Sustainable urban environments: The case of Alexandra

GeoJourna139: 51-58. © 1996 (May) Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Sustainable urban environments: The case of Alexandra

Vogel, C., Dr., University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT: The long-term benefits of reconstruction and development in South Africa can succeed only if the environmental considerations are integrated into policy decisions. The proper management of the country's valuable renewable and non-renewable resources is essential for future prosperity. The environments of urban renewal projects need to be effectively managed. A case study of urban upgrading in Alexandra, Johannesburg illustrates the vital importance of integrating environmental components into reconstruction and development programmes in South Africa.

I n t r o d u c t i o n

In a recent review and evaluation of the environmental issues and polices relevant to the Reconstruction and Development Programme con- ducted by International Development Research Centre (IDRC), African National Congress (ANC), Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), South African Communist Party (SACP), South African National Civic Organisations (SANCO) Mission on Environmental Policy (1994, p. 1) the central message delivered was that "Reconstruction and Development (RDP) in the new South Africa will only succeed if environmental considerations are integrated into policy decisions" (parenthesis added). The environmental toll of apartheid has created an environmental deficit including the loss of soil, contaminated surface water, air pollution problems as well as resulting in the scarcity of adequate sanitation, housing and other essential services. The imprints and legacy of the apartheid era are often more visible in the congested and degraded townships.

Problems of sustainable environmental development in highly-congested, poor urban areas are not unique to South Africa. Recent figures for 'low- income' and 'mid-income' countries suggest that at least 30 % of the urban population, approximately 550 million people, live in informal housing that is not sanctioned according to government standards. While several programmes are currently being set in place to ensure that the environment is placed high on the policy agenda in city planning and development (e.g. Agenda 21 and Habitat II) (see UNCHS

1991; Bartone et al. 1994) there is a lack of information related to the complex environmentally- related problems associated with living in urban areas at both the international and local level. Notwithstanding this current dearth of information, a case study approach of various urban centres, particularly those from Africa and India, provides a useful entry point into the debate on urban sustainable (environmental) development (e.g. Foster and Crossley 1980; Payne 1984; Franceys and Cotton 1993; Bartone et al. 1994).

The intention in this paper is to extend this approach to South Africa, using the township of Alexandra as a case study. The results of previous attempts of upgrading Alexandra township are illus- trative of the array of environmental problems that can arise as a result of urban upgrading. As will be illustrated, the failure to include management of the environment, at the outset of upgrading projects, often leads to both short- and long-term environmental damage. The environment will thus be shown to be an important element in upgrading developments that may arise through the RDP.

A l e x a n d r a t o w n s h i p : so c lose an d ye t so far

Alexandra township, located approximately 13 km north-east of Johannesburg and nestling between Sandton and Johannesburg (Figure 1), has a history of poor upgrading schemes. After unsuccessful attempts to create a "white" township, Alexandra was declared a "black" freehold township in 1912. The township grew rapidly and by 1916 had an estimated

52 C. Vogel

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Figure 1. Alexandra township (shaded portion), to the north-east of Johannesburg (inset provincial map of South Africa).

population of 900 (Tourikis 1981; Marks 1990). The township at this stage was a low-density suburban development. The 1920s saw a massive growth in urbanisation in the area. New migrants were attracted by the employment opportunities as well as forced off the land by legislation and decreased food pro- duction in the (former) Native reserves (Marks 1990). Backyard shacks began to emerge. The township, however, lacked any amenities, infrastructure or basic services. Lighting, water supply and water borne sewage were unavailable.

Alexandra's population continued to grow and in the early 1960s attempts were made by the Peri- Urban Areas Health Board to thin out the population, end unlawful influx and purchase properties (Marks 1990). By 1960, 25,000 people had been removed and 99 properties bought (Ditshwanto tsa Rona Study Group 1982; Marks 1990). By 1961, the state decided to turn the area into accommodation for hostel or

single workers only (Marks 1990). During the 1970s resistance to this and other plans grew and in 1979, the government announced the reprieve of Alexandra (Marks 1990; Hall et al. 1993).

In 1980 a Masterplan calling for the total redevelopment of the township was commissioned. A new Alexandra was to be built w h e r e i n . . . "all the people will be living in comfortable homes - even the poor and the old" (Van Dijk 1980, p. 28). Alexandra was to be redeveloped as a high-density black urban area with a waterborne sewage system, an electrification package installed, and new housing built with a range of freehold and leasehold options (Burgher 1986; Marks 1990). This plan was to provide for the total redevelopment of Alexandra on the basis of a new lay-out which was to be imple- mented in phases to provide accommodation for 65,000 residents on a family basis (6,000 families) and 8,000 residents on a single housing basis

Sustainable urban environments 53

(Burgher 1986). A number of problems arose with the initial plan including that the 1980 redevelopment plan (Master Plan) provided for the retention of only 5% of the existing housing units. Two and half thou- sand of the existing houses, suitable for upgrading and refurbishment, would have to be demolished.

The Master Plan for the redevelopment of Alexandra yielded limited success. The community expressed serious concern about the expected loss of property rights and in general little community involvement was evident:

In general, the residents are confused as to what benefit will accrue to them from the redevelopment plan . . . . There is general dissatisfaction with regard to the redevelopment programme as it entails the relo- cation of families and general disruption of family and community life (Burgher 1986, p. 7).

A revised plan, to be viewed in conjunction with the Master Plan, was thus agreed upon by government whereby the existing grid layout of the township was to be retained, homeownership could be made more immediate and, where possible, initial existing structures retained and upgraded. Where dwellings and shacks would have to be demolished this would be undertaken with minimal disruption to the residents (Burgher 1986).

The Alexandra Urban Renewal Scheme, organised into phases, began early in 1989 after approval by government in 1986. The Scheme set out to restore the community's faith in the authorities (Marks 1990). In this discussion attention will focus on one of the upgrading phases, namely Phase B, and some of the environmental impacts associated with this project. In detail, the aims of Phase B of the Alexandra Urban renewal project were inter alia, to satisfy the immediate demand for upgrading of internal and bulk services; to aid in the effectiveness of the Alexandra Council to implement the project; and, to facilitate the long-term viability of Alexandra by improving the quality of life (DBSA 1988). In order to achieve the project's aims it was planned that the social networks resulting from the established community would be preserved; to create the minimum of disruption and removals; to encourage homeownership on a leasehold and freehold basis; to maintain existing communal spaces and, to establish a self-sufficient and fully functioning township (Eskom 1986; Marks 1990).

In 1991 and 1992 an outbreak of political violence disrupted the township. The lack of infrastructure, housing, facilities, among other problems resulted in the degradation of the local environment. The area was originally planned for 30,000 residents but the estimated population far exceeds this number (in 1991, for example, the estimated population was 200,000 in an area of 5 sq.km). In the Urban Renewal proposal it was proposed that provision should be

made for a population of 120,000 in Alexandra by the year 2000. In 1993 a housing profile of Alexandra indicated 5,503 informal structures, 16,831 formal houses and 8,460 hostel beds (Hall et al. 1993). Further it was indicated that 50 per cent of the residents had water reticulation and 70 per cent had water-borne sanitation. About 40 per cent of the roads were estimated to be tarred in 1993 (Hall et al. 1993). Overall, it is evident that environmental conditions for most residents are poor, particularly for those communities housed in informal shelter. Inadequate housing remains a major problem in Alexandra.

The environment in Alexandra

The condition of basic infrastructure during the time of the upgrading of Alexandra was clearly unsatis- factory. The majority of roads were of gravel and had been established by simply shaping the natural landform. Due to a lack of stormwater control and the presence of a high ground-water table, the roads had been highly eroded and potholed. The stormwater system comprised a series of trenches along the streets which ultimately drained into the three tribu- taries of the Jukskei river. Sewerage in most cases was removed by a bucket system. Very few residents of the area had access to electricity (Burgher 1986).

Open space in Alexandra is another major problem in the area. Residential densities have always been very high and squatting in Alexandra is escalating. The growth of informal housing is excerbated by the arrival of communities of illegal immigrants (most notably from Mozambique) arriving in Johannesburg for perceived employment opportunities. It is estimated that almost 1,500 people live in squatter shacks below the 1:50-year floodline and, alarmingly, 2,932 shacks exist along and in the stormwater drainage system within Alexandra (Alexander 1993). The flood risks and hazards of this situation are clear (Figure 2).

Environmental consequences associated with upgrading

Explicit references to the environment were not made during the Urban Renewal Programme and hence no attempt was made to carry out any Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the proposed developments. Despite the lack of an adequate EIA, investi- gations of the possible environmental consequences of the upgrading scheme have been undertaken (Posnik and Vogel 1992; Vogel and Posnik 1992). Two noteworthy environmental aspects of the upgrading are examined here; viz., quality of the water and infrastructure.

54 C. Vogel

Figure 2. Pressure on the land. Informal settlements on and in the banks of the Jukskei River, Alexandra.

Water quality

The Jukskei river, flowing through the township, is affected by a number of factors including squatter settlements that have very poor sanitation and water supply. The stormwater system at the time of upgrading comprised a series of trenches along the streets which ultimately drain into the three tribu- taries of the Jukskei river. As a result of this system, human excrement (from squatters adjacent to the river), soapy water and litter ultimately found its way into the river (Van Niekerk 1991). Certain sections of the river are also sometimes subject to releases from the Alexandra Sewerage Works.

Laboratory tests were taken on water samples in the river over the period 1984-1991, the latter period representative of the time during which renewal and upgrading was in operation. The results reveal that despite initiatives for urban renewal, the environmental quality of the river did not improve. Nitrates, ammonia and chemical oxygen demand pollution remained substantial. The only areas of some improvement were those for ammonia and phosphate concentration. The presence of a perched water table in Alexandra, the high concentration of squatters in the area with little improvement in sanitation services, conceals any improvements that could have arisen because of the installation of storm water drainage, improvements in sanitation and other infrastructure in sections of Alexandra.

Infrastructure: the example of roads

The Urban Renewal Scheme of 1986 planned for the reconstruction of some 45 km of primary and sec- ondary roads, in a phased manner. Primary roads

were to be constructed concurrently with the installation of the primary services and tarred from the outset (Burgher 1986). Houses were also to be provided and upgraded. Several problems, however, arose as regards infrastructural upgrading (see Table 1). The problems caused by squatters and shacks were (and remain) numerous. No services are usually supplied to these areas. With the upgrading of Phase A the experience of a "herding" effect was evident ahead of construction works. Where areas had been zoned for development such as schools or flats, with no ablutions in place, squatters were settling on the cleared land.

Grid inlets and kerb inlets on the stormwater drainage system were used for garbage disposal and temporary structures were erected along service lines and manholes. The variety of materials used instead of toilet paper also lead to blockages and com- pounded the problems outlined above. The slop water that ran into roads caused the disintegration of the premis and eventually the roads. Garbage was deposited in the stormwater system rendering it useless.

Upgrading: a reflection of the process

Some observers have noted that the services installed in Alexandra have failed to cope with growing demand (Lawson 1991). Several services had a short lifespan, such as the stormwater system, in certain areas of Alexandra due to lack of maintenance. The overriding problem of population pressure on the installed services has also been a continual problem in the area. Degradation of stormwater drains, blocked kerb inlets and road surfaces occurred because of a lack of adequate maintenance and poor


Table 1. Environmental problems noted with the installation of various services in Alexandra during upgrading

Service Associated environmental problem

Sewerage lines

Pipes

Stormwater

Mechanical damage

Sewerage lines blocked because of manholes being too tight, need to be loosened. Sewerage penetrates upper layers of the road and lifts the asphalt

Pipes burst and this then results in erosion of road surface and adjacent areas

Kerb inlets blocked, used as a garbage disposal area

* Burning of tyres during certain periods and diesel spoils result in the damage of the road surface and asphalt

* Slopwater containing cleaning agents destroys the bitumen of the road surface * Solution to install concrete channels on the sides of roads - requires maintenance to be

successful. Regular garbage removal and street sweeping.

Source: Vogel and Posnik 1992.

waste removal. Blockages of the infrastructure would thus eventually lead to road erosion. Provision was also seen to be inadequate: "Eight families or more, over 40 people, not only have to share a single toilet, but share a single external tap and shower as well" (Marks 1990, p. 64).

Other factors such as poor community interaction also tended to hinder upgrading. The community was, for example, poorly informed about the renewal scheme. Because of political tensions in the area construction work often proceeded erratically with a contractor who was on site for a week but then disappeared for days. Ablution blocks were installed, but not functional, for a three month period. Infrastructure was installed into roads but these remained untarred, causing renewed disruption when work recommenced (Marks 1990). Construction equipment had to be brought in daily to the area because of theft. Safety precautions were often also not adhered to. Warning lights often disappeared from open trenches which compromised the safety of such areas. Several residents property was damaged and in one or two cases people managed to persuade the contractor to reroute the services to minimize damage to their property (Marks 1990).

A host of other problems associated with the upgrading have been documented. The new roads were often too narrow, substandard tarred roads resulted in wash-aways and pothole development, ablution blocks were poorly located and health problems arose due to blockages of drains and use of substandard building materials (Cloete 1992). Despite the strong views expressed about the political motivation of the project and inconveniences suffered during the project implementation phase, several residents agreed that the living conditions had improved (Cloete 1992).

Upgrading, the environment and the RDP

Despite some success with the upgrading of Alexandra several problems still abound in the area.

Unemployment is high, shacks abound and a large number of residents still live in poverty. In an effort to upgrade local townships government has recently allocated an amount of R 750-million (partly from public-sector investment and financed from the RDP fund). The money will support 614 projects at a national level and 43 projects in Gauteng. The projects include provision of water, sewage treatment and removal, electricity, storm water drainage systems and rehabilitating existing municipal services. The initiative has been described as "an important milestone in the implementation of the RDP" (The Star, 11 October, 1995).

Past urbanisation strategies for the Johannesburg area and environs (e.g. Transvaal Provincial Administration 1992) have called for the sustainable development of such areas and to ensure that urbanisation is well-managed so that there is a balance between urbanisation pressures that provides quality space and recreational resources to the population. While attention has been given to the careful examination of a variety of natural assets in terms of conservation, guidelines on environmental issues, associated with areas requiring upgrading, are still being prepared. Although reference to the environmental implications of development is, however, mentioned in the RDP (African National Congress 1994, p. 39):

Environmental considerations must be built into every decision. To accomplish this, procedures must be set in place to oblige decision-makers to demonstrate what environmental considerations they take into account when considering projects. . . . (2.10.3)

Development strategies must incorporate environmental consequences in the course of planning . . . (2.10.4).

such considerations, however, have as yet not been formally translated into policy at the local level. No Environmental Impact Assessment is, for example,

56 C. Vogel

required for these developments. The only formal strategy that developers have is the SEIA (Stream- lined Environmental Impact Assessment) which has been developed to support the RDP and other projects, and the so-called 'Red Book' (CSIR, 1995). The SEIA is a mechanism based upon principles of IEM (Integrated Environmental Management) and aims to address environmental issues in a low cost, pragmatic and rapid manner throughout the life cycle of a project or development. In essence, the SEIA functions as a checklist. Whether developers adhere to this checklist is open to question and the lack of some form of policy on this issue is disturbing.

While detailed guidelines for urban development are contained in the Red Book of the Division of Building Technology at the CSIR scant detailed information is available for engineers in terms of the environmental viability of a project. One concern raised in the revision of the Red Book is that the scope of the book needs to be expanded to cover not only "greenfield" developments but also upgrading of existing settlements. The CSIR (1995, p. 9) argues that "upgrading guidelines need to be incorporated in some manner. This should cover 'from nothing to something' and 'from one service to another' alter- natives.

The Red Book is at present being used together with the White paper on Housing and the White Paper on Water Supply and Sanitation Policy. Nevertheless, the Red Book is being improved:

In terms of its mandate, the Division of Building Technology has undertaken to maintain the Red Book as a continually "living document". Standards should be seen as a reflection of society's values at any given time; moreover, values and priorities are not inflexible but rather in a constant state of change (Austin 1995, p. 5).

At present, however, specific reference to the environmental implications and management of upgrading township areas has been largely absent. As noted by the CSIR (1995, p. 8): "Environmental issues should be incorporated. Guidelines for impact assessments and other procedures like the involvement of interested and affected parties (another RDP requirement) would be a useful addition to the book".

Discussion

Upgrading, as opposed to slum-clearance, can have benefits for it builds on existing infrastructure and resources of the community. Moreover, upgrading can be used as a way of building organisations and self-management within a community (Marks 1990). Notwithstanding these benefits, the planning of future upgrading in South Africa must be carefully executed. In the case of Alexandra, a comprehensive survey of the township's socio-economic and

physical conditions was only carried out after the report outlining the plan was submitted (Marks 1990). The community were also never adequately informed of the renewal and disruptions of everyday life was common.

Problems with the Urban Renewal programme in Alexandra hinged on some major oversights including unrealistic estimates of population numbers - services were thus inadequate even before development began; the failure to gain the cooperation of the community and all stakeholders; electrification benefits were often not realised because installation and running costs were too high; open spaces created during construction resulted in squatter and informal settlements that exacerbated refuse problems and blockages of drains and inadequate maintenance of new services resulted in the deterioration of services (Vogel and Posnik 1992; Marks 1990).

Effective demand, affordable services and community preference for services in an urban area need to be identified. Maintenance controls on any project are also essential (Figure 3). Upgrading on a cost- recovery basis in a poor community is, for example, unrealistic (Marks 1990). Residents who often cannot afford the implementation and maintenance costs of upgrading can compound environmental problems in the area. Environmental degradation awaits those who follow the route of high-cost services with little or no maintenance. Sustainable development can only be truly achieved when the route of low-cost services together with good maintenance and management controls are ensured. The reality of the situation is usually a mix between the two.

Conclusion

Upgrading of urban areas can benefit affected communities. A key issue that emerged several times in the case of Alexandra, however, was the lack of effective community participation. Both in South Africa and elsewhere (e.g. Kahssay 1991; UNCHS 1995) it has been clearly shown that providing services to communities that they do not want is unsustainable. Using rhetoric will not help in the future, rather one needs to identify and establish structured ways to participate with such communities and to be overt about plans and developments, so that participation can occur. Establishing at the outset whether upgrading is desired/needed; agreement about what is required, obligations of the community and developer, clear goals about what the project is hoping to achieve, and establishing a mechanism that will enable householders to demonstrate what they are willing to pay for (Franceys and Cotton 1993) are all essential for sound environmental planning. Such planning will eliminate problems of raised or changed expectations during and after the life of the project and thereby hopefully avoid conflict


INCREASING EFFORT/INPUT

1

ISTARTING I I POINT

! DECREASING

EFFORT/INPUT

I I I Skihd I I I Personnel I II SUSTAINABLE

institutional i I I It DEVELOPMENT coo.o= I / " i I t (income) I L.......~.. ..'~- i

Good c e ~ ROL Maintenes te for low cost (3rd World) services High-oost ~ . ~ = ~Ot~U'" i A .......... with good maintenance/ Services ~ I I I I 1 / / " , management controls

. . . . ~.~..... _ i 1 1 ~'- [

i i j ~ " - ' l - , . !

Low .-~= ~ Ii ~=. - [ " ~ Route for high cost (1st World) services Services ~- . . . . . jb~.~ WO, ~ , ; a~. .......... with little/no maintenance or

L ~ / N° ~ I ! management controls Maintenance ~ I

Poor Local I ~ I . Administration i ~ 1 I IENVlRONMENTALI ]

I ; I DEGRADATION II I Personne I

1 I CAPITAL COST + MAINTENANCE +ADMINISTRATION +' TRAINING .? END RESULT

Figure 3. Effect of maintenance controls on sustainable development (or potential for environmental degradation). After Beaumont (1992).

( A c k e r m a n 1991). Urban i sa t i on and the env i ronmen t are i n e x t r i c a b l y l inked . M a n a g e m e n t and p r o p e r p l ann ing , at a l l s tages o f u rban d e v e l o p m e n t , can ensure that the e n v i r o n m e n t is u t i l i sed in a sustain- ab le manner . Sou th A f r i c a canno t a f fo rd fur ther e n v i r o n m e n t a l cos t s that m a y ar i se because o f u n p l a n n e d and has ty d e v e l o p m e n t s ; nor can the coun t ry a f fo rd the p o s s i b i l i t y o f g r o w i n g d i s sa t i s - fac t ion o f p o o r l y p l anned u rban se rv ices and infra- s t ructure . F u r t h e r r e sea rch into these aspec t s o f d e v e l o p m e n t a re u r g e n t l y n e e d e d so that R D P pro jec t s can i m p r o v e the qua l i ty o f South Af r i cans both in the shor t and long term.

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Beaumont, R. D.: Third World Development and the environment. Paper Presented at the World Environment~Day Symp6sium, Mintek, Randbur~ 1992.

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Foster, R.; Crossley, T. R.: The engineer in an underprivileged environment. Paper Presented at the 6th Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC) Conference, Nigeria, 1980.

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Kahssay, G.: Integrated Urban Upgrading - Low-income communities. Paper Presented at the Infrastructure, Environment, Water and People conference, 14-30 August, Nairobi! Kenya 1991.

Lawson, L.: The ghetto and greenbelt. In: Cock, J.; Koch, E. (eds.), GoingGreen, pp. 46-63. Oxford University Press, Cape Town 1991. "

Marks, R.: Upgrading Alex: Case Study of a South African Township. Major study submitted for a Diploma in Architecture. Oxford Polytechnic, Oxford 1990.

Payne, G. K. (ed.): Low'income Housing in the Developing World: The Role of Sites and Services and Settlement Upgrading. John Wiley, Chichester, 1984.

58 C. Vogel

Posnik, S.; Vogel, C.: Low income housing - the "brown" environmental issues. Proceedings of the EPPIC 92 Conference on 'Poverty and the Environment', 28-29 September, Midrand 1992.

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tification of land for low cost development in the northern parts of the central Witwatersrand in the northern parts of the central Witwatersrand, west Verwoerdburg and Midrand, Pretoria, 1992.

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Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000. UNCHS, Nairobi, 1991.

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Documents

Sustainable urban environments: The case of Alexandra