borosilicate glass (TEMPAX®)a 2,200Methane 0.7168 Asbestos fibers 2,400–3,300Carbon monoxide 1.250 Silicon 2,333Air 1.2928 Polycrystalline glass 2,518–2,600Oxygen 1.4290 Aluminum 2,700Carbon dioxide 1.9768 Mullite 2,989–3,293Plastic foams 10–600 Silicon nitride 3,183Benzene 680–740 Alumina ceramic 3,322–3,875Alcohol 789.5 Zinc alloys 5,200–7,170Turpentine 860 Vanadium 6,117Mineral oil 900–930 Chromium 7,169Natural rubber 913 Tin and its alloys 7,252–8,000Polyethylene, low density 913 Stainless steel 8,138Ice 920 Bronzes 8,885Polyethylene, high density 950 Copper 8,941Carbon and graphite fibers 996–2,000 Cobalt and its alloys 9,217Water 1,000 Nickel and its alloys 9,125Nylon 6 1,100 Bismuth 9,799Hydrochloric acid (20%) 1,100 Silver 10,491Acrylics 1,163–1,190 Lead and its alloys 11,349Epoxies 1,135–2,187 Palladium 12,013Coal tar 1,200 Mercury 13,596Phenolic 1,126–2,989 Molybdenum 13,729Glycerin 1,260 Tantalum and its alloys 16,968PVC 1,350 Gold 19,320Saran fibers 1,700 Tungsten and its alloys 19,653Sulfuric acid (20%) 1,700 Platinum 21,452Polyester 1,800 Iridium 22,504Beryllium and its alloys 1,855–2,076 Osmium 22,697

aTEMPAX® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany.

Table A.13. Mechanical Properties of Some Solid Materials

Material Modulus Poisson’s ratio (ν) Density (kg/m3)of elasticity (GPa)

Aluminum 71 0.334 2,700Beryllium copper 112 0.285 8,220Brass 106 0.312 8,530Copper 119 0.326 8,900Glass 46.2 0.125 2,590Lead 36.5 0.425 11,380Molybdenum 331 0.307 10,200Phosphor bronze 11 0.349 8,180Steel (carbon) 207 0.292 7,800Steel (stainless) 190 0.305 7,750

Appendix 569

Table A.14. Mechanical Properties of Some Crystalline Materials

Yield Knoop Young’s Density Thermal ThermalStrength Hardness Modulus Conductivity Expansion(×1010 (kg/mm2) (×1012 (g/cm3) (W/cm ◦C) (×10−6/◦C)

Material dyn/cm2) dyn/cm2)

Diamonda 53 7000 10.35 3.5 20.0 1.0SiCa 21 1280 7.0 3.2 3.5 3.3TiCa 20 1270 4.97 4.9 3.3 6.4Al2O3

a 15.4 2100 5.3 4.0 0.5 5.4Si3N4

a 14 3486 3.85 3.1 0.19 0.8Irona 12.6 400 1.96 7.8 0.803 12.0SiO2 (fibers) 8.4 820 0.73 2.5 0.014 0.55Sia 7.0 850 1.9 2.3 1.57 2.33Steel (max. strength) 4.2 1500 2.1 7.9 0.97 12.0W 4.0 485 4.1 19.3 1.78 4.5Stainless steel 2.1 660 2.0 7.9 0.329 17.3Mo 2.1 275 3.43 10.3 1.38 5.0Al 0.17 130 0.70 2.7 2.36 25.0aSingle crystal.

Source: From Petersen, K. E. Silicon as a mechanical material. Proc. IEEE 70(5), 420–457, 1982.

Table A.15. Speed of Sound Waves

Medium Speed (m/s) Medium Speed (m/s)

Air (dry at 20◦C) 331 Copper 3,810Steam (134◦C) 494 Aluminum 6,320Hydrogen (20◦C) 1,330 Pyrex® glass 5,170Water (fresh) 1,486 Steel 5,200Water (sea) 1,519 Beryllium 12,900Lead 1,190

Note: Gases at 1 atm pressure, solids in long thin rods

Table A.16. Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Some Materials (per ◦C×10−6)

Material α Material α

Alnico I (permanent magnet) 12.6 Nylon 90Alumina (polycrystalline) 8.0 Phosphor–bronze 9.3Aluminum 25.0 Platinum 9.0Brass 20.0 Plexiglas (Lucite) 72Cadmium 30.0 Polycarbonate (ABS) 70Chromium 6.0 Polyethylene (high density) 216Comol (permanent magnet) 9.3 Silicon 2.6Copper 16.6 Silver 19.0Fused quartz 0.27 Solder 50-50 23.6Glass (Pyrex®) 3.2 Steel (SAE 1020) 12.0Glass (regular) 9.0 Steel (stainless: type 304) 17.2Gold 14.2 Teflon 99Indium 18.0 Tin 13.0Invar 0.7 Titanium 6.5Iron 12.0 Tungsten 4.5Lead 29.0 Zinc 35.0Nickel 11.8

570 Appendix

Table A.17. Specific Heat and Thermal Conductivity of Some Materials (at 25◦C)

Specific Heat Thermal conductivity Density

Material (J/kg ◦C) (W/m ◦C) (kg/m3)

Air (1 atm) 995.8 0.012 1.2Alumina 795 6 4,000Aluminum 481 88–160 2,700Bakelite 1,598 0.23 1,300Brass 381 26–234 8,500Chromium 460 91Constantan 397 22 8,800Copper 385 401 8,900Diamond 99–232Fiberglass 795 0.002–0.4 60Germanium 60Glass (Pyrex) 780 0.1 2,200Glass (regular) 1.9–3.4Gold 130 296 19,300Graphite 112–160Iron 452 79 7,800Lead 130 35 11,400Manganin 410 21 8,500Mercury 138 8.4 13,500Nickel and its alloys 443 6–50 8,900Nylon 1,700 0.12 1,100Platinum 134 73 21,400Polyester 1,172 0.57–0.73 1,300Polyurethane foam 0.012 40Silicon 668 83.7 2,333Silicone oil 1,674 0.1 900Silver 238 419 10,500Stainless steel 460 14–36 8,020Styrofoam 1,300 0.003–0.03 50Teflon TFE 998 0.4 2,100Tin 226 64 7,300Tungsten 139 96.6 19,000Water 4,184 0.6 1,000Zinc 389 115–125 7,100

Appendix 571

Table A.18. Typical Emissivities of Different Materials (from 0◦C to 100◦C)

Material Emissivity Material Emissivity

Blackbody (ideal) 1.00 Green leaves 0.88Cavity Radiator 0.99–1.00 Ice 0.96Aluminum (anodized) 0.70 Iron or steel (rusted) 0.70Aluminum (oxidized) 0.11 Nickel (oxidized) 0.40Aluminum (polished) 0.05 Nickel (unoxidized) 0.04Aluminum (rough surface) 0.06–0.07 Nichrome (80Ni–20Cr) (oxidized) 0.97Asbestos 0.96 Nichrome (80Ni–20Cr) (polished) 0.87Brass (dull tarnished) 0.61 Oil 0.80Brass (polished) 0.05 Silicon 0.64Brick 0.90 Silicone rubber 0.94Bronze (polished) 0.10 Silver (polished) 0.02Carbon-filled latex paint 0.96 Skin (human) 0.93–0.96Carbon lamp black 0.96 Snow 0.85Chromium (polished) 0.10 Soil 0.90Copper (oxidized) 0.6–0.7 Stainless steel (buffed) 0.20Copper (polished) 0.02 Steel (flat rough surface) 0.95–0.98Cotton cloth 0.80 Steel (ground) 0.56Epoxy Resin 0.95 Tin plate 0.10Glass 0.95 Water 0.96Gold 0.02 White paper 0.92Gold black 0.98–0.99 Wood 0.93Graphite 0.7–0.8 Zinc (polished) 0.04

572 Appendix

Table A.19. Refractive Indices (n) of Some Materials

Material n Wavelength (µm) Note

Vacuum 1Air 1.00029Acrylic 1.5 0.41AMTIR-1 2.6 1 Amorphous glassa

(Ge33As12Se55) 2.5 10AMTIR-3 2.6 10 Amorphous glassa

(Ge28Sb12Se60)As2S3 2.4 8.0 Amorphous glassa

CdTe 2.67 10.6Crown glass 1.52Diamond 2.42 0.54 Excellent thermal conductivityFused silica (SiO2) 1.46 3.5Borosilicate glass 1.47 0.7 TEMPAXb

Transparent: 0.3–2.7µmGaAs 3.13 10.6 Laser windowsGermanium 4.00 12.0Heaviest flint glass 1.89Heavy flint glass 1.65Irtran 2 (ZnS) 2.25 4.3 Windows in IR sensorsKBr 1.46 25.1 HygroscopicKCl 1.36 23.0 HygroscopicKRS-5 2.21 40.0 ToxicKRS-6 2.1 12 ToxicNaCl 1.89 0.185 Hygroscopic, corrosivePolyethylene 1.54 8.0 Low-cost IR windows/lensesPolystyrene 1.55Pyrex 7740 1.47 0.589 Good thermal and optical propertiesQuartz 1.54Sapphire (Al2O3) 1.59 5.58 Chemically resistantSilicon 3.42 5.0 Windows in IR sensorsSilver bromide (AgBr) 2.0 10.6 CorrosiveSilver chloride (AgCl) 1.9 20.5 CorrosiveWater (20◦C) 1.33ZnSe 2.4 10.6 IR windows, brittle

aAvailable from Amorphous Materials, Inc., Garland, TX.bTEMPAX® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany.

Appendix 573

Table A.20. Characteristics of C–Zn and Alkaline Cells

Battery W h/L W h/kg Drain Rate Shelf Life

Carbon–zinc 150 85 Low–medium 2 yearsAlkaline 250 105 Medium–high 5 years

Source: From Powers, R.A. Batteries for low power electronics.Proc. IEEE, 83(4), 687–693, 1995.

Table A.21. Lithium–Manganese Dioxide Primary Cells

Construction Voltage Capacity Rated dc Pulse Energy(mA h) Current Current Density

(mA) (mA) (W h/L)

Coin 3 30–1,000 0.5–7 5–20 500Cyl. wound 3 160–1,300 20–1,200 80–5,000 500Cyl. bobbin 3 650–500 4–10 60–200 620Cyl. “D” cell 3 10,000 2,500 575Prismatic 3 1,150 18 490Flat 3/6 150–1,400 20–125 290

Source: From Powers, R.A. Batteries for low power electronics. Proc. IEEE, 83(4),687–693, 1995.

Table A.22. Typical Characteristics of “AA”-Size Secondary Cells

System Volts Capacity Ratea W h/L W h/kg Cycles Loss/month(mA h) (C) (%)

NiCad 1.2 1000 10 150 60 1000 15Ni–MH 1.2 1200 2 175 65 500 20Pb acid 2 400 1 80 40 200 2Li ion (CoO2) 3.6 500 1 225 90 1200 8Li/MnO2 3 800 0.5 280 130 200 1

aNote: Discharge rate unit, C (in mA), is equal numerically to the nominal capacity (in mA h).

574 AppendixTa

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576 Appendix

Table A.24. Electronic Ceramics (Between 25◦C and 100◦C)

96% Beryllia Boron Aluminum Silicon SiliconAlumina (BeO) Nitrade Nitrade Carbide (Si)

(Al2O3) (BN) (AlN) (SiC)

Hardness, Knopp 2000 1000 280 1200 2800 —(kg/mm2)

Flexural strength 3.0 1.7–2.4 0.8 4.9 4.4 —(105 N/m2)

Thermal conductivity 21 250 60 170–200 70 150(W/(m K)

Thermal expansion 7.1 8.8 0.0 4.1 3.8 3.8(10−6/K)

Dielectric strength 8.3 19.7 37.4 14.0 15.4 —(kV/mm)

Dielectric loss 3–5 4–7 4 5–10 500 —(10−4 tan delta at1 MHz)

Dielectric 10 7.0 4.0 8.8 40 —constant, κ(at 10 MHz)

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Index

α-particles, 443

A/D, 175, 177, 183aberrations, 136ablation sensor, 293, 294ABS, 539absolute sensor, 7, 461absolute temperature, 507absolute zero, 96absorber, 107absorption, 127, 145, 514absorption coefficient, 129absorptivity, 133acceleration, 217, 218, 301, 312accelerometer, 29, 113, 116, 304accuracy, 17, 219, 305, 398acoustic, 73, 146, 331acoustic measurements, 383acoustic noise, 228acoustic pressure, 93acoustic sensors, 381, 388acoustics, 69, 381acousto-optic, 147acrylic, 539active bridge, 200active sensor, 7, 164actuator, 75additive noise, 208AFIR, 426, 477aging, 29air bubble, 257airflow, 375aluminum, 400, 430, 550aluminum coatings, 541

aluminum nitride, 75aluminum oxide, 400AM, 290Ampere’s law, 54amperometric devices, 503amplifier, 155, 186, 416AMTIR, 543angular displacement, 316angular encoding, 270antenna, 173, 290aperture, 142appliances, 227arsenic trisulfate, 543ASIC, 156attenuation coefficient, 129auxiliary electrode, 505avalanche, 449, 450, 455avalanche photodiodes, 414

band gap, 408band-gap references, 171bandwidth, 27, 205barometer, 342battery, 222bead-type thermistors, 473beams, 318Becquerel, 89becquerel, 444Beer’s law, 108Beer–Lambert law, 515Bell, 93bellows, 342Bernoulli, 339, 361beryllium, 541

580 Index

bias current, 154, 156bias resistor, 251bimetal, 97binary codes, 176biological sensors, 388, 519bismuth, 451blackbody, 106, 109, 130bolometer, 434, 435Boltzmann constant, 205, 413bonding, 554boron, 552Boyle, 339brass, 144breakwire, 294breeze sensor, 374bridge circuit, 401brightness, 130British unit of heat, 95broadband detectors, 426

cable, 213cadmium telluride, 454calibration, 18, 25, 466calibration error, 19calibration temperature, 98, 470Callendar–van Dusen, 463candela, 130cantilever, 372cantilever beam, 330capacitance, 44, 69, 187, 211, 233, 259, 387,

399, 415, 508capacitive accelerometer, 306capacitive bridge, 261capacitive coupling, 234capacitive sensor, 48, 161, 162, 350, 396capacitor, 44, 67, 76, 78, 155, 162, 167, 172,

178, 187, 212, 234, 238, 261, 306catalytic devices, 510cavity, 19, 278, 311, 373, 426cavity effect, 109CdS, 421Celsius, 96, 491ceramic, 309, 542characteristic temperature, 64, 467charge, 188charge amplifier, 161charge detector, 234charge-balance, 179charge-to-voltage converter, 188

chemFET, 504chemical poisoning, 501chemical reaction, 512, 513chemical sensor, 3, 142, 499chemical species, 505chemiluminescence, 514chemometrics, 521, 523chip thermistor, 473chromatogram, 521circuit protection, 480cladding, 140, 142, 516Clark electrode, 508clock, 183CMOS, 310, 374, 436CMRR, 156, 160, 210CO, 506CO2, 108, 506, 514, 515coating, 135coaxial cables, 174cobalt, 55, 63coefficient of reflection, 126coil, 57, 255, 266, 302, 319cold junction, 89collector, 418comparator, 171, 181complex devices, 502complex sensor, 4, 512concentrator, 144condenser microphones, 382conductance, 504conduction, 99conduction band, 408conductive plastics, 540conductivity, 61, 409, 503conductivity sensor, 507conductometric devices, 503constantan, 481contact resistance, 101contact sensor, 457contamination, 500convection, 99, 102converter, 177, 431copolymer, 75copper, 38, 60, 111, 135, 385, 540, 541Coriolis, 376Coriolis acceleration, 314Coriolis force, 316Coriolis tube, 376cost, 161

Index 581

Coulomb’s law, 40cross-talk, 215crystal, 76, 147, 335, 389, 409, 421, 538, 550crystalline materials, 42, 408Curie point, 77Curie temperature, 32, 70, 80, 266, 320, 477current, 511current generator, 162, 165current mirror, 165current pump, 165current sink, 165current source, 165, 199, 203cutoff frequency, 26CVD, 76, 372, 546

D/A, 176DAC, 189damping, 28damping factor, 28damping medium, 304Darlington connection, 419data acquisition, 151dead band, 23decibel, 93deflection, 13dew point, 393, 402Dewar, 296Dewar cooling, 423diaphragm, 253, 331, 342, 349, 382, 386dielectric, 46, 386dielectric absorption, 215dielectric constant, 46, 297, 398differential equation, 26, 116differential sensor, 210diffusion, 552digital format, 177diode, 488diode sensor, 489dipole, 46dipole moment, 42, 78direct conversion, 38direct devices, 502direct sensor, 3, 4disbalanced bridge, 193displacement, 253, 271, 274, 301displacement sensor, 285dissipation constant, 478dissipation factor, 475distance sensor, 270

distortion mask, 241divider, 190door openers, 231Doppler, 230Doppler effect, 229, 287, 367drag element, 377drag force sensor, 377driven shield, 235dual-ramp, 175dual-slope, 181dynamic error, 25dynamic range, 15, 320, 367dynodes, 445

eddy currents, 264, 292Einstein, 407elasticity, 92, 387electret, 386electret microphone, 387electric charge, 38, 39, 59, 331electric current, 83, 451electric dipole, 42electric field, 39, 40, 59, 418, 446electric potential, 43electrical conduction, 60electrochemical cell, 506, 508electrochemical sensor, 505, 526electrode, 236, 237, 260, 296, 508electrolyte, 500, 506, 509electromagnetic flowmeter, 370electromagnetic radiation, 238, 407electromagnetic sensor, 302electrometer, 507electromotive force, 56electron, 51, 82, 408electron multiplication, 447electron–hole pairs, 451electronic nose, 499, 526electrostatic, 212electrostatic gyro, 314electrostatic shield, 213emissivity, 105, 106, 146, 245, 430emitter, 107, 248, 418encoding disk, 282energy bonds, 537e-nose, 524, 525enzyme, 513enzyme sensors, 520epoxy, 29, 308, 540

582 Index

error, 33, 186etch mask, 550, 553etching, 549Euler, 323excimer laser, 547excitation, 25, 493excitation signal, 7excitation voltage, 204

Fabry–Perot, 149, 278, 353, 427Fahrenheit, 95failure, 31farad, 45Faraday, 52, 56, 370Faraday cage, 41Faraday’s Law, 52, 302Faradic current, 511far-infrared, 107, 111, 132, 135, 425far-infrared (AFIR), 437feedback, 4, 161, 167, 205, 335Ferdinand II, 95Fermi, 89ferroelectric, 66, 477ferromagnetic, 52, 263FET, 500fiber, 140, 383fiber-optic, 147, 275, 436, 515fiber-optic sensor, 142, 278field lines, 39, 45filament, 479film, 399, 435film transducers, 75filter, 181, 279filtering, 124first-order response, 114flame, 439flow, 369flow measurement, 361flow rate, 360flow resistance, 361flowmeter, 348, 366fluid, 329, 339, 383fluoroplastics, 539fluoroptic method, 493flux, 40, 109, 126, 130, 144, 250focus, 136focusing lens, 420foil, 487follower, 155

force, 39, 323, 327, 333, 334, 377forced convection, 102format, 37Fourier, 91Fourier transforms, 522FP interferometer, 353FPA, 435Fraden Model, 468Franklin, 38frequency, 517frequency range, 27frequency response, 26, 153Fresnel, 138Fresnel lens, 138, 247frost point, 402FSR, 332FTIR, 522full scale, 15

gain–bandwidth product, 157Galileo, 339γ -radiation, 443γ -rays, 103gas, 4, 108, 309, 333, 341, 354, 363, 374,

376, 439, 449, 499, 514, 537gas analyzer, 425gas chromatographs, 520gas sensor, 503, 510, 524gauge, 65gauge sensor, 348Gauss’ law, 40, 41Gaussian System, 9Geiger–Müller counter, 450geometrical optics, 123geometry factor, 47germanium, 39, 436, 454Gilbert, 50glass, 140, 509, 543, 554glucose, 509Golay cells, 426gold, 135, 144, 542gold black, 146GPS, 301grating, 281gravimetric detector, 517gravitational sensor, 256gravity, 305Gunn oscillator, 229gyroscope, 313

Index 583

H2O, 108Hall, 82Hall coefficient, 83Hall effect, 82, 267, 346, 534Hall effect sensor, 85, 268harmonic, 230, 334heat, 457heat absorption, 475heat capacity, 98heat loss, 364heat pump, 402heat sink, 81, 309heat transfer, 99heated probe, 520heat-flow detector, 77Henry, 56, 370Hooke, 95hot junction, 89Howland, 167humidity, 29, 35, 75, 393, 526humidity sensor, 49, 401hybrid, 159hydrocarbon fuel, 512hydrocarbon sensor, 500hydrogel, 505hydrophone, 381hygristors, 66hygrometer, 402hygrometric sensor, 399hysteresis, 20, 253, 332

identification, 499illumination, 130image, 242immobilization, 519inclination detectors, 256index of refraction, 125, 141inductance, 57inertia, 26, 115inertial mass, 308, 311infrared, 105, 238, 434, 492, 514infrared detectors, 425infrared flux, 3infrared sensor, 543infrasonic, 388inherent noise, 204input, 151input impedance, 151, 152, 158input resistance, 154

input stage, 152instrumentation amplifier, 159insulation, 486integrator, 179intensity sensor, 143interface circuit, 152interferometer, 280, 383intrusion, 173intrusive sensors, 294ion, 448ionization, 447ionizing chamber, 448ionizing radiation, 29, 164, 450IR, 128IR detector, 107IR spectrometers, 520iridium, 542ISA, 481ITS-90, 463

JFET, 154, 219, 375, 388, 431, 432Johnson noise, 205, 206Joule, 89, 355, 364Joule heat, 479junction, 427, 482junction capacitance, 411

Kawai, 72Kelvin, 7, 96, 248, 490, 496keyboard, 324kinetic energy, 60, 104Kirchhoff, 61, 105, 145, 458Kirchhoff’s laws, 61, 118KOH etch, 550Korotkoff sounds, 385krypton, 451KTY, 464

Laplace transforms, 303laser, 112, 384laser gyro, 318law of reflection, 125LC, 171LCD, 113lead, 541leakage current, 154, 414least squares, 22LeChatelier, 89LED, 37, 195, 239, 258, 280, 283, 494, 515

584 Index

lens, 240, 242, 249, 277, 420Leslie, 393level detectors, 278, 291life test, 32LIGA, 547light, 111, 123, 136, 146, 243, 276, 411, 445,

494, 511linearity, 21liquid, 278, 296, 363lithium, 66, 147, 222, 453load cells, 324logarithmic scale, 15logic circuits, 171long-term stability, 29loudspeaker, 3lumen, 130luminescence, 441LVDT, 263, 302, 325

magnesium, 541magnet, 55, 268, 274magnetic field, 50, 53, 82, 103, 215, 268,

314, 317, 371, 447magnetic flux, 267, 351magnetic noise, 216magnetic pole, 50magnetic reluctance sensor, 275magnetic sensor, 262, 540magnetic shielding, 216, 540magnetism, 50magnetite, 50magnetization, 52magnetoresistive sensor, 271magnetostrictive detector, 274manganese, 63mass, 305, 324, 359, 378, 516mass spectrometers, 520material characteristic, 468matrix, 487Maxwell, 371MCT, 423measurand, 2membrane, 427, 525MEMFET, 505MEMS, 269, 427, 430, 439, 534, 547MEMSIC, 310MEOMS, 547mercury switch, 257metal, 223, 272, 408, 504, 540

metal carbides, 542metal films, 145, 549metal oxide, 69, 473, 503metallic electrode, 452metallization, 473Michelson, 383microbalance method, 525microbalance sensors, 516microcalorimetry, 513microcontroller, 185microgravimetric technique, 517micromachining, 547, 549microphone, 381microsensor, 510microwave, 288, 477microwave devices, 434mid-infrared, 111, 425, 426military standard, 32MIR, 289mirror, 134, 242modulation, 171, 290moisture, 66, 393, 396molybdenum, 542monolithic sensors, 491MOS, 188motion detector, 136, 227, 237MTBF, 31multiplexing, 183multiplicative noise, 209multivibrator, 178mutual inductance, 58

natural frequency, 27, 344near-infrared, 111, 420Nernst equation, 507, 511neural network, 527neuron, 528Newton, 95, 115, 126Newton’s law, 313nichrome, 326, 430, 487nickel, 63, 224, 541noise, 178, 204, 219, 238, 275, 312, 351,

417, 423, 522nonlinearity, 20, 21NTC, 465, 503nuclear radiation, 443n-wells, 85nylon, 539Nyquist, 371

Index 585

occupancy sensors, 227odor classification, 528odor sensor, 524Oersted, 51offset, 186offset voltage, 153, 156Ohm’s law, 100, 162, 165, 432olfactory cells, 525one-shot, 179OPAM, 156, 172, 188open-loop, 157open-loop gain, 188operational amplifier, 156, 201optical cavity, 353optical contrast, 240optical detection, 412optical modulation, 514optical paths, 516optical power, 412optical sensor, 494, 514, 520optocoupler, 403organic, 29oscillating hygrometer, 403oscillating response, 28oscillating sensor, 516oscillator, 172, 178, 187, 235, 263, 390, 396output capacitance, 154output current, 167output impedance, 24output resistance, 165output signal format, 2oxygen, 67, 499, 508, 509

p-n junction, 18, 284, 353, 408, 411, 488palladium, 542parallel-plate capacitor, 45parametric methods, 523Pascal, 339passive sensor, 7Pellister, 514Peltier, 90, 403Peltier effect, 90, 423, 438pH, 515phase, 1, 305phase lag, 153phase shift, 27phenolic, 540phosphor, 492photocatalytic sensors, 511

photocathode, 446photocurrent, 421photodetector, 131, 276, 410, 419, 445photodiodes, 410, 411photoeffect, 37, 284, 407photoelectron, 445photomultiplier, 407, 422, 444photon, 13, 112, 407, 445, 450photoresist, 148, 548photoresistor, 195, 243, 410, 420photosensor, 419phototransistors, 410, 418photovoltaic mode, 414, 415piecewise approximation, 14piezoelectric, 245, 288, 309, 319, 320, 324,

334, 368, 385, 389, 517piezoelectric crystal, 431, 496piezoelectric effect, 66, 496, 518, 534piezoelectric film, 320, 328, 543piezoelectric hygrometer, 403piezoelectric plastics, 540piezoresistive accelerometer, 307piezoresistive bridge, 308piezoresistive effect, 64, 325piezoresistive gauge, 344piezoresistive sensors, 350PIN photodiode, 413pink noise, 206pipe, 61PIR, 145, 245, 426, 427, 430, 437Pirani gauge, 354Planck, 103Planck’s constant, 407Planck’s law, 103plano-convex lens, 136plastic, 112, 140, 231, 331, 536platinum, 63, 64, 145, 461, 487, 505, 514,

542platinum film, 436Poisson ratio, 92polarization, 46, 71, 79, 112, 147, 276polarization filter, 112, 277poling, 43, 70polycarbonate, 539polyester, 539polyethylene, 107, 155, 536, 539polymer, 74, 140, 332, 396polymer films, 80, 512polymer matrix, 512, 525

586 Index

polymerization, 538polypropylene, 539polysilicon, 430, 436, 535, 550polystyrene, 399polyurethane, 539popcorn noise, 205position, 253, 270position-sensitive detector, 283potential, 511potentiometer, 255potentiometric devices, 503, 507preaging, 474predictive, 457pressure, 189, 324, 339pressure gradient, 361pressure sensor, 6, 197, 227, 280, 341, 350,

373, 381primary cells, 223prototype, 219proximity, 234proximity detector, 277proximity sensor, 253, 260PS, 536PSD, 281, 283, 427p-substrate, 85PTC thermistor, 477PVDF, 71, 72, 247, 320, 328, 385PWM, 189pyroelectric, 76, 245, 430pyroelectric coefficient, 247pyroelectric current, 433pyroelectric sensor, 30, 73, 76, 161pyroelectricity, 77pyrometry, 425PZT, 389, 434

Q-spoilers, 175quantification, 499quantum detector, 161, 407, 423quartz, 67, 403, 516, 534quenching, 450

radar, 6, 289, 297radiation, 95, 99, 111, 133, 239, 448, 451,

457radiation bandwidth, 104radiation detection, 447radiation spectrum, 103radio waves, 291

radio-frequency, 172radioactivity, 443ratiometric technique, 190RC, 171reactive ion etching, 553redox reactions, 506reference, 190, 200reference diode, 170reference electrode, 505, 510reference sensor, 484reference temperature, 62, 485reference voltage, 187reflection, 124reflective surface, 134reflectivity, 133refraction, 124refractive index, 141, 147relative humidity, 49, 394, 396relative sensors, 461reliability, 31Renaldi, 95repeatability, 23resistance, 59, 254, 284, 341, 535resistance multiplication, 164resistive bridge, 193resistive load, 165resistive sensor, 153resistivity, 60resistor, 61, 164, 179, 190, 203, 247, 344,

349, 372, 375, 465, 476resolution, 23, 181, 186, 205, 316, 374resonant, 304, 387resonant sensors, 553resonator, 317retina, 144return electrode, 505Reyleigh waves, 517RF, 229RH, 32rhodium, 542roentgen, 444root-sum-of-squares, 34rotor, 313RTD, 355, 366, 477, 481, 514RVDT, 264

Sagnac effect, 317sampling rate, 177saturation, 22

Index 587

SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 501, 517scale, 95Schmitt trigger, 267Schottky noise, 206scintillation counters, 444secondary cells, 224second-order response, 114security alarms, 231security system, 234Seebeck, 86, 484Seebeck coefficient, 87Seebeck effect, 3, 221, 534Seebeck potential, 88, 483selectivity, 500, 524self-heating, 467, 474self-heating error, 30self-heating sensor, 366self-induction, 57semiconductor, 408, 421, 484semiconductor detectors, 451semiconductor diode, 452sensitivity, 14, 25, 194, 304, 312, 387, 422,

500, 524SFB, 347shield, 235, 260shielding, 212signal conditioning, 151signal-to-noise ratio, 156signatures, 527silicate, 543silicon, 39, 85, 197, 284, 306, 317, 344, 349,

353, 398, 464, 489, 504, 517, 533silicon bonding, 549silicon diaphragms, 550silicon diode, 170, 452silicon dioxide, 549silicon micromachining, 547silicon nitride, 549silicon plate, 517silicon sensor, 464silicon wafer, 548, 550, 554silicone, 102, 494silicone oil, 304silkscreen, 327silver, 70, 542SiO2, 413skin, 112smart chemical sensors, 530Snell, 125

Snell’s law, 125, 141SnO2, 503solder, 221solenoid, 54solid-state detectors, 455sound waves, 92span errors, 199species, 499specific heat, 82, 98specific resistivity, 61, 409spectroscopy, 449spectrum, 112, 213speed, 301speed response, 26spherical mirrors, 136spin-casting, 544spinning-rotor gauge, 356sputtering, 545, 546square-wave oscillator, 171statistical methods, 523Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 105, 249, 372Stefan–Boltzmann law, 14, 105, 244, 249,

372, 429, 437Steinhart and Hart model, 470stimulus, 2, 153, 190, 202, 209storage, 29straight line, 18strain, 13, 65, 326, 342, 377strain gauge, 143, 324, 325, 332stress, 343stress detectors, 227string, 92substrate, 517successive-approximation technique, 175supervised classification, 523switched-capacitor, 187synchronous detector, 263systematic error, 524systematic inaccuracy, 17

tactile sensor, 327target species, 500TCR, 199, 479Teflon, 155, 388, 509temperature, 30, 47, 60, 75, 77, 88, 94, 129,

169, 195, 206, 219, 244, 310, 335, 355,363, 398, 425, 435, 457, 476, 525

temperature coefficient, 159, 280temperature compensation, 196

588 Index

temperature correction, 49temperature differential, 367temperature gradient, 117temperature profile, 101temperature sensitivity, 536temperature sensor, 19, 49, 312, 403, 460,

490TGS, 80thermal accelerometer, 309thermal capacitance, 26, 81, 98thermal conductivity, 100, 355, 401, 460thermal coupling, 436thermal expansion, 96thermal feedback, 481thermal flux, 106, 438thermal grease, 481thermal mass, 427thermal radiation, 14, 78, 144, 244, 426, 434thermal resistance, 81, 117, 458thermal shock, 33thermal time constant, 435thermistor, 5, 35, 62, 401, 435, 465, 513thermoanemometer, 363thermochromic solution, 494thermocouple, 7, 89, 311, 427, 481thermocouple amplifier, 485thermocouple assemblies, 486thermocouple loop, 482thermodynamics, 513thermoelectric, 438thermoelectric coefficients, 429thermoelectric coolers, 423thermoelectric law, 482thermoelectric voltage, 484thermoelectricity, 87thermometer, 109, 403, 468thermopile, 89, 311, 427, 484thermoplastic, 538thermostat, 257, 480thermowell, 486thick films, 465thick oxide, 552thickness, 293thin film, 487, 517, 554thin plate, 344thin-film material, 544Thompson, 86Thomson heating, 91threshold, 186

threshold circuits, 240threshold device, 171tilt sensor, 257time constant, 26, 81, 118, 460, 476, 492TiO2, 511titanium, 63toroid, 55torque, 43, 313Torricelli, 339total internal reflection, 141transceiver, 229transducer, 3transfer function, 13, 17, 19, 29, 210, 525transistor, 418, 488transition temperature, 478transmission, 148transmittance, 128, 133transmitted noise, 208, 211, 228triboelectric detectors, 237triboelectric effect, 38true value, 13tube, 144tube of flow, 359tungsten, 62, 542two-wire transmitter, 202two-point calibration, 19

U.S. Customary System, 9ultrasonic, 274, 367, 385ultrasonic crystal, 496ultrasonic waves, 287, 496ultraviolet (UV), 111, 439, 492, 511, 543,

548uncertainty, 18, 33unsupervised classification, 523

V/F, 176, 177vacuum, 46, 111, 135, 146, 314, 333, 354,

400vacuum chamber, 544, 545vacuum deposition, 545vacuum sensor, 356vacuum tube, 356valence band, 409, 421VCR, 433vector, 53, 82vehicle, 301velocity, 301, 359, 362, 368velocity of light, 111

Index 589

velocity sensor, 302vertex curvature, 140vibrating gyro, 314vibration, 303vibration detectors, 227, 331virtual ground, 163, 167, 432Volta, 222voltage follower, 158, 432voltage offset, 205voltage source, 202voltage-to-current converter, 202voltage-to-frequency (V/F), 175Voltaic pile, 51voltammetry, 522VRP, 351

Warburg impedance, 508warm-up time, 25warping, 97water, 386water tank, 48water-level sensor, 48waveguide, 143, 144, 148, 232, 275

wavelength, 104, 126, 410weber, 55Wheatstone bridge, 192, 195, 204, 273, 275,

341, 344, 513, 514white noise, 206Wiedemann effect, 274Wien’s law, 104window, 132window comparator, 240wiper, 254wire, 51work function, 408working electrode, 505

xenon, 451, 492X-rays, 443, 547

Young’s modulus, 73, 92

zener diode, 169zinc, 542zinc oxide, 75