1

La

Aslj

Sustaining Urban Agriculture

in the Greater Accra

Metropolitan AreaCase study of La, Accra, Ghana

for the DPU and IWMI

June 2010

Nargiz Abiyeva, Deyanira Cerdas-Calvo, Elena Espinoza, Dominic Gogol, Leigh Holford,

Alizay Jaffer, Joyce-Lynn Njinga, Blanca Palos Pamplona, Namrata Sandhu, Lorena Viale

2

La

3

Table of Contents

1.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS & ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................... 5

2.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 8

3.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND................................................................................ 10

4.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................ 15

5.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, LIMITATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS....................................... 18

6.0 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES........................................................................ 18

7.0 RESULTS OF THE STUDY................................................................................................... 23

8.0 STRATEGIES .................................................................................................................... 32

9.0 MONITORING AND EVALUATION..................................................................................... 42

10.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 45

11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................. 47

14.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 49

15.0 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................. 52

4

Section 1.0 Acknowledgements &

Abbreviations

5

1.0 Acknowledgments &

Abbreviations

1.1Acknowledgements

To:

IWMI especially Dr. Olufunke Cofie;

Nii Ashie Kwei our facilitator from MoFA;

The La Farmer’s Association, especiallyEmmanuel Mensa, Anouk Mensa, andElizabeth Mensa for spending so much oftheir valuable time with us;

Adriana Allen, and all of the DPU staffPascale Hofman, Alex Apsan Frediani andRita Perez Valencia; and

the many people who visited to speak withus in London, and the many institutionsand individuals who made time for us inGhana

Thank you for your time and assistance during

our trip to Ghana. We hope that this report

reflects the value of all of your input, for which

we are very grateful. There are many other

people that have helped us through this process

and a detailed list is presented in appendix

13.11.

Picture: Focus group with the women of La

6

1.2Abbreviations

AMA – Accra Metropolitan Assembly

AWGUPA – Accra Working Group on Urban and

Peri-Urban Agriculture

CICOL - The Civil Society Coalition on Land

DPU – Development Planning Unit

EDDT (The Trust) - East Dadekopoton

Development Trust

FA – La Farmers’ Association

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations

FEDUP – Federation of the Urban Poor

FDI – Foreign Direct Investment

GAMA – Greater Accra Metropolitan Area

GIDA – Ghana Irrigation Development Authority

LAP – Land Administration Project

IFPRI – International Food Policy Research

Institute

IWMI – International Water Management

Institute

NLC – New Lands Commission

MDG - Millennium Development Goals

MoFA – Ministry of Food and Agriculture

MoL – Ministry of Land

MPC – Municipal Planning Committee

NGO – Non Governmental Organisation

PUA – Peri-Urban Agriculture

RUAF - International Network of Resource

Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security

SUA – Sustainable Urban Agriculture

TCP – Town and Country Planning

ToR – Terms of Reference

UA – Urban Agriculture

UCL – University College London

UoG – University of Ghana

7

Section 2.0 Executive summary

8

2.0 Executive summary

La tells a story of an agrarian society intransition, where farming is being engulfedthrough residential development and landspeculation, pushing UA to marginal lands. Italso challenges the prevailing perception thatmen farm and women trade.

Land is an issue of confusion, where thestatutory and customary systems struggle tocoexist side by side. La also helps us toappreciate the spatial and social transformationsfuelled by neo-liberal policies that are directlyrelated to unequal economic growth.

The La site includes 300 farmers, mostly from theGa Stool, currently farming on 500-600 acres ofland largely controlled by the East DadekotoponDevelopment Trust.

These farmers have experienced rapidencroachment from housing development,leading to a reduction of farming land. Farmersare responding to encroachment by relocating toareas where vacant land is available.

While there is a sense of reciprocity between thefarmers, trust and collective action is currentlythrough informal channels, with the formalFarmers Association (FA) collective weakeningfrom a lack of political power.

Based on our fieldwork this report will proposetwo principle strategies focused on land. Thesedeal with the access to institutional land and adesignated Green Belt within La.

In order to meet these objectives both thestrengthening of the FA as a collective andengagement of support networks such asAWGUPA with the issue of land must occur.

9

Section 3.0 Introduction and

Background

10

3.0 Introduction and Background

3.1Introduction

This report is a summary of the research

undertaken in 2010 relating to urban agricultural

practice in La, Accra.

This report represents a process of analysis and

fieldwork that occurred over 5 months and

contains the finalised findings and strategies for

the case study of La.

This research builds on the previous work carried

out by ESD students who began this study with

the DPU in 2009 and provides a basis for the

2011 ESD student to begin their work. The

purpose of this report is to analyse the

achievements, obstacles and potential

interventions in the development of sustainable

UA and PUA in GAMA by identifying the

stakeholders involved in UA/PUA, and relevant

organisations, policies and projects related to UA

in Accra.

This study tries to answer the following

questions presented as the Terms of Reference

(ToR) for the project.

A. What are the conditions/threats and

actual/potential benefits from urban and

peri-urban agriculture in each case study

perceived by: (a) farmers (women and

men) and their organisations; (b) local

dwellers (women and men) and their

community organisations, and (c)

relevant urban and sectoral planning

institutions?

B. What have been the main improvements

in the development of UA/PUA in your

site so far? How were those

improvements possible? Which actors

were involved and how did they

contribute to the changes? Which

lessons can be drawn from those efforts?

C. Focusing on land, water and solid &

liquid waste: What strategic

interventions could be devised to

promote sustainable urban and peri-

urban agriculture in each site and more

widely in GAMA, whilst addressing the

conditions and benefits identified by the

three key groups of stakeholders

outlined above? How could these be

implemented in terms of time frame,

resources required and specific

activities?

The importance of sustainable UA has been

recognised globally for its economic, social and

ecological benefits many of which can be seen in

Accra already. This report will focus specifically

on the case of La in which the coexistence of the

customary and statutory systems of land tenure

leads to uncertainty in terms of land ownership

and marginalisation of land for UA through urban

development.

Based on our conceptual framework we

conducted a research plan to be carried out in

two stages. First, a preliminary literature

research, and then two weeks of fieldwork

carried out in Accra, Ghana.

From the results of the research plan, we were

able to build a set of strategies to help the

farmers of La to make UA more sustainable.

3.2 Background

Ghana

Ghana’s stable democracy and growing

economy, supported by gold (GMFS, 2001) and

cocoa exports, contributed to sparing it from the

recent economic crisis. This relative economic

resilience turned it into a key destination for

foreign investment, set to continue with the

discovery of oil in 2003. This is expected to bring

11

in about 800 million dollars by 2010, rising to 2

billion by the end of the decade (Reuters, 2010).

This transformation into a commodity-led

economy could be accelerated by the vast

increase in petrodollars from offshore oil

reserves. This may increase Ghana’s vulnerability

to shocks due to oil prices volatility as has

happened in neighbouring countries (Boorman

and Christensen, 2010).

In the period from 2005-2008, Foreign Direct

Investment (FDI) rose by over 14 times from 145

million to over 2.1 billion, according to the UN

Trade and Development Department (UNCTAD,

2009).

This national trade liberalisationpolicy has

affected local producers, including urban

farmers, who are competing for land with

housing developers. The nature of the housing

market is set to change dramatically with

increase in oil revenue affecting demand for

upper class dwellings for Ghana’s growing middle

class and expatriate communities. La farmers are

not strange to this situation, being force to

move, as the pressure in land increases for real

state development.

This poses the biggest obstacle for the

sustainability of agricultural practices within

Accra and especially in our site of study, La.

Major projects underway

A number of important capacity building and

development projects are underway in Accra at

the moment supported by the Accra

Metropolitan Municipality and various

government ministries. A brief of description of

the initiatives identified are below:

Millennium City: is a project of the Earth

Institute, Columbia University, to assist cities to

attain the Millennium Development Goals by

2015. The projectis strongly supported by the

Mayor of Accra Dr. Alfred Okoe Vanderpuije.

Slum Upgrading: this initiative has been

identified by the Mayor of Accra as a key priority

of the Municipality. The ‘slum areas’ targeted

were defined as those in central locations and in

which tenants have land tenure. Redevelopment

is intended to increase the density of current

dwellings into 3 story dwellings units, making

land available for other uses such as higher

quality housing and mixed use development

(Mayor of Accra, 2010)

Market Development and Relocation of Old

Fadama residents:Dr. Larbi from the Planning

and Coordination Unit of AMA reported an

initiative to relocate the major food and produce

markets to the periphery of Accra. The markets

are planned to be hubs for both the import of

food from surrounding regions, and as a

majoring export hub. This project is also

expected to attract residents from Old Fadama

market who currently work in the onion market

and Obogloshie market away from the city

enabling the redevelopment of Old Fadama.

Ga West agricultural land: the Mayor of Accra,

along with several ministries discussed the

planned location of agricultural land in Ga West

(outside of Accra) under discussion with the Ga

West authorities. This is a temporary strategy to

provide land for lease in an area not currently

under development pressure. The land would

not however be secured indefinitely.

Land administration project: hosted by Ministry

of Land and New Lands Commission, it provides a

framework for easy land registration and

transfer. It includes digital mapping through a

Social Development Framework.

Land use and management: Capacity building

hosted by T&CP. It consists of the modernisation

of current systems according to international

standards on town planning (see Strategies

section for further detail on this initiative and the

Land administration project).

12

La case study site

La is 2200 acres situated in the east of Accra and falls under the

Accra Metropolitan Area jurisdiction. The position of the site within

Accra can be seen in figure 4.1 and the limitations of the site can be

seen in figure 4.2.

Figure3.1 Map of La situated within Accra

Figure 3.1Map of the La study site, Accra

13

The site of La offers very interesting

characteristics in terms of land,the farmers

themselves, and farming practices.

Land

Most of the land in the area is customary

land, with Chief resident and the East

Dadekotopon Trust as custodians of

these lands.

There is a complex land arrangement. A

portion of the landwas acquired by the

government, for military use, but now is

being claimed back by the Trust, who

controls the rest of the land in the La

site. This situation makes the zoning of

the land difficult as agricultural land until

the conflict over land use is resolved.

There is a rapid encroachment upon land

and high pressure for housing

development, especially from the Trust.

Farmers

There are 130 farmers working in the

area, from which 46% are women and

54% are men

Most of the farmers are local residents,

and from the Ga tribe. There are not

many immigrants in this area. Some of

them have been farming for more than

40 years and come from generations of

farmers of the area

The Farmers Association is in existence

since 1988, though its membership has

been declining, particularly men. The

farmers do not make most use of the

Association as collective capital but rely

more on informal social networks

Farming Practices

Many of the sites are very dependent on

rain water for irrigation, the sites near to

the streams are able to pump water for

irrigation but it gets more expensive with

distance

Farmers do not use compost, because of

the time needed to prepare and because

of bad past experiences with the local

compost plant

Not enough local livestock, due to

environmental measures from the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

This reduces the use of manure as

fertilizer

Chemical fertilizers heavily relied on,

thanks to the MoFA subsidies

Crops:Okra (specialty), pepper, maize,

watermelon, tomato, cassava, plantains,

yams, and others

14

Section 4.0 Conceptual Framework

15

4.0 Conceptual Framework

Refocusing the lens

Environmental justice provides a lens through

which to examine these issues facing urban

agriculture in La and to understand their

instigators.

The concept of environmental justice can be

defined as the equal distribution of

environmental goods and bads and the

processes that construct social recognition as

the means to attain a greater equity in

accessing resources (Schlosberg, 2007).

According to Schlosberg, environmental

injustice is reproduced and challenged across

the following four dimensions: distribution,

recognition, participation and capabilities

(Schlosberg, 2007). The distributional factors

include access to resources such as land, inputs

and processes. Recognition and participation

refers to the notion of re-correcting systematic

disempowerment within the socio-economic

and cultural spheres. And finally, capabilities

refer to the financial and knowledge based

capital (ibid).

From this research we developed our

definition of urban agriculture that we would

then use throughout our work. Urban

agriculture is food grown within the daily

rhythm of the city or town, produced for self

consumption, for the market, and processed

and marketed by farmers or their local

networks (Smit & Nasr, 1992). We have

developed criteria to evaluate the

sustainability of agricultural practices, shown

in Figure 4.1.

Urban agriculture is sustainable when:

1. There is regular and affordable access to

resources such as wastewater, solid waste, and

inputs, and their practices maintain local

environmental conditions (including soil quality

and water runoff);

2. Community knowledge and resources are

shared through local networks improving

members resilience and ability to overcome

shocks;

3. It is legitimized by formal or informal

mechanisms; and

4. It supports the well-being of the local

community.

The interaction between these four

dimensions reinforces equity, which in turn

increases individual and collective capacity of

farmers to revert the structural causes of

inequity.

It has been noted through our review of the

available literature that a certain level of

collectivism exists through formal networks

with the MoFA created FA. This is reinforced

through informal networks based on extended

families, trust, and solidarity. These need to be

formalised to increase their legitimacy and

effectiveness to address the power

asymmetries that create inequity.

We saw the benefits of applying a collective

action perspective to the social networks

between farmers themselves and with other

actors and institutions. Collective action can

increase the financial and negotiating

capability that provides the driving principle to

improve equity. As stated by Healey,

Collective action helps to articulate the

community’s behaviour in regards to a more

equitable allocation of resources (Healey,

1997).

Accordingly, as the International Food PolicyResearch Institute (IFPRI) states: ‘organised

16

collectives can enhance productive andnegotiating capacity leading to increasedincome’ (IFPRI, 2004, p 1), it also helps to curbindividual costs.

Figure 4.1 Criteria for evaluating the sustainability of Agricultural Practices

17

Section 5.0 Research Questions and

Hypothesis

18

5.0 Research questions and

hypotheses

5.1 Research questions and hypotheses

The research questions and hypotheses

developed from our understanding of the

definition of UA, it was used to focus our field

work and analysis. The questions and

hypotheses are as follows:

Research Question 1

Collectively and individually, how do the

farmers cope, resist and seek security in land

and water for their livelihood in urban

agriculture?

Hypothesis 1

In urban agriculture farmers cope individually

to shocks to their livelihoods increasing their

vulnerability to land and water access

Research Questions 2

What are the perceived outcomes and

benefits of current farming practices?

What are the obstacles and perceived risks

associated with alternate more ecologically

sustainable farming practices?

Hypothesis 2

Farmers perceive that sustainable farming

practices have more benefits in the long term

to soil and crop conditions.

Given the vulnerability of the farmers’

situation in terms of land and water they

prefer to make use of more short term and

less sustainable practices.

Research Question 3

What is the flow and allocation of resourcesand level of control in the different stages ofthe production chain?

What are the financial costs associated with

each stage of production?

Hypothesis 3

Farmers have more influence and control of

the resource flow and allocation in the input

and production stages and very limited or no

control on the transport and market stages.

19

Section 6.0 Research methodology,

limitations and achievements

6.1Research methodology

6.2 Limitations and achievements

20

6.0 Research methodology, limitations and achievements

6.1 Research methodology

Figure 6.1 reflects the process of our research methodology throughout the duration of this

project. Our methodology included a review of secondary literature from relevant online

journals, IWMI reports, the RUAF foundation and academic papers; after which astakeholder

mapping process was completed. With this information we were able to build a definition and

criteria related to Sustainable Urban Agriculture and complete a preliminary diagnosis and

analysis of the area of study.

After the preliminary diagnosis three research

questions were build and for each of them we

decided on the best tools to get the most accurate

results within the time we had in the field.

In order to find information about coping and

resisting strategies of the farmers due to the land

insecurity we decided to use participatory mapping

exercises and transect walks of the area.

To collect information on present farming practices

and what were the obstacles or perceived risks for

the farmers to switch to more sustainable practices,

we make use of focus groups and individual semi

structured interviews

To get and understanding of the flow and control of

resources through the chain of production, we

conducted focus groups and interviews with different

stakeholders. For the last session we were able to

test our preliminary strategies with a focus group

with the farmers and interviews with saving groups in

Accra.

To get more details about the schedule of the

fieldwork activities completed in La and the content

of the mapping and transect walks, interviews and

focus groups refer to appendices 13.2, 13.3, 13.5 and

13.6.

Figure 6.1 Research Methodology

21

Figure 6.2 shows detailed information about the

interviews and focus groups carried out, as well

about the number of participants.

Literature review IWMI reportsRUAF FoundationOnline journalsAcademic papers

Semi-structuredinterviews

45 male25 female70 total

Focus groups(Value chain,farming Practices,movements)

3 male3 female2 mixed

ParticipatoryMapping

2

Formal meetingsKey informants

GovernmentPrivate CompaniesNGOs

Transect Walks 6

Other visits Saving groupsMarketChief

Figure 6.2Research Methodology

6.2 Limitations and achievements

Limitations:

Small sample sizes (70 farmers)

Fieldwork and meetings with farmers

was limited to four days

The entire time in Ghana was limited to

17 days

Misinterpretation may have resulted

from language barriers

Disclosure of information may have at

times been limited due to the political

sensitivity of certain issues

Our own perceptions and biases may

have influenced our findings.

We felt we successfully managed to overcome

these limitations by dividing our group and a

comprehensive reviewing process. By dividing

the workload of the group during field visits we

were able to simultaneously conduct focus

groups, interviews, and mapping processes while

others were at meetings or back in the hotel

analyzing and organizing data.

In an effort to counteract our own biases and the

sensitive nature of some of the exercises, we

undertook a comprehensive reviewing process to

try and identify and acknowledge any biasesin

our work.

Achievements:

Mapping of farmers movements basedon cluster and gender

o With causal reasons for movingand why they settled where theydid

Mapping of current level of housingencroachment for entire 2200 acre site

o Three layered process buildingfrom original maps in 2002, tolast year 2009, to May 2010.

Cost analysis across the value chain,providing economic insight into UA

o Broken down by the costsassociated with raising one acreof okra with various external andinternal costs effecting overallprofitability

Contributing to overall knowledge regardingUrban Agriculture in La, Accra and providingvaluable material for further research.

22

Section 7.0 Results of the study

7.1Cope, resist &seek security in land & water, collectively

and individually

7.2 Farming practices

7.3 Value chain

23

7.0 Results of the study

7.1 Cope, resist and seek security in land

and water, collectively and individually

La’s farming area is divided into seven clusters:

Mongonno, Sowatey-Nmonaa, Tseado,

Korkodjon, Klandjii-Argon, Obediben and

Kpeletso, as showed in Figure 7.1. A detailed

categorization of the clusters can be found in

appendix 13.8

Figure 7.1 Clusters of Urban Agriculture

In La the primary threat to urban agriculture is

land encroachment.

Land encroachment

Collectively and individually farmers primarily

cope with land encroachment through

relocation, resistance is no longer viewed as a

viable option for livelihood protection.

Using official maps from the Ghana survey Office

dating back to 2001-2 and last year´s work1, we

found that over the past 10 years encroachment

has been rapid, especially from the areas of New

La in the centre of the site and from Teshie

Bridge in the East.

1Information from last year’s work refers only to the

area of New La.

Figure 7.2Expansion of Urban Encroachment

Figure 7.2 illustrates the divergent nature of the

encroachment threats with more planned large

scale development in the North threatening the

Klandjii-Argon, Kpeletso and Obediben clusters,

compared with more independent and small

scale housing development by individual land

speculators in the South threatening Mongonno,

Sowatey-Nmonaa, Tseado, and Korkodjon.

24

East Dadekotopon Development Trust

The East Dadekotopon Development (EDD) Trust

was formed in 2003 to settle a land dispute

between the La Stool and two large land holding

families. As the new custodians of 2,200 acres of

which our entire site is included, they drew up

plans for a series of gated housing communities

with the appropriate education and leisure

facilities to match. The plan as seen by their map

on Figure 7.3 and 7.4 is outlined for 180,000

people and in 2003 was approved by Town and

Country Planning. The approved plan has

provision for 215 acres of farming in the west of

the site for a Green Belt, primarily focused on the

Sowatey-Nmonaa cluster. However through our

own mapping we could only account for

approximately 100 acres of land in the identified

area, which is already being encroached as seen

in Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5.

The creation of the Trust offers a unique insight

into the land debate within Ghana between the

customary and common land systems. Our study

area, which is now under control of the Trust,

was held in the customary stool and family

systems previously. Within this any profit

rendered on the land had to be handed over to

the Office of the Administrator of Stool lands

which divided this revenue accordingly: 49.5% to

the District Assembly, 22.5% to the customary

owner, 18% to the Traditional Council of Elders

(the Chiefs), and 10% kept for administration

fees. In 2003 the land in out study area was

handed over to a private entity, in the form of

the Trust. The benefits of land being held in

private hands in this situation is obvious,

considering all revenue generated is instead kept

(outside of tax of course), whereas before a

majority was handed over.

The exact relationship between the Trust and

Council of Elders in terms of the appropriation of

revenue earned and the formal and informal ties

is still unknown, therefore further research must

be done in this area. The Trust also adds another

layer of complexity to the Farmers as they

previously had dealt with land issues through the

customary system and now it seems their land

has been changed into the private hands of the

Trust, with a vast majority of them having little

knowledge of this changeover.

The Trust is having a negative effect on the

strength of the La FA, with a splinter group of

farmers from Klandjii-Argon willing to negotiate

with the Trust for compensation. This only came

to light in our last field visit and should be

explored in depth next year.

Figure 7.3East Dadekotopon Development Trust

Master Plan

25

Figure 7.4EDD Trust Master Plan in the Study

Area

Figure 7.5 Open spaces under the EDDT Master

Plan

Two factors are important to an understanding

of the EDDT. Firstly it has yet to find a significant

financial backing and is currently looking for an

international partner. Secondly, their connection

to the current encroachment and completed

development is unclear with the origins, funding,

and ownership of these houses unknown.

Nonetheless, irrespective of its origin current

urban encroachment has diminished the

available agricultural area per urban farmers in

La, from 4.43 to 3.03 acres, and in many cases

the famers have been completely displaced2.

Even in the clusters that are currently under

cultivation, foundations pillars for future

buildings and development are prevalent (Figure

7.6)

2Based on interviews and focus groups in 3 clusters

26

Figure 7.6. Development pillars in Klandjii-Argon

cluster

Movements of the farmers

Based on our original research we expected to

see a clear pattern of movement of the farmers

from the southern clusters to the northern.

However we found a much more scattered

movement, that followed individual coping

strategies (refer to appendix 13.4 for focus group

data). These strategies utilised family networks

but were primarily chosen for personal reasons,

showing a lack of collective planning. Land

availability is the most important factor in

relocation, corresponding to 52% of respondents

(Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7. Factors affecting choice of new

location

Currently, more land is available in the North in

Kpeletso and Obediben clusters, while

Mongonno and Tseado are the most heavily

encroached.

Gender

We found that men have moved more than

women (Figure 7.9). The lack of women in

Kpeletso and Obediben clusters, is attributed to

the distance, time, and labour associated with

stump clearing and land preparation of these

sites inhibiting access to women.

The lack of available water, with irrigation

networks and water sources less available in

Kpeletso and Obediben, represent an additional

problem for farmers.

The following graph shows the difference

between men and women farmers in La.

Figure 7.8 Gender of farmers by

location

60% 60%

25% 25%

80%

50%

40% 40%

75% 75%

20%

58%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Women

Men

27

Figure 7.9 Gender of Farmers by Location 7.2 Farming practices

Closing the nutrient loop is one of the necessary

conditions for sustainable urban agriculture, as

explained in the first part of our definition on

sustainable urban agriculture.

How ecologically sustainable is urban

agriculture in La?

Results drawn from the earlier mentioned focus

groups and semi-structured interviews

conducted with male and female farmers in La

helped us understand not only the benefits and

perceived outcomes of current farming practices,

but also the extent to which these are affected

by the current land tenure difficulties.

MoFA subsidised fertilizers and pesticides (Figure

7.10) are provided to most farmers, although

there is a lack of access for some (2010). Their

use, as opposed to organic inputs such as

manure, is due to the fact that they are cheaper

and less time consuming. Furthermore, in the

case of the use of pesticides, pests were

mentioned by most farmers as being one of their

main concerns.

Figure 7.10. Farmer spraying fertiliser

Although poultry manure is primarily used in

planting a nursery is a lack of water and time

makes composting difficult. Common to all

farmers was the willingness to use composting as

an alternate input should factors such as time

and money allow it.

While wastewater is being used by about half of

the farmers interviewed, there still exists a

negative public perception over its use (IWMI,

2010). IWMI is publishing research to reverse this

(refer to http://www.ruaf.org/node/1887).

28

Farmers fortunate enough (less than half) to

cultivate near a stream and able to afford a

water pumping machine (Figure 7.11), are less

vulnerable to rainfall dependence.

Figure 7.11 Water Pumping Machine being used

Furrow irrigation

Traditional irrigation practices such as furrow

irrigation continue being used by a handful of

farmers near the waste water treatment plant of

the Burma Camp, which due to a lack of funding

is no longer operational. Making use of the

gravity of the terrain, farmers irrigate their crops

planted near the ridges of manmade gutters

(Figure 7.12) through which released waste

water flows.

This type of irrigation practiced considerably

reduces the risk of contamination by waste water

since the polluted water is not in contact with

the typically high growing crops such as okra and

maize (IWMI, 2009).

Figure 7.12 Gutters for furrow irrigation

Land insecurity effects

Current land tenure difficulties are making the

shift to more ecological practices difficult. Firstly,

farmers who are being pushed to the

considerably drier northern clusters are facing

more restrictions to water access, increasing

rainfall dependency and reducing the scope for

composting or using other organic pesticides.

Secondly, the potential for groundwater

extraction in the northern clusters is being

discussed; however lack of finances and land

security discourages potential investment by

institutions such as the Ghana Irrigation

Development Authority (GIDA) (GIDA, 2010).

Livestock

It was noted that about one eighth of the

farmers interviewed are in possession of

livestock (Figure 7.13), ranging from grass

cutters, snails, goats and rabbits. There are legal

restrictions associated with the maintenance of

livestock in urban areas; hence it is mainly

farmers who have been pushed to more marginal

areas who are able to keep livestock.

Figure 7.13Goats at one of the farms near Burma

Camp

29

7.3 Value chain

Influence and control on resource flow

allocation

The focus groups conducted with farmers

focused on the flow and allocation of resources

in the value chain (Figure 7.14). The resources

studied were knowledge and experience, labour,

time, economic, and social and collective capital.

Figure 7.14 Value Chain

Stage 1

Inputs

Stage 2

Production

Stage 3

Transformation&Transportation

Stage 4

Market

Stage 5

Home

The main objective was to understand where

resources are allocated and the reasons behind

their choices in the value chain.

Given the current land tenure insecurity,

subsidized fertilizers and pesticides help farmers.

Though the farmers recognize that these

practices are not sustainable, they choose not to

move to more sustainable organic practices since

they are more time consuming and involve larger

capital investment which land insecurity

prevents.

The lack of access to water for irrigation makes

farmers dependent on rainfall. This also limits

the use of Neem trees as local pesticides and the

use of poultry manure and compost as fertilizers

The new farming sites in the north present the

added difficulties for women of stump and land

clearing, which is a strenuous process that

requires the expensive hiring of labour.

Both, women and men farmers are more

involved in inputs/production and less with the

transportation and/market stages in the value

chain.

Cost and time of land preparation and

knowledge of crops and farming practices came

as the main obstacle for the input stage.

For the production stage the most important

resource is the time taken for cultivation

followed by the cost of irrigation practices.

Casual labour cost becomes an issue when the

farmers do not have family members to help

them during the production stage.

For the transformation and transport stage

storage space and cost of transport seem to be

the two most important constraints.

Farmers have very limited or no access to the

rest of the stages of the value chain. Due to time

constraints, money and a lack of bargaining

power they do not have the ability to influence

the market stage for negotiation of sale prices.

To better understand the costs of each stage of

production please refer to figures 7.16, 7.17 and

7.18 for the cost of cultivation of 1 acre of okra.

The total cost for all stages is 219 cedi. 3

Figure 7.15

Input Cost (Cedis)

Seeds 4

Plowing Land 40

Fertilizers 29

Total 73

Figure 7.16

Production Cost (Cedis)

Pesticides 96

Casual Labor 40

Total 136

3This is a basic cost and does not include the cost of

irrigation since that exponentially increases the total

cost. Other capital costs that are optional such as land

clearing and tractors have not been included.

30

Figure 7.17

Transport Cost (Cedis)

Transport 10

Total 10

Final observations

Dependency on rainfall for irrigation is crucial for

farmers in La. Costs in the production stage raise

dramatically when farmers have to use pumping

machines for irrigation making them loose their

profits even during a favourable market.

Farmers work individually and don’t use formal

networks like the FA for transport and other

practices that could be done collectively.

Strengthening of the farmers’ collective would

enable greater control over the whole

production chain and reduce costs.

31

SECTION 8.0 Strategies

8.1 Expanding access to institutional land

8.2 Securing access to the Green Belt

8.3Opportunities and impediments

8.4 Building the collective capacity of the Farmers Association

8.5Dialogue and negotiation

10.6Scaling up and looking towards the future

32

8.0 Strategies

The development of strategies to address the

issue of land security is the most pressing priority

for the farmers of La in order to ensure the

sustainability of Urban Agriculture in La and

wider Accra.

As highlighted through the findings, the

encroachment upon farming land which has

reduced farmers to coping with insecurity

through relocation. The resultant reduction in

their ability to invest in long term farming

practices has undermined the sustainability of

farming in La, and threatens the livelihoods of

the farmers.

The current individual coping strategies relied on

by the farmers are not opening avenues for

ensuring the long term security of farming in La.

Further, the perceived divisions and individual

interests in the area are reducing their ability to

dialogue or negotiate with either the formal

system (government) or customary land routes

(the newly formed EDDT). Although the EDDT’s

master plan for the area has allocated land to

farming the security of this area is believed to

already be under threat from encroachment.

Building upon the pressing need for

environmental justice for the farmers of La in

terms of appropriation and access to

environmental benefits we saw an avenue in

expanding the use of collective action.

Through dialogue with the key institutional and

customary stakeholders two possible avenues for

improving land security for the farmers of Accra

have been identified:

1. Expanding access to institutional land

2. Securing the Green Belt on the EDDT

Master Plan

Both avenues present an opportunity to gain

access to land however, capacity building both

internally for the Farmers Association to

strengthen collective action, and externally by

AWGUPA to facilitate dialogue and negotiation

with both the statutory and customary system

are essential.

Within the Farmers Association the lack of

formal collective action has undermined both

their capacity to act and their recognition as a

legitimate group by both formal institutions and

the customary system.

Secondly, assistance from concerned

stakeholders, most importantly AWGUPA,

requires that stakeholders are able to engage

with issues of land security on behalf of the

farmers in Accra.

While the land strategies remain the long-term

priorities, capacity building efforts for the La FA

and actions to be taken by AWGUPA are more

immediate priorities. These priorities will

facilitate the FA’s ability to dialogue and

negotiate with formal institutions most

particularly the government, and the East

Dadekopton Development Trust. As depicted

below in Figure 10.1 these two capacity building

strategies are critical to unlocking land for the

long term security of farming in La.

These strategic were discussed during focus

groups conducted with the La farmers.

33

Figure 8.1 Strategies to Build Towards Securing

Land in La

8.1Expanding access to institutional land

This strategy is based on the proceduralmechanisms available to farmers to address landissues through applying for a lease to farm oninstitutional (government owned) land.

Two of the key institutional bodies that deal withland in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, areTown and Country Planning and the LandCommission. As outlined in the backgroundsection and section 8.3 below the issue of land iscomplex, characterised by a lack of coordinationbetween ministries regarding land use and land

administration. The land administration projectand land use and management capacity buildingeffort (see section 8.3) are attempting to addresssome of these issues. These projects and theinitiative on behalf of the government toharmonise land management procedurespresent an opportunity to the FA to accessinstitutional procedures.

This engagement with institutional mechanismsrequires the FA to document and present acollective claim for farming land to thegovernment. Raising the visibility of the FA as alegitimate group who has had a long termpresence in La is critical to winning support fromthe institutional stakeholders such as the LandCommission. This must be done through multiplesystems, both the land use system which is theresponsibility of T&CP and the land registrationsystem now being overseen by the LandCommission.

Application process for institutional landThe FA as a collective has to identify theownership of the farming land in La. In thosesectors were the land is publicly owned and it isnot being used, the FA can apply to for therezoning of the land for agricultural use.

During a meeting with the Town and CountryPlanning Office they presented the steps forgaining access to institutional land:

• As an association, present a request for landuse designation of UA to the Town andCountry Planning Unit as ‘passive open space’,which will be reviewed by the MunicipalPlanning Committee. The acceptance of anapplication for urban agriculture is currentlynot politically acceptable therefore this istheir only option. The request should include:

• A site plan that maps the demarcationof current limits.

• Explanation of the uses that areplanned for the property (it is notnecessary to include present uses).

• The Committee sends an inspector toverify the limits, and that the planpresented is feasible.

• The designation is granted or denied inapproximately 1-3 months.

• Once the new designation is obtained, itis necessary to apply for a license to usethe public land with the LandCommission.

(T&CP, 2010)

Regular monitoring and action follow up will

enable the process to be completed.

This process involves the submission of

documents, financial resources and ability to

dialogue with official processes.

34

It is clear that in order to access this process,

building the collective capacity of the FA and

improving their ability to dialogue and negotiate

with institutional processes is critical. Before

examining these two strategies, the second land

security strategy will be explored.

8.2 Securing access to Green Belt

This strategy aims to help the farmers gain

access to the designated green belt to be used

for agricultural purposes through the

development plans for the EDDT Master Plan

(Figure 8.2).

The allocation of farming land within the EDDT

Master Plan is a positive sign for the future of the

FA and other farmers in La. The recognition that

farming is of importance to the local community

and plays a part in the cities in which we live

provides a valuable platform to build upon to

ensure the long term sustainability of UA in La.

It is also clear that this Master Plan is being

undermined by encroachment (whether planned

or unplanned) in the designated farming area.

Further, the lack of a joint venture partner to

fund the Master Plan has meant the EDDT has

been unable to implement the plan, which was

approved by T&CP in 2003.

Securing this planned allocation of land

represents the first challenge to the FA. The

second is in developing a strong long-term

management plan for the area, which provides a

significantly reduced farming area reported to be

215 acres.

The following steps are recommended in order

to lobby for the security and use of the

designated green belt:

• Establish formal dialogue with the Trust,as a strong collective group.

• Present information regarding FA recordsof membership and farming history.

• Create a proposal for land requirementsand cooperative management systems.

• Public lobbying with the help ofinstitutional bodies such as AWGUPA andcivil society groups, possibly CICOL, toensure the green belt is secured.

Figure 8.2 East Dadekotopon Development Trust

Plan

35

8.3 Opportunities and impediments

Two ongoing projects are occurring with regardsto land reform in Ghana:

a. Land administration project: hosted byMinistry of Land and New LandsCommission, it provides a framework foreasy land registration and transfer. Itincludes digital mapping through a SocialDevelopment Framework.

b. Landuse and management: Capacitybuilding hosted by T&CP. It consists ofthe modernisation of current systemsaccording to international standards ontown planning.

Both projects have a total time frame of 25years. Design will be completed by 2011 and lawand standards will be ready by the end of 2012(T&CP, 2010).

These two projects represent an opportunity dueto the revision of the land law, which has notbeen revised since 1945.

These projects represent changes into which the

FA might be able to input, potentially helping the

FA with their claims for land use re-zoning and

addressing the impacts of developments and

encroachments in the La area.

A number of impediments to realising the

aforementioned land strategies exist however.

There is uncertainty as to the existence of

institutional land in La, further the land under

military zoning is in the process of being returned

to the Trust and until this process is complete,

there cannot be a rezoning of this land for

agricultural use.

Rezoning land use zoning could take time, and to

ensure its success requires continuous

monitoring and active presence on the part of

the FA.

AWGUPA has been very successful in their

lobbying efforts for UA. Policy makers and the

government are aware of UA and its benefits

however; there is still a need to influence the

actual policies and actions of all the stakeholders

involved.

Most of the institutional stakeholders

interviewed during the fieldwork make it very

clear that they believe there is no land for

agriculture in Accra, since many sectors are

competing for land and there has been an

increase in land prices. There are plans to

allocate land for UA in Ga West (a “new district”

at the Northwest), but this will be on a lease

based agreement until that land is required for

more strategic purposes. The perception of

farming as belonging outside the city and

undertaken on a large-scale commercial basis

needs to be challenged in order to gain wider

institutional support for UA.

The contribution of UA to the livelihoods of

Accra’s residents, the potential for contribution

to poverty reduction and the wider economic

benefits need to be communicated effectively to

address these perceptions (see page x for

estimated local benefit of UA in La).

These factors are constraints that the urban

farmers in La have to face as pressure on land in

Accra increases given the rapid urbanization of

the city. Given these impediments the following

capacity building measures are imperative to

ensure the FA is able to face these challenges.

36

8.4 Building the collective capacity of the

Farmers Association

Savings Groups

The formation of a savings group based on the 7

farming clusters within a larger integrated

collective savings group within the FA would

enhance collective economic and political ties.

Though the informal collective exists within the

farmers, strengthening the formal collective such

as the formation of a savings group would also

increase trust and reciprocity. We met with the

savings group in Old Fadama and a detailed

transcript can be found in appendix 13.10.

Steps to be taken

1. Form a formal savings groups of 10-18

people, provisionally based on already

existing clusters

2. Elect officials and agree on the rules and

organisational procedures

3. Hold weekly meetings

4. Provide support through networks and

discussions on the challenges being faced

5. Link to other savings groups (for instance in

other farming clusters)

6. Register under the Federation of the Urban

Poor as a collective

Why?

To improve reciprocity and trust already

present in these networks

To take risks together, strengthening

collective action

To create potential for shared production of

resources and services

To access flexible loans

Linking into the Federationof the Urban Poor

The Federation of the Urban Poor is afederation of savings groups across 24countries. Its purpose is to use savings toleverage funds for small loans to help growbusinesses. In addition they can provide:

Links into regional, national and

international networks and information

sharing

Supports against unfair eviction and

provide opportunities for interaction with

government

Share knowledge and links to advocacy

and media groups

Members of the La Farmers Federation metwith Philip Kumah and participated in asavings group meeting held for students ofthe DPU at Old Fadama. Philip has offeredthe support of the Federation of the UrbanPoor to the farmers of La (Elizabeth Mensa,T.K. Monney and Lekia Olamptey) who haveexpressed interest in pursuing theopportunity both to received training andresources from the Federation in Accra.

(Savings groups, Philip Kumah, 2010)

37

Participatory Monitoring

The purpose of this initiative is to continue the

participatory monitoring undertaken over the

past two years to document both the

encroachment of farming land, and to

understand the impact upon the farmers of La.

How?

Through continuous mapping of movements

and encroachment by farmers, students from

the University of Ghana, AWGUPA and MoFA

By mapping open, vacant or institutional land

suitable for UA

Why?

To monitor impacts of movement and farming

practices: water, crops by farmers, students

University of Ghana, AWUPA, MoFA

This will provide valuable information which the

FA could use to present to both the institutional

stakeholders and EDDT to make their case for

improving their land security and to demonstrate

their legitimate presence on the land.

Record and Report

The purpose of this initiative is to provide

documented evidence of the Farmers

Association.

The oral history of the FA is very strong but

ultimately must be documented to facilitate

interaction with institutional processes or to

engage with the EDDT. The FA has kept records

of the membership since 1989. This initiative was

required by MoFA in order to access financial

and technical assistance, which MoFA continues

to give. As highlighted in the findings, this

initiative has stopped due to land security

undermining the FA and resulting in reduced

meeting attendance.

How?

Through ensuring the FA records:

Meeting attendance

Membership status and evolution

Needs and aspirations of members

Impacts of movements on farmers and their

farming practices (historic documentation)

Why?

To increase cohesion

To document the history and progress of the

Farmers’ Association (FA)

To provide details of the farmers’ presence in

La

To collect adequate information for creating

claims or petitions to various institutions

Figure 8.3 Collective Capacity of the Farmers

Association

These three strategies together (figure 8.3

above) are intended to build the collective

capacity of the Farmer’s Association and equip

them with the information to be able to dialogue

and negotiate on a stronger basis with both

institutional stakeholders and the EDDT.

38

In order to begin strengthening the FA’s capacity

the collective vision and aspiration of the group

to work together must be built. Savings groups

provide one mechanism by which the FA could

both access valuable resources to improve their

own livelihoods and ability to invest, but

importantly it can be facilitated collectively,

building trust and reciprocity amongst the

savings group members. The FA in part was

undermined by the inability of the members to

directly address the issue of land security. The

savings group would provide another focus for

the FA members, allowing them to meet but to

focus on other goals and aspirations whilst

building their ability to address the issue of land

security.

‘Participatory monitoring’ and ‘record and

report’ are also essential to rebuilding the

collective strength of the FA, while providing

them with information that legitimises their right

to farm in the city and proves their ability to act

together with strength.

39

8.5 Dialogue and negotiation

Land issues need to be present at the dialogue

and negotiation table of AWGUPA. Expanding

membership to the Land Commission and CICOL

would allow discussion on and recognition of

land as an urgent matter.

Building direct links to AWGUPA

How?

Greater integration of the La FA and

strengthening existing links with MoFA to

other stakeholders

Increased dialogue

Why?

To improve the FA’s ability to dialogue with

the statutory system regarding land issues

To monitor actions of institutional

stakeholders regarding land encroachment

To build awareness of the importance of UA

to Accra

AWGUPA’s engagement with land issues

How?

Integration of stakeholders involved in land

issues into AWGUPA

Extend membership of AWGUPA to Land

Commission

Inclusion of CICOL: Civil society organisation

monitoring Land Administration Project

Why?

Commission research on policy issues

Utilise CICOL’s capabilities

CICOL’s current roles:

Civil society organisation monitoring the Land

Administration Project

Commissions research on policy issues

Awareness raiding through radio

Information dissemination on market prices

for agricultural goods

(CICOL, 2010)

For more detail on the influence and

relationships between the key stakeholders

please refer to the web of institutionalisation

in appendix 13.7

Figure 8.4 Dialogue and Negotiation

40

8.6 Scaling up and looking towards the

future

Federation of Farmers’ Associations of Greater

Accra

Building upon improving the FA as a collective in

La, effort must be made to improve the citywide

structure and connections between the various

farmers’ associations scattered across Accra.

Linkages must be made highlighting the similar

challenges urban farmer’s face across Accra,

from development encroachment to

marginalisation at the market place. This will

give a larger citywide organization an

opportunity to set a precedent and access to

increased political and economic power in

negotiations; leading to an increased ability to

influence policy and decision making processes

at a sub-metro, district, metropolitan, and

national level.

As outlined in section 8.4 the Federation of the

Urban Poor is a valuable partner into which the

Farmers of Accra could link. Their past actions in

assisting members of many communities to

address issues such as unfair eviction enable

them to provide valuable technical assistance

and information sharing networks to the La

farmers.

41

SECTION 9.0 Monitoring and evaluation

42

9.0 Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation is essential in order to

track the implementation and progress of the

proposed strategies, and can aid in providing

unique information about the performance of

the various actors involved. As a result, this helps

to identify gaps, which enable improvement and

assessment in performance as and where

required.

Monitoring and evaluation also enhance

accountability and transparency of processes and

between actors. The table below demonstrates

our strategies, how they are to be monitored,

and by whom.

For more detail on the influence and

relationships between the key stakeholders

please refer to the web of institutionalisation

inappendix 13.6

43

Strategy Criteria Who will drive it?Who will monitor

it?Indicators

Strengthen the

collective capacity of

the Farmers’

Association

Participatory Monitoring Farmers

MoFA

Farmers

MoFA

Updated displacement maps

Recording and monitoring of

farmers attendance to meetings

Registration of the Farmers’

Association as cooperative

Creation of a Savings

GroupsStrengthened Capacity of FA

Farmers

Federation of

the Urban Poor

Farmers

Federation of the

Urban Poor

Increased savings

Greater security in case of low

harvest

Integration of

stakeholders involved

in land issues

Inclusion of CICOL and Land

Commission in AWGUPA AWGUPA

AWGUPA

CICOL

Land Commission

New policy research on land

issues

Awareness raising campaigns

Accessing Green BeltIntegration of UA in urban

management and policy planning

Farmers

through access

to public

institutions and

NGOs

Farmers

NGOs

Active use of land assigned for

UA in trust land use plans

Expanding access to

institutional land

Wider community awareness

of the benefits of UA

Improvement in the

transparency of land use

practices and distribution

AWGUPA

Town and

Country

Planning

Department

Farmers

AWGUPA

Farmers

Demarcation of passive land for

UA in land use plans

44

SECTION 10.0 Conclusion

45

10.0 Conclusion

As shown in our work, we believe that the casestudy of urban agriculture in La provides anappropriate example of environmental justice ina developing urban environment.

Our project benefitted from the use the fourdimensions proposed by Schlosberg, distributionin the access to resources, recognition andparticipation in the political processes, andimprovement of capabilities in the socio-economic sphere. These dimensions werevisible in our findings and reinforced in ourstrategies.

For our strategies we also adopted a collectiveaction approach through the strengthening ofthe La farmers’ association, coupled with a justand equal interaction between the latter and therelevant institutional and other stakeholders whocan support and play a key role in ultimatelyimproving the rights of the urban farmers. Forthis to occur the support of MoFA and NGOs todrive efforts related to savings groups, land, landuse practices, and public awareness, is vital.

AGWUPA can play a key role in steering otherkey stakeholders such as CICOL, the LandCommission, the Trust, and Town and CountryPlanning to be involved in land issues and policyformulation supporting urban agriculture. As aresult, the collective effort can produce national

policies that support and secure urban farmingpractices in Accra and all of Ghana.

The proposed strategies to address issuesaffecting urban agriculture in La are closely tiedto improving ecological practices and makingthem more sustainable, in terms of resource use,and expanding farmers’ opportunities andabilities. However, land tenure and security issuein La are a major obstacles and hindrances to thesuccesses of the aforementioned strategies.

The first line of action occurred during the La

groups’ presentation in Accra, Ghana, where

multiple stakeholders were able to come

together and discuss the key urban agriculture

related issues they deemed important and where

action needed to be taken. While momentum

was gained on that day, it is necessary that the

recommendations proposed are monitored and

evaluated on a regular basis to ensure their

effective implementation over the long term.

46

SECTION 11.0 Recommendations for

further research

47

11.0 Recommendations for further

research

Appreciate the wider economic value of

urban agriculture, analysing the supply

and demand for UA produced in Accra.

Continuing and expanding the mapping

of encroachment in La and the farmers’

movement in all the clusters.

The relationship between the EDDTrust and the Council of Elders interms of formal and informalfinancial and political ties.

Exploring the actors and motivesinvolved in the other Klandjii-Argoncluster FA and their relationship tothe La FA and the EDD Trust

Exploration of alternative land-use planning solutions which,integrating UA into the urbanarea through both the LandCommission and TCP.

Climate variability, especially theimplications of water shortageson UA over the long-term

48

SECTION 12.0 References

49

12.0 References

Boorman, Jack and Christensen, Benedicte

Vibe (2010). “The Impact of the Global Financial

Crisis on Emerging and Frontier Markets in

Africa”, in: Global Journal of Emerging Market

Economies, Vol 2(1): (2010) pp 69–90.

CICOL (2010). Fieldtrip meeting 12 May

2010.

Dobson, A. (1998). "Justice and the

Environment. Conceptions of Environmental

Sustainability and Dimensions of Social Justice",

Oxford University Press, Oxford. Chapter

1: Environmental Politics and Distributive Justice,

pp 12-30.

DPU (2009). Terms of Reference: Promoting

sustainable urban and peri-urban agriculture in

Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) -

Ghana, BENVES3 2008-09, London.

East Dadekotopon Development Trust (2010).

Trustees Proposed Development of Land at East

Dadekotopon La, Accra Q&A session.

East Dadekotopon Development Trust (2004).

Trustees Proposed Development of Land at East

Dadekotopon La, Accra leaflet.

GIDA (2010). Ghana Irrigation Development

Authority, Meeting 7 May 2010

Gold Fields Mineral Services Ltd (GFMS)

(2001). Gold Production and Consumption

Weighted Price Indices Report

inhttp://www.gfms.co.uk/Market%20Commenta

ry/ProdConIndices.pdf .

Guha, R. and Martínez-Alier J. (1997).

Varieties of Environmentalism. Essays North and

South, Earthscan, London. Chapter 2:

FromPolitical Economy to Political Ecology, pp

22-45.

Institutional Food Policy and Research

Institute (2004). [Accessed online 29 May

2010] http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pu

blications/focus11.pdf

IWMI (2010). IWMI fieldtrip meeting 4 May

2010.

IWMI (2009). International Water

Management Institute, . Local irrigation practices

in Accra. [Accessed 27 May

2010]http://www.ruaf.org/node/1887.

Larbi, O. (2010). Land tenure and urban

agriculture in Ghana, Fieldtrip lecture.

MoFA (2010). (page 27 -1st column, farming

practices findings section) MoFA fieldtrip

meeting 5 May 2010.

Ostrom, Elinor (2004). “Understanding

collective action” in Collective action and

property rights for sustainable development,

Meinzen-DickRuth S and Di Gregorio Monica,

eds. International Food Policy Research Institute,

Washington DC.

Reuters (2010). Key political risks to watch in

Ghana. {Accessed May

2010}. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE64

Q1HC20100601 .

Savings groups, Philip Kumah (2010).

Federation of the Urban Poor. Fieldtrip meeting

13 May 2010.

Schlosberg, David (2007). Defining

Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements and

Nature. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Smit & Nasr (1992). Urban Agriculture for

Sustainable Cities: using wastes and idle land and

water bodies as resources Environment &

Urbanization, 4; 141.

Swyngedouw, Erik (2003). “Urban Political

Ecology, Justice and the Politics of

Scale”, Antipode, Volume 35, Issue 5, 898-918.

50

T&CP (2010). Fieldtrip Q&A session on urban

planning in Accra, Ghana.

UNCTAD (2009). World Investment Report

2009: Transnational Corporations, Agricultural

Production and Development. {Accessed 27 May

2010} ; http://www.unctad.org/wir.

51

SECTION 13.0 Appendices

52

13.0 Appendices

13.1 Criteria for evaluating the sustainability of

agricultural practices

13.2 Schedule of field work activity in La, Accra

13.3 Interview questions

13.4 Focus group data

13.5 Transect walks

13.6 Farmer’s life stories

13.7 Web of institutionalisation and institutional analysis

13.8 Cluster characterisation

13.9 Productive scenarios figures

13.10 Notes from meeting with savings group

13.11 Additional acknowledgements