Surveying for, Construction Fourth Edition

William Irvine, FRieS Lecturer in Land Surveying Glasgow College of Building and Printing

The McGraw-Hill, Companies

London . New York . St Louis . San Francisco . Auckland . Bogota . Caracas . Lisbon . Madrid Mexico· Milan· Montreal· New Delhi· Panama· Paris· San Juan· Sao Paulo Singapore . Sydney· Tokyo . Toronto

-~------------------------

-~~-"-'--"-'-'-'=---=--=-.-=---.----.---=-=.----'---------------------

Preface ix

Acknowledgements x

Chapter 1 SURVEYING FUNDAMENTALS 1

1. Units of measurement 1 2. Understanding scale 3 3. Drawing to scale 5 4. Answers 6

Chapter 2 UNDERSTANDING MAPS AND PLANS 8

1. Site plans 8 2. Ordnance Survey maps and plans l3 3. Answers 25 4. Project 25

Chapter 3 LINEAR SURVEYING 26

1. Principles oflinear surveying 27 2. Linear measuring techniques 28 3. Procedure in linear surveying 36 4. Plotting the survey .44 5. Negotiating obstructions 48 6. Answers 55 7. Project 57

Chapter 4 LEVELLING 58

1. Levelling instruments 59 2. Levelling procedure (using the rise and

fall method) 67 3. Levelling procedure (using the HPC

method) 78 4. Inverted staff readings 84 5. Errors in levelling 85 6. Permanent adjustments 87 7. Curvature and refraction 90 8. Reciprocal levelling 91 9. Answers 93

10. Project 98

-- ---~------

-~-----'-- -~~--

Contents

Chapter 5 CONTOURING

1. Contour characteristics 2. Methods of contouring 3. Uses of contour plans 4. Answers 5. Project

Chapter 6 VERTICAL SECTIONS

1. Development plan 2. Longitudinal sections 3. Cross sections 4. Answers 5. Project

Chapter 7 THEODOLITES

1. Classification 2. Principles of construction 3. Reading the circles 4. Setting up the theodolite (temporary

adjustments) 5 . Measuring horizontal angles 6. Measuring angles in the vertical plane 7. Errors affecting angular measurements 8. Answers

Chapter 8 TRAVERSE SURVEYS

1. Types of traverse 2. Basic principles of traversing 3. Fieldwork 4. Plotting a traverse 5. Answers'

Chapter 9 TRAVERSE SURVEY COMPUTATIONS

1. Magnetic bearings 2. True bearings 3. Grid bearings

99

99 101 111 120 124

125

125 125 129 l38 143

144

144 144 149

154 156 160 162 168

169

169 171 171 178 185

187

187 188 188

v

p ,.'

vi Contents

4. Magnetic declination 188 Chapter 13 SETTING OUT 5. Assumed bearings 190 CONSTRUCTION WORKS 296 6. Forward and back bearings 190 l. Setting out-horizontal control 296 7. Quadrant bearings 191 2. Setting out equipment 296 8. Conversion of angles to bearings 193 3. Setting out a peg on a specified 9. Obtaining bearings directly 199 distance and bearing 299

10. Rectangular coordinates- 4. Setting out roadways-office work 301 terminology 200 5. Setting out roadways-fieldwork 304

1l. Coordinate c:;tlclllation-open 6. Setting out small buildings 306 traverse 201 7. Setting out large buildings 309

12. Plotting rectangular coordinates 205 8. Checking verticality 312 13. Calculation of a closed traverse 207 9. Setting out-vertical control 314 14. Miscellaneous coordinate problems 210 10. Setting out a peg at a predetermined 15. Answers 214 level 314 16. Project 216 1l. Setting out floor levels 315

12. Setting out invert levels 315 Chapter 10 TACHEOMETRY 217 13. Setting out roadway levels 318

14. Large-scale excavations 319 l. Stadia tacheometry 217 15. Vertical control using laser 2. Errors in stadia tacheometry 223 instruments 319 3. Methods of simplifying calculations 224 16. An"swers 321 4. U se of stadia tacheometry , 226 17. Project 324 5. Use of computer program 227 6. Electromagnetic distance

Chapter 14 MENSURATION-AREAS 325 measurement (EDM) 228 7. Principle of distance measurement 230 l. Regular areas 325 8. EDMsystems 230 2. Irregular areas 326 9. Types ofEDM instrument 234 3. Areas from field notes 328

10. Applications ofEDM 236 4. Measuring areas from plans 333 1l. Operation of an EDM instrument 236 5. Answers 337 12. Answers 239 6. Project 339 13. Project 242

Chapter 15 MENSURATION-VOLUMES 340 Chapter 11 RADIAL POSITIONING 243 l. Cuttings (with vertical sides) 340

l. Principles of radial positioning 243 2. General rule for calculating volume 341 2. Calculation and plotting of survey 3. Cuttings and embankments with

(manually) 244 sloping sides 342 3. Calculation and plotting using 4. Calculation of cross-sectional areas 343

microcomputer-based mapping 5. Calculation of volume 349 systems 247 6. Volumes oflarge-scale earthworks 351

4. Digital ground modelling (DGM) 255 7. Answers 355 5. Answers 262 8. Project 356 6. Project 265

Chapter 16 SURVEYS OF EXISTING BUILDINGS 357 Chapter 12 CURVE RANGING 266

Classification of drawings l. 357 l. Curve geometry 266 2. Principles of measurement 357 2. Curve elements 267 3. Conducting the survey 358 3. Designation of curves 269 4. Plotting the survey 364 4. Problems in curve location 269 5. Answers 364 5. Setting out curves (calculations) 272 6. Setting out points by EDM

Chapter 17 COMPUTER PROGRAMS methods 281 7. Obstructions 282 AND SPREAD SHEETS 365 8. Vertical curves 284 l. Introduction 365 9. Answers 289 2. BASIG·pFogFamming 365

10. Project 295 3. Calculation of coordinates 366

Contents vii

4. Calculation of bearings 370 4. Section 2: Linear survey 390 5. Calculation oftacheometric data 371 5. Section 3: Levelling 390 6. Calculation of cross-sectional areas 374 6. Section 4: Contouring 392 7. Calculation of volume 376 7. Section 5: Sectioning and intersection 8. Calculation of tri-dimensional of surfaces 393

coordinates 377 8. Section 6: Traversing 395 9. Calculation of levels 379 9. Section 7: Tacheometry 396

10. Spread sheets 381 10. Section 8: Radial positioning 397 11. Use of spread sheets 381 11. Section 9: Setting out 397 12. Answers 386 12. Section 10: Curves 397

13. Section 11: Areas and volumes 399 Chapter 18 PROJECT 388 14. Answers 400

1. Introduction 388 2. Objective of project 388 3. Section 1: General site location 388 INDEX 411

Abney level, 33 Accuracy:

of stadia tacheometry, 217 of theodolite traverse, 194

Adjustment: oflevel:

permanent, 87 temporary, 60, 62

of parallax, 60, 62 of theodolite:

permanent, 162 temporary, 154

of theodolite traverse, 208 Altitude level of theodolite, 149 Anallatic lens, 218 Areas offigures, 325

from co-ordinates, 330 by planimeter, 334 by Simpson's rule, 327 by trapezoidal rule, 327

Arrow, 31 Autoplumb, 296, 313

Back bearing, 190 Backsight, 68 Ball and socket joint, 62 Basic program, 365 Beam compasses, 47 Bearings:

assumed,190 back,190 forward,190 grid, 188 magnetic, 187 quadrant, 191 true, 188 whole circle, 187

Bench mark, 20 Booking:

of angles, 156 oflinear survey, 39 of compass survey, 183 oflevelling, 68 of tacheometry, 219,220

Bowditch's rule, 208

b-BUilding drawings, 364

_Building line, 306 ---

------~-~--~-. -- -

Index

Calculator, 2, 205 Central meridian, 13 Centring motion, 149 Chain, 28 Change point, 70 Check lines, 37 Chord:

final sub, 275 initial sub, 275 standard,275

Circle: circumscribing, 271 horizontal, 145 setting screw, 145 vertical, 149

Closed traverse, 169, 183 Closing error:

bearing, 196 of theodolite traverse, 194

Coding, 248 feature code, 248 point code, 248 point number, 248

Coincidence bubble reader, 63 Collimation:

adjustment of, in level, 88 adjustment of, in theodolite, 163 height of plane of, 78 line of; 78

Compass, 144 surveyor's, 178

Compass traverse: measurements of bearings in, 178 plotting of, 186

Compensator, 64 Computer program, 365 Constant errors:

in levelling, 86 in measuring, 33 in tacheometry, 223

Constant tension handle, 173 Contours, 99

characteristics of, 99 definition of, 99 interpolation of, 107

Contouring: direct method of, 101 indirect method of, 105-

412 Index

Control code, 249 Control code with parameter, 251 Conventional signs, 15 Converging gradient, 215 Conversion of angles to bearings, 193 Co-ordinates:

National Grid, 13 partial, 201 plotting of, 205 polar, 204 rectangular, 201 total, 201

Cross hairs, 60 Cross-section, 129 Cross staff, 51 Curvature, 90 Curve:

circular, 226 designation of, 269 elements of, 267 length of, 267 parabolic, 284 sag, 284 summit, 284 valley, 284 vertical, 284

Curve ranging, 266 Cut, 129 Cuttings and embankments, 111, 129

volume of, 340

Damping systems, 64 Data file, 255 Data recorder, 235 Datum, 67

Ordnance, 67 Deflection angle, 277 Departure:

partial, 201 total, 201

Deviation angle, 267 Diagonal eyepiece, 312 Diaphragm (see Reticule) Digital ground modelling, 255 Direct scale reading, 150 Double longitude, 330 Double centre system, 146 Dumpy level, 60

Earthworks: outline of, 111 volume of, 340

Eastings, 203 Electromagnetic distance measurement, 228

frequency of wavelength in, 229 infra-red instrument in, 236 phase difference in, 229 transmitters in, 228 wavelength in, 229

Electro-optical system ofEDM, 235 Electronic tacheometer, 153 Electronic theodolite, 112, 134 Embankment, 104,211 Error:

angular, in traversing, 194 classification of, 33 in levelling, 85 in measurement, 33 in tacheometry, 223 in traversing, 170

Eyepiece, 59 External offset, 268

Face left and face right, 156 False origin, 13 Feature code, 248 Fill, 129 First angle projection, 364 Flying levelling, 69 Focal length oflens, 218 Focusing:

external, 217 internal, 60 screw, 59

Folding rule, 30 Foresight, 68 Formation level, 112 Forward bearing, 190 Framework, 28 Frequency, (EDM), 229

Geodetic surveying, 230 Gradient, 11

converging, 347 percentage, 284

Graduation: of horizontal circle, 150 oflevelling staff, 66 of surveyor's compass, 176 of tape, 30 of vertical circle, 149

Grid bearings, 188 Grid line, 10

in linear survey, 33 in levelling, 86

Gross errors, 33

Horizontal: angle measurement, 156 circle, 145 equivalent, 99

Incident ray, 64 Image:

real, 60 virtual, 60

Inclination, angle of, 33 Inclined sights in tacheometry, 220 Infra-red, EDM, 233 Internal surveys, 357 Intermediate sight, 73 Interpolation of contours, 107 Intersection:

angle, 267 of surfaces, 111 point, 267

Invert level, 125 Inverted staff reading, 84

Laser, 319 Latitude, 13,201

difference, 201 partial, 201

Lens, anallatic, 184,218 Level:

Abney,33 automatic, 63 dumpy, 60 spirit, 60 spot, 20 tilting, 62

-----

I

I ~ I

Levelling, 58 between two points, 67 flying, 69 head,62 reciprocal,91 series, 73 staff,66

Linear surveying, 26 measuring equipment in, 28 procedure in, 36 plotting in, 44 recording in, 39

Line of sight, 59 Long chord, 273 Longitude, 13 Longitudinal section, 125 Lower plate:

clamp, 145 of theodolite, 145

Magnetic: bearing, 187 declination, 188 meridian, 187

Maps, 13 Map references, 15 Mapping systems, 247, 252 Marking plate, 173 Measurement:

of buildings, 357 of horizontal angles, 156 oflines, 30, 173 of vertical angles, 160

Meridian: assumed, 190 central, 13 magnetic, 187 true, 188

Method of squares, 330 Metric system, 1 Microcomputer, 247 Micrometer reading, 150 Microwave system ofEDM, 230 Misalignment oftape, 33

National Grid, 13 North:

assumed,190 Grid,180 magnetic, 187 true, 188

Northing, 201

Object glass, 59 Obstacles, 48

in taping, 48 in setting out curves, 282

Offsetting, 38 Open traverse, 169 Optics, 59 Optical:

centre oflens, 59 micrometer:

double reading, 151 single reading, 150

plummet, 149 scale theodolite, 150 square, 52

Opto-e1ectric, 152 Ordnance datum, 20,67

1- -------.-.----" -- -------- --"--r - - -

F f.~~ f-

~.~

Ordnance Survey: boundaries, 24 maps and plans, 13 National Grid, 13 parcel numbers, 20

Parabola, 284 Parallactic angle, 217 Parallax, 60, 62 Parallel plate, 150 Parcel numbers, 20 Partial departure, 201 Partial latitude, 201 Pendulum, 64 Permanent adjustments:

oflevel,87 of theodolite, 162

Phase difference, EDM, 229 Planimeter, 334 Plans, Ordnance Survey, 13 Plotting:

of compass traverse, 186 oflevelling sections, 127 oflinear survey, 44 of rectangular co-ordinates, 205

Pocket rule, 28 Point number, 248 Polar co-ordinates, 204 Polygonally closed traverse, 169 Program library, 255 Prism, EDM, 231 Prism square, 52 Prismoid, 350 Prismoidal rule, 350 Profile board, 298 Project, 388

Quadrant bearing, 191

Radial interpolation graph, 108 Radial positioning, 243 Ranging rod, 31 Reciprocal levelling, 91 Reconnaissance survey, 36 Rectangular co-ordinates, 200 Reduced bearing, 191 Reduced level, 68 Reduction oflevels:

collimation method, 76 rise and fall method, 67

References, map, 15 Reflection, 64 Refraction:

in levelling, 90 in tacheometry, 224

Reiteration, 156 Repetition, 159 Repetition clamp, 145 Representative fraction, 3 Reticule, 59

Scales, 3 Sections:

cross, 129 longitudinal, 125

Selection of stations: in linear survey, 36 in traverse, 171

Series levelling, 73

Index 413

414 Index

. Setting out: horizontal control in, 298 vertical control in, 314

Setting up: level, 60, 62, 63 theodolite, 154

Side hill section, 136, 349 Sight rail, 298 Signal generation, 233 Simpson's rule, 327, 341 Site plan, 9 Sitesquare, 309 Slope correction, 35 Slope-motion screw, 145 Spirit level, 60

altitude, 149 plate, 144

Spot level, 20 Spreadsheet, 381 Spring balance, 173 Stadia:

intercept, 218 lines, 218

Standardization, 34 Step taping, 32 Straight, 226 Surface relief, 10, 19 Surveyor's compass, 178

Tacheometric tables, 224 Tacheometry:

stadia method of, 217 Tangent:

length, 267, 284 level, 284 point, 267, 284

Tangential angle, 277 Tapes, 30 Telescope, 59 Temperature correction, 173,309 Temporary adjustments:

oflevel,60 of theodolite, 154

Theodolites, 144 Tilting level, 62 Total co-ordinates, 200 Transit axis, 148 Transmitter, EDM, 228 Trapezoidal rule, 327 Traveller, 298 Traverse, 169

compass, 183 table, 203 theodolite, 169

Triangular irregular modelling, 258 Tribrach:

ofleve1,60 of theodolite, 144

Trilateration, 27 Trivet stage:

oflevel,60 of theodolite, 144

Truncated prism, 350 Trunnion axis, 148

Units of measurement, 1 Upper plate:

clamp, 145 of theodolite, 145

Variation in declination: annual, 189 geographical, 189

Velocity, EDM, 230 Vernier, 144 Vertical angle, 160 Vertical interval, 99 Volumes, 340

Wavelength, EDM, 229 Whole circle bearings:

magnetic, 187 . true, 188

Zenith angle, 161

- -- ------- -----