237 Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

Sustainable Urban Development Practices in City Centre: Tentative Analysis of Projects in Progress in Oran, Algeria

Samira GaYd Oran University ofSciences and Technology, Algeria

Abstract

The economic upturn of recent years in Algeria is apparently supporting sustainable urban development practices. Public authority is recognisably at the forefront in promoting inedited urban and architectural projects. From the development of new transport systems to the revitalisation of rundown areas in city centre, the momentum of urban change is visibly conveying towards a new dynamic of sustainability.

In this context, the analysis attempts to examine new practices with regard to impact on urban management. Shedding light on some important projects that are in progress in the major city ofOran, one can investigate the underlying view of sustainability and determine either upcoming benefits or limits at Iocal scale.

In this city, a turning point in urban planning practice occurred in mid-2000 when aseries of large-scale development schemes were programmed to provide the city-centre area with a new tramway transportation system, major civic buildings, renewed open space and enhanced-quality residential units. Whereas the tramway scheme is built by an international consortium, a purpose-built convention and exhibition centre is promoted by a leading local-based industriaI group. Rising involvement of such new developers in urban project-making is perceptibly giving impetus to city change. It reveals the ability ofvaried actors to deal with a building market largely dominated by public sector intervention.

Within the aim ofthis article, two main issues are addressed:

Firstly, how sustainable urban development is taking place? And what insights can the practice ofnew projects at large carry in terms ofmanagement?

Secondly, what is the background for latest project-making in Oran city centre? Can this local context be regarded as a fieldwork that enhances appropriate tools to support a sustainable urban development approach?

Keywords: sustainability, development practice. urban project, management.

Samira Gaid

1 The General Setting for Sustainable Urban Development

With the pace of a growing economy, main cities in Algeria are predominantly attracting population, activities and services adding to the legacy of comprehensive urban transmutation. The stigmata of rural exodus, city growth and failing attempts of inner-city development have contributed to a large extent to the neglect of urban heritage within the city centre. As a result, such cities are facing multiple problems in the provision of adequate housing, transport and community facilities. Furthermore, as environmental concerns seem to have been of !ittle consideration in urban planning, the setbacks on built environment are even more dramatic.

The National Report on the Environment issued in early 2000 (MATE, 2000) examined the impacts of inappropriate patterns of urbanisation and highlighted the imperative need for alternative planning policy. lndeed, this document was the prelude to the national strategy for sustainable development as it set broad orientations to offset the widespread damage caused to natural and buHt environments.

At the moment, investment in sustainability seems to be not so high on government's agenda as public action continues to favour the «all out-of-towm> new urban development. Nonetheless, one can admit that some responsive projects are taking place and could pave the way to a sustainable urban fonn. One of which, is the tramway pattern of city development, planned for regional capitals Algiers, Constantine and Oran. Indeed, the tramway which is enjoying undeniable success all over places, allows for the development of sustainable mobility, a rethinking and revitalizing of urban spaces, the protection of architectural heritage, and can contribute to the regeneration of city centre areas.

Another major step towards the integration of sustainability issues is the re­conquest of wasteland in city centre. In this context, major cities in Algeria are taking advantage of booming real estate to go on developing new building patterns which contrast with predominant standardized residential blocks.

To discuss these issues, the case study of Oran seems significant with regard to the considerable number of important projects taking place. In this city, a tuming point in urban planning practice visibly occurred in mid-2000 when a series of largc-scale development schemes were programmed to provide the city centre area with a new tramway transportation system, major civic buildings, renewed open space and enhanced-quality residential units. The tramway scheme is managed by a consortium of companies notorious in the rail industry and highly committed in the development of alternative mobility solutions. This mass transport system is expected to significantly change the way urban landscape is evolving in shape. Moreover, it can effectively restore lost public management over outdoor space in city.

Other outstanding projects are perceptibly giving new impetus to city change. They are developed on wasteland on the eastern bay of the city. One of which

Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development 239

include a convention centre and exhibition hall, a five-star hotel and open-air amenities whereas others are designed and labelIed as highly standard and innovative residential and commercial neighbourhoods. They are promoted by either leading industrial groups or dynamic real estate developers. In recent years, the growing interest in such developments has revealed that there is an ability of varied actors to initiate new frameworks for urban project-making with a better sight to market opportunity. More significantly, it shows the prospect for some influential developers, whether local or international, to deal with a building market largely dominated by public sector intervention.

2 Tramway, a Responsive Transport Facility in City Centre

In recent years, many studies have focussed on the sustainability issues regardless the extensive use of car and related paradigm of «predict and provide» road system. They have made argument that sustainable development of urban foml can be attained through alternative transport planning policy (Banister, 2005; Banister & Button, 2003; Goodwin, 2007; Goodwin & Noland, 2003; Vigar, 2002). In a context of growing concern about eeological hazards, the main issue of gas emission is central to any aspect of development policy.

The scientific argument 10 support non-automobile modes that consume less greenhouse gases, especially in large metropolitan areas, on high-density transport corridors has been widely discussed in literature (Sloman & al, 2010; Terry, 2004). This argument often draws on the dilemma of challenges for city movement and avision ofbalanced urban development.

"Previously, environmental concerns in transport have been mainly restricted to local factors such as noise, severance and visual intrusion, but recent concerns over global warrning, acid rain and a range of pollution-induced diseases have given importance to the regional, national and global implications of environmental degradation"(Banister, 2005, p.2).

The credo put forward nowadays is that cities should transforrn themselves into better places where to live without the dominance of the motor car. In this regard, light rail transport LRT is assumed 10 be a genuine green option versus transport by either cars or buses which contribute significantly to noise and air pollution (Himanen, 2008). After decades of demise of tram and replacement of its tracks, we assist to a spectacular renaissance of LRT into public space. Following the good practice of many European countries, leading eities in emergent economies are seeking similar urban revival of their city assets. By making visible their sustainability trend, they are probably creating opportunity for a global response to environmental challenges.

From early 2000 onward, the tram scene has dramatically changed the image of many urban contexts, bringing back better living conditions to population in dense central areas. Laisney (2001) emphasizes tbe role of redueing the perimeter for car circulation in cities while insisting on the need to overtake the "homo automobilisticus" mentality from planning. His argument for taking

3

240 Samira Gard

control of public space in city is strongly confirmed by his investigation of early 1980s experience in Western Europe. Without doubt, many cities of this part of the world were at the forefront to reconsider the use of tram as an effective planning tool to stimulate aglobai project for public space.

The international magazine Tramways and Urban Transit is also full of testimony works on how the development of innovative modem rail-powered transport networks has positively influenced an energy-efficient local economy, strengthened the market place of city centre area and supported a coherent management use of public space. This dedicated light-rail journal provides a wide coverage of experiences worldwide and manifestly supports the idea that tram should be a key feature of planning for transport in city. The variety of contexts reviewed by Wansbeek in this journalover the last decade shows the extent to which tram is getting to dominate public transport and to be established as a key element in planning for future development.

Oran Tramway, a Project for Sustainable Development

For many years now, Oran the second largest city of Aigeria has been enduring crucial problems oftraffic congestion and pollution, mainly in its historie central area (Rahal, 2008). Parking space available is no longer adequate to support the spectacular increase in car use. Besides, existing bus transport network can hardly respond to the growing need for mobility. By 2015, trafiic flow is expected to double on main bus lines leading to city centre.

According to a feasibility study commissioned by local transport authority, the constraints due to daily displacement of population would exacerbate in near future putting tremendous pressure on city centre area. T 0 tackte this problem, the study recommended the planning of a comprehensive approach of city transport with an emphasis on new tram and performing bus service as weil as reduction of car access to city centre with provision of suft1cient car parking outside this area (lNGEROP, 2005).

Following this study, the works on tram began in October 2008 and are due to finish in 2011. The tram corridor will evolve on a main bidirectionalline of over 18 km serving 32 stations, from south end town of Es-Senia to east end residential and university neighbourhoods, through city centre. Building work of platforms is speeding up and tram sets and equipment, already delivered, have been displayed recently to public (figures 1-3).

241 Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

Figure 1: Oran tram pathway from southem to eastem suburbia Source INGEROP

Secteur PI ace du ler Novembre· 2 "me boulevard peripherique Planche 2

Figure 2: Oran tram route through main arteries of city centre Source: INGEROP

242 Samira Gald

Figure 3: Work on platforms near university campus & Dran elTADIS vehicle

The consortium TRAMNOCR of French supplier ALSTOM and Spanish groups CORSAN and ISOLUX, to which project was tendered is solicited to achieve a sustainable mass transport facility in a relatively short time. This means the supply of durable public space in which old road infrastructure should be renovated and urban surroundings embellished. To meet contract deadline of 26 months, TRAMNOCR is hasting the displacement of energy, water and sewage infrastructure with consequent demolition of entire road sections and sidewalks. The immediate impact of this is a marked reduetion of access to street network, mainly for ear users. But as the building site is proliferating alt over city, alt eitizens seem to be affected by the projeet. Not only car users are protesting, residents and commercial activity tenants are equally irritated and repeatedly complaining about eoncomitant work on major paths of city movement. Despite the late attempts of TRAMNOUR for better communication, the community perception of tram scheme is that of a lengthy and chaotic project which causes great disturbances all over the city.

Having said that, one must agree that upcoming benefits would largely dismiss current nuisances as new tram is a top-quality ALSTOM renowned facility. ALSTOM, a global leader in terms of innovation in power generation and rail infrastrueture, defines itself as a committed and responsible company working for clean energy and sustainable mobility (Alstom, 2009). lt sets the benchmark for environmental friendly tramway solutions, mainly with its CIT ADIS tram set system. This light rail component is considered as a high-level technical solution to overcome noise pollution and gas emission problems in urban environments. lt has been adopted in many eities where ear tratfie problems were critieal and eompelled the development of alternative mass transport system. Likewise these eities, Dran tramway will undeniably go to repeal tratfie eongestion in city eentre and eontribute a great deal to the emergence of a cleaner urban environment. Onee operating, the 30 CIT ADIS modules of Oran tramway will transport up to 88.5 million passengers per year with a noise level five-times lesser than that of aetual ear tratfic.

The CITADIS i5 a low-floor tram built by ALSTOM near La Rochelle, Franee. It i8 a model based on standard eomponents designed to allow the supply of

243

4

Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

specific tramway solutions for each network. Like most trams, CITADIS vehicles are usuaUy powered by overhead electric wires (third rail), thus appealing as advanced clean-energy transport devices. Over 1.100 CITADIS units are currently in use in 28 cities, covering many areas of the world from Europe to Maghreb and from Australia to Latin America. The 600 CITADIS tramways operating worldwide are totaling the transport of 1.2 billion passengers per year in major core areas of dynamic cities Iike Barcelona, Brazil, Dubai, Dublin, Paris, Melbourne, Rotterdam, Strasbourg, etc. At present, ALSTOM provides the largest CITADIS fleet in France, and the stakes are high for Maghreb, given the implementation of 6 important tram projects in major cities of Algiers, Casablanea, Constantine, Oran, Rabat and Tunis.

The Prospect for Urban Renewal

The tramway system is the baekbone of publie transport in many historie areas. In Western Europe, it has become the subjeet of «new desire» mainly to enhanee the quality of transport in city centre. Beyond its impact of immediate reduction of ear use, the expected «urban effects» on city life vary as much as the tramline itself is giving opportunity for valuing economic, social or environmental assets.

The assumption that tramway can contribute to the emergence of sustainable city is widely reviewed in literature but little evidence has been made as regards the overall effects of tramway supply on urban renewaL Stambouli (2007) attempted to identify the sustainable city project in three main French cities pioneering the use of modem tramways. Drawing upon various eeonomic, social and environmental regeneration issues, his study demonstrates the scope for an overall impact on urban space in relation to the development of a modem tramway line. He recognizes that these effects can be visible in complex areas of real estate, demand upon trade and services, energy use, nuisances, landscape, and safety issues of urban fabric.

A great number of technical reports are now referring to scientific evidence of impact of tram/ light-rail schemes on regeneration of key development sites along tram routes. The focus is usually on documenting potential increase of commercial and property value and reversal of economic decline. These issues are usually intended to aid decision makers to envisage implementing or expanding the tram perimeter.

The DTZ report on the London Tram (2002) is an exemplary assessment tool to anticipate future urban values in Central and inner London. lt outlines major trends and achievements that can be brought about by investment in tram. Raising redevelopment of sites in the tram corridor and sub sequent job creation along with enhanced patterns for property and rental value were leitmotivs to support the Mayor's London regeneration plan.

244 Samira Gard

5 Public Space and Heritage in Perspective

Oran is a leading economic and academic town in Algeria with a prominent history in urban development. As such, its context is appropriate to re-invent the use ofurban space and value its distinctive city eentre heritage.

The tram project, a reminiseence of its past history in responsive urban transport, can be an opportunity to experience city life in a new way, a balance between the need for mobility and the comfort of discovering its unique European architectural heritage.

The use of electric tram in Oran dates back to late 19th century when the city was developing in an unprecedented pace. The eolonial town was then completed in shape with major publie places, streets and monuments (figure 4). The French urban heritage of city centre is remarkable but the signs of overall neglect are patent. Whereas public space is largely squatter red by illicit activity and parking, the arehitecture of aging buildings is being dramatically transformed and tom down (Kettaf & GaYd, 20(7).

With the achievement of additional work to upgrade public space along tram pathway, one can expects to see an enhancement of the image of urban landscape and heritage on the whole (figure 5). For the moment, local authorities are deploying great efforts to schedule several new projects to rehabilitate major fragments of colonial architeeture and promise to tackle further problems of decline in the built environment. In parallel to the progress of tram project, the city is committing itself into the embellishment of city centre and the rehabilitation of 400 buildings along main arteries.

Since its inception, the tramway project has been presented as a key element of a greater public approach towards the improvement of decaying city cemre area. The formal terms of such approach are yet to be defined. However, the announcement of forthcoming renovation work of city fayades, public lighting and greening of space can give core to a sustainable practice of urban development.

In Algeria, despite existing multi-agent managerial framework and rising funds for urban development, the scope for inner city renovation is yet restrained by short view upon the immediate benefits of investment in declining areas.

The necessity for a global approach is here asserted and consideration of the environment should become a fuH and complete parameter in the long term efficiency of a city centre, giving a real sense to the idea of a sustainable city.

245

6

Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

Figure 4: Views of old times of electric tramways in central place ofDran Source: PRDDIG

Figure 5: Proposals to upgrade public space and heritage in central place Source: INGERDP

Convention & Exhibition Centre, a New Landscape for City

The new Dran convention and exhibition center i8 established, developed and owned by SONA TRACH, the national fore most important company in the leading sector of oil and gas industry. This purpose-built facility has been designed to accommodate the specific needs ofthe LNG16 conference (l6th edition ofworld congress on liquefied natural gas) but it is also intended for challenging new opportunities of fair-trade, hotel activity and public meetings in near future. The preparation for this upcoming event which took place in Dran in mid-April 2010 has revealed immense shortages in the ability of the city to cater for over 3000 participants in terms of high-quality meeting, fair-trade and exhibition space as well as hotel building. Tbe decision to fund and develop a wholesome project was quite inevitable for SONATRACH since local authority would not be able to dispose of sufficient resources to manage building an adequate facility for conference venue on time. The development of the project was assigned to DHL (Dbrascon Huarte Lain), a Spanish group highly known for achievement of major building work in Barcelona from the celebrated Akbar tower to the outstanding international convention and exhibition center. In Dran, DHL building work of convention center is on turnkey basis. lt was launched just two years ago and is now near completion. The project is an inedited practice of large-scale urban development in the city involving an industrial group.

Samira Gai'd

In recent years, the organisation of some important international and domestic events in Oran (OPEC summit, Arab cinema festival) has provided evidence of the need to develop convenient facilities in the city centre. More importantly, it has shown the growing interest to imply varied actors in the practice ofurban project at large scale. With regard to its action, SONATRACH is perceptibly yearning to affiliate itself as a major stakeholder in city development. In the process of building its new convention facility, this company had to alleviate many problems and to support financing additional works to upgrade public service infrastmcture and outdoor space in the city. To be able to cater for over 3000 attendees, it had to hire two luxury cruise boats from a Spanish navigation company. These were located in a newly renovated set in city port during conference. Financial support of SONATRACH was in this context determinant to carry out renovation work. The company had also to finance major building works to upgrade airport arrival terminal.

7 Seafront Development, a Re-conquest ofWasteland in City

The LNG conference is a global meeting of established experts on energy issues and major companies involved in the gas industry. It i5 held every three years alternatively between producer and consumer countries. As the conference venue in any host city is meant to be attractive to participants, the location and the architectural setting of convention and exhibition place are always likely to be outstanding a great deal. The former 15 th LNG edition took place in Barcelona

14thconvention centre BCCI and the in Doha. The events were then an opportunity to promote the cities images and their celebrated places and achievements in architecture and urban design.

With the LNG 16 conference, Oran is expected to take the lead in Aigeria and uphold itself as a city dedicated to international events. In its LNG news letter, SONATRACH (LNG, 2008) emphasizes the role of the event to promote the city image and the statement of city prefect (county chief executive) is there to assert the significance of urban project to sustain city-wide development action. Recurrent echoes to event in local press and in work of various associated groups also demonstrate the engagement of upholding the dynamic of event activity in the city.

Located on a headland overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, the Oran Convention and Exhibition Centre is an iconic feature of the city to match it8 international status. It offers services to the highest international standards and makes good integration of its natural surroundings. 1t i8 a modern complex conveniently located just minutes from Oran old city centre and port with easy access to major roads. Key features include a 3,000 seat auditorium, two 500 seat breakout rooms and twenty meeting rooms. The exhibition hall provides 20,000 square meters of exhibition space and there are dining facilities to accommodate 2,000 delegates. A 300 room five star hotel is also incorporated into the project (figure 6).

247 Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

Figure 6: Building site of Oran Convention & Exhibition Centre

Source: author

Seafront identity and memory of piace is a clear thought of actual design. However, the scale of introverted project cannot make visual connections with surrounding residential context. The design pattern integrates the environment dimension by emphasising the role of seascape and vistas opened to natural surroundings but from within enclosed place. A monumental open space indoors, in between auditorium and exhibition hall, is created for public walk in front of sea panorama. It looks like areminiscent of Arab house court yard with planting, water fountain and ornament. The architecture is a modem one with subtle reference to Moorish style (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9-hPGxplxtJ).

]n Oran, the re-conquest of seafront (front-de-mer) wastelands has often privileged the past history of a city which had gradually cut itself off trom the port by moving further away or by creating frontiers. With the return of the seafront towards the city that is nowadays being engaged, one can sees that a new regard towards the active sea land is being born. Environmental constraints certainly compel the seafront to a bett er insertion in its natural and urban surroundings, but the integration of its installations, of its activities, and of its aesthetics is becoming a common concern starting the return of the seafront in the daily landscape ofthe city.

Building next to seashore is becoming a central attraction of many real estate developers in Oran and the city is driving to emphasize water bay development. The natural environment assets are re-discovered but the threats to overuse land «next to sea» are nonetheless putting risk on built environment.

With regard to these trends, one can observe that a project-based approach is taking place instead of the normative master planning considered ineffective to deal with urban development constraints and opportunities. This approach has been broadly explored in literature and the recognition of its value over traditional planning is now largely admitted in the advent of sustainabJe city (Meijsmans, 2007).

248 Samira Gai'd

8 The Course for Sustainability in Latest Development Projects

Even though the context of new projects is beneficial for the city, it seems that public management of projects is obeying to short-term vision of development. The fate of tumkey option recalls past history of heavy-cost urban projects buiit in flourishing economic times and without sight upon crucial role of skilIed management resources. Unless this issue is taken seriously, the problems of urban developmcm could remain unresolved for a long time.

The momentum for urban change in the city of Dran, implied by direct involvement of SONATRACH, demonstrates the ability of private interest groups to invest public realm efficiently. To respond to its demand for better sight of project opportunity, this company is challenging local authorities to renew their vision of management. The multiple initiatives of SONATRACH were intended to propel the city image prior to LNG conference. The achievement of its convention mega-project and the substantial funding of major building work throughout the city is making real prospect to value Dran entire urban space.

The shortfalls of local administration in Dran are well-known. However, the inclination of both city and county executives to contribute significantly to urban renewal is also making opportunity for the emergence of resourceful public agents. This is a necessary step towards sustainable urban development. In the last few months, some successful initiatives to protect and embellish the city centre area have been taken and are Iikely to give scope for new course of action towards the conservation of historic sites and monuments. Taking advantage of upcoming events, city hall and county executives are widely involved in the advancement of such improvement projects.

While the city mayor, a personality highly concemed to preserve local heritage, is perceptibly eager to endow the city with efficient management body as to sustain conservation, the county decision makers seem often prompt to start on new projects as to enable urban change city-wide. Early this year, a city hall executive committee of 5 members freshly installed has been assigned to think and implement a comprehensive plan of action to value city centre assets. [t is too early to assess the effectiveness of such body but the evidence is that any work team should be allocated sufficient resources and prerogatives to undertake appropriate urban regeneration projects.

9 Conclusion

The projects and analyses presented in this paper show that sustainable development can happen and that reversal of urban planning practice should be primarily attained by a focus on city centre renewal issues. In spite of lack of know-how in sustainable management, local authorities are showing evidence of their ability to adapt to rising demand for city improvement.

249 Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development

At the moment when the determination of new developers is being manifest to go on with their projects, and whatever may be their engagements in terms of sustainability, it is now a necessity shared by all stakeholders of the city that of becoming aitogether engaged towards ever greener urban environments and city transport. It is this rise in engagement that should be testified to in planning policy as a whole and in support of wide improvement action towards community with which the city is associated.

References

Alstom Transport. (2007). Alstom to supply Citadis tramways to the cities of Oran and Constantine in Algeria. Press release, 13 November.

Alstom. (2009). Activity and corporate responsibility: Report 2008 109.

Banister, D. (2005). Unsustainable transport: city transport in the new century. Abingdon: Routledge.

Banister, D. & Button, K. 1. (Eds) (2003). Transport, the environment and sustainable development. First edition 1993, London: Spon Press.

DTZ Pieda Consulting. (2002). The London Tram Economic Impact Assessment. Final report.

Goodwin, P. (2007). Effectiveness in transport policies in reducing car travel. In: Gäriing, T. and Steg, L. (Eds) Threats from Car Trafik to the Quality of Urban Life. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 401-424.

Goodwin, P. and Noland, R. (2003). Building new roads really does create extra traffic: a response to Prakash et aL, Applied Economics, 35, pp. 1451­1457.

Himanen, V. Perrels, A. & Lee-Gosselin, M. (2008). Building Blocks for Sustainable Transport: Obstacles, Trends, Solutions. Bingley: Emerald.

INGEROP. (2005). Etude portant schema directeur de transports urbains et faisabilite du tramway de "agglomeration oranaise. Document de synthese.

Kettaf, F., & Gai'd, S. (2007). Public Spaces in Oran and Sense ofPlace. In: EIQawasmi, 1., Mahmoud, A, Djerbi, A. (Ed.) Regional Architecture and Identity in the Age ofGlobalisation, Voume3/3, pp. 1373-1383. Amman: CSAAR Press.

Laisney, F. (2001). Espaces publics : une culture de la resistance al'automobile / Public Spaces : a Resistance Culture to the Car. In: Geocarrefour. L'espace public. Vol. 76 nOl, pp. 39-45.

LNG 16. (2008). Newsletter no 2. October.

MATE "Ministere de l'Amenagement du Territoire et de I' Environnement". (2000). Rapport national sur l'etat et l'avenir de l'environnement RNE 2000.

Samira Gaid

Meijsmans, N. (2007). Exploring a projeet-based approach to the urban region. ENHR 2007 International Conferenee 'Sustainable Urban Areas'. June 25-28, Rotterdam.

OHL Group Profile. (2008). Our challenge i8 to ereate value by building a sustainable environment. Sustainable Development Report.

Rahal, F., Benharat, N., & Baba·Hamed, F-Z. (2008). Les effets de la cireulation automobile et de la morphologie urbaine sur la pollution atmospherique dans la ville d'Oran. Colloque international AUDD «Amenagement Urbain et Dcveloppement Durable», Oran.

Sloman, L., Cairns, S., Newson, c., Anable,.I., Pridmore, A. & Goodwin, P. (2010). The Effeets of Smartcr Choiec Programmes in thc Sustainablc Travel Towns: Summary Report. London: Department for Transport.

Stambouli, .I. (2007). Les territoircs du tramway modernc : de la Iigne ala ville durable. Developpement durable et territoires [online publieation]. Dossier 4 : La ville ct I'enjeu du Dcvcloppement Durable.

URL: http://developpementdurable.revues.org/index3579.html

Terry, F. (2004). Turning the corner? A Reader in Contemporary Transport Poliey. Oxford: Blaekwelll Publishing.

Tramways and Urban Transit. URL: http://www.lrta.info/magIO.html

Vigar, G. (2002). The PoEties ofMobility: Transport, the Environment, and Publie Poliey. London: Spon Press.

Wansbeek, C,J. (1999-2010). A great number of articles published in Tramways and Urban Transit.