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ABBREVTIONS.US- .

Anthros.;,L'Antoploge..:American Anhropologist.American. Anthropologica Association, MemOirS..Archiv fur Anthropolg.-ie;-Amencan Ethnologil Soc'fiety, u ltions.Anthropologish chaft iO Wien lYittei .American Jotrnalot Physical Anthoolog..Amerian- Mse of Natural History-.Anthropologic Papes.

MeMirs.:Memoirs, Athr opological gi ;0S..::Memoir-s, Jesup E_p.eition.Blureau. o}f 'A *i'i Rican 1091

Contrbutions to N'rt Americau Ethnolo.ColumbiaUnierity,CntributioNr ioAnthropologyyiFolk.Lore.,FP-ield Muse6dm of Natural -Iist -

Memoir.9- -;; ;¢ w;,,,,,Publicati/onBJsAnbiplgial Series.

Internatiotiales Athi fuir E$h og'',4'a''.''hie ,, "IntQrnStioual Congre~s of Am#ricanta (ptes Renus,.4tProceedaig) . c-k r-Intermatiomal Journal of Amercan Linguistics.J'ournaofAmerinca Folla-oe.Journal -of the Royal hopologil Institute;Musem of the American Indan, Heye Fondation-

Contributio-sIndian -i:es M

> Indian N~ote~ andMonogrph. 0- -~.''uPeabody du (ofEarvrd Unersity). -

Memoirs.

Repors.Public useum (of the CityI of Milwaue,Bullet*.-Socift6 des icait do Pans, JodMirSmtsonian Instjttiomo-- --- - - ---: -^ > -Annual Reports,.'

Contributions to Eno*e -g--*-M.iweellneou. Collections..->X;;..;-.----n- .;naa,ohUniversity of iCaIiornia- AublictioinA meican Archaeolog

'and 0tnog;5 ... 2-md o J: u 4,r :} Ve-::ra ,,.',t,, ''se 32.:'' U

,1; 0 ""University of Pennsylvani (University) Museun, AthoplgclPubUcanion"

Ui Ued Statestatkmal Museum-Reorts.

Proedinig_s.-.Urversityo Washitn, ?ublica ns innhropology.> .

Zeitschit:fiUr Zthuologe.-

CHUMASH PREHISTORY

BY

RONALD L. OLSON

UNIVEnSITY OF CALFOuNIA PUBLICATIONS IN AMERICAN ARCHAEoLOGYAND ETHNOLoGY

Volume 28, No. 1, pp. 1-21, 3 figures in text, 1 map

Issued January 7, 1930

UNIVESITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY, CALIFOR.NIA

CAMBRDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, ENGLAND

CONTENTSPAGE

Introduction................................................................3Geography................................................................5

Stratigraphic excavations................................................................6Site anddepth differences................................................................6

Table1.Stratigraphic excavations................................................................7Relative age of sites.............................9

Table2.Timerelations of two sites at Rincon.................................................... 10Table 3. Stratigraphic excavations: frequencies per 1000 cubic feet .............. 11

Excavations in cemeteries........................................................ 13Table4.Classification of artifacts with burials.................................................... 14

Table 5. Frequencies of various objects per 100 burials...................................... 15Cultural changes and developments.. ............................ 16

Theearly Mainland period............................. 16The intermediate Mainland period............................. 17Late Mainland period............................. 17

The early Island period............................. ,, 17Thelate Island period............................. 18

Miscellaneousitems ............................... 18Canoes ............................. 18Perforated stones.......................... 18Basketry.......................... 19Fetish bundles.......................... 19Pottery.......................... 19

Houses .......................... 19Cultural development........................... 20

Possible Oceanic affiliations.......................... 21

FIGURES IN TEXT

Map. The central Chumash coast ....................... ..21.Metate and muller...........................9

2. Circular and straight fishhooks...........................93. Diagram: cultural changes.......................... 21

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CHUMASH PREHISTORYBY

RONALD L. OLSON

INTRODUCTION

This account of two summers' archaeological work in the vicinityof Santa Barbara and on Santa Cruz island is intended as a briefresume of some of the more important general findings. For thisreason it deals, in the main, with strat.igraphic work and with sitedifferences based upon the relative frequency of occurrence of varioustypes of'objects. A detailed, systematic account of the excavationsmade, of general geography and site location, and of the objects found,grave by grave, is reserved for a future publication.

In 1927 two weeks were spent. in work on the Mainland, eleven onSanta Cruz island; in 1928 seven weeks were devoted to the Mainland,six to the Island. The sketch map indicates the sites at which.excava-tions were made. On the Mainland fairly extensive work was done atfour sites (nos. 1, 2, 6, and 10), and casual excavations made at theothers. Island sites, 3, 83, 100, 122, 131, 135, 138, 147, 159, and 162were each worked for a week or more. A number of other sites weregiven some slight attention. Sites 1 and 2 proved to be the only Main-land sites whose cemeteries had not been rifled by previous investi-gators or by vandal amateurs. The result is that it was impossible toverify the a.pparent site and depth differences by means of excavationsin. the relevant cemeteries. The sites on the Island's northern, shorehave for the most part suffered the same fate as those of the Main-land, a.nd it was only with difficulty that sites were found which hadnot been plundered by relic hunters.

The sites of the area which lie near the ocean front. are, for' themost part., of the familiar shellmound or kitchen-midden type, and donot differ materially in composition from their counterparts'in otherparts of California.'- In size the middens vary from an insignificantscattering of a few thousand shell fragments to deposits nearly twentyfeet in depth. The area. covered varies just as greatly: a site half amile in length mnay average but a few inches in depth, while othersites which may be no more than two hundred feet long may be many

1 E. W. Gifford, Composition of California Shellmounds, present series, 12:1-29, 1916.

[3]

4 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

feet in depth. Site 3 on Santa Cruz island is probably the largest ofthe entire region in respect to cubic content. It measures some 600by 700 feet and averages about 6 feet in depth, giving about 2,500,000cubic feet (93,000 cubic yards). The shell content, however, isunusually low, so that these figures give a somewhat exaggerated ideaof its actual size. Probably the average of the more important mid-dens on the island is under 300,000 cubic feet. Sites on the Mainlandwould average considerably less.

Without any systematic effort or sacrifice of time, 120 sites werelocated on the Island in addition to the 86 mapped by Mr. LeonardOuthwaite in 1918. Of these 206 about 10 per cent. have been touchedby the archaeologist's spade, but the treasures of more than doublethat number have been looted by trophy hunters. While considerablecollections could still be obtained, the more promising sites have allbeen more or less systematically excavated.

The usual plan followed in the excavation of large sites was first tosink a stratigraphic pit about three by thirty feet in the deepest partof the mound, using 6 or 12-inch intervals. Following this thecemetery or cemeteries were worked by series of pits. In the smallermounds the same procedure was used, except that small stratigraphicpits were dug and the materials from them were not screened. In thestratigraphic pits all objects, fragments of objects, and animal boneswere saved and segregated according to depth. Materials from thecemeteries were segregated according to burials. Whenever possible,skulls, pelves, and long bones were saved.

In all about 725 burials were unearthed, but in only about one-halfof these were the bones firm enough to permit handling, and not morethan 100 were sufficiently well preserved to allow the entire skeletonto be saved. A feature which greatly hampered operations was theoccurrence of large numbers of burials in restricted areas. Within aspace 75 feet square as many as 150 burials were found. The nativeshad a sophisticated attitude toward earlier interments and the diggingof a new grave was often, even usually, accompanied by displacementof the remains of several previous burials. In most such cases littlecould be done with the disturbed bones in the way of allocating themwith the proper skulls. Out of perhaps 300 individuals who at onetime or another had been buried in cemetery 1 of site 83, only 107 werefound in an undisturbed condition. In view of this state of affairs ithardly need be added that the depths at which bodies and objects arefound in the cemeteries is seldom a criterion of relative antiquity.

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

GEOGRAPHY

Kroeber, in his Handbook of the Indians of California, outlines theterritory occupied by the Chumash as follows:

They held the three northern large islands of the Santa Barbara archi-pelago-Anacapa does not appear to have been inhabited permanently. Theyclustered thickly along the calm shore from Malibu Canyon westward to PointConcepcion and from there extended northward along the more boisterous andchillier coast as far as Estero Bay. Inland, in general, they reached to therange that divides the direct ocean drainage from that of the great valley;except that in the west their frontier was the watershed between -the Salinasand the Santa Maria and short coast streams; and in the east, some small frag-ments had spilled into part of the most southerly drainage of the San Joaquin-Kern system. The Carrizo plains are doubtful as between Chumash andSalinan and may not have contained any permanent villages.2

The mountainous nature of the mainland. portion is relieved onlyby the valleys of the Santa Maria, Santa Ynez, Ventura, and SantaClara rivers, a few smaller valleys, and the narrow intermittent coastalplain between Point Concepcion and Point Mugu. Most of the rivervalleys begin as narrow defiles which gradually widen as they approachthe coast. The coastal region, moistened by more abundant rains andby frequent fogs,3 contrasts with the semi-desert of the interior, whereonly the mount.ain slopes give relief from the monotony of chaparral,cactus, and random oaks by presenting a generous clothing of conifers.Most of the small watercourses are dry the greater part of the year;and even the rivers fail to maintain a continuous flow all the way to-the sea.

The islands, like the mainland, are cut by deep narrow valleys,though here and there fairly gentle slopes stretch from the higherpeaks to the ocean. Sandy, surf-pounded beaches alternate with for-bidding, cliffs. The groves of large oaks, common on the mainland,are restricted to the wider and more sheltered valleys.

The flora and land fauna of the hinterland occupied by theChumash offered no exceptional inducements to the native. It wasot.herwise along the coast, where sea mammals, fish, and shellfish areabundant. Accordingly we find a concentration of population alongthe coast, especially along the more favored ocean frontage between

2 Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 78:550-551.3 The average annual rainfall at Santa Barbara, based on a 54-year period,

is 18.68 inches. It is considerably less in the interior. Precipitation is almostwholly limited to the period between the first of November and the end ofMarch.

1930]

6 I;University of California Publications in Am. Arph. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

Point Concepcion and the Ventura river. The islands were in someways even more favorable than.the mainland coast-at any rate thesites are here both larger and more abundant. Higher winds and fre-quent, fogs, especially at, the western ends of the islands, are compen-sated for by the abundance of sea life.

Along the coast from Estero bay to Malibu canyon as well as onthe islands, shell heaps which mark the old camp a,nd'village sites arefound at the mouth of nearly every canyon, and frequently nearsprings as well. Obviously a supply of fresh water was a potent factorin the determina.tion of village and camp locations. It seems certainthat many, perhaps the majority, of these sites were not inhabited theyear round. The a-corn harvest, seasonal presence of game, and anintermittent water supply were probably the major features whichinfluenced occupancy in such cases. It was along these shores wherethe population was concentrated that all our archaeological work wasdone. In the remainder of Chumash territory nothing was a.ttemptedbeyond the briefest reconnaissance.

STRATIGRAPHIC EXCAVATIONS

While exploratory pits to determine composition and depth, as wellas to locate cemeteries, were dug in a grea.t, many sites, careful strati-graphic work was done at only seven sites, and in only five cases werethe mound materials screened. Ordinary gravel screens with 3 or 4meshes to the inch were employed. In most cases a sufficient portionof the comminuted shell passed through the mesh with the ash and soil-to render the artifacts visible in the residue of rocks and coarse shell.In most instances the mound material was removed in 6-inch layers,but at Mainland site 1 and Santa Cruz island site 147, 12-inch intervalswere substituted.

Table 1 lists the commonest objects and their frequency in intervalsof two feet. For the sake of brevity the smaller intervals which werea,ctually employed have been grouped into these larger strata. Certaintypes of objects which occurred too rarely to be tabulated here havebeen included in table 4. It should be borne in mind that in a.ll thetabulations fragments of objects, unless obviously from the sameorigina,l, a-re counted as if they were complete artifac.ts.

Site and depth differenees.-In all the mounds there is a decidedtendency in the direction of progressive diminution in number ofobjects as the bottom of the mound materia.l is approached. This is

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

especially noticeable in the bottom two feet. At first glancethis mightbe taken to imply a certain amount of " progress" through the cen-

turies, of cultural development and enrichment. Actually the differ-.ences are more apparent than real. They are almost certainly due for

TABLE 1STAT1IGRAPHIC EXCAVATIONS

Sites~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

. A. .. .

Mainland 0-2 15 11 1 0 0 13 39 38 3 0 0 0 X 20 119trewnch 21-41 21 6 3 8 0 6 45 42 6 0 1 1 X 36 129scr'eened -41--61 3 1 15 67 0 5 42 42 3 0 3 0 X 16 181

Totals.......... 28 18 21 103 0 31 132 159 13 0 8 2 73-

~ ~ ~ ~...

sites 0-2 ...... 2 1 00 0 14 39 35 2 10 22 1 X 11 126trench 2j ..4 2 1 0 0 0 27 41 73 0 16 2 00 X 14 180screened 41-6' 4 3 0 0 0 20 -78 55 1 4 -5 0 X- 20 170

-8 h0 0 0 0 0 12 47 23 3 2 10 0 X 15 95-- 8-1016ff0 0 0 1 0 1 5 0 0 0 2 1 X 2 10

Totals..........8 5 0 1 0 74 210 186 6 30 59 2 62

Mainland 0 -2't 3 4 0 0 2 9 9 10 2 0 3 2 X 4 44

site 6,

trench 2'-4' 2 2 0 0 3 1 3 5 1 0 0 0 X 12 20

30'X3',

screened 4'-5 1 10 0 0 1 4 7 11 1 1 3 0 X 7 30

Totals. 286 7 0 0 6 314 19 26 4 1 6 2 23

Island 0-2' 2 1 0 0 1 14 17 15 7 3 121 0 X 8 68site l0.21-40 , 2 0 0 8 11 40 20 7 14 12 0 X 38 114trench '4 6 5 4 0 0 3 6 105 14 4 10 5 1 X 33 157screened 6 0 0203 207

68-'-106"0 0 010 2 5 031500 02 X 2109

Totals.. 11 6 0 0 1 533 237 59 21 28 34 1 62

Mainland 0-2' 10 3 0 0 6 22 99 57 11 9 36 0 X 40 253site 147, 2' I 0 0 19 8 182 33 12 9 64 3 X 40 358

trench 2-4 22 0 1 3 5 0 O X 20

40'X3'V to-6', 4-6 20 6 0 0 4 20 220 -55 16 13 18 0 X 48 372theon10lX.3667-8 ° ° 0 O 0 36 200 326 4 164 X 36 3166' multiplied 8'-10' Q 0 0 0 8 8 68 16 4 4 0 -0 X 20 108Stau 10'-12* 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 8 4 0 0 0 X 16 16

12'-14't 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 X 16 12

Totals.. 5619 0 0 3794 773 209 21 2 34 7 216

trNot screened below l'.t Shell encls at 16'60.Mid-tide level at about 15'93.

1930] 7

8 University of California Publioations in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

the most part to a decrease in the shell and bone in the lower levels.Intensity of occupation is no doubt indicated very largely by shelland bone proportions. Artifacts,. shells, and bones undoubtedly findtheir way below the original surface of the site and since the trencheswere consistently carried to the extreme limit of the shell, the tabula-tions cannot but indicate discrepancies between levels which are inall probability determined by natural forces rather than culturalfactors. In harmony with this interpretation is the obvious positivecorrelation between frequency of animal bones and frequency of arti-facts. The same relationship will be found to hold for percentage ofshell and frequency of artifacts.4

Differences in pattern or style of the same objects are almost non-existent as we pass from the lower to the upper levels of any onesite. Nowhere was a definite or significant change observable. Mortarsand pestles, metates and mullers,5 flint work, fishhooks and barbs,ornaments-all these, if present at the various levels, show a drabuniformity throughout.

In comparing site with site, however, a few seemingly significantdifferences come to light. Mainland sites 1 and 10 and Island sites100 and 147 are alike in nearly all particulars. With the exception ofthe absence of "pseudo-metates"'6 from site 10, all of the classes ofobjects occur in all these sites. Mainland site 6 alone stands out asdiffering from the others in some respects. Genuine metates andmullers, except for a single muller from the lower stratum of site 10,are absent in the other four sites but are present in considerable num-bers in site 6. Furthermore the proportion of metates-mullers tomortars-pestles changes very materially as we proceed from the lowerto the upper levels of site 6. In the lower 41/2 feet of pits A and B,112 metates and mullers were found while only 4 mortars and pestlesappeared. The relative frequency is reversed in the upper 4 feet,which yielded 42 mortars and pestles but only 12 metates and mullers.The excavations at this site make it appear that while both the mortar-

4 This need not be true in comparisons of site with site. Thus, Mainlandsite 1- at pit A probably contains a higher average of shell than Island site 147,but site 1 is considerably poorer in artifacts.

5 The metates of the region are the rough coast type with oval depressions.No metates of the Southwest or Pueblo type were found. (See fig. 1.)

6 I have used this term for the various flat or concave slabs and fragments,which lack definite evidences of use as genuine mealing stones. That thesestones were not genuine metates is. borne out by the lack of mullers in the siteswhere they occur. Some show the marks of rubbing, but it seems likely thatthe grinding of shell ornaments and of bone implements rather than use asmealing equipment explains their peculiar form.

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

pestle and metate-muller modes of grinding were present almostthroughout, there was a real change in the prevailing method. Themetate and muller were used almost exclusively during the periodwhen the lower strata were laid down, but gave way to the mortar and

Fig. 1. Oval metate of type found in site 6. Muller used with metatesof this type; length 134 mm.

pestle in the later period. The very definite type of both metates andmullers found at this site (see fig. 1) makes it extremely unlikely tha.ttheir absence from other sites should be an error of observation.

Site 6 also shows variation from the other sites in the absencethroughout of the circular type of fishhooks. These are consistently

a. b .d\Mig. 2. a, b, circular type fishhooks of mussel and Haliotis rufescens shell;

c, d, straight type fishhooks of bone.

present at virtually all levels of the other shell mounds. The straighttype of hook seems to be present throughout in all mounds (fig. 2).

Relative age of sites.-Of the 5 mounds under discussion, post-European objects were found in 3 (sites 1, 10, and 147). Sites 83 and

1930]. 9

10 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

100, judging by the preservation of perishable objects, .are also rela-tively recent. Site 6, on the other hand, gave every indication ofbeing considerably the oldest. Here the soil, shell, and ash havesettled into a mass so compact that picks had to be employed beforethe shovel could be used.

The differences in texture of mound material, like the differencesin types of objects, are not to be ascribed to local conditions, for sites 6and 10 are only a few hundred yards apart and both have their sea-ward margins washed by the surf.

Furthermore, site differences in types of objects have been notedby other investigators. In 1877 at a site near Guadalupe, StephenBowers found more than 200 mullers as well as spearpoints, arrow-points, and charmstones. In 1900 Dr. Philip Mills Jones visited thesame site. I have gone over his materials from this site in the Univer-sity of California Museum of Anthropology and find that exclusiveof flint objects he collected 51 oval metates, 199 mullers, 11 mortars,and 3 pestles. Mr. David Rogers of the Santa Barbara Museum ofNatural History has told me that he finds these definite types ofmullers and oval metates restricts to certain sites.la Mr. MalcolmRogers of the San Diego Museum has written a paper7 in which he

TABLE 2

TIME RELATioNS OF Two SITES AT RINCON

Site 10

Site6.6 . I

Depths _ v 2

__ ~ * ~ @

0-2' 20 X 0 39 13 38 0 3 25 12'-4' 36 X 1 45 6 42 0 6 17 114'-6' 16 X 3 42 5 42 0 3 4 826?-8'6 1 X 4 6 7 37 0 1 0 30

0 3 2 10 35 14 39 22 X0 3 0 16 73 27 41 20 X0 7 1 4 55 20 78 5 X0 0 3 2 23 12 47 10 X1 0 0 0 0 1 5 2 X

a

9 Depths

11 0 -2'14 2'-4'20 4'-6'15 6'-8'2 8'-10'6'

.... ..............

.... ..............

.... ..............

Sa Since this paper was transmitted Mr. Rogers has published the results ofhis investigations under the title,. Prehistoric Man of the Santa Barbara Coast(Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, 1929).

7 The Stone Art of the San Dieguito Plateau, Am. Anthr., n.s., 31:454-467, 1929.

;

Olson: Chumash. Prehi8tor..y

has stated that he believed the shell heaps which yield metates andmullers are the oldest sites in the San Diego region. This is sub-stantially in harmony with the hypothesis of Mr. Rogers of the SantaBarbara Museum.'

My own work in the Santa Barbara region bears out these findingsin a more positive way, my proof being based on stratigraphy ratherthan on site differences alone. In site 6 the metate was the mostcommon grinding tool during its earlier period, the mortar during thelater. In adjacent site 10 no metates were found, and but one muller-and that in the bottom stratum. The recency of site 10 is proved bythe presence of a Spanish coin (dated 1790) in the 2' to 2' 6" stratum.It therefore seems 'likely that all, or most, of site 10 was laid downafter site 6 was abandoned.

Table 2 represents what is probably the approximate time sequenceof these two sites.

It is apparent from this tabulation that metates and mullers persistthroughout the period of site 6 and into the beginning of the periodwhen site 10 was being laid down. Circular fishhooks were unknownto the inhabitants of site 6 but were used during all but the earliestperiod of site 10. All other classes of objects were employed through-out the entire combined period.

TABLE 3SmRATIGRAPHIC EXC2AVATIONS: FREQUENCIFS PEP 1000 CUBIC FEEr

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -.~

Site Dep'ths as 05 E A 8 .0 ;0~~~~

Mainland 0 -4' 940 45 13 0 10 0 205 26429site 6 4'f-8'611828 5 135 0 5 0 182 32329

....... .. ~ ~~~~~.R

Mainland 0 -6' 540 11 0 0 4 48 857 920site 10 6'-10'6 405 0 2 0 10 10 289 311 616

I~~~~~I I

Mainland site 1 0-5' 45 045 13 9 21490222 01

Sta. Cruz Island 0-4' 360 6 0 25 39 47 447 564site 100 4'-8'6" 405 37 0 17 17 27 598 669 616

Sta. Cruz Island 0-6' 720 93 0 40 54 43 1232 1462site 147 6'-14' 240 8 0 8 29 17 436 498 980

1930] 11

12 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

Table 3 presents the same data as table 1 in a different form.Mortars are combined with pestles and metates with mullers. By cal-culations of the frequency of types of objects per 1000 cubic feet, thefigures are made directly comparable, and differences in frequencywhich may be dependent on size of excavation are eliminated.

The significant differences between frequencies of metates-mullersand mortars-pestles and of the two types of fishhooks stand out moreclearly than in table 1. Table 3 shows more plainly than table 1 thatIsland sites are definitely richer in artifacts than those of the Main-land. Site 6 (early) exceeds site 1 (late) in number of artifacts percubic foot but falls far below all other la.te sites. In average numberof artifacts the mounds of the Santa Barbara region are much richerthan those of San Francisco bay. Five Santa Barbara sites yieldedan average of 14.6 artifacts per cubic yard; three San Francisco ba.ymounds, 0.9 artifacts; a single mound on Humboldt bay, 3.0.8

It is evident from the foregoing data that., so far as Chumash ter-.ritory is concerned, the metate and muller precede the mortar andpestle as the type grinding implements; and that the circular (shell)fishhook was unknown until about the middle of the period repre-sented by the sites excavated. In other respects few. evidences ofchange in culture based on stratigraphic work are to be seen. Flintwork, ornamental objects (beads, etc.) and bone tools show no markeddifferences in type or frequency;.and asphaltum, steatite, and basketpebbles,9 in spite of their specialized characters, seem to have beenused during the entire period covered by the sites investigated.

The inferences drawn from the stratigraphic work are borne outby findings at other sites. Surface collections from site 8 (Mainland)yielded 15 metates and mullers, and but 5 mortars and pestles; Main-land site 3 produced 48 metates and mullers, only 2 mortars andpestles; at Mainland site 5 were found 25 metates and mullers, nomortars or pestles. The site near Guadalupe where Jones collected150 metates and mullers and but 14 mortars and pestles has alreadybeen mentioned. At none of these sites were human remains located,and at none were European objects found.

8 See Kroeber, Handbook, 919. The actual differences are in reality evengreater. Localized cemeteries enabled us to avoid burials in stratigraphic pits,and the artifaets found with the very few burials encountered do not appearin my tabulations. Artifacts with burials have evidently been counted in theSan Francisco bay calculations.

9 Pebbles of walnut size evidently used in the process of coating basketswith asphaltum. They were apparently heated and dropped into melted asphaltum,which was then poured into the basket. The basket was then rotated, the hotrocks keeping the asphaltum in a liquid state sufficiently long to permit theasphaltum to be spread in a thin layer.

13]on: Chumash Prehistory

On the other hand, the Mainland sites which were occupied untilEuropean times give reversed ratios of these objects: site 1, mortars-pestles 42, metates-mullers less than 10; site 10, mortars-pestles 13,metates-mullers 1. Santa Cruz island sites yielded mortars and pestlesnumbering hundreds, but not more than a half-dozen genuine metatesand not one muller. A number of these Island sites were occupieduntil European times. It seems to be definitely established, therefore,that so far as the Santa Barbara region is. concerned, metates andmullers constitute the typical grinding tool of the "early" period,while mortars and pestles virtually displaced them in the later periods.There is good evidence that the circular fishhook (commonly of shell,rarely of bone) came in at a.relatively late period. It is nowhereassociated in time with metates and mullers. In Island sites it occursin all but 2 sites; on the Mainland only in sites which are definitelylate.

EXCAVATIONS IN C-EMETERIES

Table 4 presents the majority of classes of objects-found and theirfrequency in various sites. The assignme-nt of sites to tentative periodsis based on a number of considerations: cemeteries which -yieldedEuropean objects are in all cases classed as "late"; Mainland ceme-teries which contain objects typical of the early period exemplifiedby site 6 are classed as "early"; Mainland sites which lack the typesof objects found in sit.e 6 as well a.s European objects are classed as"intermediate." Island sites which yielded European objects areclassed as "late." The "early" Island sites are less objectively classi-fied. Thus, charmstones are wholly absent from late sites and accord-ingly their presence has been used as one of the criteria of the earlyIsland period. Similarly, bone pendants are not found in lateIsland sites, but do occur in a number.. of M!-hers. The occurrenceof circular fishhooks has been used. .a&a fourh. c riterion in temporaldeterminations.

To a certain extent my impressions of the. relative antiquity of asite, based on density or hardness of the mound materials, on degree ofpatination of objects, and on preservation of bones and artifacts, havealso been used in the placing of sites chronologically. Such generalimpressions have in most cases been in harmony with the less sub-jective determination by similarities in types or occurrences of classesof objects.

1930] 13

14 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

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16 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

The stratigraphic materials presented in table 1 are in part dupli-cated on the right-hand side of table 4. In addition a number ofobjects obtained in stratigraphic work which could not be convenientlyshown in table 1 are also indicated.

Table 5 presents some of the data of table 4 in a different manner.Types of artifacts which do not seem to be of chronological significancehave been omitted, and the frequencies have been made equivalent bypresenting the frequency per 100 graves rather than actual numbersfound. Island sites 81 and 82 have been omitted. As in other tabula-tions, fragments of objects, unless from the same original, are countedthe same as complete artifacts.

CULTURAL CHANGES AND DEVELOPMENTS

The data presented in tables 1 to 5 allow us to draw certain con-clusions as to the changes, rather minor to be sure but perceptible,which came about in the course of time in the region under discussion.

The Early Mainland period.-The stratigraphic work at site 6 andthe minor investigations made at sites 3, 5, 8, 9, and 11 enable us tocharacterize the period, though in an inadequate way. More completeresults should be forthcoming with the excavations of cemeteries whichhave an equal antiquity. At the beginning of the period covered bythese sites there was already a certain amount of local specialization-as is evidenced by work in steatite and by the use of hot pebbles andasphaltum in coating baskets. It seems reasonable, therefore, to infera previous period during which these techniques were unknown.

The main sources of food were shellfish, fish, land and sea mammals,and probably acorns and other seeds. Perhaps the high frequency ofmetates and mullers denotes a specialization in vegetable foods. Atany rate such an interpretation fits in well with the relatively smallamount of shell in sites of this period. On the other hand low shellcontent may in itself be a correlate of the greater time factor, thoughthis seems unlikely.

Mortars (both the basket mortar and deep types) and pestles wereused, but to a minor extent. The bow and arrow, spear, flint scraper,chipped flint drill, and flint knife were expectably present. The ubi-quitous bone awl and a fishhook (see fig. 2) with a straight, double-pointed bone barb are the only bone tools recovered. Ornamentalobjects consisted of steatite and shell beads and ochre. Evidence ofbasketry rests on the occurrence of basket pebbles, and these permit us

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

to infer that baskets were given a coating of asphaltum to render themwater-tight. Charmstones complete the list of objects from site 6.

Site 2 is rather difficult to place chronologically, but it seems likelythat it represents a late phase of this early period. The metate-mullerhas by this time all but gone out of use, to be replaced by the mortarand pestle. To the list of objects known in site 6 have been addedsmall steatite bowls, steatite pipes, abalone shell dishes, and quartzcrystals.10 Sites 9 and 11 add nothing new in the way of artifacts,but the presence of metates and mullers stamp them as of this period.Sites 3, 5, and 8 also represent this early period.

The Intermwdiate Mainland period.-With the exception of themetate and muller the elements of material culture known in theearlier period have persisted into this. New elements are steatite ollas(nearly globular urns or bowls, 5 to 18 inches in diameter, usuallywith small mouths), inlay work of shell beads set in asphaltum,whistles, circular fishhooks, a variety of shell beads, and bone beadsand tubes. Steatite beads have become more common.

Late Mainland period.-Culturally there is little to distinguish thisperiod from the preceding. It is represented by only one of the threecemeteries of Mainland site 1. Only one new element is added, steatitepans (large slightly concave slabs of steatite, evidently used as fryingor baking pans). The higher frequency of steatite ollas is probablyexplainable on the basis of Spanish-introduced horses and larger boatswhich made communication with Catalina island and the Mainland tothe south easier. The late period culminates in the brief post-Europeanphase of Chumash culture.

The Early Island period.-In point of time this period, representedby sites 159, 162, 3, and cemetery 2 of site 83, is probably equivalentto the last phase of the early Mainland and the beginning of inter-mediate Mainland. Mortars and pestles are known but are not socommon as on the Mainland probably due to the paucity of acorn-bearing oaks. Metates and mullers are rare or unknown. The presence

10 These may, of course, have been known during the period represented bysite 6. They would not be likely to occur in the normal refuse heap in whichour site 6 trenches were dug. A curious, and at present unexplained, featureof site 2 is the abundance of spearpoints and the rarity or absence of pointssmall enough to be used on arrows. About 40 large and small spearpoints werefound but, except for less than a half-dozen surface specimens, not one pointwhich could be classed as an arrowpoint. Certain other respects in which theartifacts of site 2 differ from those of other sites will be discussed in the finalreport. If the bow and arrow is really absent, there is a faint possibility thatwe are dealing with a distant relative of the Basket Maker culture of thePueblo area. But until more extensive work is done in sites of this type, it isfutile to discuss even a remote kinship.

1930] 17

i8 University of Californ4 Ptublications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

of charmstones and of bone -pendants, and the absence of steatite ollas,cooking pans, and circular fishhooks set this off from later Isla.nidperiods.

The Late Island period.-The "late" sites designate those in. whichEuropean objects were found or in which other factors indicaterecency. -The charmstone has now passed out of vogue and bonependants have followed suit. There has been a decided developmentof work in shell and nearly every grave of this period yields some sortof pendants, beads, and various other types of shell ornaments. Byfar the most common are those of haliotis shell and these occur in abewildering array of shapes and sizes. Ornamental objects in othertypes of shell a-re more stereotyped in pattern. As on the Mainlandthe steatite pan and the steatite olla come in late. The low frequencyof these objects on the islands seems to indicate that most of the trafficin them was between Catalina island (which seems the most likelysource) and the Mainland rather than between Catalina, and theother islands.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

Canoes.-Several fragments from canoes were found, but only oneof sufficient size to warrant any interpretation as to form and type.Seven short pieces, evidently from the two top planks, average abouttwo feet in length, four inches in width, and one inch or less in thick-ness. They were lashed together by means of cord or sinew which waspassed through holes bored about one inch from the edge. There areno indications that ribs were used in construction. If no ribs wereemployed, it seems likely that the lower part of the hull was of thedug-out type, since planks of the type found would not pro.vide astrong enough hull if used exclusively. The lack of rib marks on ourbits of plank, however, cannot be considered conclusive evidence thatribs were not used, or that the bottom of the hull was of dug-out type.

Perforated stones.-No definite evidences of the use of these objectswas obtained. Some show the marks of use as polishing implements,and were probably used in finishing arrow, spear, and harpoon shafts.There is some evidence that they were used as the "hoop " in thehoop and pole game. A number of considerations point to a purelyceremonial use, perhaps repla.cing the earlier " charmstones. " Only asmall percentage of the specimens have perforations large enough topermit use as digging-stick weights, and their occurrence in the gravesof males also indicates other uses than that of auxiliaries to thedigging-stick.

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

Basketry.-The majority of our basketry remains consists of theasphaltum lining of water baskets. The fibers have decayed, leavingthe imprint of the texture and weave. That nearly all the specimensare from Island site 3 is undoubtedly to be expla.ined by the fact tha.t asupply of fresh water is some one and one-half miles distant in sum-mer, hence a need for a considerable number of water receptacles.Wicker, twined, and coiled forms occur but the wicker type geems tobe the most numerous at this site. Wicker basketry seems to be ra.reor unknown in southern California in recent times.1' Since site 3 isearly, it is likely that wicker weaves were more common in the earlyperiod and that the coiled and twined types came to be almost the onlyweaves used in the late period. A few bits of basketry from late sitesshow a preference for the use of surf grass in open twined work. Afew fragments of the coiled type were also found in late sites, butwicker weaves seem to be absent. Mats which probably served forwraps and bedding were common, with surf grass in twining theprevailing form.

Fetish bundles.-The identification of wrapped ceremonial objectsas fetish bundles is based on comparable objects described by livingIndians in southern California. Groups of objects with remains of the"bundle" or wrapping were rare; in most cases the. mat or basketwrapping had probably disappeared. Of the contents of such bundlesone example will suffice: painted fabric or basketry containing 2 per-forated stones, 5 awl or spatula-like batons with quartz crystals set intothe open ends, 3 loose quartz crystals, 2 steatite pipes, a small incisedsteatite dish, and a number of beads, pendants, curious shells, etc.

Pottery.-The Chumasli did not ma.nufacture pottery but now andthen stra.y pieces were acquired by trade. Not. more than a half-dozensherds were found, and these were all found within three feet of thesurface of the mounds or in post-European cemeteries. All the frag-ments are the rough, reddish wa.re common in southern California.

Houses.-It is noteworthy that not more than a half-dozen definitefloor surfaces were encountered in all our work. Even pits dug inhut circles often failed to locate the floor levels. This may mean thatthe same spots were seldom occupied by houses for long periods oftime or it may simply indica.te that the debris of the shellmounds. packslittle and that the floor stratum does not become appreciably harderthan the normal refuse.

11 Kroeber, Handbook, 560-562, 698-702; Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthr. Pap.,20:147-183, 1922.

191930]

20 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 28

One hut circle was completely excavated. The house was circular,16 feet 8 inches in diameter, the floor rising a bit near the walls. Theentire structure was evidently a hemisphere. The frame was of poleswhich were supported by 4 or 5 posts near the center. The doorwas formed by 2 whale ribs so placed as to form an arch. The roofwas thatched with surf grass laid 2 or 3 inches thick. The firepla,cewas a slight depression at the center flanked by a rough circle ofcobbles and flat stones. We can infer a smoke-hole at the crest of thedome. The entire floor was covered with a layer of clean beach sand.The door was to the north, in this instance the land and leeward side.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

In the foregoing pages I have tried to indicate the evidences ofculture changes from the early to the late periods. The culture of theregion was already somewhat specialized during the earliest times.ofwhich we have information. This is indicated by the use of asphaltumand steatite. The capture of sea mammals and the gathering of shell-fish indicate a culture already more or less maritime in its outlook.The mortar and pestle are gradually substituted for the metate andmuller at what is perhaps the middle period. We can suppose thatabout this time the islands were populated. A little later the charm-stone passed out of vogue and the circular shell hook was developed.Bone and whale-tooth pendants, often decorated with designs in dotdepressions filled with black or red paint, seem to be a special develop-ment and are limited to the earlier Island culture. Perforated stonesare of very rare occurrence in Mainland sites but are common enoughin both early and late Island sites. Fishhooks of both types are muchmore numerous in Island sites-an indication that the Island culturewas more maritime in nature than that of the Mainland. Thisinference is borne out by the lower frequency of mortars and pestles.

The changes in culture which the materials indicate are ratherminor in nature and for the most part, gradual. There are no indica-tions of sudden or major shifts in pattern of culture. The tribal orlinguistic groups may have changed a number of times in the severalthousand years probably involved, but-if so the newcomers must havetaken over the culture of their predecessors substantially in toto. Thematerial culture represented throughout gives evidence of no remark-able developments beyond the bare needs for a rather drab existence,

Olson: Chumash Prehistory

and here, as elsewhere where this is true, there is long adherence toprimitive uniformity in the few objects needed to secure a livelihood.

The stable character of the culture, the few new developments, andthe regional differences are diagrammatically represented in figure 3.Relative frequencies are based on tables 3 and 5.

MAINLAND-j e

ci~~~~~bii.~0*=-

ISLANDb

U)U

Pt European |j: f ::fIu KfiH:1, I I: v I|PostEuroeoen..

I Ilntermediaiu rMain land. IT(Sites2.9,and Ceme-*3

teriesland2of Sitel). _ ___

Early Mainland

Period(Sites 3,5,6,

8,11).. ,...

I I IIIII. r

LateIsland.

EarlyIsland(Sites3,lS,9,16Zand Cemetery 2of Site 83).

II

Fig. 3. Reconstruction of prehistoric cultural changes, Chumash area.

Possible Oceanic affiliations.-Southern California exhibits a num-ber of tra.its in both material and social culture which have providedcause for the suspicion of Oceanic influen.ces. But until some bit ofdefinite evidence comes to light the safest at.titude is one of cautiousacceptance of the possibility of such affiliation. Our investigationsyielded no such definite evidence. The late appearance of the circularshell hook, the perforated stone (which is a fa.int reminder of the clubheads of Oceania.), and, by inference, the plank canoe-all reminiscentof Oceanic culture-provide little grist for the mill of those whobelieve in these historical contacts. On the other hand, Oceanicprovenience is not ruled out by any hoary antiquity for these artifacts,which are all relatively recent.

Late Mainland.

(Site 10 andCemetery3of Site I).

PotheficalArc-haicPeriod.

Transmitted June 14, 192@9.

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1930] 21

UNIV:BUT OF A N U TIOS-DEPARTMENT OPANTWQOLOGY,-'_

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maep th' 193a .r.dt.-. .'gfL"o.r,

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