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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ADVISORY NOTES

FOR PRIORITY DEVELOPMENT SECTORS

IN BOTSWANA

Mining, Agriculture, Energy, Tourism and Water

17 July 2015

Environment and Development Services – International, UK

and

The Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment, Namibia

in association with UNDP-Botswana

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ADVISORY NOTES FOR PRIORITY

DEVELOPMENT SECTORS

IN BOTSWANA

Mining, Agriculture, Tourism, Energy and Water

By

Barry Dalal-Clayton

Environment and Development Services – International

www.eds-international.org

and

Peter Tarr

Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment

www.saiea.com

http://www.eds-international.org/

http://www.saiea.com/

1

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements and caveats 4

Acronyms and abbreviations 5

Executive summary 7

1 Introduction 11

1.1 Background

1.1.1 Anchoring the Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11 on sustainable

development principles and goals 11

1.1.2 Progress towards mainstreaming sustainable development and new

challenges 12

1.1.3 Realising the post-2015 Framework in Botswana 12

1.1.4 Aim of this report 13

1.2 What is sustainable development? 13

1.3 What is sustainability appraisal and methodology 15

1.3.1 Schedule of steps followed in this study/process 17

2 Mining sector 22

2.1 Baseline situation in the mining sector

2.1.1 Relative importance to economy and national development 22

2.1.2 Policy and legislative framework 22

2.1.3 Institutional framework 22

2.1.4 Mineral resources 23

2.1.5 Prospecting and mining trends 24

2.1.6 Existing environmental impacts 25

2.2 Development scenarios for the mining sector 26

2.2.1 Scenario summary 28

2.3 Sustainability appraisal of the mining sector 29

2.3.1 Selection of activities for appraisal 29

2.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the mining sector 30

2.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activity 32

2.4 Conclusions and implications for national planning 34

3 Agriculture sector 36

3.1 Baseline situation in the agriculture sector 36

3.1.1 Relative importance to the economy and national development 36

3.1.2 Livestock production 36

3.1.3 Arable agriculture 38



3.1.6 Sustainability issues in the agricultural sector 41

3.2 Development scenarios for the agriculture sector 41


3.3 Sustainability appraisal of the agriculture sector 46


3.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the agriculture sector 47

3.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activities 49


2

4 Energy sector 56

4.1 Baseline situation in the energy sector 56



4.1.3 Institutional arrangements 56

4.1.4 Energy resources and products 57

4.1.5 Access to energy 61

4.1.6 Energy consumption 61

4.1.7 Power infrastructure 62

4.1.8 Sustainability implications 62

4.2 Development scenarios for the energy sector 63


4.3 Sustainability appraisal of the energy sector 66


4.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the energy sector 67



5 Tourism sector 75

5.1 Baseline situation in the tourism sector 75




5.1.4 Main resources and sector products 78

5.1.5 Sustainability issues 78

5.2 Development scenarios for the tourism sector 80


5.3 Sustainability appraisal of the tourism sector 85


5.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the tourism sector 86



6 Water sector 95

6.1 Baseline situation in the water sector 95



6.1.4 Main water resources and sector products 96

6.1.5 Sustainability issues 100

6.2 Development scenarios for the water sector 104


6.3 Sustainability appraisal of the water sector 108


6.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the water sector 108

6.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activity 110


7 Cross sector linkages and cross-cutting issues 116

7.1 Cross-sector linkages 116

7.2 Cross-cutting issues 120

7.2.1 Infrastructure 120

7.2.2 HIV and AIDS 122

7.2.3 Rural policies 123

7.2.4 Land tenure 124

7.2.5 Transboundary issues 124

3

8 Conclusions and recommendations 126

References 132

Appendices 134

1 Lists of participants in scenario workshops 135

2 Lists of participants in sustainability appraisal workshops 136

3 Baseline information for the mining sector 138

4 Baseline information for the agriculture sector 141

5 Baseline information for the energy sector 143

6 Baseline information for the tourism sector 148

7 Baseline information for the water sector 154

8 Supplementary information on Botswana’s infrastructure 162

9 Definitions of terms 166

4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND CAVEATS

This volume of Advisory Notes is one of the products of a programme of support by UNDP-Botswana

to the Government of Botswana to integrate sustainable development into the process of developing

Botswana’s Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11.

It has been prepared by Professor Barry Dalal-Clayton, Environment and Development Services –

International, UK, and Dr Peter Tarr, Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment,

Namibia.

Guidance and inputs were provided by Dr Muyeye Chambwera, UNDP-Botswana, and by Ms Tsalano

Kedikilwe, Department of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism,

Namibia.

Helpful support throughout the process of desk research and workshops leading to preparing these

Advisory Notes was provided by Kudzani Koketso, UNDP intern.

The source of all data provided in this report is indicated in the text, eg as published documents,

unpublished information provided by government officials or online resources (url links are given).

For some of the figures indicated in the sector scenarios (in chapters 2-6), where reliable data were

not available, we have used guesstimates based on expert opinion given during scenario and

sustainability appraisal workshops.

5

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ARAP Advanced Rainfed Arable Programme

ALDEP Arable Lands Development Programme

BAMB Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board

B&B Bed and breakfast

BD Biodiversity

BECS Botswana Ecotourism Certification System

BEWRA Botswana Energy and Water Regulatory Agency

BMC Botswana Meat Commission

BOS Bureau of Standards

BPC Botswana Power Corporation

BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa

BWP Botswana Pula

CA Conservation agriculture

CBNRM Community-based natural resource management

CBM Coal bed methane

CLF Coal to liquids facility

CSR Corporate social responsibility

DEA Department of Environmental Affairs, Botswana

DDP District Development Plan

DGS Department of Geological Survey

DMS Department of Meteorological Services

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

DWA Department of Water Affairs

DWMPC Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control

EA Environmental assessment

EDS Environment and Development Services - International

EIA Environmental impact assessment

EMP Environmental management plan

EPA Economic Partnership Agreement

ESMP Environmental and Social Management Plan

EU European Union

FDI Foreign direct investment

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

Forex Foreign exchange

GDP Gross domestic product

GDSA Gaborone Declaration for Sustainability in Africa

GEF Global Environment Facility

GoB Government of Botswana

gt Giga tonne

Gwh Giga Watt Hour

ha Hectare

HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus / Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

HWC Human-wildlife conflict

ICMM International Council for Mining and Minerals

ILM Integrated land management

IPP Independent power producer

IRM Integrated rangeland management

IRR Internal rate of return

ISPAAD Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development

IWRM Integrated water resources management

KAZA Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area

LIMCOM Limpopo Watercourse Commission

LIMID Livestock management and infrastructure development

LPG Liquified petroleum gas

mcts million carats

M&E Monitoring and evaluation

MDGs Millennium development goals

MEWT Ministry of Environment Wildlife and Tourism, Botswana

http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/ecoCertIntro.php

6

MFDP Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, Botswana

MIC Middle income country

MICE Meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions

MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, Botswana

MMEWR Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources, Botswana

MoA Ministry of Agriculture, Botswana

MSW Municipal solid waste

mtpa million tonnes per annum

mt/yr million tonnes per year

MW Mega Watt

NAMPADD National Master Plan for Agricultural and Dairy Development

NDP National Development Plan

NGO Non-governmental organisation

NOAA National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, USA

NSC North-South Carrier

NSO National Strategy Office, Botswana

OKACOM Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission

ORASECOM Orange-Senqu River Commission

OUZIT Upper Zambezi International Tourism Initiative

PPP Policy, plan or programme

pppd per person per day

R&D Research and development

RBO River basin organisation

RETOSA Regional Tourism Organisation of Southern Africa

RSA Republic of South Africa

RSAP-IWRM Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Development

and Management

SA Sustainability appraisal

SACU South African Customs Union

SADC Southern African Development Community

SAIEA Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment

SAPP Southern African Power Pool

SDGs Sustainable development goals

SEA Strategic environmental assessment

SME Small and medium-sized enterprise

SOE State-owned enterprise

STD Sexually transmitted disease

TDS Total dissolved solids

TFCA Transfrontier conservation areas

TKR Trans Kalahari railway

TWG Thematic working group

UDP Urban development plan

UHT Ultra high temperature

UNDP-Botswana UN Development Programme, Botswana

USA United States of America

VFR Visiting friends and relatives

WAP Water Apportionment Board, Botswana

WAVES Wealth accounting and the valuation of ecosystem services

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

WHO World Health Organisation

WTO World Toilet Organisation

WUC Water Utilities Corporation

ZAMCOM Zambezi Watercourse Commission

7

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

UNDP-Botswana is supporting the Government of Botswana to integrate sustainable development

into the process of developing Botswana’s Vision Beyond 2016 and Eleventh National Development

Plan (NDP11). This report presents a technical appraisal of the sustainable development elements and

interactions of five priority sectors that are likely to be central to the new Vision (which will guide the

orientation of NDP11), and determine how they are likely to contribute to the goal of sustainable

development and achievement of Vision priorities. The five sectors addressed include: mining,

agriculture, energy, tourism and water.

Chapter 1 is an introduction providing a background to Botswana’s processes to develop a new

national Vision and NDP11 and how UNDP-Botswana is helping to anchor these instruments on

sustainable development goals and principles. It discusses some of the challenges of mainstreaming

sustainable development and realising the UN’s Post-2015 Framework in Botswana. Some progress

has already been made, particularly through government’s commitment to making sustainable

development a leading goal and foundation of NDP11. But this commitment also needs to be reflected

as an umbrella goal of the new Vision. Of particular note is Botswana’s selection to spearhead

implementation of the Gaborone Declaration for Sustainability in Africa (GDSA). An outline is

provided of the concept of sustainable development and a discussion of the aims of sustainability

appraisal. In this report, sustainability appraisal is used to mean a planning and decision support tool

to analyse the social, economic, environmental and governance dimensions of development in an

integrated manner to inform the formulation of policies, programmes and plans and the development

projects that may flow from them. The steps followed included:

Desk analysis for each sector focused on policies/regulations and their key thrusts and

requirements, and identification of key baseline data sourced from available documents – to

produce sector baseline profiles.

Analysis of the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision Beyond 2016 (version dated 27

October 2014) to identify objectives, strategies, key goals and initiatives envisaged for each of the

five priority sectors.

Facilitated scenario workshops involving invited experts to develop scenarios (baseline; low

growth or business-as-usual; and high growth) to illustrate how each sector might play out over

the forthcoming decade and the likely key thrusts, developments/initiatives or projects.

Facilitated sustainability appraisal workshops involving invited experts.

Synthesis and preparation of final report.

Workshop participants, attending in their personal capacity as sector experts, were drawn from

members of Thematic Working Groups as well as the agencies/ministries leading the Vision and

NDP11/DDP4/UDP8 processes at national and district level (National Strategy Office, Ministry of

Finance and Development Planning and Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development), the

private sector, academia and NGOs.

Chapters 2 - 6 address the five priority sectors, respectively: mining, agriculture, energy, tourism and

water. Each chapter follows an identical format with sections discussing: the baseline situation,

development scenarios, a sustainability appraisal of the sector, and conclusions and implications for

national planning.

The baselines profiles describe a range of factors for each sector: the relative importance of the sector

to the economy and national development; policy, legislative and institutional frameworks; the main

resources, products, activities and infrastructure; key sustainability issues; and key statistics.

8

Scenarios are developed for each sector. First, the factors currently driving or likely to drive the

sector in the future are discussed. Then three scenarios are presented for each sector in tabular format,

with assumptions set out:

Baseline scenario (the current situation) – drawing from the baseline profile;

Business as usual scenario – essentially organic growth extrapolating current plans and

trends (i.e. things in the pipeline or likely to happen anyway over the next six years);

High growth scenario – the goal of the draft Vision - identifying how projects and other

activities in the sector are likely to play out over the next 10 years, the reasons, how such

growth can be achieved, and what factors may enhance or impede it.

The scenarios are presented as bulleted factors which can be compared under each scenario column.

Drawing from the baseline profile and scenarios, the main projects and other activities likely to be

implemented over the next 10 years in the sector are listed and, from these, a limited number selected

by workshop participants are then subjected to sustainability appraisal. An overall perspective of the

sustainability of the sector is provided, followed by a sustainability appraisal in tabular format. The

tables analyse how the selected projects and activities are likely to contribute to, or impede, achieving

the goals of the four TWG themes (economy and employment; social upliftment; environment; and

governance, safety and security) . In practice, these themes represent the pillars of sustainable

development. The analysis is presented in bullet format indicating both the positive and negative

impacts of each project or activity on these pillars/themes, and how to either enhance or mitigate

them, respectively. For each sector appraisal, an ‘on balance’ perspective summarises the key pros

and cons of the appraised activities. In addition, the key assumptions are indicated –factors it is

assumed will pertain and that are needed to achieve a high-growth scenario for Botswana (as

envisaged in the draft Vision Framework); and the main risks are listed – those that might impede the

listed assumptions or the achievement of high growth. The key synergies and antagonisms within and

between sectors are also discussed.

Chapter 7 deals with cross-sector linkages and cross-cutting issues, including infrastructure, HIV

and AIDS, rural policies, land tenure and transboundary issues. In planning for, and investing in,

Botswana’s future development, it will be important to identify these linkages between sectors to help

indicate where there is a need to work together to, for example:

promote and enhance outcomes beneficial to linked sectors;

avoid or minimise developments in a sector that could impact negatively on other sectors or

inadvertently undermine or impede development policies or initiatives in other sectors;

analyse issues of mutual concern;

address common or interacting concerns;

jointly promote solutions to challenges;

engage in integrated planning.

The report highlights a number of institutional shortcomings in the current arrangements, which

include:

gaps and overlaps in environmental policy formulation;

inadequate coordination , integration of activities and appropriate land use zonation (so there is a

need for consistent policies, planning, implementation and monitoring) (Box 7.1);

limited monitoring and response capability;

insufficient coordination;

lack of capacity to resolve differences; and

inadequate response capability.

Chapter 8 sets out a number of overall conclusions and makes some recommendations. Key ones

include:

A significant effort is need to raise awareness amongst stakeholders (government, private sector

and civil society) at all levels in Botswana about what sustainable development is, how it can be

9

realised, and the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders.

The new Vision and NDP11 will need to be linked effectively to the preparation of new district,

urban and village development plans as well as regional and local physical/spatial development

plans. The Vision should provide a platform for successive five-year national development plans

(NDPs) to set out medium-term actions to drive Botswana towards achieving its goals.

As Botswana seeks to move beyond Middle Income Country status, it will need to more directly

address poverty, social concerns and inequalities, create decent jobs and sustainable growth, and

put in place measures to counter environmental decline (loss of ecosystem services, biodiversity

and natural capital), and invest in sound environmental management. Meeting these challenges is

central to transitioning to sustainable development.

The Vision Beyond 2016 needs to place sustainable development at its core and as an umbrella

objective if it is to realise prosperity for all Botswana’s citizens. Furthermore, NDP11 really needs

to be positioned as a transitional NDP with budget resources allocated to undertake key processes

(eg undertaking sustainability assessments of major sectoral initiatives) and for establishing the

processes and institutional arrangements to promote sustainable development across government

and so as to engage the private sector and civil society in a partnership with government.

Botswana will need to consider how it might align its long-term aspirations (to be set out in

Vision Beyond 2016) and development frameworks with the new global framework being

developed for the medium- to long-term in order better to pursue a pathway towards sustainable

development, and how the new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) might be ‘domesticated’

in an appropriate and meaningful way to support development.

The development of a National Framework for Sustainable Development should be developed in

synergy with the new Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11, aiming to ensure sustainable development

is integrated fully in both processes and across sectors.

Highlight points for the five priority sectors include:

o Mining - proposed activities have significant environmental impacts (land degradation,

habitat alteration, biodiversity loss), and social impacts (community disruption, HIV and

AIDS) that need to be avoided and/or mitigated.

o Agriculture - makes a modest contribution to GDP but plays a vital role (particularly

subsistence agriculture) in underpinning rural livelihoods, providing food, income and

employment for the majority of the rural dwellers. It is highly vulnerable to climate

change and requires very careful planning. The proposal to develop large-scale irrigated

agriculture in north-east Botswana is likely to have significant negative consequences –

both social (e.g. involuntary resettlement, social disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS) and

environmental (e.g. habitat loss, wildlife displacement, pollution).

o Energy - Botswana needs to move to a more diverse energy mix, seeking a greater

contribution from, and a gradual transition to, renewable energy sources.

o Tourism - Botswana needs to improve standards, and upgrade and diversify products,

services and facilities to be competitive in the region and globally.

o Water - is critical to an arid country like Botswana. Surface water sources are essentially

limited to shared rivers and underground water sources are being over-extracted. Mining

and industrial developments will place added pressure on public water supply. Plans to

expand irrigation, whilst beneficial in terms of food security, are vulnerable to climate

variability and likely to result in a range of significant environment and social negative

impacts. Water saving should be the norm.

Independent sustainability assessments should be budgeted for and commissioned (using

Botswana’s strategic environmental assessment (SEA) regulations as the framework) for key

10

activities and initiatives in the priority sectors – to address cumulative impacts (positive ones – so

as to identify how best to enhance possible synergies; and negative ones – so as to maximise

efforts at mitigation), eg

o for clusters of mining developments;

o the NE area of Botswana near Pandamatenga where extensive new irrigation is planned;

o large-scale transboundary tourism initiatives (linked to transboundary conservation);

o the entire water sector – given that this resource is critical to Bostwana.

Other sections include references and several appendices: participants in workshops, supplementary

baseline information for each sector and on Botswana’s infrastructure, and definitions of terms used in

this report.

11

1: INTRODUCTION

1.1: Background

1.1.1 Anchoring the Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11 on sustainable development principles and

goals

UNDP is supporting the Government of Botswana to integrate sustainable development into the

process of developing Botswana’s Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11, effectively providing a bridge

between the two processes. The aim is to ensure that the new Vision is anchored on the principles of

development, and that sustainable development is the leading goal and foundation of NDP11,

enabling it to be the transitional process to a sustainable development pathway on which subsequent

NDPs will build.

This support commenced as part of the process of formulating Botswana’s National Strategy for

Sustainable Development, facilitated by the Ministry of Environment Wildlife and Tourism (MEWT),

which recognises the Vision and NDPs as critical frameworks for putting sustainability at the heart of

the country’s development. This led to technical activities intended to infuse sustainable development

into NDP11, including awareness- and capacity-building of the national and district level structures

involved in formulating the development plans. Specifically, a workshop for District Planners was

organised on 18-20 November 2014, and Technical Sessions were organised with each of the four

Thematic Working Groups (TWGs) and a cross-TWG session during 21-27 November 2014.

A new Vision post 2016 is now being developed, which will inform NDP11. A long term Vision that

sets and promotes sustainability at its core value will provide a framework that will enable NDP11

and future NDPs also to integrate sustainability as their leading goal and foundation.

To provide technical inputs on sustainable development into the Vision process, UNDP has provided

support for a process to appraise the sustainable development elements and interactions of key priority

sectors that are likely to be central to the new Vision (which will guide the orientation of NDP11), and

determine how they are likely to contribute to the goal of sustainable development and achievement of

Vision priorities. The steps in this process are described in Section 2.

When sustainable development is fully integrated as the underlying foundation and approach to

development in the new Vision, NDP11 and DDP8/UDP4, the uptake and implementation of the

National Framework and Strategy for Sustainable Development (currently being developed) will be

assured and will have broader impact on the quality of development.

Work related to this sustainability appraisal process has also been funded by UNDP with national

experts in key sectors, the government’s Thematic Working Groups (focused on: economy and

employment; social upliftment; environment; and governance, safety and security), and district/urban

planners. In this work, a consistent conclusion reached by all of these actors is that sustainable

development must be highly visible as a chapeau goal of both the vision and NDP11 if meaningful

progress is to be made in identifying and successfully implementing the right measures to achieve this

goal. For this reason, it is strongly argued that the overall goal of Vision Beyond 2016 must be more

than the laudable “prosperity for all” - as proposed in the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision

(version dated 27 October 2014). Rather the overall goal should be underpinned by “sustainable

development” for lasting prosperity across all generations.

Furthermore, achieving this objective and other aspirations of the Vision will require deliberative

action to also invest in sound environmental management, to ensure that ecological services and

natural capital are safeguarded. Sustainable development requires that environmental concerns, social

12

issues and economic growth are given equal consideration and balanced where possible; and where

balance is not possible, trade-offs between them will have to be negotiated and managed.

The draft Framework focuses on export-led growth and job creation and also envisages that a number

of priority development clusters (based on key sectors) will succeed on the basis of comparative

advantages in the regional and global context. A formulation that captures sustainability at the core of

the Vision would entail that the key drivers (the priority clusters and export-led growth) are pursued

in a sustainable manner. The draft Framework also proposes to manage trade-offs between income

and environment to achieve green growth (an element of sustainable development).

The priorities and key sectors selected for this initial suite of sustainability appraisals are mining,

agriculture, energy, tourism and water. As the Vision process proceeds and its contents and priorities

are articulated more clearly, additional sustainability appraisals could be undertaken.

1.1.2 Progress towards mainstreaming sustainable development and new challenges

Some progress has already been made. At the commencement of the NDP11 formulation process in

2014, the Initiating Note stated clearly that sustainable development would be its leading goal and

foundation. Botswana’s commitment to sustainable development is evident in a range of initiatives

that the country has pursued over many years. Of particular note is the country being selected to

spearhead implementation of the Gaborone Declaration for Sustainability in Africa (GDSA) (see:

http://www.gaboronedeclaration.com/) agreed by 10 Africa Heads of State in May 2012, and provide

a Secretariat for this purpose.

Botswana has an impressive history of development planning at national and local levels. The new

Vision and NDP11 will need to link effectively to the preparation of new district, urban and village

development plans as well as regional and local physical/spatial development plans. The country has

also followed prudent fiscal policies that have made wise use of revenues from a narrow natural

resource base to develop other sectors. All of these planning instruments and policies have supported

Botswana’s transition from a poor to an upper middle income country (MIC). They are also linked to

the country achieving global recognition for its good governance structures and utilisation of natural

capital to address poverty.

The challenge now is for Botswana to move beyond the MIC stage and, in the process, address

poverty, social concerns and inequalities, environmental decline (loss of ecosystems, habitats,

wildlife, land resources, etc.), and create decent jobs and sustainable growth. This challenge is central

to the concept of sustainable development, and can best be faced by taking a national development

approach that puts sustainability at the centre.

1.1.3 Realising the post-2015 Framework in Botswana

Whilst Botswana is charting its own future through a new Vision, the international community is also

in the process of shaping a new development agenda (the Post-2015 Framework) which will include

the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) being replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) at the end of 2015. Botswana is participating actively in this international process. Botswana

will need to consider how it might align its long-term aspirations and development frameworks with

the new global framework being developed for the medium- to long-term. This will enable it better to

pursue a pathway towards sustainable development, and address how the SGDs might be

‘domesticated’ in an appropriate and meaningful way to support development. In turn, this will make

it easier to implement and report on global requirements at the same time that the country is

implementing and reporting on its own development agenda. In other words, it will avoid the

duplication of efforts that often arise from parallel systems established to address local and

international requirements. It will also put Botswana at the forefront of the emerging post-2015

http://www.gaboronedeclaration.com/

13

development agenda so that, by the time the Post-2015 Framework is in place, Botswana will be well

placed to move forward quickly and effectively. Thus, as the Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11

processes progress, sustainable development issues and the Post-2015 Framework will be brought

clearly to the attention of a wider range of stakeholders in Botswana.

1.1.4 Aim of this report

This report sets out the rationale and approach for undertaking sustainability appraisals of (a) selected

key sectoral elements of the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision and of the activities it

advocates and (b) those activities which may be included in NDP11 (eg policy commitments,

development projects, institutional and regulatory arrangements, investments, etc.) or subsequent

NDPs. It analyses how these are likely to support or inhibit progress towards sustainable

development.

There is much mention of sustainable development in Botswana, and indeed in all countries, in

speeches, the media and documents. But it is evident that many people do not have a clear

understanding of what is meant by sustainable development or how it is relevant to their work,

responsibilities and lives. So the next section discusses the concept and its implications. It provides a

platform for section 1.3 which sets out what sustainability appraisal is and how it was carried out in

this exercise.

Overall, the report aims to act as a sourcebook or guide to addressing sustainable development for all

those agencies and individuals engaged in developing and implementing the Vision Beyond 2016,

NDP11 and subsequent National Development Plans, sector-based policies and plans, as well as

district development plans.

1.2 What is sustainable development?

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is

from Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development

(also known as the Brundtland report) WCED 1987):

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

It contains within it two key concepts:

the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding

priority should be given; and

the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the

environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system—a system that

connects both space and time: air pollution from South Africa affects air quality in Botswana; the

decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice

today; and economic policies endorsed today will impact on urban poverty in the future.

Quality of life is also a system, too. It's good to be physically healthy, but what if you are poor and

don't have access to education? It's good to have a secure income, but what if the air where you live is

unclean? And it's good to have freedom of religious expression, but what if you can't feed your

family?

14

The concept of sustainable development is rooted in this sort of systems thinking. It helps us

understand ourselves and our world. The problems we face are complex and serious—and we can't

address them in the same way we created them. But we can avoid them.

Under such systems thinking, sustainable development is often depicted as addressing three key

pillars of development: economic, social and environmental (and sometimes a fourth pillar for

governance or institutional arrangements) - balancing the objectives we set for each pillar, and where

such balance is not possible, negotiating trade-offs between them; and acting at multiple levels:

global, national and local (Figure 1.1). But there is a danger that the system will operate ineffectively

(as regards sustainability) - or even collapse - if we ignore one of the three key pillars (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.1: Sustainable development: interlocking objectives

Figure 1.2: Beware upsetting the balance

15

Sustainable development cannot be delivered by government alone. It will also require the active and

committed engagement of the private sector and civil society. Each will have a distinct role to play,

and each will need to understand and act on its responsibilities. Figure 1.3 illustrates how these actors

– the development triad – interact.

Figure 1.3: The development triad

1.3 What is sustainability appraisal and methodology

In this report, the term sustainability appraisal is used to mean a planning and decision support tool

used to analyse the social, economic, environmental and governance dimensions of development in an

integrated manner to inform the formulation of policies, programs and plans and the development

projects that may flow from them.

There is no single accepted international definition of sustainability appraisal or sustainability

assessment, and no common approach. The term is variously applied for both generic and specific

approaches. But it is particularly valuable when used as a mainstream tool to proactively assess the

impact of proposed actions. As a decision support tool, sustainability appraisal provides a means of

specific input and a potential vector for effecting longer term policy change (as well as informing the

wider discourse on critical issues). This ex ante approach is often undertaken through existing, formal

processes such as impact assessment or land use planning. It can be defined as any process that

provides for (a) some form of integrated analysis of the economic, environmental and social aspects

of development actions, and (b) an evaluation of their effects with regard to agreed aims, principles or

criteria of sustainable development (Dalal-Clayton and Sadler 2014).

Used in this way, sustainability appraisal (SA) has an important role in informing the Vision Beyond

2016 and NDP11 process, and helping to deliver more sustainable development outcomes. SA

provides a mechanism to indicate whether the key long-term focuses of the draft Framework for a

Long-Term Vision (particularly the priority sectors identified to drive development), and the goals set

for them, can be driven forward in a way that balances environmental, social and economic objectives

wherever possible; and to indicate whether there are likely synergies that can be built up (invested in)

16

to deliver sustainable development objectives more effectively. SA also aims to identify potential

antagonisms/conflicts between draft Vision goals so that they may be considered before finalising the

Vision, and to indicate where trade–offs between objectives will need to be addressed (negotiated). NDP11 and district and urban plans will be developed as the implementation mechanism for the

Vision. At these more specific and medium-term levels, SA enables the specific economic,

environmental and social aspects of development actions proposed in these plans to be assessed and

evaluated in terms of their likely contribution to sustainable development. Specifically, in the work

described in this report, SA has been used to test how the major activities or initiatives for priority

sectors – as indicated in the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision for Botswana (27 October

2015) or as identified during sector scenario workshops - are likely contribute to the four TWG

themes (themselves equivalent to the pillars of sustainable development).

Whilst having some aspects that are in common with EIA (ie identifying environmental impacts), SA

as applied in this report is quite different. It is not applied at the micro level of a specific project but at

a strategic and planning level (see Figure 1.4). Whilst some activities being proposed for NDP11 are

sometimes termed projects, they are, in practice, major strategic interventions, with considerable

spatial extent or likely to encompass multiple actions or activities. EIA focuses dominantly on

environmental issues and increasingly (as in Botswana) also covers social concerns, although they

tend to be addressed in parallel rather than being inter-linked. In comparison, sustainability appraisal

is, by definition, concerned with integrating social, economic, environmental and other (particularly

institutional and governance) concerns.

Figure 1.4: Hierarchy of Sustainability appraisal and EIA as applied in this case

The sustainability appraisal process reported here shows how the elements of the draft Framework for

a Long-Term Vision and anticipated NDP11 activities are likely to support or inhibit progress towards

sustainable development. It will help to ensure that the Vision is well founded and provides balanced

and integrated elements that can work together to drive sustainable development. But the work done

to date is not sufficient. The process to develop the Vision, NDP11 and district/urban plans will

require more effort to undertake a broader suite of focused SAs across all the elements of these

instruments, using similar integrated and interactive analyses and involving multi-stakeholder inputs.

Policy

Plan

Programme

Strategic-Level

Sustainability

Appraisal

Environmental

Impact Assessment Projects

17

1.3.1 Schedule of steps followed in this study/process

The draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision for Botswana (27 October 2015) envisages that five

priority sectors will underpin economic development over the coming 25 years: mining, agriculture

(particularly livestock), tourism, energy and water. This appraisal focuses on these sectors. But

ensuring sustainable development will require that many other aspects are also addressed, eg

production and consumption patterns, settlement patterns. The steps followed in this work were

aligned to the logic presented in the draft Framework for the Long Term Vision beyond 2016

(Figure.1.5)

Figure 1.5: Situating sustainable development appraisal in the Vision strategy and NDP11

development process

The process of undertaking this sustainability appraisal for the five key sectors involved the following

steps:

Dec 2014: Analysis of the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision for Botswana (version

dated 27 October 2014) to identify objectives, goals and projected development initiatives for the

five key sectors.

Dec 2014 – Jan 2015: Desk analysis for each sector focused on policies/regulations and their key

thrusts and requirements, and identification of key baseline data sourced from available

documents – to produce sector baseline profiles.

February 2015: Analysis the draft Vision Beyond 2016 (version dated 27 October) to identify the

key goals, objectives and initiatives set out for each sector.

2 - 6 February 2015: Facilitated scenario workshops (1 day per sector) involving invited experts

(from government, private sector, academia and NGOs) to develop scenarios (baseline; low

growth or business-as-usual; and high growth) to illustrate how each sector might play out over

18

the forthcoming decade and the likely key thrusts, developments/initiatives or projects. The main

elements of the scenarios for each sector are described later.

22-30 February 2015: Facilitated sustainability appraisal workshops (1 day per sector) involving

invited experts (from government, private sector, academia and NGOs) (the methodology is

elaborated below)

March-June 2015: Synthesis and preparation of final report.

For each scenario and SA workshop, invited experts participated in their personal capacity as sector

experts. They were drawn from members of Thematic Working Groups as well as the

agencies/ministries leading the Vision and NDP11/DDP4/UDP8 processes at national and district

levels (National Strategy Office, Ministry of Finance and Development Planning and Ministry of

Local Government and Rural Development), the private sector, academia and NGOs. Participants

attending the scenario and SA workshops are listed in Appendices 1 and 2, respectively.

Working group brainstorming on development linkages Sustainability appraisal workshop

The key tasks for the scenario and SA workshops are listed in Box 1.1

19

Box 1.1: Key tasks for scenario and sustainability appraisal workshops

Scenario workshops

Scenario planning (also called scenario thinking/analysis) is a method for thinking systematically about and

understanding the nature and impact of the most uncertain and important driving forces affecting our future. It

is a flexible and adaptable group process to encourage knowledge exchange and development of mutual

understanding of central issues important to sustainable development. As applied in the workshops,

participants undertook the following specific tasks:

1. Verification of baseline profiles (baseline scenarios).

2. Identification of the main external and internal (to Botswana) sector drivers - key factors likely to

influence or shape the development of the sector in the short-medium term, the associated forces and

dynamics, and any assumptions. The environmental, social, economic and other drivers were captured as

bullets (see, for example Tables 3.1 for mining and 3.1 for agriculture).

3. Assessment of how each priority sector is likely to play out over the next 10 years and what activities

(policy changes, plans, programmes or initiatives/projects) are proposed or likely to happen in order to

realise two scenarios:

(a) business as usual – essentially organic growth extrapolating current plans and trends (i.e. things in

the pipeline or likely to happen anyway)

(b) high growth – the goal of the draft Vision - identifying the reasons, how such growth can be

achieved, and what factors may enhance or impede it.

A range of assumptions that would characterise each scenario was identified (eg continuing peace and

stability, a particular policy fully implemented). The likely status of activities and developments for each

scenario were recorded in bullet format in analysis tables (eg number of mines, types/numbers of

infrastructure/businesses) with an indication of trend (eg factor increasing/decreasing or

improving/deteriorating) or change in dimension (eg estimated number, percentage increase). See, for

example, Tables 2.2 for mining and 3.2 for agriculture.

Sustainability appraisal workshops - at each sector workshop:

4. Review and of the sector scenario, development initiatives/activities associated with the scenario and

objectives/goals and projected initiatives identified for the sector in the draft Framework for a Long-Term

Vision for Botswana (27 October 2015); followed by selection of key activities (initiatives/projects) likely

to be implemented during next decade for subjecting to sustainability appraisal

5. Identification of key issues and criteria that may be significant in determining the contribution of activities

to the four TWG themes (economy and employment, social upliftment, environment, or governance,

safety and security) – these to be used as prompts during sustainability appraisal. The final set applied are

listed in Table 1.1.

6. Consideration of how the selected key activities are likely to play out over the next decade and assessment

of how they will contribute to the four TWG themes positively (and how to enhance this) or negatively

(and what mitigation measures are required); and identification of assumptions and risks.

7. Consideration of where there may be synergies between the activities likely to be undertaken by the sector

and those of other sectors (and how to enhance these); or where there may be antagonisms (and how to

limit/mitigate these).

8. Agreement on an ‘on balance’ perception of the sustainability of likely developments in the sector during

the next decade.

Table 1.2 shows the framework used for the above appraisal.

20

Table 1.1: Key considerations/issues for assessing the contribution of activities to TWG themes

TWG theme Key considerations/issues

Economy and

employment

• Profitability and economic viability (IRR more than 10%)

• Potential to encourage investment, technology transfer and innovation

• Potential to develop alternative sources of economic growth and promote

diversification

• Contribution to GDP (after considering full cost accounting)

• Contribution to import substitution [some antagonisms]

• Contribution to a competitive/efficient economy

• Contribution to inclusive (equitable) economic growth

• Potential to earn foreign exchange

• Contribution to export-led growth

• Potential to catalyse infrastructure development

• Productivity and technology innovation and transfer

• Potential to enhance private sector activity

• Potential to create employment – primarily for Batswana

• Generation of decent direct/indirect jobs (decent means: fair conditions,

reasonable pay and hours, social security, opportunity for growth, etc.);

• Generation of significant multiplier effects;

• Provision of opportunities for entrepreneurship.

• Contribution to a green economy approach

Social

upliftment

• Health (including in workplace), HIV/AIDS, life expectancy, and health service

delivery

• Skills and education, and opportunities for training

• Potential to contribute to corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities

• Contribution to poverty reduction

• Opportunities for gender inclusion

• Resettlement

• Social security and wellbeing

• Contribution to diversified livelihood options

• Access to services and amenities, including recreational opportunities

• Social disruption (eg resettlement)

• Social equity and individual/community identity and cohesion

• Contribution of local knowledge and societal values

• Contribution to social integrity (eg family unity)

• Potential to support social identity and engagement

• Consistency with upholding basic human rights

• Generates opportunities for youth employment and entrepreneurship

Environment • Carbon footprint (contribution to climate change) and potential to release greenhouse

gases

• Suitability/resilience with respect to climate variability/change

• Demand for water (from surface or groundwater sources); or potential to enhance

water security

• Pollution (of air, water or land)

• Land degradation (soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, etc)

• Important habitat/ecosystems or biodiversity

• Ecosystem services

• Efficiency of land or natural resource use

• Implementation of global environmental agreements (eg on climate, forests &

desertification) [and Gaborone Declaration = a cross-cut commitment/not just

environment]

Governance,

safety and

security

• Democracy, justice and the rule of law

• Self-reliance and unity

• Public participation in decision-making

• Equality and contribution to GINI coefficient (measures the degree of inequality in the

distribution of family income in a country)

21

• Intergenerational equity

• Transparency (including accountability), in governance and decision-making, public

participation (dialogue, negotiation and representation), and effective communication

• Strength of institutions

• International integration/cooperation with rest of world/neighbours

• Effectiveness and efficiency of implementing policies and programmes

• Food, water or energy security

• Monitoring and evaluation of progress

• Corruption

• Crime and conflicts, and safety and security

Table 1.2: Framework for sustainability appraisal

Activity:

On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons]

Synergies – within and between sectors:

Antagonisms - within and between sectors:

Assumptions & risks:

Economy & employment Social upliftment Environment Governance, safety &

security

Positive impacts

How to enhance

Positive impacts

How to enhance

Positive impacts

How to enhance

Positive impacts

How to enhance

Negative impacts

How to avoid/mitigate

Negative impacts


Negative impacts


Negative impacts


Notes to Framework

1. Activity: Developments that are proposed or likely to happen within the sector, eg implementation of policy

commitments, plans, programmes or initiatives/projects. Sector workshop participants identified the key

likely activities based on information in the sector baseline profiles and round table discussions. They

included activities identified in documents related to the Vision Beyond 2016 or NDP11 or that have been

suggested/proposed in sector policies, strategies and plans or by private developers/investors, or identified

by participants during the workshop. The list of activities generated was not exhaustive but covered the

main likely ones (see for example, section 2.3.1 for mining and 3.3.1 for agriculture). For each sector list, a

small number of activities were selected by group agreement to be subjected to sustainability appraisal –

based on what could realistically be dealt with in the available time, and to represent the main likely sector

developments. The aim of the appraisal was to be indicative and illustrate how the process works, and to

highlight key outcomes that are likely to determine sustainability. It must be acknowledged, therefore, that

more work of this nature will be required when developing the new Vision and NDP11 to complete the

process and provide a full appraisal for each sector.

2. On Balance perspective: An overall statement that summarises the key pros and cons of the appraised

activities in terms of their likely contribution to sustainable development. It provides the decision maker or

planner with an executive summary of the key points.

3. Assumptions and risks: Assumptions refer to conditions or situations that it is assumed will pertain that are

needed to achieve a high-growth scenario for Botswana (as envisaged in the draft Framework for a Long-

Term Vision). Risks are those that might impede the listed assumptions or the achievement of high growth.

4. The four themes (economy and employment; social upliftment; environment; governance, safety and

security): these are the focus of the Thematic Working Groups established by government and, in practice,

represent the pillars of sustainable development. 5. Completing the appraisals: Each sector SA table was populated during round table brainstorming by

annotating it on-screen, mainly in bullet format, with rolling editing to achieve consensus. Drafts of this

report were provided to all participants for feedback and correction.

22

2: MINING SECTOR

2.1 Baseline situation in the mining sector

2.1.1 Relative importance to economy and national development

The mining sector continues to be the backbone of Botswana’s economy, despite efforts to diversify.

It is still, by some measures, the largest contributor to gross domestic product (GDP), generates the

majority of export earnings, and makes a major contribution to government revenues:

o Mining % of GDP 25%

o Minerals % of government revenues 41%

o Minerals % of merchandise export revenues 86%

o Merchandise export revenues % GDP 41%

Government revenues from minerals appear to have peaked (relative to GDP and to overall revenues);

and, in the past two years, minerals have no longer been the largest contributor to government

revenues. The share of GDP contributed by the mining sector has been in decline, and - depending on

the measure used - may no longer be the largest economic sector. The main reasons for this declining

economic role are:

The diamond mining industry, which is the largest contributor to mining, has reached maturity;

production (in terms of carats) peaked in the mid-2000s and has since declined;

The global financial crisis of 2007–9 and its aftermath led to a sharp reduction in demand for

diamonds, lower prices for copper and nickel, and delays in some planned mining investments;

Economic diversification policies have succeeded, as a result of which the non-mining sector has

experienced rapid growth.

2.1.2 Policy and legislative framework

The GoBs main objective is to continue getting the maximum economic benefits from the mining and

minerals sector for the nation while enabling private investors to earn competitive returns.

Government policy encourages prospecting and new mine development, and it promotes opportunities

for linkages to the rest of the economy to expand value-added activities, especially through

downstream processing of minerals, where this is commercially viable (see Appendix 3, Table A3.1).

The Keynote Paper prepared for the Ninth National Development Plan (NDP9) identified the urgent

need for Botswana to develop environmental quality and emission standards, and NDP9 set this a task

under the Ministry of Health. Although, non-numerical air quality regulations are found in the

Atmospheric Pollution (Prevention) Act of 1998, it is expected that WHO standards for air quality

will be used as a reference until local standards are adopted. At present, Botswana also has no

numerical noise standards nor waste disposal standards. Again, it is expected that WHO standards

will be used as a reference until local standards are adopted – these were expected to be included in

the NDP10 process. Non-numerical waste disposal regulations are contained in the Waste

Management Act of 1998 and in the Guidelines for Disposal of Waste by Landfill (SAIEA 2011).

2.1.3 Institutional framework

The Ministry of Mineral Resources and Water Resources consists of five departments and

two divisions: Department of Water Affairs, Department of Mines, Department of Geological Survey,

Department of Ministry Management, Minerals Affairs Division and the Energy Division. The role of

this ministry is to promote, regulate and assist as well as collect, synthesise and disseminate mining

and mineral related information.

23

2.1.4 Mineral resources

Botswana currently produces the following major minerals: diamonds, copper, nickel, cobalt, soda

ash, salt, coal, gold and silver. Of these, diamond production is by far the most significant, both

domestically and globally, accounting for the bulk of value added by the mining sector and of mineral

export earnings.

Diamond production started in 1970, reaching a peak of 34 million carats (mcts) in 2006. Production

was cut back significantly (to 18 mcts) in 2009 during the global financial crisis, but has since

recovered somewhat and varied between 21 and 23 mcts during 2010-2012. Diamonds are produced

by two large mines (Jwaneng and Orapa) and three smaller mines (Letlhakane, Damtshaa and

Karowe, all located in the Orapa area) - all open pit operations. All mines, except for Karowe, are

operated by Debswana (a joint venture between the GoB and De Beers), while Karowe is operated by

Lucara Diamond Corporation. A new mine (Ghagoo) is due to open shortly; this will be Botswana’s

first underground diamond mine. Previously, all diamonds were exported in rough form, but, in 2013,

De Beers’ global sales operations relocated from the UK to Botswana which is developing as a global

diamond marketing hub.

Orapa diamond mine

The production of base metals (copper-nickel) also started in the early 1970s. There are four

companies and five mines in operation: Selebi-Phikwe (operated by BCL), Phoenix (Tati Nickel),

Mowana and Thakadu (African Copper), and Boseto (Discovery Metals). Selebi-Phikwe is an

underground mine, while the other three are open pit operations. BCL operates a smelter at Selebi-

Phikwe which processes concentrate from the mines and produces semi-refined copper-nickel matte

which is exported for final refining elsewhere. Nickel production has been declining in recent years,

as reserves have been worked out, while copper mining has been increasing as new mines have

opened. Small quantities of cobalt and silver also are produced. Despite the decline in nickel

production, it accounts for the majority of the value of Botswana’s base metals output.

Tsodilo Resources recently inferred that there is an iron-ore deposit of 441m tonnes west of the

‘panhandle’ of Botswana’s Okavango Delta, a recently declared World Heritage Site. The Block 1

deposit contains high-grade ore, worth an estimated US$ 14bn at current prices. The company

estimates a potential 5 to 7 billion recoverable tonnes in Block 2 (a much larger area still under

exploration). Despite the currently declining iron-ore price, there are no iron-ore substitutes for

producing steel, which means that long-run demand is likely to remain robust.

Soda ash and salt are produced from brine deposits located at the Makgadikgadi salt pans, through an

evaporation process. During the past seven years, the production of soda ash averaged 250,000 metric

tons a year, while salt averaged 280,000 metric tons a year. Apart from small quantities of salt sold

http://www.tsodiloresources.com/i/pdf/U5835-Xaudum-MRE-NI43-101_Final.pdf

24

domestically, all of the production is exported. Botswana is the fourth largest producer of natural soda

ash in the world (after the United States, Turkey and Kenya), although it has the second-largest

reserves.

Coal is produced in small quantities, mainly for domestic consumption, with the main usage being for

power generation. Historical production has been just under 1 million metric tons per annum (mtpa),

from a single mine at Morupule, although output has now risen to 2–3 mtpa to supply a new coal-fired

power station. Nevertheless, output is very low compared to reserves that have been estimated at

around 40 billion metric tons and total reserves of more than 200 billion metric tons.

Gold has been mined in northeast Botswana intermittently for several hundred years, although at

present there is only one mine in operation (Mupane), which commenced production in 2005.

Production is relatively low, less than 2000 kilograms a year, and is declining as reserves are depleted.

2.1.5 Prospecting and mining trends

Figure 2.1: Current prospecting licenses

Diamonds: Diamond mining in Botswana is ‘mature’. The mainstay of Botswana’s diamond

production, the large Debswana mines at Orapa and Jwaneng, can keep producing on the basis of

current investments for another 10–15 years. However, there are reserves that can be exploited

beyond this time (perhaps to 2050), although this will require significant investments to deepen and

25

broaden the pits, or to go underground. With an anticipated upward trend in real diamond prices over

the next two decades, driven by emerging supply-demand imbalances as major deposits are worked

out, such investments should be worthwhile. Nevertheless, production is likely to remain well below

historical peaks of 30-plus mcts a year; and, as production costs rise, the rents generated and mineral

revenues earned by the government are expected to decline as a proportion of gross output value.

Although new mines have opened in recent years, these are much smaller than those at Orapa and

Jwaneng and are more marginal economically. There is extensive prospecting taking place for

diamonds, and although many kimberlites have been discovered, their economic viability is yet to be

established.

Base metals: Botswana’s base metal mines have had mixed fortunes in recent years and have been

adversely affected by low prices (especially for nickel), declining reserves and ore quality (especially

at Tati Nickel), production problems, and difficulties in achieving anticipated ore processing volumes

(especially for African Copper and Discovery Metals). However, it has been established that there are

substantial unexploited base metal deposits around Selebi-Phikwe and in northwest Botswana (the

Ghanzi district and Ngamiland); the latter is thought to be an extension of the Zambian Copperbelt. It

is likely that further base metal mines will open in the coming years, although much depends on the

availability of transport and power infrastructure, as well as commodity price developments.

Uranium: A substantial uranium deposit exists in northeast Botswana, and unlike some of the known

base metals deposits, is well served by existing infrastructure. The deposit is relatively easy to mine,

but depends on a recovery of global uranium prices.

Coal and coal-bed methane (CBM): Probably the main potential for large-scale mining development

in Botswana lies with coal. There is no publicly available survey of Botswana’s coal resources that is

comprehensive and up-to-date. But it is widely agreed that there are extensive deposits spread

throughout much of eastern and central Botswana. A significant ramp-up in production requires an

export market, whether for coal itself or for products derived from coal, such as electricity or

chemicals. Developing a significant coal export market will, in turn, require the provision of dedicated

rail infrastructure to either the east coast of Africa (via Zimbabwe, Mozambique, or South Africa), or

the west coast (Namibia). These are large and expensive projects, and various options are under

consideration. Government support will be vital for such a large-scale infrastructure investment, but

so far, the GoB has not stated which, if any, of these projects it prefers. Mining of coal for export also

has substantial water requirements, for washing, and the availability and cost of sufficient water is

another factor to consider when developing large-scale coal production. There are also substantial

deposits of CBM (similar to shale gas), which could be exploited as an energy source (liquid

petroleum gas), a fuel for power generation, or a chemical feedstock. The viability of exploiting CBM

deposits is under investigation. While there is nothing definitive regarding the likely development of

coal or CBM production, the potential is large, and there should be more clarity over the next 2–3

years regarding development prospects.

2.1.6 Existing environmental impacts

The retrieval of minerals, though surface and open pit mining, affects the environment in multiple

ways (see Appendix 3). The most significant impacts are to water, soil, air and natural habitats (Box

2.1). An additional issue is the current lack of a facility in Botswana for the disposal of radioactive

and hazardous materials.

26

2.2 Development scenarios for the mining sector

During a scenario development workshop, a number of drivers were identified as likely to have the

main influence on the development of the mining sector over the coming decade (Table 2.1). These

informed the development of low-growth and high-growth scenarios for this sector over the coming

decade – as mapped in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Development drivers for mining sector

SD pillar Drivers

Environmental Climate Change Convention (Uranium) – Annex 1 countries may opt for nuclear

energy to meet their greenhouse gas emission reduction targets

Water

Social Availability and cost of domestic skilled labour (eg engineers, workers in

downstream industries such as cutting and polishing)

Absence of labour unrest

Availability of mining training facilities

Beneficiation (creating downstream jobs is part of the licence conditions for mining

projects)

Economic Taxation – suppressing development of industry

Demand in China and India (and other countries) for coal and iron

Domestic internal requirements (jobs, power)

ESKOM and SAPP demand – for electricity generation

Government desire for economic diversification

Other Competing land uses (eg tourism) (negative driver)

External regulations and norms (eg EU regulations, ICMM standards) - these

influence behaviour (but are not a driver as such)

Politically and socially stability

Consistent bureaucracy (positive driver)

Bureaucratic power (where junior officials are obstructive) (negative driver)

27

Table 2.2 Development scenarios for the mining sector over the next 10 years

CURRENT SITUATION

(BASELINE SCENARIO)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL

(LOW GROWTH +

INFLATION)

[Over next 6 years - within

NDP11 period]

HIGH GROWTH

[Over next 10 years]

Assumptions:

No major policy changes

(within Botswana or

bilaterally)

Increase in mining & coal-

based energy production

Peace & stability prevails

Current policy of jobs for

Batswana prevails

Government provides

incentives for developing &

delivering training courses

suited to mining needs (eg

bursaries and tax incentives)

Electrical grid power is

available to mines

Uranium

No major change in

uranium price

Mothballed mines in region

will reopen

Secondary uranium sources

available

Assumptions:

Increase in mining & coal-based

energy production


Chinese & Indian economies

continue growing, plus continue

importing coal

SADC power demand continues

to grow

Trans Kalahari Railway (TKR) is

built

Upfront investment is made into

making water available

(particularly surface water: eg

Zambezi)

Upfront investment in:

desalination of groundwater,

improved water demand

management, water efficient

technologies

Electrical grid power is available

to mines

More sustainable and equitable

abstraction of water from shared

rivers is guaranteed through more

effective interventions by shared

river basin commissions, eg

implementing effective

transboundary protocols (eg for

EA), trading water

Government implements a

catchment management approach

for rivers and aquifers

Water resource accounting will

be implemented (and address coal

mining)

Uranium

Uranium back in demand

internationally (price rise)

28

8 diamond mines [11,000

jobs]

copper/nickel mines [8000

jobs]

1 coal mine [460 jobs]

1 gold mine [100 jobs]

1 soda ash mine [300 jobs]

Downstream activities [3000 employed – 90%

Batswana]

Jewelry manufacturing (1)

Diamond cutting &

polishing (21 jobs)

Ancillary businesses (eg

diamond couriers, security,

transport)

Total 22,860 jobs

10 diamond mines (+2)

5 copper/nickel mines (+1)

6 coal mines (+5) [2500

jobs in workings, + 5000

indirect)

1 gold mine

1 soda ash mine

Downstream activities


Diamond cutting &

polishing (21 jobs)

Increased diamond sales

through tendering

Ancillary businesses (eg

diamond couriers, security,

transport)

Re-investment in rail rolling

stock (Richards Bay route)

Coal mining equipment

servicing, spares

Increase in industries: fuel

products; services (eg

environmental);

construction;

Increased urbanisation

More airline operators

allowed (industrial visitors)

Total 37,400 jobs

10 diamond mines (+2)

5 copper/nickel mines (+1)

9 coal mines (+8)

1 gold mine

1 soda ash mine

1 Iron ore mine (+1)

1 uranium mine (+1)

Downstream activities


Diamond cutting & polishing (21

jobs)

Ancillary businesses (eg diamond

couriers, security, transport) –

driven mainly by coal & iron

Total 39,400 jobs

Uncertainties/threats, key issues, etc

Climate change - water

availability

India/China become Annex 1

countries under UNFCC – so will

not want coal any more

Unemployment/crime

Chinese investment

HIV/AIDS

Access to land/conflicts

Regional conflict (eg over water)

Growing internal tensions:

o mining v tourism

o mining v agriculture

2.2.1 Scenario summary

A scenario in which there is high growth in the mining sector is dependent on continuing demand for

minerals and mining products on the international market, particularly in expanding economies such

as China and India. It requires the efficient export of those products by road or rail. But most existing

regional ports are congested and this has promoted proposals to construct the Trans Kalahari Railway

29

(TKR) to provide a rail link to Walvis Bay in Namibia, mainly for coal exports. Expanded mining will

require electrical energy (whether generated on site or sourced from the grid, and investments to make

water available for mining processes – either through securing surface water from the Zambezi River

(an issue subject to successful abstraction negotiations with other countries sharing the river) or

desalinating groundwater. It will also need improvements in Botswana in water demand management,

following a catchment management approach and the introduction of water efficient technologies and

water resource accounting.

Whilst a few new diamond and other mineral mines are likely to be opened, the main development

will be in coal mining (up to eight new mines) to feed power stations that will provide fuel for

electricity generation and export via the regional grid, and possibly for export in raw form via the

proposed TKR.

In the diamond sector, there is unlikely to be any increase in downstream beneficiation in Botswana,

but a growth in ancillary businesses (eg diamond couriers, security, transport) will be driven mainly

by coal and iron. Expansion in the sector will more than double available jobs (rising from 22,860 at

present to a projected 39,400 over 10 years).

2.3 Sustainability appraisal of the mining sector

2.3.1 Selection of activities for appraisal

Development initiatives/activities associated with the high-growth scenario for mining (see Table 2.2)

and objectives/goals and initiatives projected for the sector in the draft Framework for a Long-Term

Vision for Botswana (27 October 2014) were reviewed. This identified the following activities

(initiatives, projects, policy thrusts, etc) likely to be implemented over the next 10 years:

Upgrade non-diamond mining [Vision]

Increase in mining & coal-based energy production

2 new diamond mines

1 new copper/nickel mine

8 new coal mines

1 new iron ore mine

1 new uranium mine

No major change in ancillary businesses (diamond cutting, polishing, jewelry)

Strengthen the handling capacity of the Customs and the Diamond Office [Vision]

Strengthen the quality and breath of the hospitality services in Gaborone (hotels, restaurants,

cultural activities) [Vision] [also relevant to other sectors]

Strengthen the quality of infrastructure services (airport, local transportation, telecommunication)

[Vision ] [also relevant to other sectors]

Improve the attractiveness of the regulatory environment for mining investors [Vision]

Conduct an independent assessment of deposit attractiveness and potential [Vision]

Develop a targeted investment attractiveness strategy for those resources with the most verified

potential [Vision]

Coordinate with neighbouring countries to improve market access and use of logistical corridors

[Vision]

Develop related services that are currently imported as the mining cluster grows in size [Vision].

Build 2 major rail networks:

o 1,500 km Trans Kalahari Railway to Walvis Bay in Namibia

o 1,100 km link through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Techobanine in Mozambique.

30

The following activity (partly amalgamating initiatives listed above) was selected by participants for

assessment in the sustainability appraisal workshop for the mining sector:

Activity 1: Increase mining and investments through: [Vision] – taken to include the following

initiatives:

Improving the regulatory environment (eg through lower corporate and import taxes and levies,

easier lease and labour conditions).

Conducting independent assessments of deposit attractiveness and potential (eg seismic surveys).

Developing a targeted investment attractiveness strategy for resources with most verified potential

(e.g. investor block bidding).

Intensified prospecting for minerals (State-owned enterprises and private sector – assume ground-

based prospecting).

Additional mines (2 new diamond mines,1 new copper/ nickel mine, 8 new coal mines, 1 new

iron ore mine, 1 uranium mine). Existing mines continue to expand (assume all will be open pit).

Mining of lower value products (eg river sand, quarrying, gypsum, silica, semi precious stones,

etc.) will continue,

Continued operations of ancillary businesses that add to the value chain (diamond cutting,

polishing, jewelry, associated investments).

Strengthening the quality of infrastructure services [Vision] (airport, local transportation,

telecoms) (also relevant to other sectors).

Coordination with neighbouring countries to improve market access and use of logistical corridors

[Vision] (e.g. Trans Kalahari and Techobanine railway lines).

Developing related services that are currently imported as the mining cluster grows in size (e.g.

technical skills, service facilities) [Vision].

Strengthening institutions that administer and regulate the mining sector (eg Customs & Diamond

Office, inspectors, DEA).

Strengthening the quality & breadth of hospitality services in Gaborone (hotels, B&Bs,

restaurants, cultural activities [Vision] (also relevant to other sectors).

2.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the mining sector

Mining is essential for the growth of Botswana’s economy. Its economic contribution to the nation

can be significantly enhanced by proactive investments (resource mapping, prospecting, infrastructure

improvement), policy reform (levies, taxes, lease conditions), value-adding (downstream

beneficiation) and improved local involvement. But, as in other sectors, it will be necessary to address

the issue of low labour productivity and its high cost. Criticism has been made that planning for the

mining sector is sluggish. There is a need for a more proactive approach to grasp opportunities and

capture new ideas.

The activities proposed for the mining sector have significant environmental impacts (land

degradation, habitat alteration, biodiversity loss), and social impacts (community disruption, HIV and

AIDS) that need to be avoided and/or mitigated. There are also concerns around competition for

scarce resources (e.g. water and energy) and land use conflicts (mining in areas important for

agriculture, conservation and tourism) that could result in serious opportunity costs (Box 2.1).

Box 2.1: Impacts of mining

Water supplies are altered in two ways: quantity and quality. The high water usage during mineral

processing reduces water levels within aquifers. This can cause depletion of springs, which forces water

transportation and deeper boreholes. The reduction of water levels affect both wildlife and domestic usage

(Botswana relies disproportionately on groundwater resources). Although this type of impact stops when

31

mining does, the length of time it takes for levels to recover can be very long in aquifers that have been

‘mined’. Water quality can be affected by drilling, blasting, pits, and mine waste. Processing operations

produce large quantities of waste products that lead to contamination. It generally requires moving huge

quantities of rock and soil, and more than 80 to 90 percent of the original materials moved becomes waste.

Since mining moves large quantities of rock and soil, land impacts are large. These impacts may be

temporary where the mining company returns the rock to the pit from which it was extracted (although this

is rarely done). Many copper mines, for example, extract ore that contains less than 1% copper. For many

non-ferrous metals, virtually all of the mined ore thus becomes waste.

Mining, mineral processing, smelting, and waste disposal are responsible for air quality reduction. Huge

amounts of dust are generated along with gases, tailings, and waste rock. The transportation of dust can

cause reduced visibility, coating of houses, vegetation damage, and numerous health impacts. Mineral

processing (eg smelting) releases large quantities of toxic air particles and gases. Airborne toxins can harm

both workers and the public at some distance from a mine.

An issue often overlooked in development planning for mines, and even in accompanying EIA studies, is the

impacts of projects on human health, especially the spread of HIV and AIDS. A 2003 study in the densely

populated mining town of Selebi-Phikwe, showed an overall prevalence of 52.2%, the highest in the country

(NACA Botswana, 2003). Mining, especially when the mine is in a remote area and/or the mine workers

live in single sex hostels, has shown to bring men into increased contact with multiple partners. Sex work

has become increasingly common around these richer mining towns, at infrastructure construction sites, and

at border crossings, as this offers the best livelihood for some young, poor and vulnerable women. The

influx of immigrant workers (non-Batswana) has exacerbated this activity due to the increased spending

power of the immigrants compared to locals.

Morupule coal mine

Key strategies for improving sustainability include the use of strategic sustainability assessments (in

targeted clusters), environmental and social impact assessment (EIA), environmental management

plans and post-implementation monitoring (for individual mines). Some of these safeguards might

require institutional reforms, such as increased staff and training in government departments, or

increased use (at proponent cost) of consultants to do the work. A key question is what are the most

appropriate arrangements for post-mining closure and rehabilitation, especially regarding the setting

aside of funds for the above.

32

2.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activity

Table 2.3: Sustainability appraisal of selected activity in the mining sector

Activity 1: Increase mining and investments through: (Vision)

improving the regulatory environment (eg through lower corporate and import taxes and levies, easier lease and

labour conditions),

Conducting independent assessments of deposit attractiveness and potential (eg sesimic surveys),

Develop targeted investment attractiveness strategy in resources with most verified potential (e.g. investor

block bidding)

Intensified prospecting for minerals (SOEs and private sector – assume ground-based prospecting)

Additional mines (2 new diamond mines,1 new copper/ nickel mine, 8 new coal mines, 1 new iron ore mine, 1

uranium mine, Existing mines continue to expand (assume all will be open pit). Lower value products (eg river sand,

quarrying, gypsum, silica, semi precious stones, etc.) continue to be mined.

Continued operations of ancillary businesses that add to the value chain (diamond cutting, polishing, jewelry,

associated investments)

Strengthen the quality of infrastructure services [Vision] (airport, local transportation, telecoms) (also relevant to

other sectors)

Coordinate with neighbouring countries to improve market access & use of logistical corridors [Vision] (e.g.

Trans Kalahari and Techobanine railway lines)

Develop related services that are currently imported as the mining cluster grows in size (e.g. technical skills,

service facilities) [Vision]

Strengthen institutions that administer and regulate the mining sector (eg Customs & Diamond Office,

inspectors, DEA)

Strengthen quality & breadth of hospitality services in Gaborone (hotels, B&Bs, restaurants, cultural activities

[Vision] (also relevant to other sectors)

On balance perspectve [summary conclusion of pros and cons)

Botswana needs to continue promoting mining, but should plan soundly and implement environmental and social

safeguards as already required by national legislation (SEA, EIA, EMP). Also, mineral rents need to be invested wisely if

mining is to contribute positively in the context of sustainable development. There are many significant environmental,

social and economic risks that need to be managed carefully, as well as potential opportunity costs (e.g. mining in

important conservation/tourism areas should be avoided since tourism requires a conducive sense of place). Global trends

need to be taken into account in future planning (e.g. coal may be socially undesirable in future because of global warming

concerns).

Synergies within and between sectors

Infrastructure improvments that are sparked by mining (e.g. roads and social services), will benefit other sectors, eg

tourism, as well as society and the economy as a whole. Education and skills development which inherently accompany

mining activities, can similarly be regarded as a national good.

The emergence of new mining areas – often several mines close to each other (mining hubs) - will likely stimulate other

development/investments as opportunities emerge and the economy grows and diversifies, thus stimulating the need for

forward planning at district and local levels.

Antagonisms within and between sectors

As noted above, mining in or near important certain areas needs to be avoided (particularly areas that are highly sensitive,

are important for conservation and tourism, are biodiversity rich, contain important archaeology, or have been designated

as having special global status such as World Heritage or International Wetland sites). Also, mining can conflict with

agriculture if it requires large tracts of land or scarce groundwater, and if pollution threatens the health of rangelands and

livestock.

During prospecting for minerals, field teams usually traverse large areas of farmland, often coming into conflict with

farmers.

Assumptions and risks:

Most neighbouring countries will continue intensifying their mineral sectors. So, in theory, they will compete with

Botswana for markets. Most of the commodities (e.g. diamonds, coal, copper, iron, salt, uranium, gold) occur throughout

the region and, in most cases, commodity prices are currently declining. There is a risk that this will negatively affect the

viability of proposed mining projects – at least in the short term. Another key issue is that skills and technical services in

the country and region are limited, meaning that expertise may be hard or expensive to source. There is also a risk that

countries will unreasonably reduce the need for environmental and social safeguards to be applied in mining ventures in

order to attract investors. Since many environmental and social impacts from mining are transboundary in nature (e.g. air

33

and water pollution, migrant labour, HIV and AIDS), cutting corners in one country may negatively affect a neighbour,

thus compromising neighbour relations.

With regards to coal, it is assumed that SADC countries will still need coal-fired powerstations, but a possible risk is that

the UNFCC will make coal unattractive for power generation in China and India.


security

Positive impacts

Increased mining will enhance

GDP and FOREX earnings,

especially as new (non-

diamond) commodities are

exploited

In addition to mining related

income, the sector will

stimulate knock-on enterprises

(e.g. acommodation, food,

cleaning, fuel, shops)

How to enhance

Attract investors through

easier/simpler processes for

obtaining exploration/

operating license/leases and

work permits.

Rationalise levies & taxes on

commodities (currently

biased towards diamonds)

Government investment in

basic infrastructure will

promote mining

Regulatory environment

should differentiate between

small-scale mining (e.g.

quarrying and sand

extraction) and large

operations, given that they

have different risks and

impacts. This will enhance

local ownership of smaller

projects, and thus reduce

capital leakage.

Support beneficiation

through incentives and other

support

Ensure above measures are

linked to Economic

Diversification Drive

Positive impacts

More mines will

deliver jobs and

enhance livelihood

options

How to enhance

Revise settlement

policy in relation to

mining development

hubs (so that even

small villages can

qualify for essential

services)

Mines should

preferentially provide

labour to local residents

Mines should improve

skills through on-the-

job training and

mentoring

See column 1 regarding

improving local

ownership

Positive impacts

None obvious, though

employment may reduce

impacts linked to poverty

Positive impacts

None obvious

Negative impacts

Labour influx (jobs to

foreigners)

If mining occurs in

important tourism or

agriculture areas, it could

result in loss of jobs and

income and limit future

livelihood options.

Negative impacts

Range of impacts:

involuntary

resettlement,

livelihood loss,

Migrant labour likely to

exacerbate crime and

other social ills,

including spread of

STDs (especially HIV

and AIDS).

Loss of the commons

(communal land)

Negative impacts

Range of impacts:

Air, land and water

pollution

land degradation

Reduced biodiversity and

ecosystem services

Unsustainable water use

Exponential increase in

per capita carbon

footprint

Impacts in one country

but benefits in another

Negative impacts

Increased

administrative burden

because of increased

mining

Increased water use

could result in water

conflicts in the

country and region

34

How to mitigate

Avoid locating mines in such

areas.

How to mitigate

Conduct a

sustainability

assessment (SA) of

“mining hub“ (e.g.

Western copperbelt,

NE hub, Mamabula

coal area, central

Kalahari CBM) to

better understand

cumulative impacts and

plan sector and inter-

sectoral co-investment

in avoidance/mitigation

actions

Local hiring

No single-sex hostels

Plan mine closures

carefully to ensure laid-

off staff are reasonably

catered for. The need

and procedures for

closure and

rehabilitation funds

needs more thought.

How to mitigate

See SA in column 2

Integrate SA findings into

project level EIAs, and

for smaller projects,

develop outcomes-based

EMPs

SA for mining hubs

Rationalise water price or

allocation to users

Incentives to use non-

potable & desalinated

water & recycle

Address cumulative

impacts of power

stations, water demand,

etc

Plan mine closures pro-

actively

How to mitigate

Address in proposed

GoB Water

Resources Strategy

See SA in column 2

Improve

administrative

consistency (e.g.

license processing)

Negotiate water

rights (through

SADC Protocol on

Shared Water

Resources).

Increase GoB staff

and/or outsource

inspections to

consultants

Link up with

instruments such as

ISO etc. to improve

implementation of

EMPs

Improve partnerships

between GoB

institutions to enable

more efficient M&E

2.4 Conclusions and implications for national planning

Mining will continue to be the central pillar of the nation’s economy, but there will be only a small

increase in the number of diamond and other mineral mines over the coming years. Indeed the relative

contribution of diamonds to revenues and GDP is now expected to decline and in-country

beneficiation is unlikely to increase. The draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision sees the main

expansion in coal mining to further exploit Botswana’s rich coal reserves. This will enable Botswana

to increase its coal-powered electricity generation and produce an energy surplus for export. This

makes good sense from both an economic and security perspective.

The implications for sustainable development of exporting coal via the proposed Trans Kalahari

Railway (TKR) are complex and require a detailed transboundary sustainability assessment in its own

right and in cooperation with Namibia. It is something the new Vision could signal and that could be

commissioned under NDP11 if TKR construction is envisaged during the next six years. Comparison

should be made with exporting coal vial the rail link through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Techobanine

in Mozambique.

Surface and open pit mining generate multiple environmental and social impacts (see Box 2.1 and

Appendix 3). These include, for example, land degradation, habitat alteration, biodiversity loss,

community disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS. As part of its strategic planning function, guided by

the Vision Beyond 2016, NDP11 will need to take steps to ensure that these aspects of the

sustainability of mining are addressed and that impacts are appropriately managed. In this regard, it is

recommended that the government commits to, and provides funding for, a sustainability assessment

(using the regulations for strategic environmental assessment) of one or more of Botswana’s mineral

hubs (e.g. western copperbelt, NE hub, central Kalahari CBM). This would provide a better

understanding of the cumulative effects of mining, facilitate sector planning on a sustainable basis,

and identify where inter-sectoral co-investment is required for avoidance/mitigation actions. Lessons

can also be drawn from the SEA already underway for the Botswana/RSA coal mining/energy

35

programme. Mining consumes water and energy, so such assessments will need to address concerns

about competition for these scarce resources as well as land use conflicts (where mining is located in

areas important for agriculture, conservation and tourism) that could result in serious opportunity

costs.

The draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision recognises that developments in the mining sector will

require strengthening and improving infrastructure (eg airports, local transportation,

telecommunications) and hospitality services, particularly in Gaborone (hotels, restaurants, cultural

activities). It will also need improving the attractiveness of the regulatory environment for mining

investors and coordinating with neighbouring countries to improve market access and use of logistical

corridors. All of these factors will generate their own implications for sustainable development and

demand strong cross-sectoral coordination, shared analysis of issues, and an integrated approach to

securing mutual benefits and managing negative effects. The need for such an approach needs to be

highlighted by the new Vision and steered by NDP11.

36

3: AGRICULTURE SECTOR

3.1 Baseline situation in the agriculture sector

3.1.1 Relative importance to the economy and national development

The Agricultural sector in Botswana covers both crops and livestock production, but this baseline

summary concentrates mostly on beef as this is the most important component of the sector in the

context of NDP11.

Traditional farming dominates in terms of the numbers of people involved and the geographical

coverage. More than half of Batswana live in rural areas and are dependent on subsistence crop and

livestock farming. Whilst beef is an important sector, particularly for export, small stock (eg goats and

sheep) are more important at the household level.

Herdsman with cattle in kraal enclosure

Most farmers operate on a small-scale, often requiring State assistance and money sent home by

relatives in urban areas for their survival. The share of the agriculture sector’s contribution to

economic growth in Botswana has fallen significantly since independence in 1966. The contribution

of agriculture to national GDP (primarily through beef production) declined from 31% in 1974 to

about 2% in 2011, although this is mainly because of the significantly increased contribution of

mining (particularly diamonds) to GDP rather than a sustained contraction in agricultural production.

However, the agriculture sector is vulnerable to natural climate variability (periodic droughts), and the

effects of anthropogenically-induced climate change, particularly increasing temperatures. Additional

challenges include desertification, increases in veterinary diseases, pests and insect infestations. In

contrast to mining and tourism (which have some comparative advantages and relatively good future

prospects), Botswana's agricultural potential is limited.

3.1.2 Livestock production

Agriculture plays an important role in rural livelihoods in Botswana - providing food, income and

employment for the majority of the rural dwellers, and cattle raising is vital from a social and cultural

perspective. Figure 3.1 shows the current distribution of cattle in the country.

37

Figure 3.1: Current livestock distribution

The number of traditional farmers decreased from 125,017 in 2011 to 121,766 in 2012, while

commercial farmers1 increased from 718 to 894. The highest number of recorded active farmers

(36,896) in the country was in Gaborone region and the lowest (5,963) in the Western region. Cattle

numbers fell from 2.55 million in 2001 to 2.25 million in 2012, whilst the goat population dropped

from 1.77 million to 1.65 million, and sheep from 295,894 to 293,966. Data from 2012 indicate that

69% of farmers keep goats, followed by cattle (62.7%) and sheep (15.1%)2.

Children herding goats

1 The distinction between commercial and subsistence agriculture is regarded by some people as a questionable

classification, as all farmers sell livestock and/or crops for cash, to one extent or other, and all small farmers would like to be

“bigger” and more successful.

2 2012 Annual Agricultural Survey Report (available at:

http://www.cso.gov.bw/templates/cso/file/File/Agriculture%20Main%20Report%202012_Apr%204%202014.pdf

http://www.cso.gov.bw/templates/cso/file/File/Agriculture%20Main%20Report%202012_Apr%204%202014.pdf

38

In spite of multiple challenges, agriculture has potential for growth. It is also a viable option for

poverty reduction as it is labour intensive and creates employment opportunities, particularly for

unskilled and semi-skilled people.

3.1.3 Arable agriculture

Only about 0.7% of the total land area of Botswana is regarded as being well suited for crop growth

and this mostly takes place on loamy soils in the eastern hardveld (Figure 3.2). The principal crops for

domestic use are sorghum, maize and millet. Smaller quantities of cowpeas, beans, and pulses are also

grown along with other vegetables.

Figure 3.2: Land suitability for arable agriculture

Agricultural statistics from 2011 and 2012 illustrate the vulnerability of arable agriculture to rainfall –

low rainfall was recorded during the 2011/2012 cropping season. Maize is still the predominant crop

in the traditional sector, but the total area planted decreased from 151,489 ha in 2011 to 141,322 ha in

2012 while for sorghum the total area planted fell from 70,209 to 63,018 ha during the same period. In

the commercial sector, a higher percentage of the total area planted is allocated to sorghum than to

maize. In 2011, 6,489 ha was planted under sorghum, increasing to 11,223 ha in 2012; whilst land

under maize increased marginally from 325 ha to 385 ha.

In the commercial sector, yield for sorghum dropped significantly from 4,106 kg/ha in 2011 to 1,476

kg/ha in 2012. Likewise, maize recorded a steep drop from 19,237 kg/ha in 2011 to 590 kg/ha in

39

2012. The traditional sector experienced an increase in sorghum yields from 93 kg/ha to 144 kg/ha

between the 2011 and 2012 cropping seasons. However, for maize the yield decreased from 192 kg/ha

to 53 kg/ha.

The number of farmers with land for ploughing (land holdings) showed a slight decrease from 80,415

in 2011 to 77,935 in 2012 at national level. The area planted fell from 287,278 ha in 2011 to 262,761

ha in 2012 whilst the area actually harvested reduced drastically from 200,672 ha in 2011 to 60,209 in

2012. Food production is highly variable mostly because of climatic factors, often resulting in food

supply shortfalls which require imports mainly from South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.

While there is a need to improve productivity in the arable sector, problematic issues include adverse

climatic conditions, poor technology adaptation, erratic availability of draught power, excessive pests

and disease, inappropriate planting techniques and lack of fertilizer use, all of which lead to poor

production. Hence there is major shortfall in all aspects of food production in Botswana.

All citizens have a constitutional right to apply to government for land for ploughing and horticulture

plots (in addition to cattle posts and residential plots). Applications are processed through the

respective Land Board. Molapo3 fields are not formerly allocated by government but ownership is

recognized within local communities. The lack of legal status means that melapo are not eligible for

government grants or subsidies. Land for irrigable horticultural development (often 5 - 25 ha) is

issued initially through one of the District sub-Land Boards.

Clearing of new lands areas may take place by mechanized means, but often it is undertaken by teams

of men with axes who burn the roots of trees to remove them (de-stumping). Large trees are usually

left in the fields for shade. Under drought conditions, a very small proportion is ploughed (if at all);

whereas under ‘normal’ summer rainy season conditions, a small area is ploughed using donkeys,

oxen or a government tractor. Hence, the actual area under crops fluctuates yearly in response to

rainfall and floodwater availability (see figures above). There is evidence that, in some areas (eg

Ngamiland), there is an increased incidence of field crops being ‘raided’ by elephants, hippos and

cattle (ODRS 2012).


A range of policies and legislation (see Appendix 4, Table A4.1) are relevant to rural development

and agriculture. Since 1991, agricultural policy has focused on food security rather than self-

sufficiency (see distinction in Box 3.1). The current policy recognises that the previous pursuit of food

self-sufficiency was not compatible with the broader national macro-economic objectives of

efficiency, competitiveness and sustainability. It also recognises that trade plays a critical role in

meeting the country’s food needs.

3 Molapo fields are located close to or in a floodplain or river channel where soils are moistened by seasonal

flooding or the draining of water into low-lying ground, supplemented by rainfall. During the recession of the

floods the fields gradually dry up and strips parallel to the remaining water can be successively planted as the

water recedes.

40

Box 3.1: Food security

Botswana is a net importer of food. Irrigated agriculture is seen as a way of enhancing food security. However,

many people confuse food security and food self-sufficiency – they are different things.

Food self-sufficiency is meeting consumption needs from domestic production, rather than importing. It can

involve restricting food imports, and encouraging domestic production through subsidization. But this is

economically inefficient and distorts prices.

Food security means people have physical and economic access to sufficient nutritious food for an active and

healthy life, whether this food is produced domestically or imported. Here a range of strategies are employed,

including encouraging production of foods with domestic comparative advantage, ensuring access to imports

and global food markets, and maintaining emergency food reserves for other foods which cannot be produced

domestically.

Food self-sufficiency can have high economic and social costs, and cannot guarantee food security. In many

parts of Botswana, distance from markets and other factors makes industrial-scale irrigation projects non-

viable financially, resulting in the need for subsidization.

There is evidence that fewer families are keeping cattle and that more are sharing pieces of land.

Policy identifies beef as an economic driver (and beef production is heavily subsidised) but the role

and support for small stock (goats, sheep, poultry) keeping is ignored. This is an important issue for

sustainable development.

Some policies, such as the National Master Plan for Agricultural and Dairy Development

(NAMPADD), and the establishment of the Agricultural Hub under the Ministry of Agriculture

clearly support the development of a competitive and commercially focused agricultural sector. By

contrast, there has been a whole series of schemes focused on subsistence farmers (the Advanced

Rainfed Arable Programme (ARAP), the Arable Lands Development Programme (ALDEP), and most

recently the Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development (ISPAAD). ARAP

and ALDEP were discontinued once evaluations demonstrated clearly that they were not working, and

the assessment of ALDEP in the 1996 Study on Poverty and Poverty Alleviation showed that it was

having no positive impact on poverty alleviation. Although ISPAAD has not been properly evaluated,

a rough assessment indicates that the food grains grown under the scheme cost government

approximately five times the cost of imported food grains. Experience suggests that ISPAAD and its

predecessors, despite ostensibly being focused on poverty alleviation, are unsustainable and do little

other than entrench poor farmers in a poverty trap while benefitting mainly tractor owners and

suppliers of seeds, fertilisers, fencing materials and farming equipment.

In the livestock sub sector, key support programmes have included the Fencing Component of the

1991 Agricultural Policy and the Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development - LIMID

(1997 to date).Market level support has involved grain and beef state trading, respectively, under the

auspices of the Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB) and the Botswana Meat

Commission (BMC).

An important development was the liberalisation of the grain industry in 1991, to improve

competitiveness and to lower prices for grain. Since then, BAMB was mandated to adopt import

parity pricing and its import monopoly was removed to ensure lower staple food prices. To achieve

import parity prices, BAMB currently sets producer prices based on monthly prices posted by the

South African Futures Exchanges, adjusted for transport costs, moisture, impurities and BAMBs

mark-up. In the cattle industry, important developments have included the overhauling of the

livestock industry through the Livestock Improvement Act 2009 as well as initiating the process to

41

review the Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) Act. Also, at a sectoral level, the government has

recently made efforts to commercialise agricultural operations through a number of initiatives.

While the borders are generally open to agricultural trade, there are important exceptions: the BMC

has a monopoly on the export of beef, and imports of beef, chickens and eggs are banned. There are

periodic bans on the importation of vegetables and horticultural products, and restrictions on the

importation of maize, wheat, wheat flour and sugar, and an “infant industry” tariff on imported UHT

milk. Although the formal policy has not changed, the policy discourse now seems to be reverting to

more prominence for food self-sufficiency.


Agriculture is managed by the Ministry of Agriculture, whose mission is to “develop on a sustainable

and competitive basis the agricultural sector by improving farm incomes, generating employment

opportunities and raw materials for agricultural businesses; conserving agricultural natural

resources through the promotion and adoption of appropriate technologies and management

practices”.

There are a number of departments, support divisions and parastatal organizations (see Appendix 4,

Table A4.2 and Figure A4.1). According to the GoB website, the ministry continues to be faced with

serious challenges of lack of capacity to deliver services particularly the extension service.

3.1.6 Sustainability issues in the agricultural sector

The livestock sub-sector has a number of comparative advantages due to Botswana’s proximity to

local markets (RSA, DRC, Angola) and its hormone-free status - which is sought after by EU and

Scandinavian markets, providing a niche market advantage. Botswana has important contracts with

the EU for its beef covered by the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) which provides duty and

quota-free access to the EU. Export to the UK resumed in 2013, following a two year absence because

of foot and mouth disease and traceability issues. One challenge is that it is becoming increasingly

difficult for beef farmers to penetrate overseas markets. The beef sub-sector is in decline and has been

subject to ‘elite capture’; and the livestock sector as a whole is in need of greater diversification.

Small-scale traditional livestock keepers have limited access to banks for finance (or can be resistant

to using banks and other investment safe havens). This encourages subsistence farmers (and even well

paid civil servants) to keep cattle (to store wealth) rather than sell them.

Botswana is well positioned to adopt conservation agriculture (CA) and there are many good

examples of CA in the SADC area that demonstrate the advantages of this approach. The principles of

CA could be rigorously applied to existing plots in order to reduce habitat alteration and soil exposure

while improving farming efficiency and crop yields. This would entail the maximum possible use

being made of organic fertilisers and pesticides to minimise toxic inputs into return flows to surface

waters or groundwater.

Insert Box 3.2: Conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture (CA) combines minimum soil disturbance (ripper tillage or no-tillage), with

permanent soil cover (e.g., mulches) and crop rotation to reduce soil moisture losses and enhance crop

production. CA principles are universally applicable to all agricultural landscapes and land uses with locally

adapted practices. CA enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground

surface. Soil interventions such as mechanical soil disturbance are reduced to an absolute minimum or avoided,

and external inputs such as agrochemicals and plant nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied

42

optimally and in ways and quantities that do not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological processes. CA

facilitates good agronomy, such as timely operations, and improves overall land husbandry for rainfed and

irrigated production. Complemented by other known good practices, including the use of quality seeds, and

integrated pest, nutrient, weed and water management, etc., CA is a base for sustainable agricultural

production intensification. It opens increased options for integration of production sectors, such as crop-

livestock integration and the integration of trees and pastures into agricultural landscapes.

Source: Adapted from www.fao.org

But agriculture also faces a number of constraints. It is particularly vulnerabley to climate change

(Department of Metereological Services, 2011) - agriculture is heavily reliant on rainfall which has

declined recently. This, together with a rise in extreme weather events is a hard test for many of the

agricultural systems (particularly arable cropping) that have been in place over decades. Climate

change will likely lead to an increased demand for fodder (but hard to satisfy), an increase in diseases

affecting livestock and crops, and pests. Weather forecasting needs to be long-term to allow farmers

to make choices on the crops to plant; and early detection of extreme weather events is also essential

to allow farmers to prepare mitigation measures. The frequency and intensity of flush rains poses

challenges affecting both the water and agriculture sectors and requires a coordinated response by the

two sectors.

Large stock are less capable of handling climatic variability than small stock. This reinforces the need

for a more integrated approach to rangeland management (fewer animals of better quality would yield

better results than lots of poor quality animals, with lower environmental impacts).

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) are escalating in some areas and have become a significant issue in

land management. Human population growth coupled with wealth creation and agricultural

intensification has led to an expansion of human activity, the fragmentation of natural habitats and, as

a consequence, restricted the distribution and movement of wild animal species. This, in turn, has led

to direct conflicts between wildlife and humans. Such conflicts have arisen mainly because of

inadequate land use planning/zonation, but also because the agriculture sector does not recognise

game farming as a legitimate form of farming. There is resistance to change in spite of economic

evidence in Botswana and neighbouring countries that game and livestock farming can be

successfully integrated.

The Department of Veterinary Services intends to maintain current animal disease control standards,

and new fences are likely to be constructed. Veterinary control will become more expensive and

difficult during periods of high flooding in the Okavango delta due to wild animals being displaced

into agricultural areas. NDP10 supports this rigid approach to disease management and describes

fenced barriers as the main way to control animal disease outbreaks. But will this inflexible approach

regarding disease standards and the emphasis on fences as the primary management tool place

livestock farming in conflict with conservation and tourism?

3.2 Development scenarios for the agriculture sector


main influences on the development of the agriculture sector over the coming decade (Table 3.1).

These informed the development of low-growth and high-growth scenarios for this sector over the

coming decade – as mapped in Table 3.2.

http://www.fao.org/

43

Table 3.1: Development drivers for the agriculture sector

SD pillar Drivers

Environmental Climate variability – cannot be manipulated (background driver – constant)

Continued availability and integrity of key natural resources (water, land and

grazing)

Occurrence and extent of diseases and pests (eg foot and mouth, ticks)

Availability of appropriate livestock breeds/crops varieties suitable to arid conditions

Social Enclosing/alienation of common land – restricting land uses by others, especially the

poor and vulnerable

Labour, skills and competence (rural-urban migration/urbanisation is taking people

off the land, declining interest in agriculture amongst the youth, HIV/AIDS )

Economic Access to finance

Acces to markets and marketing (local & international)

o Exchange rate fluctuations (affect input costs and price of exports)

Availability of machinery and implements suitable for Botswana, and spare parts

Subsidisation

o Subsidies to arable farms (cultivated land)

o Loans for fencing rangeland/farms

Agro-industry (provides market and tools to process products (value-adding), etc)

Policy

o FMD fencing – for EU market

o Tribal grazing land policy (national policy on agricultural development)

o Policy poorly constructed, not well-informed or researched

o Incompatible land use in certain areas (leading to, eg human-wildlife conflict)

(but policies are blanket and do not take account of local specificities)

44

Table 3.2 Development scenarios for the agriculture sector over the next 10 years

CURRENT SITUATION

(BASELINE SCENARIO)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL

(LOW GROWTH +

INFLATION)


HIGH GROWTH


Assumptions:


(within Botswana or

bilaterally)

Increase in mining & coal-

based energy production


Assumptions:

Progressive policy shifts

Agriculture takes on more

integrated approach (eg

conservation agriculture, mixed

game/livestock farming, high tech

water-efficient farming of high

value crops)

Substantial investment in water

recycling & desalination

Increase in mining & coal-based

energy production


Dwindling of the

commons (mainly due to

elite capture, but also town

expansion), including sale

of tribal land) [currently

c30% is common land]

Deteriorating rangelands

(eg soil erosion, perennial

species lost)

Low production &

productivity (arable +

livestock)

Conflicting land use

leading to human-wildlife

conflicts

Overharvesting

groundwater

Commons continue to

dwindle maybe to 10%

(some say this could be a

tipping point beyond which

there could be social unrest)

Rangelands continue to

deteriorate

Little change. Variable

according to climate

Escalation of HWC (made

worse by hunting ban)

Aquifers failing (agriculture

competing with increased

demand in other sectors, eg

mining)

Extent of common land stabilised

at 10% (more organised

traditional agriculture, additional

investment/interaction with

private sector, serving niche

markets - eg better integrated

with tourism sector)

Integrated rangeland management

(IRM) leads to improvement in

rangelands & their productivity

Conservation agriculture (CA) in

suitable areas significantly

improves crop yields &

integration of crop farming &

livestock keeping

Emergence of value-adding agro-

industries; and more skilled

labour force

Surge in farming indigenous

African cattle breeds (eg Tswana,

Boran, Nguni) or cross-breeds (eg

Musi)

Promotion of integrated game-

livestock farming through revised

land use plans in suitable areas –

addressing wildlife–

livestock/arable farming conflicts

Groundwater use stabilised –

subject to:

o IRM & CA using less water

o Some agro-sectors using grey

water (eg irrigation, tanneries)

o Aquifer recharge

Could improve under IRM

45

Livestock providing

communities with

livelihoods & social

security

Agriculture the main

employer

Highly successful niche

market for beef (EU)

Little change

Little change

EU market maintained &

few others explored

Increased upstream

abstraction of water from

shared rivers (eg Okavango

in Angola) – undermines

planned irrigation schemes

Could improve:

o Under IRM & CA

o With value-adding of agro-

products

o Increased youth employment

o Through integrated game-

livestock/arable farming

(implies examining tourism

policy: high volume/low

impact)

Diversified market (beyond EU)

& products (eg small-stock)

Markets for non-beef agro-

products accessed & vibrant

More sustainable and equitable

abstraction of water from shared

rivers through more effective

interventions by shared river

basin Commissions, eg

implementing effective

transboundary protocols (eg for

EA), trading water


The agriculture sector will continue to be of critical importance with traditional farming engaging the

vast majority of rural people (constituting over half of the population) whose livelihoods depend on

subsistence crop and livestock farming – particularly goats and sheep. The cattle value chain will be

upgraded as Botswana’s beef is marketed as a high-end naturally produced product, meeting high

quality standards and regulatory controls, in both the EU and new diversified markets.

High growth in the sector will be driven by progressive policy shifts that promote a more integrated

approach to agriculture. This will involve a range of approaches. For example, conservation

agriculture will expand in suitable areas and significantly improve crop yields and the integration of

crop farming and livestock keeping. Integrated rangeland management (IRM) will be promoted

leading to improved rangelands and an increase in their productivity, a focus on mixed game and

livestock farming facilitated by revised land use plans in suitable areas (addressing wildlife–

livestock/arable farming conflicts), and the re-introduction of indigenous African cattle breeds. There

will be a significant emphasis on high-tech and water-efficient farming of high value crops (using

grey water where possible), with substantial investment in water recycling and desalination. These

developments will be accompanied by new value-adding agro-industries and the emergence of a more

skilled labour force.

The extent of common land will continue to dwindle (including sale of tribal land) and stabilise at

about 10%. But traditional agriculture will be more organised with additional investment by, and

interaction between, communities and the private sector, and with the use of common serving niche

markets (eg by being integrated with opportunities to provide food and other products to the tourism

sector).

46

3.3 Sustainability appraisal of the agriculture sector


Development initiatives/activities associated the high-growth scenario for agriculture (see Table 3.2)


Vision for Botswana were reviewed. This identified the following changes and activities (initiatives,

projects, policy thrusts, etc) that are proposed or likely to be implemented over the next 10 years:

Promote a more integrated approach to agriculture (eg conservation agriculture, mixed

game/livestock farming, high tech water-efficient farming of high value crops).

‘Upgrade cattle-based agriculture’ - upgrade the cattle value chain, positioning Botswana beef as

a high-end naturally produced product in both the EU and new markets [(Vision] – “in balance

with the tourism sector” [Vision].

Set quality standards and guarantee achievement of high standards in naturally produced cattle

[Vision].

Diversify end markets through a focus on new consumer groups in emerging economies and

review the structure for international sales and marketing [Vision].

Strengthen the current system of extension and advisory services [Vision].

Liberalize the export market to improve export performance and returns to farmers [Vision].

Revise the Livestock Identification and Trace-back System with a new independent entity

implementing a fully EU-compliant system of official controls, regulatory change, regional

harmonization of beef processing/product rules, and a shift to ear-tags [Vision].

Develop a training curriculum for best technical/business practices throughout the beef value

chain [Vision].

Introduction of integrated rangeland management.

Promotion of conservation agriculture (CA) in suitable areas.

Promotion of value-adding agro-industries; and development of a more skilled labour force.

Promotion of farming indigenous African cattle breeds (eg Tswana, Boran, Nguni) or cross-

breeds (eg Musi).

Promotion of integrated game-livestock farming through revised land use plans in suitable areas –

addressing wildlife–livestock/arable farming conflicts.

Diversification of market (beyond EU) and products (eg small-stock).

Strong effort to access and develop markets for non-beef agro-products.

The following activities (partly amalgamating initiatives listed above) were selected by participants

for assessment in the sustainability appraisal workshop for the agriculture sector:

Activity 1: Increase agricultural output through livestock (mainly beef, some sheep/goats) –

taken to include the following initiatives:

Upgrade the cattle value chain, positioning Botswana beef as a high-end naturally produced

product in both the EU and new markets – “in balance with tourism sector” [Vision].

Set quality standards and guarantee achievement of high standards in naturally produced

cattle [Vision].

Revise the Livestock Identification and Trace-back System with a new independent entity

implementing fully EU-compliant system of official controls, regulatory change, regional

harmonization of beef processing/product rules and a shift to ear-tags [Vision].

Introduce integrated rangeland management.

Develop a training curriculum for best technical/business practices throughout the beef value

chain [Vision].

Promote farming of indigenous African cattle breeds (eg Tswana, Boran, Nguni) or cross-

breeds (eg Musi).


47

Diversify market (beyond EU) and products (eg small-stock).

Activity 2: Promotion of integrated game-livestock farming through revised land use plans in

suitable areas – addressing wildlife–livestock/arable farming conflicts.

Activity 3: Dryland cropping – promoting a more integrated approach to agriculture (eg

conservation agriculture, farming of high value crops)

Activity 4: Irrigated agriculture - expansion of mega irrigation projects (high tech water-

efficient) (maize, lucerne, vegetables, sorghum).

3.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the agriculture sector

More than half of Batswana live in rural areas and are dependent on subsistence crop and livestock

farming. They mostly operate at small scale level, often requiring State assistance and money sent

home by relatives in urban areas for their survival. The share of the agriculture sector’s contribution to

economic growth in Botswana has fallen significantly since independence in 1966.

Like other SADC governments, GoB emphasises agriculture-led rural development and the need for

access to land. In spite of the millions of Pula being invested in this cause, the actual response has

been urbanisation and a lowering of livelihood security in rural areas - requiring greater subsidisation

for rural living (from government and remittances). On current evidence, this is not sustainable. From

a technical perspective, subsistence agriculture may be unsustainable. But, practically, it will continue

and will likely always need some subsidisation to ensure that poor people - with few other alternatives

- have some means of securing a livelihood, as well as meeting social/cultural objectives.

The relative decline of agriculture sector’s contribution to GDP is primarily a result of natural climate

variability (periodic droughts), the effects of anthropogenically-induced climate change effects

(recurring drought and increasing temperatures), and the improvement of other sectors (notably

mining and tourism). The agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable to climate change in

Botswana and therefore requires very careful planning.

Additional challenges include desertification, increases in veterinary diseases, pests and insect

infestations. In contrast to mining and tourism (which have some comparative advantages and

relatively good future prospects), Botswana's agricultural potential is limited. However, since

agriculture plays an important role in rural livelihoods by providing food, income and employment for

the majority of the rural dwellers, farming still remains a viable option for poverty reduction and

employment creation because it is labour intensive.

A variety of activities are proposed in this sector, which have different implications for sustainable

development. Of particular note from a sustainable development standpoint is proposed large-scale

irrigated agriculture in north-east Botswana, which is likely to result in significant impacts - both

social (e.g. involuntary resettlement, social disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS) and environmental

(e.g. habitat loss, wildlife displacement, pollution). These concerns and the opportunities for

integrated multi-sector and spatial planning would benefit greatly from a Strategic Social and

Environmental Assessment. The impacts of livestock production and dryland cropping also require

careful management, but are of lesser concern and relatively easily managed through good practices.

The policy to erect and maintain fences is questionable from a sustainability perspective. 80% of

cattle are found in the unfenced communal areas, and it is argued that fences will reduce land

degradation because it makes livestock management easier. But others pose an alternative view that

maintaining open range systems is essential, especially as an adaptation measure to climate change.

A good policy option is Integrated Land Management (ILM). This would imply fewer cattle of better

48

breeds that are better suited to range and climate adaption. It would equal or better current economic

returns, with lower environmental impact. Also, livestock and crop farming needs improved

integration, rather than treating them as separate operations. Achieving such changes will require

people being better informed to understand the whole picture.

Box 3.3: Integrated land management

Various approaches to integrated land management (sometime called sustainable land management) have had

excellent success in enhancing rain-fed and irrigated crops in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid conditions

(SAIEA 2014):

1. Conservation agriculture (see Box 3.2) combines minimum soil disturbance (ripper tillage or no-tillage),

with permanent soil cover (e.g., mulches) and crop rotation to reduce soil moisture losses and enhance

crop production.

2. Integrated soil fertility management uses supplementation with a variety of organic and inorganic plant

nutrients to enhance crop production.

3. Rainwater harvesting aims to improve the use of rainfall, making it available for agricultural or domestic

uses in areas where rainfall is the primary limiting factor.

4. Smallholder irrigation management aims to achieve higher water-use efficiency through more efficient

water collection and abstraction, water storage and distribution, and using drip or micro-spray

applications, which have low wastage.

5. Cross-slope barriers use soil bunds, stone lines, vegetative strips etc. to reduce rainfall runoff velocity and

soil erosion.

6. Agroforestry integrates the many benefits of trees to enhance soil and water resources. Trees provide fuel

and fodder products, while various fruits and their oils can be directly used as food. The deep roots of

trees bring moisture and nutrients to the surface, while their branches funnel water to the patch of shade

around the trunk creating localized patches of shelter and pasture. Trees play an important role in

combating desertification and mitigating climate change.

7. Integrated crop and livestock management optimizes the use of crop and livestock resources through the

beneficial interactions between them

Source: SAIEA (2014)

49

3.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activities

Table 3.2: Sustainability appraisal of selected activities in the agriculture sector

Activity 1: Increase agricultural output through livestock (mainly beef, some sheep/goats)

Upgrade the cattle value chain, positioning Botswana beef as a high-end naturally produced product in both the EU

and new markets – “in balance with tourism sector” [Vision].

Set quality standards and guarantee achievement of high standards in naturally produced cattle [Vision].

Revise the Livestock Identification and Trace-back System with a new independent entity implementing fully EU-

compliant system of official controls, regulatory change, regional harmonization of beef processing/product rules

and a shift to ear-tags [Vision].

Introduce Integrated rangeland management IRM.

Develop a training curriculum for best technical/business practices throughout the beef value chain [Vision].

Promote farming of indigenous African cattle breeds (eg Tswana, Boran, Nguni) or cross-breeds (eg Musi).


Diversify the market (beyond EU) & products (eg small-stock).

On balance perspectve [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Even though the livestock sector is stagnant, it remains a cornerstone of Botswana’s economy and social fabric. Whilst it

performs relatively poorly from a GDP perspective, it needs to be strengthened for social, employment and livelihood

reasons, especially in rural areas where there are limited economic development opportunities. From a sustainability

perspective, key improvements should include improving herd quality but reducing overall herd size. The increased use

of indigenous breeds will reduce input costs (dipping and feeding), whilst improving the resilience of the national herd

to climate variability and change. Calving and offtake rates can be increased significantly, and better marketing and

market diversification should be pursued. The intention to promote IRM is sound, as there is a need to improve

rangelands. In many parts of the country, rangelands are deteriorating. Whilst subsidies in the livestock sector may be

justified, these need to be better targeted to reach those most in need. This sector is dominated by beef, but there is an

opportunity to improve the marketing of small stock (sheep and goats), both locally and internationally.

Synergies

There is potential for agro-tourism (visitors to cattle posts). Value adding could take the form of manufacturing of

leather goods and the selling of cured hides for tourists or interior decoration and furniture purposes. The agriculture and

wildlife sectors could be integrated in areas where livestock and game farming could be combined (see activity 2).

Antagonisms within and between sectors

In order to reduce land use conflicts, livestock farming needs to be avoided in wilderness areas that are highly sensitive

and important for conservation and tourism. Also, the proximity of livestock to certain types of wildlife (e.g. buffalo)

increases risks of disease transfers and human-wildlife conflicts.

Assumptions and risks:

Given the traditional importance of cattle to Batswana, there is a risk that there will be resistance to the idea of less

cattle, even though they may be of higher quality and thus of equal or better value economically. There is a risk that the

aims of this activity may be undermined because labour in Botswana is expensive and unproductive, and the youth are

less interested in farming than the older generation.


security

Positive impacts

Increased income as new

markets are penetrated

and Botswana brand

becomes better known.

Increased exports

improve FOREX

earnings.

Greater employment.

Positive impacts

At a small-scale level:

livestock is an inclusive

sector that contributes to

poverty alleviation

through employment,

cash from sales, milk,

draught power, etc

cattle are an important

status and wealth symbol.

Positive impacts

Rangeland quality4 will

be improved through

Integrated Range

Management (IRM)

approaches

IRM will also

encourage farmers to

keep fewer animals of

better quality, which

will reduce pressure on

grazing and water

resources.

Positive impacts

In rural areas, farming

keeps people busy, so

they are less inclined to

turn to crime etc.

Ear tag and tracking

system will reduce

conflicts over animal

ownership.

Fewer (though better

quality) animals will

reduce pressure on „the

commons“, thus

reducing conflicts over

grazing.

4 Improved ratio of perennial grasses versus annual grass species, more nutritious species, fewer weeds

50

How to enhance

Increase exports of

organic/free range beef

and small-stock through

improved niche

marketing (EU etc.)

Increase sales to markets

not requiring FMD free

meat (e.g. central Africa)

Promote local breeds and

improve herds through

targeted cross-breeding

(to improve arid

adaptability)

Market additional

products (hides, horns

etc.).

Increase calving rate

from current 60%

Improve offtake

mechanisms (through

more efficient

administration, improved

infrastructure,

streamlined procedures).

Grow fodder to improve

production in areas

where water and suitable

soils are available.

Improve employment

conditions for farm

labourers (living wage,

decent working

conditions, reasonable

security).

How to enhance

Cooperative type

activities (e.g. breeding

programmes, veterinary

services, coordinated

marketing) will improve

the ability of small-scale

farmers to improve herds

and offtake

Educate farmers about

the benefits of timely

selling (before drought

hits) rather than

keeping/accumulating.

How to enhance

Implement IRM at

district levels, and

provide good extension

services to farmers

How to enhance

Improve institutional

functioning (especially

agricultural extension

and veterinary services)

to improve livestock

quality and implement

IRM.

Monitoring and

evaluation to assess

implementation success

of planned activities.

Negative impacts

Expensive subsidies for

poor-performing sector.

EU requirements are

expensive to comply with,

thus reducing profit

margins.

Expensive to control

livestock diseases.

Livestock farming in prime

wildlife/tourism areas

present an opportunity cost

(tourism will normally be

more profitable in such

areas).

How to mitigate

Reconsider some subsidies,

which may be reducing the

economic efficiency of the

sector.

Diversify from EU market

Negative impacts

An emphasis on meat

export will result in

higher prices and also

limit the amount of meat

available for local

consumption. This will

place greater pressure on

incomes and family

nutrition.

Increased use of dipping

may increase health risks

for farmers and labourers.

How to mitigate

Reserve some meat for

the local market (price

controls?)


correct storage and

Negative impacts

If livestock numbers

increase overall:

Rangeland

deterioration

through overgrazing

Increased competion

with wildlife (HWC)

If the commons shrink

(because of elite

capture and fencing),

sedentarism will occur,

causing range

degradation and

erosion.

Veterinary Control

Fences in some areas

(e.g. Ngamiland)

reduce wildlife

mobility and increase

wildlife mortalities.

How to mitigate

Coordinate land use

planning with other

sectors (e.g.

conservation and

tourism) to reduce land

Negative impacts

Agricultural subsidies

often do not reach the

poor, but rather

advantage the wealthy.

How to mitigate

Improve the way that

recipients of subsidies

are identified, and

provide subsidies to

those in greatest need.

51

(e.g. expand access to

African/Asian markets).

Coordinate land use

planning with other sectors

(e.g. conservation and

tourism) to reduce land use

conflicts.

handling procedures for

dip chemicals.

use conflicts.

Develop and implement

IRM plans/strategies at

district levels, and

provide good extension

services to farmers


the benefits of timely

selling (before drought

hits) rather than

keeping/accumulating).

Activity 2: Promotion of integrated game-livestock farming through revised land use plans in

suitable areas – addressing wildlife–livestock/arable farming conflicts. On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

This approach works well in neighbouring countries (e.g. Zimbabwe, South Africa, Zambia, Namibia), and there is no

reason why it could not flourish in Botswana. Key enabling policy reforms would be needed, including enabling

conditional wildlife ownership, wildlife trade and allowing hunting in more areas of the country.


Mixed game and livestock farming, including tourism, combines to achieve greater economic benefits from the land.


Game farms may result in an increase in pests and predators, which may negatively affect adjacent livestock farms.


The necessary policy reforms noted above will be made.


security

Postive impacts

Diversified economic return

(grazers and browsers side

by side improves

production per ha)

Increased and more varied

job opportunities.

Niche marketing advantage

as venison is regarded as

healthy by western

consumers.

Mixed farming improves

resilience to climate

variability as diverse

species do not compete

directly with each other for

fodder, and game are

generally better adapted to

arid conditions.

How to enhance

In addition to food

production, farmers could

also offer safari and hunting

tourism

Raise awareness of

potential and modalities

through exposure to

existing ventures (e.g.

Ghanzi district).

Revise ownership policy

regarding wildlife, and

permit conditions for

Positive impacts

Improved livelihoods and

increased incomes.

Enhanced appreciation of

economic and cultural

value of wildlife.

How to enhance

None obvious beyond

promoting this activity

Positive impacts

Potentially improved

rangelands where

browsing wildlife could

consume encroaching

bush.

How to enhance

None obvious beyond

promoting this activity

Positive impacts

None obvious

52

hunting (to make game

farming and consumptive

tourism possible in suitable

areas but where restrictions

currently apply).

Negative impacts

Mixed game and livestock

farming could require

expensive infrastructure

(e.g. fences).

Whilst game farming may

be economically lucrative

when linked to tourism (in

some areas outperforming

livestock farming), the land

may produce less food, thus

potentially requiring food

imports.

How to mitigate

None required

Negative impacts

None obvious

Negative impacts

Land degradation will

result if farmers

overstock with game

(because their main

objective is attracting

tourists).

Genetic “pollution“ is

possible if game

species are sourced

from outside the range

of the local population

of that species (e.g.

impala from RSA may

be genetically different

from those in northern

Botswana).

How to mitigate

Apply appropriate

stocking rates

Source wildlife locally

Negative impacts

Increase in poaching

because wildlife

become more

widespread and

habituated.

Game theft/loss from

State protected areas

(for stocking farms)

How to mitigate

Enhanced anti-

poaching measures

Activity 3: Dryland cropping – promoting a more integrated approach to agriculture (eg

conservation agric, farming of high value crops) On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Innovative approaches to dryland agriculture (e.g. conservation agriculture) has proven to be very successful in pilot

projects in Botswana and neighbouring countries, and experts are confident that this activity will contribute positively to

sustainable development at local level. More R&D is needed to boost high-value dryland agriculture, as this form of

land use is inclusive, suitable to SMEs and community initiatives, and gender considerations. Also has possibilities for

diversification (e.g. chickens, honey), and there are linkages to tourism. Requires low(ish) start-up capital


Communities near to tourism hubs could supply lodges and restaurants with fresh produce that is currently imported.


Conservation and agriculture may find it difficult to coexist in areas where crops are susceptible to raiding by wildlife


Communities may resist growing crops for the tourism/commercial market, preferring instead to grow those traditionaly

cultivated (e.g. maize, sorghum)


security

Positive impacts

Better yields from CA than

from current traditional

practices

Increased employment (CA

is more labour intensive)

Positive impacts

Better yields and thus

improved livelihoods/

reduced poverty

Improved health and

nutrition of people

because of nutritious

crops (e.g. cow pea).

Positive impacts

Compared to conventional

agriculture:

o Less pressure on

water resources

because of more

efficient water use.

o Requires less land

per unit of

production,

o Causes less soil

erosion,

o Requires fewer

chemicals,

Positive impacts

None obvious

53

How to enhance

Additional research is

needed to determine the

most appropriate crops and

farming methods.

Select high value crops that

can be sold to lodges,

mines, hotels and

supermarkets.

Develop fresh produce

market hubs (facilities) in

strategic locations (e.g.

Maun, Kasane).

Improving value-chain by

offering niche products

(e.g. cosmetic oils).

How to enhance

Promote community-

based initiatives that

enable youth

involvement, equal

opportunities for men

and women, and for

people with disabilities.

o More large trees are

left standing.

How to enhance

Promote this activity in

suitable areas (e.g.

malapos)

Negative impacts

More labour intensive and

could thus increase costs

since labour costs more

than machines - and labour

is scarce

How to mitigate

Appropriate mechanisation

(R&D needed).

Negative impacts

Many jobs are not

decent (low paid,

seasonal)

How to mitigate

Decent wages need to

be paid to workers

(minimum wage in the

Labour Act may not be

a living wage?).

Negative impacts

If minimum tillage

option used, could

require more herbicides

to control weeds

How to mitigate

Appropriate

mechanisation (R&D

needed).

Where herbicide use is

unavoidable, only use

approved chemicals

and in prescribed

applications and

quantities.

Negative impacts

None obvious

Activity 4: irrigated agriculture - expansion of mega irrigation projects (high tech water-

efficient) (maize, lucerne, vegetables, sorghum) On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

This is a contentious activity since large areas of industrial agriculture usually result is a great variety of social and

environmental impacts. This initiative requires careful thought and an accompanying sustainability assessment to

address the many likely negative cumulative impacts, and enhance possible synergies.


In this particular area (NE Botswana), it is possible to enhance the synergies between large-scale irrigation and

industrialisation (agro-industries), and the achievement of local value-adding. Also, this initiative provides an impetus

for better multi-sector integration and improved long-term spatial planning.


Land previously used for traditional agriculture may be alienated for mega irrigation projects. Also, these projects are

usually located adjacent to major rivers that are important for biodiversity and already utilised for tourism.


The greatest risk is that vast areas under monoculture are highly susceptible to climate change and pests, especially in

marginal areas. This requires considerable inputs of agrochemicals and fertilisers, which is both costly and polluting.


security

Positive impacts

Positive impacts

Positive impacts

Positive impacts

54

Overall benefit to national

economy through

multipliers

Stimulates ancilliary

industry and services

(engineering, chemicals,

transport, banking, etc.)

Provides jobs, income

opportunities, skills

training

Attracts expatriate

expertise

Crops for export (FOREX)

Import substitution (food).

How to enhance

Local hiring

Skills transfer

Local ownership

New skills acquired

Improved family

incomes

More services &

social infrastructure

available in the area

(e.g. schools,

clinics).

Less need to seek

jobs elsewhere

How to enhance

Local hiring

Skills transfer

Local ownership

None obvious

None obvious

Negative impacts

If number of irrigation projects

increases significantly, then:

There could be opportunity

costs – water could be used

better (e.g. mining)

Could negatively affect

tourism because of altered

sense of place.

How to mitigate

Conduct sustainability

assessment (SA) of agro-

industrial hub (north eastern

corner of Botswana) to

understand cumulative

impacts of irrigated

agriculture and other other

developments (e.g. transport,

mining, township expansion,

tourism) in the same area.

Negative impacts

Involuntary

resettlement (through

displacement of people

to make way for

irrigation projects).

Possible social

disruption, squatting,

crime, HIV and AIDS –

due to contract workers

and in-migration.

How to mitigate

SA of agro-industrial

hub and project-level

EIAs

Modify relevant

District Plans

Negative impacts

Cumulative impacts:

Reduced environmental

flow through over-

abstraction of water

(cumulatively by the

projects and other

sectors)

Habitat loss &

fragmentation due to

clearing for agriculture

and towns, restricting

wildlife migration

routes

HWC

Increased poaching

Pollution and

eutrophication (through

excess use of artifical

fertilisers)

How to mitigate


hub

Modify Chobe District

Plan

Negative impacts

Tension with Zambezi

basin states concerning

water abstraction.

Illegal in-migration

because of lure of jobs

and economic

opportunities

How to mitigate

Modify relevant

District Plans (to

improve allocation of

areas for various types

of development,

housing, infrastructure,

etc.)


hub

Develop and implement

a Transboundary EIA

protocol for the

relevant shared river

systems (under the

SADC Protocol on

Shared Watercourses)

Increased security and

administrative capacity

will be needed

55


The agriculture sector has been stagnant in recent years, but the Vision expects a resurgence of growth

through vastly improved niche-marketing of Botswana’s naturally-produced beef to the EU and other

countries. But the Vision and NDP11 also need to recognise the critical importance of traditional

subsistence farming to rural communities, and particularly their reliance on small-stock such as goats

and sheep. These instruments should elaborate ways to support improvements and investment in such

farming, develop local markets for products, and increase job opportunities. Options include

transitioning to conservation agriculture, introducing integrated crop farming and livestock keeping,

enabling mixed game and livestock farming, and encouraging the keeping of indigenous cattle breeds.

Agriculture in Botswana is rainfall-dependent and so is very vulnerable to climate change. The Vision

should strongly emphasise the need to move to a more integrated approach to rangeland management

with fewer animals of better quality – this would yield better results than a large number of poor

quality animals and reduce overgrazing and soil degradation; and NDP11 should include programmes

to implement such an approach.

A range of developments are proposed in this sector, which our analysis shows have different

implications for sustainable development. Of particular concern is the proposal to expand large-scale

irrigated agriculture in north-east Botswana, This requires very careful consideration since it is likely

to have significant negative social consequences (e.g. involuntary resettlement, social disruption,

spread of HIV and AIDS) and impact negatively on the environmental (e.g. causing habitat loss,

wildlife displacement and pollution). But the proposed irrigation development also presents

opportunities to pursue integrated multi-sector and spatial planning. We recommend that such

planning be supported a sustainability assessment of the proposed development, and that NDP11

commits to commissioning such an assessment.

56

4: ENERGY SECTOR

4.1 Baseline situation in the energy sector


Energy is vital to Botswana’s economy and development, underpinning industry and commerce. To

meet the growing demand for energy use in Botswana (particularly for commercial and mining

activities), it has been suggested that operation capacity (currently 100MW) will need to be increased

to 2,595 MW or more assuming 85% plant efficiency (Ofetotse & Essah 2012).

Botswana is examining the opportunities for local and export market energy generation, direct export

of coal to many of the European and Asian markets, and local processing into a number of by-

products. Coal by-products include fertilisers, gas, liquid energy, and coal-bed methane. These by-

products can reduce the direct use of coal for electricity generation.

According to Ofetotse and Essah (2012), in 2011, the BPC installed capacity supplied a little over

12% (a decrease from 15% in 2010) of the country’s demands for electricity while 66% was sourced

from South Africa (Eskom). The rest (22%) was obtained from other providers such as Mozambique’s

Hydroelectrica de Cahora Bassa and electricidade de Mocambique (EDM). The dependence of

Botswana on imports is a threat to the security of energy supply. For instance, Eskom has been failing

to meet its own demands; hence electricity supplies to Botswana have had to be cut back. Other

neighbouring countries are also experiencing electricity demand levels that border or exceed

production levels, and several suffer shortages.


Table A5.1 (Appendix 5) summarises the key policy instruments and legislation for this sector.

Coal presents significant development opportunities for Botswana. The Government of Botswana is

committed to developing and promoting a wider use of coal to substitute for imported energy and also

to replace fuel-wood for domestic and institutional use (http://www.energy.gov.bw/coal.php). It is

currently developing a national Coal Roadmap Strategy to guide and direct the effective usage of coal

resources, and unleash the potential for coal to play a significant role in Botswana’s economy. The

migration from an import substitution based policy to an export led industrial policy will support the

development of an elaborate coal processing strategy, which will involve conversion of coal to

various products.

4.1.3 Institutional arrangements:

The Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources (MMEWR) coordinates development and

operational activities in the energy, water and minerals sector. It includes the Department of Energy

Affairs, and two parastatals: Botswana Power Corporation (BPC) and Water Utilities Corporation

(WUC).

The Department of Energy Affairs (established 1984) is the focal point of all energy related matters,

tasked with the formulation, direction and coordination of the National Energy Policy. Its services

include: inspections, monitoring and evaluation, biomass information/advice, petroleum pricing,

renewable energy information/advice, and buying and selling coal. The department is mandated to

monitor consumption rates and patterns, and promote technologies that improve efficient utilisation.

The Ministry of the Environment, Wildlife and Tourism (MEWT) (Department of Meteorological

http://www.energy.gov.bw/coal.php

57

Services, DMS) has a mandate to prepare an inventory of fuelwood (its role is conservation and

sustainable use). But collaboration between MMEWR and DMS is weak. Both of these elementary

records are several years out of date.

The Water Utilities Corporation (WUC), established in 1970 by Act of Parliament, now has a mandate

to supply potable water to all urban centres and villages, as well as manage wastewater under the

Water Sector Reforms Programme (2009 – 2013) - to rationalize the water sector and ensure uniform

service levels for all. Under the programme, WUC’s customer base grew from 80,000 to 222,000 by

March 2013. WUC presently supplies over 66 Mm3 potable water annually. It has seven dams:

Dikgatlhong, Gaborone, Nnywane, Bokaa, Shashe, Ntimbale and Letsibogo as well as the North

South Carrier Scheme. Additional dams under construction are Thune and Lotsane.

The Botswana Power Corporation (BPC) is a parastatal formed in 1970. It is responsible for the

generation, transmission and distribution of electricity within Botswana to areas approved by the

MMEWR. BPC operates Morupule Thermal Power Station near Palapye village in the Central District

- supplied with coal from adjacent Morupule Colliery. It has also implemented various rural

electrification programmes to that connect villages to the national grid.

In 2012, the Botswana Energy and Water Regulator Task Force was set up to establish a regulatory

framework for the energy and water sectors. MMEWR is in the process of creating the Botswana

Energy and Water Regulatory Agency (BEWRA) to independently regulate energy prices and tariffs

as well as industry structure.

4.1.4 Energy resources and products

Botswana’s energy sources consist primarily of electricity, abundant coal (200 billion tonnes),

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), petrol, diesel and aviation gas, biogas, fuelwood and sunshine. Solar,

biogas and biodiesel constitute a small proportion (about 1%). LPG and all the petroleum-based fuels

are imported. Fuelwood usage has been declining over the years while LPG and electricity

consumption has been on the rise. This is mainly attributed to rising affluence as well as increasing

access to electricity. The potential of coal-bed methane has not yet been established.

Coal

Botswana has significant coal resources estimated at 212 billion tonnes. Of this vast quantity, the

majority is still classified as “hypothetical” or “speculative” resources, with only 45 billion tonnes

classified as reserves.

There are four commercially significant coal deposits at Morupule, Mmamabula, Sese and

Mmamantswe on the eastern edge of the Central Kalahari Karoo Basin. Only the reserves in

Morupule (Palapye) in eastern Botswana are currently being mined for electricity generation. African

Energy Resources is currently carrying out feasilibility studes for mining at Sese coal project (large

deposit of thermal coal - estimated 2.73 Gt coal in September 2011); and Hodges Resources has

identified numerous shallow, thick coal seams at the Moiyabana project where drilling and testing is

ongoing. Botswana’s coal is low quality with relatively high levels of ash and sulphur, and is

unsuitable for purposes other than power generation without washing and cleaning.

The underground mine at Morupule (owned by Debswana) produced 1 mt of coal in 2005, but an

expansion project (Morupule B, completed in 2012) will increase this to 3.2 mt/yr. More than 50% of

coal is utilized for power generation by Botswana Power Corporation (BPC) and also in various

industries and very little coal is used for cooking purpose. The mine supplies the 600 MW steam

turbine driven Morupule Thermal Power Station (operated by BPC); mining at Selebe-Phikwe; and

Sua Pan soda ash plants.

58

Morupule B coal-fired power station

An export industry of at least 36 mt/yr is possible, growing to as much as 90 mt/yr. There is also

potential for a facility to convert coal to liquids (CTL): Sasol technology requires 6-7l of water per

litre of fuel produced; but modern air cooled systems require 1.5l of water per litre of fuel produced.

Coal export will require a railroad export system.

There is potential for recovery of natural gas from coal-bearing sedimentary rocks of the Kalahari

and Karoo Basins. Solar energy

Solar energy in Botswana amounts to over 3,200 hours/yr with a strength of 22 Mega Joules per hour (MJ/hr) – one of the highest solar strengths in the world. Solar energy in Botswana is mainly used for water heating, refrigeration and lighting. However, its current contribution to the energy mix is insignificant. Adoption of solar has been slow due to a number of barriers including technology uptake, low wattage output, costs and familiarity. With support from UNDP and GEF, these have been addressed through BPC-Lesedi (Pty) Ltd (formed in 2008) which offers home solar systems to rural consumers, and other off grid and renewable energy solutions (eg solar power photovoltaic products, rechargeable lanterns and improved and financial support). In 2006, the Government started a non-grid rural electrification scheme using photovoltaic power. Perception problems still obstruct the wider use of solar and are exacerbated by a mismatch in prices between solar and grid services – reflecting the differences in government subsidy between the two services. Off-grid generation in villages using a hybrid solar-biogas approach may be best, overcoming extensive investments in battery-banks for storing solar-only energy.

A 100 MW solar thermal power station project in Jwaneng has been proposed and the government is

planning a 1.3 MW photovoltaic power plant in Phakalane (with a Japanese grant of P90 million)

which has potential for replication.

Box 4.1: Solar power in Botswana: advantages and possibilities

Advantages of solar power

Increase in generating capacity relatively quickly to meet energy demand;

Increase in power accessibility in rural areas;

Job creation when linked to enabling policies, regulatory structure, education and possibly to manufacture

of solar equipment;

Will contribute to overall energy production which will stimulate broader economic growth;

Diversification of the energy mix, and reduced reliance on one fuel source;

Conscious progress towards sustainable development following global trends;

Progress towards self-sufficiency energy generation;

59

Offers possibility of closed energy systems with no need for fuel and logistics to support fuel

consumption;

Small scale photovoltaic equipment (at household level) is safer than conventional paraffin/candles.

Possibilities for solar power

Manufacturing and export of photovoltaics to surrounding countries;

Export of day-time production to SADC;

Become a regional centre of expertise - centrally located in SADC;

Development of micro-grids to increase generation capacity and delivery.

Source: Martin Dube and Karen Giffard, pers.com.

Biomass & bioenergy

Botswana is endowed with a number of biomass resources that can be used for production of useable

energy. These include woody biomass (fuelwood) and non-woody biomass resources (residues, wet

biomass and energy crops).

Fuelwood

Wood is the largest biomass resource in Botswana and a major source of energy for rural households.

It is also consumed by several institutions in very large volumes. This high demand has led to

overharvesting and trading of the fuel-wood resource in some parts of the country. This, in turn, has

led to accelerated deforestation and exhaustion of wood resources.

Botswana consumed 251,000 M3 of fuelwood in 2010 whilst production was 683,300m

3

(http://www.factfish.com/statistic-country/botswana/fuelwood,+consumption+by+households). Fuelwood

plays a significant role for many households, especially in rural areas, providing the principal source

for cooking in 46% of households nationally (77% of rural households) (down from 90% in 1981)

(Central Statistics Office, 2007). The remoteness of many farms makes grid electricity uneconomical

because of high connection costs and transmission losses.

Botswana’s forest resources are not extensive but offer opportunities for supporting the demand for

fuelwood if combined with technology enhancements. Selective pruning can enhance growth of trees

and provide fuelwood for communities. There is a need for inventories of wood resources and their

production rates. The devolution of management and user rights (as done for wildlife) is also needed

to ensure that those with more to lose have more to say in the management and use of the wood

resources.

The use of wood-efficient stoves is effective in reducing the rate of consumption of fuelwood - saving

women and children time in collecting fuelwood. BPC-Lesedi sells wood-efficient stoves and heat-

retention bags which are appropriate for slow-cooking dishes such as stews, oxtail, seswaa, samp and

beans. And solar cookers have great potential (Box 4.2) .

Box 4.2: Solar cookers

Solar cooking is a solution for nearly 3 billion people worldwide who cook over open fires. Some cannot afford

to purchase food and fuel, or to make their water safe to drink (http://www.solarcookers.org). A solar cooker

uses direct sunlight to heat, cook or pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers are relatively inexpensive,

low-tech devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced, large-scale

solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people. They use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, cause no air

pollution, and could slow down deforestation and desertification caused by gathering firewood for cooking.

http://www.factfish.com/statistic-country/botswana/fuelwood,+consumption+by+households

http://www.solarcookers.org/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurize

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-tech

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification

60

Solar cooking takes place outdoors thus reducing the danger of accidental fires in traditional homes. Many types

of solar cookers exist, including parabolic solar cookers, solar ovens, and panel cookers, among others.

Fuel efficient stove Solar cooker

Agriculture waste

Agricultural waste such as crop residues and liquids and solid animal waste can be used for energy.

Crop residues (eg straw) can be burned directly for cooking at household level or for driving steam

turbines at commercial level to generate electricity. However, crop residues in Botswana are

insignificant for energy provision as opposed to animal wastes. Nonetheless, the Department of

Energy seeks to promote use of crop residues, where available, as a feedstock in the generation of

energy.

Animal waste (eg cow dung) can be anaerobically digested to produce biogas that can be burnt

directly for cooking or used indirectly for heating and electricity provision. The Department of Energy

promotes biogas production in households and on farms for energy provision and also encourages

investment in infrastructure to produce bio-energy from the by-products of agro processing.

The country has a cattle population of 2,220,000 (2008) (Statistics Botswana, 2012). The volume of

cow dung may be enough to run a number of stand-alone power plants in hybrid arrangement with

solar farms. Other avenues for generation of biogas include abattoirs and sewage treatment plants.

Methane capture offers opportunities for reducing greenhouse gases and addressing energy needs, and

has been considered by a number of private sector entities. But it met with challenges of ownership

and lack of a concessions policy for landfills. The absence of waste separation at-source also limits

the profitability of methane capture, especially with the low volumes of food-waste generated.

Municipal waste

The prominent form of biomass residue in Botswana is municipal solid waste (MSW). However, the

challenge is that the MSW for Botswana landfills comprises both bio-degradable and non-degradable

material. So it is difficult to quantify the capability of energy production from these landfills.

Municipal liquid waste is another potential source of biogas where the amount of effluent determines

the amount of biogas that can be generated. The main resources under this category are municipal

waste-water and sludge, and waste generated from abattoirs. The Department of Energy Affairs

promotes use of bio-degradable MSW as a feedstock and municipal liquid waste in the generation of

energy services.

61

Energy crops Jatrophacarcus has been identified as the best energy crop for bio-diesel production and sweet

sorghum for bio-ethanol production in Botswana. These crops were suggested due to their drought-

tolerant nature since water availability and resource competition are the major issues in Botswana due

to the country’s arid nature. Although the crops can be grown under rain-fed conditions, their yields

can be improved through irrigation. The Department of Energy seeks to promote production of energy

crops in a sustainable manner that does not undermine food and water security. This involves carrying

out scientific research on the identified crops, especially Jatropha, to further evaluate potential.

Under the draft Energy Policy (2009), the government is currently focussing on producing biodiesel,

aiming to reach 10% of diesel supply.

4.1.5 Access to energy

Current trends in Botswana indicate that 58% of the country’s population has access to

electricity (20% from the national grid) although the Department of Energy claims access is 66%

(http://www.energy.gov.bw/electricity.php) with a possible 80% by 2016 (perhaps an ambitious target

given operational inefficiencies) (www.mmewr.gov.bw) (Ofetotse & Essah, 2012).

The 58% access rate stated in official documents (and 66% on the DEA website) may be an

overstatement, as data analysis by Ofetotse and Essah (2012) suggest that, in 2010, only 23% actually

had access, and if installed capacity increases by 1200 MW it would rise to 51%.

4.1.6 Energy consumption

In 2007, petrol was the most consumed energy source (33%), followed by coal and electricity (25%

each). diesel (12%) and other sources at about 1% each including solar. Over the period 1981-2003,

fuelwood consumption was higher than petrol and diesel combined. Ofetotse and Essah offer other

consumption data (but the period and source is not indicated (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Average yearly energy consumption by sector (Source Ofetotse & Essah 2012)

Sector Consumption

(%)

Consumption (GWh)

Domestic 22 5,001

Commercial 34 7,728

Mining 44 10,001

Country’s total energy

consumption

100 22,730

According to Index Mundi (http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=bc&v=81), energy

consumption (total electricity generated annually plus imports and minus exports, expressed in

kilowatt-hours) in Botswana in 2012 was 2.85 billion kWh.

Botswana consumes 850 million litres of petrol, diesel and paraffin. Of the total petroleum products

consumed in the country, petrol accounts for 54%, diesel 44% and illuminating kerosene 2%.

Transport is the largest consumer (43%) of total national energy (Energy Affairs Department,

2007), mining the largest consumer of electricity, and households are the largest consumers of

http://www.energy.gov.bw/electricity.php

http://www.mmewr.gov.bw/

http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=bc&v=81

62

paraffin. With paraffin prices having escalated and passed those of diesel and petrol, poor

households have been the most affected, and women in particular.

4.1.7 Power infrastructure

Botswana imports 88% of its electricity needs through the Southern Africa power supply network

(Figure A5.1, Appendix 5). The domestic distribution network is shown in Figures A5.2 and A5.3

(Appendix 5).

Botswana has also engaged in the Western Power Corridor (Westcor) project which aimed to

construct and supply energy from two hydroelectric power plants in the DRC to DRC itself and to

Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. Originally, the hydro power was to be supplied from

the DRC’s INGA III hydropower scheme. Later Inga III was supposed to be replaced

by Angola's Cuanza River and Cunene River projects or by the new project in the DRC. Ultimately

the project was aborted by shareholders when unforeseen changes were proposed to the founding

agreements.

4.1.8 Sustainability implications

Botswana is over reliant on energy imports to sustain its economy. In the event that Botswana’s

supply countries face shortages, then Botswana will not be able to sustain its economic growth.

The level of consumption of petroleum products represents a significant energy challenge for

Botswana. This challenge is more deep-rooted as it touches on the value of exports vs imports and the

volatility of oil prices which has huge implications for the country’s import bill.

The lack of gender disaggregated data to establish who uses what type of fuel and for what purpose,

which could be used by energy policy-makers and programme developers, hinders efforts to increase

access to cleaner forms of energy in the country.

With Botswana’s vast coal reserves, and relative ease/cheapness of supply, the country will be secure

for electricity supply to satisfy demand for industrialisation and those connected to the grid.

Government policy is that the country will become an exporter of coal and electricity over the Vision

period. The implications for the nation’s carbon footprint need to be considered – will this be merely

set aside in the interests of export benefits? Sustainability assessments (SAs) should be undertaken of

the coal strategy and the planned new railways for export.

The development of off grid energy supply will obviate the costs and infrastructure of supply, and

reduce the need for long power lines and their environmental/aesthetic impacts (especially in high

value tourist areas). For example, bird strikes are a significant issue along power lines. Evidence

shows that one big bird (a Bustard and above) per km per year is killed through collisions with power

lines. This has a serious ecological significance since such birds all eat locusts – and locust outbursts

are linked to rain and are therefore patchy. These issues support the logic for and integrated diesel-

solar approach in rural areas to address the current reliance on fuelwood. Some rural areas (eg

Kasane) will be able to access SAPP power lines.

The development of solar energy will not generate large quantities to satisfy peak supply needs. Solar

power cannot be stored. But solar development will certainly contribute to base load needs,

particularly at the village level.

A key challenge is to ensure that rural households are able to use fuelwood in a sustainable manner

and that fuelwood consumption is stopped in government institutions. The use of fuelwood is an

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectric_power

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inga_III

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuanza_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunene_River

63

important issue for biodiversity conservation and gender in that without a system that allows local

community management of woody vegetation and the overall suite of range resources, depletion is

likely to occur as more resourced citizens harvest at rates higher than those at which nature can

replenish the wood resources. As with wildlife, the capacity of government to monitor wood resources

is limited. Without the management fuelwood, the devolution of quotas to local communities, and

development of requisite local capacity, it is the poor who stand to lose. Women and children spend

hours each week collecting fuelwood for day-to-day domestic use (cooking and heating). With the

depletion of wood resources in areas closest to homesteads, more time is spent in fuelwood collection,

thus depriving children of study-time and women of other productive uses of time such as commercial

activities, adult (distant) education, or participating in village governance structures.

Exposure to smoke from traditional cook-stoves and open fires – the primary means of cooking

and heating for many people – can cause premature deaths, with women and young children the

most affected.

4.2 Development scenarios for the energy sector


main influences on the development of the mining sector over the coming decade (Table 4.2). These



Table 4.2: Development drivers for the energy sector

SD pillar Drivers

Environmental Climate change

o UNFCC may restrict BRICS energy mix (negative for coal, positive for uranium)

o Recent USA-China bilateral agreement that aims to reduce fossil fuel burning

o Botswana itself has targets it should meet. Coal may not be the best direction –

though best technology could soften the problem.

Water

o All Botswana’s main rivers are shared rivers which are already stressed and other

countries are abstracting. There is increased water demand in Botswana and

neighbouring countries. The SADC Agreement on Shared Water is a key

instrument – need to establish Transboundary EIA protocol.

o Water is needed for coal power stations, and cleaning coal for export

Social Crime

o High crime dissuades investment in alternative energy (eg solar panels are often

stolen)

Poverty

o High poverty levels dictate choices about power options (woodfuel is the go-to

choice – it is ‘free’)

Corruption

o Corruption has affected the efficiency of power generation capacity, and may

even suppress the development of alternative technology and IPP. Ultimately it

sabotages the economy and socio-economic development.

Economic Southern African Power Pool (SAPP)

o Regional power demand (likely to increase because of regional growth) – coal

power stations are the easiest and cheapest to supply. Botswana has comparative

advantage because of huge coal reserves

o How much does RSA need to access the energy power sources of its neighbours?

o Neighbouring countries are all expected to ramp-up their power stations

Economic development in Botswana

o Mining (bulk consumer of energy)

64

o Increasing settlements, more travelling, etc.

Coalfields in Botswana (and other energy sources)

o Coal prices are unreliable – may drop

o Low international prices will make coal exports unfeasible, but coal is maybe OK

for local power generation

Sunshine in Botswana

o Cost too high – may drop

o Comparative advantage for sunlight – this opportunity is not being taken seriously

Global economy

o Risk that Chinese & Indian economies may stagnate – reduced their appetite for

Botswana’s coal

o General economic situation globally

o China and India currently constructing nuclear power plants (will affect coal

requirements)

Oil prices

o Higher prices stimulate coal price and provide an advantage for alternative

energy. Opposite is the case if oil prices low

Other Energy and other policies

o Subsidies and entry barriers/opportunities influence the energy sector (eg

independent power producers (IPPs), in-feeding tariffs, household units, etc.)

o GoB standards may influence technology, service quality and prices, and

ultimately may influence public perceptions, especially regarding alternative

energy.

o Policy currently does not set a vision/target for a desired energy mix

o Immigration resistance to foreign experts is a disincentive for FDI in energy (and

other ) sectors

Energy policy consistency in SADC and beyond

o Issues such as emissions, carbon tax, etc., need to be harmonised in SADC so the

playing field is level

o SADC Renewable Energy Strategy

Market information

o Better information will improve coordination and marketability

Technology and skills

o Better technology and local skills will improve

Table 4.3 Development scenarios for the energy sector over the next 10 years

CURRENT SITUATION

(BASELINE SCENARIO)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL

(LOW GROWTH +

INFLATION)


NDP11 period]

HIGH GROWTH


Assumptions:

Energy policy finalised,

partially implemented

Morupule A functional, & B

80% reliable

IPPs enabled but not

operating

Assumptions:

Energy policy finalised and

consistently implemented

Morupule A functional & B 90%

reliable

Morupule 5 and 6 in planning

phase (brownfields) - Palapye

1 greenfield coal power station in

early construction phase (coal)

Jindal coal power station in early

construction phase (coal)

IPPs starting to emerge

65

SAPP under greater

pressure than now – high

cost of importation

Mining expands

Oil prices increase

moderately

Grid is expanded

Minor improvements re

alternatives (but no major

energy saving incentives)

Minimal global resistance to

coal (developing countries)

Botswana economy grows

at 3.2-4% pa

People and corporates begin

installing solar panels to

improve their security

SAPP under greater pressure than

now – even higher costs of

importation

Mining expands even more

Oil prices increase even more

Grid is expanded even more

Minor improvements re alternatives

(better energy saving incentives)

Minimal global resistance to coal

(developing countries)

Installed capacity 892MW

(all coal) – Morupule B

(600mw), Morupule A

(132MW – under

maintenance), 2 diesel

backups 90+70mwMW

Actual production on a

good day is 600MW

Actual production on an

average day is 300MW

Existing demand 681MW

22% + energy imported

from SAPP because of

unreliable power stations

Alternative energy

supplies 1% of total local

supply

Fuelwood is principle

cooking source in 46% of

households

69% of Batswana have

access to electricity

1.1 billion litres of fuel

consumed pa (diesel,

petrol, paraffin)

32,000 tons p/a LPG

consumed (2011)

Off-grid systems difficult

to service, expensive.

No incentives for IPP

Powerlines: Grid system is

official policy

Jobs in conventional

electricity sector:

Jobs in alternative

electricity sector:

Installed capacity 892mw

(all coal) – Morupule B

(600MW), Morupule A

(132MW), 2 diesel backups

90+70MW)

Actual production on a

good day is 700MW

Actual production on an

average day is 700MW

Demand 900 MW

24% energy imported from

SAPP because of supply/

demand differences

Alternative energy supplies

<1% of total local supply

Fuelwood is principle

cooking source in 45% of

households

75% of Batswana have

access to electricity

1.3 billion litres of fuel

consumed pa (diesel, petrol,

paraffin)

LPG consumption grows

5% pa

Off-grid systems difficult to

service, expensive.

No incentives for IPP

Powerlines: Grid system is

official policy

o 400kv – 5% increase



Jobs in conventional

electricity sector: 2.5% up

on current base

Jobs in alternative

electricity sector: 2.5% up

on current base

Installed capacity 892MW (all

coal) – Morupule B (600MW),

Morupule A (132MW), 2 diesel

backups 90+70MW)

100MW renewable

Actual production on a good day is

720MW + 100 = 820MW

Actual production on an average

day is 820MW

Demand 1017 MW

197MW (19,4%) energy imported

from SAPP because of supply/

demand differences

Alternative energy supplies 11% of

total local supply (GoB target is

25% by 2030 – source NDP10)

Fuelwood is principle cooking

source in 45% of households

75% of Batswana have access to

electricity

1.3 billion litres of fuel consumed

pa (diesel, petrol, paraffin)

see column 2 – maybe grows faster

Off-grid systems difficult to

service, expensive.

Emerging incentives for IPP

Powerlines: Grid system is official

policy

o 400kv – 5% up on base



Jobs in conventional electricity

sector: 2.5% up on base

Jobs in alternative electricity

sector: 2.5% up on current base

66


Demand for energy in Botswana continues to increase and it currently relies on electricity imports

(mainly from South Africa) whilst generation at the Morupule A and B power stations is well below

installed capacity and is unreliable. For Botswana to secure high growth (particularly in production

and industrial sectors), it is assumed that Morupule A will be fully functional and Morupule B will be

90% reliable, thus significantly boosting production. In addition new coal-fired power thermal

stations (Morupule 5 and 6) will be being planned, and perhaps two others under construction, with

some independent power producers starting to emerge. This will help to meet the increase in demand -

expected to rise from 681MW (current) to 1017MW over the next decade. If Botswana pursues a

course to significantly boost coal mining, this would enable the country to significantly increase coal-

powered electricity production and export a surplus.

It is anticipated that, by 2025, 75% of Batswana will have access to electricity, with a modest increase

in power line infrastructure. Off-grid systems will remain difficult and expensive to service, and

connectivity to the grid will remain limited in rural areas where fuelwood will continue to be the

principle cooking source (accounting for 45% of all households in Botswana).

The Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) will be under greater pressure (and there are already

demands that cannot be met in the region) as regional growth increases. It is also assumed that some

minor improvements will be achieved in terms of generating energy from ‘alternatives’ and the

introduction of energy saving incentives.

Alternative energy supplies will reach 11% of total local supply (the government target is 25% by

2030 – set by NDP10). These will include: solar, biomass and bioenergy (eg fuelwood, agricultural

and municipal waste, and energy crops).

There will be a limited increase in the consumption of imported liquid fuels (diesel, petrol and

paraffin) and energy sector jobs (in both conventional and alternative energy) will show an increase

(perhaps 2.5% on current levels).

4.3 Sustainability appraisal of the energy sector


Development initiatives/activities associated with the high-growth scenario for energy (see Table 4.3)



(initiatives, projects, policy thrusts, etc.) likely to be implemented over the next 10 years:

Energy policy finalised and implemented.

Morupule B 90% reliable.

Installed capacity of Morupule B will increase to 4000 GWh by 2018 and 6000 GWh by 2025

[Vision].

Morupule 5 and 6 in planning phase.

A new greenfield coal power station, and the possible Jindal power station at Mmamabule in early

construction phase (coal).

IPPs starting to emerge.

Reduction of the share of coal-fired power in total energy supply [Vision].

Minor improvements regarding alternatives (better energy saving incentives).

Substantial increase in solar energy supply to reduce emission [Vision].

67

Promotion of the expansion of clean energy through the development of three 200-megawatt large-

scale, grid-connected solar electricity plants with solar photovoltaic technology (first 2018, second

2022, third 2026) [Vision].

Facilitation of the development and use of concentrated solar thermal power and photovoltaic

electricity generation, promoting the use of solar energy in households, hospitality and small

businesses, in particular for water heating [Vision].

Set Renewable Energy Feed-In Tariffs and other initiatives [Vision].

Modest increase in number of Batswana having access to electricity (69% rises to 75%)

5% increase in power lines (on baseline)

2.5% increase (on current base) of jobs in conventional electricity sector

2.5% increase (on current base) of jobs in alternative electricity sector

Promotion of alternative fuels to fuelwood [Vision]

Government will continue increasing the number of households using efficient cook stoves

[Vision]

Development of Integrated Infrastructure Development Master Plan [Vision] [relevant to other

sectors]

The following activities (partly amalgamating initiatives/changes listed above) were selected by

participants for assessment in the sustainability appraisal workshop for the energy sector:

Activity 1: Fully functional Morupule A and B coal power station (4000GWh) [Vision].

Activity 2: Planning/early construction for Morupule 5 and 6, a new greenfield coal power station,

and the possible Jindal power station at Mmamabule.

Activity 3: Development of 1-3 x 100-200-megawatt, grid-connected solar electricity plants (first

2018, second 2022, third 2026) [Vision].

Activity 4: Substantially increase solar energy generation and use in houses and other buildings,

and establish feed-in tariffs [Vision].

4.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the energy sector

Energy underpins Botswana’s economy and development. Whilst some power is generated at

Morupule, the country currently also depends on imports of electricity via the Southern African Power

Pool. In this context, Botswana is examining the opportunities to increase power generation to satisfy

local consumption needs and to produce a surplus for export – from coal – to improve energy security;

and also possibly to export coal itself to European and Asian markets. Generating electricity from coal

makes sense, given the country’s abundant resources, the relative ease of building and operating coal-

fired power stations, and the reasonable cost. Meeting peak power demand remains a challenge, but it

can only really generate base-load power.

From a sustainable development perspective, in the longer-term, a more diverse energy mix is needed,

seeking a greater contribution from, and a gradual transition to, renewable energy sources. This would

respond to the concern that burning fossil fuel leads to significant impacts – both environmental

(climate change, water use) and social (health) - which require mitigation through the adoption of

appropriate technology and other measures (e.g. emission and carbon reducing mechanisms, water

efficiency measures, etc.). The Vision should commit to the setting of ambitious targets and align

policies, plans, programmes and projects to facilitate the long-term transition from fossil fuels to

renewables.

Developing solar energy will make a positive contribution to green economy objectives and will add

to Botswana’s image as a responsible global citizen given the worldwide push for renewable energy

production. However, it is currently argued to be uneconomical at an industrial scale (because

conventional sources such as coal-fired power do not account fully for environmental and social costs

in feasibility studies). At this stage, solar solutions may be better suited to niche developments (e.g.

68

tourism lodges), highly density places that only need power in the daytime, or very remote

villages/mines where building long power lines would be too expensive and environmentally

damaging. Advocacy is needed to promote solar investments at the household/business level and to

explain the economic, social and environmental benefits.

Efforts to increase solar energy generation and use it in houses, and to establish feed-in tariffs, will

also make a positive contribution to green economy objectives; and add to Botswana’s image as a

responsible global citizen given the worldwide push for renewable energy production. In addition,

such initiatives will enable a community-based approach and reduce dependency and pressure on the

State and the grid.

It may be helpful to consider making subsidies available for solar energy generation. An increase in

such power at household and community level will contribute significantly to poverty reduction and

sustainable development objectives. For example, access to solar power will: enable children to study

at night and use laptops for educational purposes; provide a means to charge cell phones and clean

homes; and allow people to operate sewing machines – as a means of job creation.

69


Table 4.4: Sustainability appraisal of selected activities in the energy sector

Activity 1: Fully functional Morupule A and B coal power station (4000GWh) [Vision] On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Coal-powered energy is the obvious “go-to” option at the moment for supporting economic development and national

growth, given resource availability, national and regional energy needs, the relative ease of building and operating coal-

fired power stations, and the reasonable cost. However, a mix that includes a greater contribution of renewables is a more

appropriate long-term vision in the context of transitioning to sustainable development, given that fossil fuel burning has

significant environmental and social impacts. These two power stations have considerable local environmental and social

impacts, and these need to be mitigated.


No specific synergies between sectors, though power security will support all sectors, and stimulate development in

particular sectors such as mining and manufacturing. The increased availability of baseload power will offer improved

transboundary synergies in energy trading through the SAPP, thus boosting the regional economy.


These mega power stations may affect livestock farming in the vicinity (<20km) of the facilities because of air pollution

and additional water use.


Skills in short supply, but training and skills development will occur, and locals will preferentially be employed. Coal is a

non-renewable resource, so this is not a permanent solution. Burning fossil fuels is gradually less desirable globally, but

this will not affect SADC in the medium term.

An SEA into the cumulative effects of coal mining, power stations, and power distribution in the south-eastern

Botswana/NE South African area was recently commissioned. The results of this SEA need to be taken into account in

planning further developments in the sector/area.


security

Positive impacts

Provides power security -

essential for the economy &

industrial growth, & attracting

investors & infrastructure

development.

Modest increase in direct

(particularly skilled) and

indirect jobs

Increased FOREX earnings

through power export and

import substitution.

How to enhance

Preferably employ Batswana

and provide training

Training institutions must

contribute to practical skills

development (eg engineers,

technicians)

Positive impacts

Development of new skills

(engineers, etc.)

Jobs and general economic

improvement – with

improvements in livelihoods,

health, education etc., resulting

in societal upliftment

Power projects may

establish/improve social

infrastructure in the project

area.

How to enhance

Employ and train Batswana

Power utilities should initiate

Corporate Social Responsibility

programmes

Positive impacts

None obvious

How to enhance

N/A

Positive impacts

Energy security will

be significantly

enhanced – a national

benefit

As a net power

generator, Botswana

will have a stronger

trading position in the

SAPP

How to enhance

N/A

Negative impacts

Medium/high water use by

power stations may reduce

water available to other

sectors – especially livestock

farming (though saline water

will mostly be used in power

station cooling).

Negative impacts

Contract workers (especially

during construction phase) may

exacerbate spread of HIV and

AIDS, and cause social

disruption in adjacent

communities during

construction phase

Negative impacts

Air pollution (see

column 2) will be

compounded by

existing airborne

pollution from

nearby sources in

RSA

Negative impacts

Inconsistencies in

tendering processes

(as with many big

projects)

Added power

generation assets will

place more burden on

70

How to mitigate

Implement water efficiency

(e.g. recycling) to reduce

impacts on water resources.

Air pollution (e.g. nitrogen and

sulphur oxides) may cause long

term health impacts in the

surrounding communities.

How to mitigate

Modern technology to reduce

emissions.

Require the development and

implementation of outcomes-

based Environmental and

Social Management Plans

(ESMPs).

Water demand

(estimated at 2

Mm3 p/a for

Morupule A facility

alone) – could

result in 30%

depletion of the

aquifer over the

next 20 years5

How to mitigate

Modern technology

to reduce emissions

and water use, use

saline water,

reclaim water

Outcomes-based

EMPs

Carbon capture and

storage through

appropriate design

and technology

GoB institutions.

How to mitigate

Uphold Botswana’s

relatively good anti-

corruption record.

Activity 2: Planning/early construction for Morupule 5 and 6, a new greenfield coal power

station, and the possible “Jindal” (potential IPP) power station at Mmamabule On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Same as activity1, but a greenfield project will have additional local environmental and social impacts (see below).

Synergies - within and between sectors:

These new projects will obtain coal from a new/existing mine. There will be a need to integrate them with planning for a

new/expanded town/village, and associated health and social services, communications infrastructure, power lines, roads,

etc., in order to achieve synergy and avoid duplication.

Antagonisms within and between sectors:

Same as 1


Same as activity 1


security

Positive impacts

Opportunities for direct and

indirect jobs, ancillary

businesses

See activity 1 for additional

impacts and enhancement

measures

Positive impacts

New physical and social

infrastructure


impacts and enhancement

measures

Positive impacts

None obvious

Positive impacts

See activity 1 for

additional impacts and

enhancement

measures

Negative impacts

See activity 1 for impacts and

mitigation measures

Negative impacts

Involuntary resettlement


impacts and mitigation

measures

Negative impacts

Loss of habitat,

biodiversity and

ecosystem services

through clearing of

bush (for the power

station, power lines,

roads, pipelines and

towns)

Depletion of water

Negative impacts

Involuntary

resettlement (relevant

institutions will need

to work together to

plan, negotiate and

implement

mitigation)

See activity 1 for

other impacts.

5 Source: Marupule A EIA report.

71

resources due to

additional water

demand

Water, air and soil

pollution – dust

during construction

See activity 1 for

additional impacts

and mitigation

measures.

How to mitigate

Compensation

(relocate, etc.)

See activity 1 for

additional mitigation

measures.

Activity 3: Development of 1-3 x 100-200 megawatt, grid-connected solar electricity plants

(first 2018, second 2022, third 2026) [Vision] On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Given Botswana’s high levels of insolation, solar power is an obvious option for sustainable energy production and has

few negative environmental impacts. But it is currently regarded as being uneconomic at large scale and is, therefore,

better suited to small-scale niche developments (e.g. houses, buildings and tourism lodges).


Same as 1


Same as 1


The Vision suggests the development of three 200 MW solar installations, but there are doubts about their economic

viability and whether these will ever go ahead.


security

Positive impacts

Same as activity 1

Solar projects introduce new

technology to Botswana,

which will require and

generate new skills and

opportunities.

How to enhance

Same as activity 1

Positive impacts

Same as activity 1

Positive impacts

None obvious,

though less harmful

than fossil fuel

alternatives such as

coal and diesel,

which use water and

cause air emissions.

Positive impacts

Same as activity 1

Negative impacts

May require subsidies

initially

Expensive power (now),

maybe cheaper later

Negative impacts

Contract workers (especially

during construction phase) may

exacerbate spread of HIV and

AIDS, and cause social

disruption in adjacent

communities during

construction phase

How to mitigate

Require the development and

imlementation of outcomes-

based Environmental and

Social Management Plans

(ESMPs)

Negative impacts

Will require huge

areas – land clearing

needed, resulting in

loss of biodiversity

Will require the

development and

implementation of

outcomes-based

Environmental and

Social Management

Plans (ESMPs)

Negative impacts

Solar panels

susceptible to theft –

will require security

attention

72

Activity 4: Substantially increase solar energy generation and use in houses and establish feed-

in tariffs [Vision] On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

As with Activity 3, this initiative will also make a positive contribution to green economy objectives and will enable a

community-based approach, spreading the generation load between the State, parastatals, corporates and citizens, thus

reducing dependency and pressure on the State and the grid.


The placing of solar panels on peoples’ houses (could also be on offices, warehouses, etc.) creates opportunities for

synergies between energy generation and: banking (for loans), town planning and building, and education (awareness and

training) sectors. All stakeholders/sectors need to work together to achieve the desired outcomes.


None obvious


The energy authorities will increasingly support, promote and facilitate community-based solar energy generation


security

Positive impacts

Though there is an initial

capital cost, there is a long

term economic benefit as it

reduces costs of buying

energy from the grid, and it

could generate income if

surplus can be sold into the

grid (by households, small

businesses, SMEs, etc.)

Batswana could acquire skills

to erect, service, and maintain

panels

Less effort needed to collect

firewood – leaving more time

for economically productive

activities

How to enhance

Provide favourable financing

mechanisms, leasing options,

etc.

As demand for more solar

systems increases, prices

should drop (the

country/retailers could buy

equipment in bulk)

Enable easy and affordable

in-feeding from

houses/buildings into the grid

(this may need policy reform

and technology

improvements)

Advocacy to promote solar

investments at

household/business level & to

explain economic, social and

environmental benefits.

Positive impacts

Could enhance the value of

homes/lodges/businesses

Clusters of houses/businesses

could collaborate to invest in

solar panel installations

Health benefits where there is

reduced use of wood to cook in

enclosed areas, and less fire risk

Access to power good for social

upliftment

How to enhance

Favourable financing

mechanism, leasing, etc

Advocacy to promote solar

investments at

household/business level & to

explain economic, social and

environmental benefits

Positive impacts

Less need for

fuelwood, but wood

still needed for

cooking and

warming in winter

How to enhance

Advocacy to

promote solar

investments at

household/business

level & to explain

economic, social

and environmental

benefits

Positive impacts

Powered homes

easier to protect (eg

enable use of alarms)

How to enhance

3 Advocacy to promote

solar investments at

household/business

level & to explain

local and national

benefits

Negative impacts

Initial costs are unaffordable

for middle-income earners

and definitely out of reach for

Negative impacts

Advantages the rich as the poor

cannot afford the capital outlay

(elite capture). There may be

Negative impacts

None obvious.

Negative impacts

Homes fitted with

solar installations,

may be targeted by

73

the poor

How to mitigate

GoB will need to subsidize

this initiative to spread uptake

and benefits to the middle-

income earners and especially

the poor. Measures will be

required to prevent the sale of

subsidized equipment to meet

immediate income needs

social tensions (jealousy) if

some have solar power and

others do not

Electro-magnetic radiation from

solar panels on roofs can impact

hypersensitive people6

How to mitigate

Issue of electromagnetic

radiation is inadequately

understood currently. Further

research is underway globally

thieves


Access to energy underpins Botswana’s industries and the economy. But to meet the country’s

growing demand for energy (particularly for commercial and mining activities), operation capacity

(currently 100MW) and plant efficiency will need to be increased significantly. If coal mining is to be

expanded, it makes economic sense to generate electricity from coal through thermal power stations -

to satisfy both domestic demand and provide a surplus for export, and reduce electricity imports from

other countries. Although coal-powered energy is an obvious option, a mix that includes a greater

contribution of renewables is a more appropriate long-term approach in the context of transitioning to

sustainable development, given that fossil fuel burning has significant environmental and social

impacts. Indeed, the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision recognises the need to stay within

sustainability constraints by reducing coal-fired energy generation. The Vision should commit to the

setting of ambitious targets and align policies, plans, programmes and projects to facilitate the long-

term transition from fossil fuels to renewables.

The draft Framework also identifies the need to: continue investment in appropriate supply options,

promote substitution by alternative fuels, promote improved/efficient cooking stoves and solar

lanterns, substantially increase solar supply (clean energy) and facilitate the development/use of solar

thermal power, and implement a Renewable Energy Rural Electrification programme with

UNDP/GEF. All of these objectives will support a transition to sustainable development. Other

measures that will also contribute to the sustainability of this sector include promoting:

solar power generation (this may be best suited to niche developments such as tourism lodges,

high density places that only need power in the daytime, or very remote villages/mines where

building long power lines would be too expensive and environmentally damaging) and use of

solar cookers;

use forest resources - if combined with technology enhancements and sound management

techniques (eg selective pruning can enhance growth of trees and provide fuel wood for

communities);

use of agricultural waste such as crop residues and liquids and solid animal waste;

use of municipal soil and liquid waste (provided it is biodegradable); and

growing of energy crops such as Jatropha (to produce bio-diesel).

The development of off-grid energy supply will obviate the costs and infrastructure of supply, and

reduce the need for long power lines and their environmental/aesthetic impacts (especially in high

value tourist areas).

6 (www.eiwellspring.org accessed 28/3/15)

http://www.eiwellspring.org/

74

The Vision and NDP11 also need to take account of the increasing consumption of petroleum

products, driven, in part, by the rapid rise in vehicular traffic in Gaborone. Burning such products as

well as other fossil fuels and biomass all contribute to the nation’s carbon footprint and need to be

considered – will this issue be merely set aside in the interests of export benefits? It would be prudent

to consider this issue as part of a sustainability assessments of the coal strategy and the planned new

railways for export.

75

5: TOURISM SECTOR

5.1 Baseline situation in the tourism sector


Tourism is an increasingly important industry in Botswana. It provides jobs, local incomes and

contributions to government revenues. But only 10% of tourism revenue are retained locally since the

bulk of bookings are handled in South Africa.

Botswana receives over 2.5 million international tourists and day visitors per year, who spend 5.1

billion Pula per year. The direct contribution of travel & tourism to GDP was BWP 5,486.6mn (3.2%

of total GDP) in 2013, and was forecast to rise by 7.6% in 2014, and to rise by 5.8% pa, from 2014-

2024, to BWP 10,325.6mn (3.8% of total GDP) in 2024. (WTTC 2014). The total contribution of

travel and tourism to GDP was BWP 14,172.1mn (8.4% of GDP) in 2013, and was forecast to rise by

8.1% in 2014, and to rise by 6.1% pa to BWP 27,573.7mn (10.2% of GDP) in 2024.

In 2013, travel and tourism directly supported 31,000 jobs (4.6% of total employment). This was

expected to rise by 2.5% in 2014 and by 2.6% pa to 41,000 jobs (5.2% of total employment)

in 2024. In 2013, the total contribution of travel and tourism to employment, including jobs indirectly

supported by the industry, was 9.9% of total employment (67,000 jobs). This was expected to rise

by 4.4% in 2014 to 70,000 jobs and rise by 2.4% pa to 89,000 jobs in 2024 (11.3% of total)

Visitor exports generated BWP 8,968.4mn (10.9% of total exports) in 2013. This was forecast to

grow by 8.3% in 2014, and grow by 4.7% pa, from 2014-2024, to BWP 15,357.8mn in 2024

(14.5% of total). Travel and tourism investment in 2013 was BWP 1,846.9mn, or 7.6% of total

investment. It should rise by 8.4% in 2014, and rise by 4.5% pa over the next ten years to BWP

3,111.6mn in 2024 (8.1% of total).

Tourists in Chobe National Park

76



Botswana has adopted a high-value, low-volume tourism strategy in a bid to minimize negative

environmental impacts on pristine wildlife areas while maximizing socio-economic benefits. Vision

2016 issued a challenge “to further develop the tourism potential of the wildlife resources, the

Okavango Delta, and also the historical and cultural sites”.

From January 2014, a ban on hunting on stateland was introduced, including in the Kalahari where

Bushmen traditionally hunt for food. The ban does not apply to private game ranches, except for

protected species, such as leopard. The ban has caused controversy. Critics argue that the ban, rather

than reduce poaching, is more likely to encourage it, whilst also undermining local economic

opportunities from sustainable use and encouraging agricultural expansion into sensitive habitats (eg

Okavango).

In 2009, the Botswana Tourism Organistion developed ecotourism standards and associated

documentation for implementation of the Botswana Ecotourism Certification System

(http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-standards) (Box 5.1). Two sets of standards

have been developed. All fixed tourism sites (accommodation facilities) are assessed using the

Accommodation Standards, and all mobile activities including other forms of tourism are assessed

using the Ecotour Standards.

Box 5.1: Botswana Ecotourism Certification System

Botswana's commitment to the conservation of its natural resources, rich wildlife, and cultural heritage was

formalized in 2002 with the inception of the country's National Ecotourism Strategy, and has led to the

development of the Botswana Ecotourism Certification System (BECS) , a voluntary, tourism industry-wide

programme run by Botswana Tourism.

The BECS, outlining more than 240 performance standards, is designed to encourage and support responsible

environmental, social, and cultural behaviour by tourism businesses, and to provide a quality, eco-friendly

product to consumers. This three-tier system enables companies of all sizes to attain an entry-level "Green"

certification, a mid-level "Green+" certification, or an "Eco" level of certification. The highest level of

certification acknowledges the full spectrum of ecotourism, including involvement with local communities in

tourism development, nature conservation, environment management, and interpretation of the surrounding

environment to the guest.

Since its inception in late 2010, the number of Botswana eco-certified camps and lodges has grown to a total of

15 properties:

"Eco" Certified: Banoka Bush Camp, Chobe Game Lodge, Jao Camp, Kalahari Plains Camp, Kwetsani

Camp, Little Vumbura Camp, Savuti Camp, Xigera Camp, Zafara Camp, Jacana Camp, Meno A Kwena

Tented Camp, and Mombo Camp.

"Green+" Certified: Camp Kalahari and Tubu Tree Camp.

"Green" Certified: Vumbura Plains Camp.

The Adopt a Monument Strategy, 2008 - encourages the private sector and individuals to have a stake

in sustainable development and management of Botswana's shining monuments (See http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=7&aid=33&dir=2011/November/Friday18#sthash.FN96vFVM.dpuf)

http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-standards

http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/ecoCertIntro.php

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/banoka_bush_camp/introduction/

http://www.desertdelta.com/lodges

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/jao_camp/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_kalahari/kalahari_plains_camp/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/kwetsani_camp/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/kwetsani_camp/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/little_vumbura/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_linyanti_selinda/savuti_camp/introduction/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/xigera_camp/introduction/

http://www.greatplainsconservation.com/zarafacamp/index.html

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/jacana_camp/introduction/

http://www.menoakwena.com/

http://www.menoakwena.com/

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/mombo_camp/introduction/

http://www.unchartedafrica.com/page.php?p_id=53

http://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/tubu_tree_camp/introduction/

https://www.wilderness-safaris.com/botswana_okavango_delta/vumbura_plains/introduction/

http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=7&aid=33&dir=2011/November/Friday18#sthash.FN96vFVM.dpuf

77

From a transport perspective, Air Botswana only operates at domestic and regional levels (not the

transcontinental level), and connects with regional transport hubs. This policy/model is probably the

best, reducing risks.


The Department of Tourism (of MEWT) has a mandate to promote sustainable tourism development,

facilitating commercial exploitation of tourism resources to the advantage of national economic

development. The Department focuses on policy formulation, implementation and regulation of the

industry.

The Department of Wildlife & National Parks (MEWT) is responsible for the conservation and

sustainable utilization of fish and wildlife resources.

o The Department’s Parks and Reserves Division is responsible for the management of wildlife

in protected areas. Its functions include:

o Protected area development and management.

o Reservations/bookings for camping in parks and reserves public camp sites.

o Park interpretation.

o Processing of applications for filming permits.

o Compilation and analysis of tourist statistics.

o Visitor public relations

The Department is responsible for the following conservation areas (Figure A6.1, Appendix 6):

o National parks: Chobe NP; Makgadikgadi/Nxai Pans NP; Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

o Game reserves: Central Kalahari GR; Khutse GR; Moremi GR

o Educational game reserves: Gaborone GR; Manyelanong GR; Maun GR (Maun Educational

Park); Francistown GR

Other key institutions include:

the Tourism Industry Licensing Committee which issues licenses for tourism enterprises

the National Advisory Council on Tourism (established by 1996 Regulations);

Botswana Tourism Organisation with responsibility to market and position Botswana as a

premier tourist destination; promote investment in the tourism sector; and classify and grade

tourism facilities;

Hospitality and Tourism Association of Botswana – aims to promote, encourage and police

excellence in hospitality and tourism in Botswana. Umbrella organization representing all sectors

of the industry. Privately established and funded;

Kalahari Conservation Society – concerned with the protection and management of wildlife and

landscapes, lobbying and advocacy, assisting government in policy-making, collaborating on

projects with other NGOS, private sector and government, coordination of research projects,

community liaison, environmental education in schools and communities;

Botswana Guides Association; Botswana National Museum - has made significant efforts to develop Botswana's heritage sites

for public appreciation, income generation and conservation for posterity (See:

http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=7&aid=33&dir=2011/November/Friday18#sthash.FN96vF

VM.dpuf)

http://www.mewt.gov.bw/DWNP/article.php?id_mnu=193

http://www.mewt.gov.bw/DWNP/article.php?id_mnu=192



78

5.1.4 Main resources and sector products

The main types of tourism include:

Leisure, recreation and holidays. The most visited destinations are: Kasane/Chobe area; then

Okavango. Gaborone and Francistown are the most visited urban destinations (Figure A6.2,

Appendix 6)).

Visiting friends and relatives (VFR).

Business and professional.

Transit.

Other (eg religious, health and other types of trip not included above).

Wildlife and – to a lesser extent – wilderness, are Botswana’s main tourist products for holiday

makers. Wildlife-based tourism in Botswana is carried out in national parks and game reserves. Most

of these protected areas are located in the northern parts of the country in areas such as the Okavango

Delta, Chobe and the Makgadikgadi/Nxai Pans area. While the Okavango Delta and Chobe region are

known for wildlife-based tourism, the Makgadikgadi/Nxai Pans area has additional tourism products

which are largely undeveloped: the vast salt pans, flamingo birds, local culture and crafts.

The establishment of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) (MoU 2006) –

potentially the world’s largest conservation area (300,000 km2) (Figure A6.3, Appendix 6) - now

offers a regional dimension to tourism. It enables tourists to visit several conservation area/tourism

destinations in adjacent countries – following a circuit. KAZA evolved from the Okavango Upper

Zambezi International Tourism Initiative (OUZIT) and the “Four Corners” Transboundary Natural

Resource Management initiative.

By 2008, 12 heritage sites had been opened to the public for cultural tourism purposes: World

Heritage Site of Tsodilo Hills, Gcwihaba Caves, Domboshaba Ruins, Lekhubu Island, Moremi Gorge,

Lepokole Hills, Majojo Ruins, Matsieng, Three Dikgosi, Livingstone Memorial, Manyana Paintings

and Mogonye Gorges

5.1.5 Sustainability issues

Botswana has a comparative advantage, offering pristine wilderness, star attractions such as Chobe-

Kasane and Okavango, being readily accessible via regional hubs, and occupying a central position in

the KAZA Transfrontier Conservation Area – so it can benefit from tourism ‘circuiting’.

Elephants in the Okavango delta

79

To realise benefits will require sustainable cross-border cooperation in the management of wildlife

and water resources, and seamless management of tourism services (eg smoothing border transits, air

and road links, etc.).

If Botswana is to promote tourism as a key industry (in which the GoB is the facilitator/enabler and

the Private Sector is main implementer), then it will be necessary to:

o Intensify marketing of Botswana as a tourism destination, as there are a number of untapped

(or under-tapped) competitor markets (e.g. USA, Scandinavia, China)

o Ensure reliable and regular air access. Is this a constraint? Is the fact that Air Botswana (a

key partner for the Tourism Industry) operates only domestically and regionally a problem or

the best policy – relying on other carriers for long-haul flights to target markets?

Government policy is in conflict with tourism in some areas (e.g. allowing mining in key tourism

areas). This may undervalue tourism as a key contributor to national development (even though it is a

focus area in NDP11). The government and the industry need to identify critical tourism areas, and

these should receive protection against competing (but less sustainable and less viable) land use).

There will be advantages in spreading tourism investments and benefits more broadly, eg through

community-based natural resource management, improving local ownership, cultural tourism. But

options are currently undermined by the ban on hunting (for example), leading to a growing concern

that GoB is not as committed as it should be regarding CBNRM.

Human-wildlife conflicts continue to be a major source of controversy between those who suffer

damage and the government. Damage caused by wildlife to livestock, crops and other properties, and

the inadequate or lack of compensation for such damage has always caused consternation among rural

populations (Box 5.2). Most of the conflicts arise from the fact that livestock areas have encroached

into wildlife areas to the extent that some livestock areas are only a few hundred meters from the

wildlife areas. Farming methods, especially the protection of crops and livestock, need to be improved

to help minimise the conflicts.

Box 5.2: Human-wildlife conflicts

As people and settlements expand their range, so wildlife areas diminish. This is a common phenomenon in

dryland developing countries, including Botswana. A common consequence of livestock farming is conflict

with wildlife, such as predation by wild carnivores and scavengers (eg lion, leopard, cheetah, baboon and

hyena) and damage to water points and crops caused by large animals such as elephant. Human-wildlife

conflicts are escalating in drylands where farming is expanding into marginal areas which were originally

designated for the use of wildlife and/or tourism activities.

In the relatively more arid parts of Botswana, there can be an economic advantage to wildlife and tourism

activities since conventional stock farming is so marginal and risky. In many southern African countries,

scenic arid and semi-arid landscapes are generating more income from their wildlife and wilderness qualities

than can be gained from livestock farming.

Gupta (2013) describes human-wildlife conflicts in Naledi village on the edge of Chobe National Park in

northern Botswana where elephants frequently raid arable fields. For some farmers, crop raiding by such

'problem animals' is one of the reasons that they have stopped farming their larger arable landholdings,

intended for both commercial and subsistence purposes, and now only grow a few fruits and vegetables in

small backyard gardens. Others continue to farm, but lament the prevalence of crop raiding by elephants and

express little hope that their farming efforts will yield a harvest with commercial or even subsistence value.

Gupta also reports that the effects of living near Chobe National Park and its protected wildlife are mediated

by a relatively well-functioning welfare state that provisions citizens with both agricultural and non-

agricultural support.

80

How important is HIV/AIDS as an issue in tourism? The most vulnerable groups are drivers,

community-based workers, game wardens, tour guides, and trekking officers.

“Botswana’s high-value, low-volume tourism strategy (to minimize negative environmental impacts

on wildlife areas while maximizing socio-economic benefits) implies sustainable

development/tourism. While conservation of biological diversity appears to be on course, visitation -

and hence revenue - has remained stunted in most parks and reserves. Moreover, the strategy appears

to have contributed towards enclave tourism, with a large foreign ownership of tour operator

companies and repatriation of profits from Botswana. This compromises yet another principle of

sustainability - social equity. It would appear that the strategy is anti-sustainability with a large rural

population that still highly dependent on natural resources”.

(Source: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/ta/2011/00000016/00000002/art00008).

In the Okavango, tourism has had a range of impacts (Mbaiwa 2008, WTTC 2014). It has stimulated

the development of a variety of allied infrastructure and facilities, such as hotels, lodges and camps,

airport and airstrips, in the Okavango region. Wholesale and retail businesses have also been

established, especially in Maun, to offer various goods to the tourist industry. Tarred roads and other

communication facilities have also been developed in Ngamiland District partly to facilitate tourism

development. Tourism in the Okavango Delta also provides employment opportunities to local

communities and it is a significant source of foreign exchange for Botswana. Despite its positive

socio-economic impacts, the industry is beginning to have negative environmental impacts in the area

such as the destruction of the area’s ecology through driving outside the prescribed trails, noise

pollution and poor waste management.

In the Okavango Delta, the tourism industry is designed to meet the interests of tourists from

developed countries and is dominated by foreign safari companies. The tourism industry in the

Okavango Delta does not significantly take into consideration the socio-cultural, economic and

environmental needs of the host economy. It is characterised by: the marginalisation of local

companies and investors; leakages and repatriation of tourism revenue from Botswana to developed

countries; the failure of tourism to promote rural development and poverty alleviation; and, the failure

to observe local environmental regulations to conserve the Okavango Delta as a natural ecosystem.

Despite these problems, such destinations have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism

development. This requires a planning process that satisfies the needs of tourists and tour operators

while being sensitive to the socio-cultural, economic and environmental needs of host countries and

destinations.

5.2 Development scenarios for the tourism sector


main influences on the development of the tourism sector over the coming decade (Table 5.1). These

informed the development of low-growth and high-growth scenarios for this sector over this period –

as mapped in Table 5.2.

http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/ta/2011/00000016/00000002/art00008

81

Table 5.1: Development drivers for the tourism sector

SD pillar Drivers

Environmental Integrity of tourism sites/products – this is essential to ensure that:

o Ecological processes are maintained – eg water is able to enter the Okavango delta,

connectivity is maintained (habitats, wildlife movements), wildlife populations are

not threatened by poaching. Many of these have transboundary implications (eg

upstream developments that abstract water in neighbouring countries), but others are

internal (eg FMD fences).

Need a transboundary EIA procedure that helps Botswana to influence upstream

developments (eg Angola and Namibia)

o Habitat change (mostly anthropogenic) does not degrade the tourism product.

Better land use planning is needed to reduce “urban sprawl” – villages

Notes:

o Integrity is also influenced by the extent to which the lodges integrate well with

local communities

o World Heritage status, national parks, and International Bird Areas, etc. all improve

tourism marketability

o Being part of a transboundary conservation area (eg KAZA) as well as linking

tourism opportunities to Community-Based Natural Resource Management

(CBNRM) will positively influence tourism

Climate change - it implies greater need for wildlife mobility, increased vector-borne

diseases (e.g. malaria), hotter temperatures – all of which affect tourism

Social Rural communities – they need land and resources, and they settle where these are

available, often coming into conflict with conservation/tourism

Disenfranchisement of local communities in the industry (there are barriers, eg

constraints in lease agreement arrangements and access to land for tourism) - can give

rise to them having negative perceptions of tourism, even resorting to sabotage (eg

poaching, crime, hostility towards tourists, grazing cattle in tourism areas).

Multipliers from tourism – these need to be felt in the immediate areas around tourism

sites/destinations, ie so that locals communities benefit much more than now.

Access to finance - it is hard to get a loan. Administration is onerous and complicated

Economic Policy directions – may policies currently limit or inhibit tourism (see examples below)

which, if addressed, would be a positive stimulus to the sector

o Moratorium on hunting

o High value, low volume strategy (it is appropriate for ecologically sensitive areas,

but does it need to be changed as regards other areas?)

o Need a policy to stimulate an improved value chain and reduce leakages (ie tourism

revenues being earned outside Botswana).

o KAZA needs to be implemented, and consistently applied - including with regard to

issues such as access control, anti-poaching activities, compatible land use practices,

management of migratory species (eg elephant, buffalo, hippo, crocodile, fish).

o Need policy consistency (in both content and implementation), so that policies are

integrated better (agriculture, water, transport, security, immigration, etc.).

Furthermore, most other sectors do not see a role for themselves in tourism, and they

have no strategies for supporting tourism. The slogan “tourism is everyone’s

business”, needs to be taken on board.

o Security of tenure – investors need to feel secure.

o Current policies are skewed against tourism, eg mining rights overpower tourism

and conservation; agriculture receives subsidies, but tourism does not.

Air access

o Should an ‘open skies’ policy be pursued (Air Botswana has a monopoly internally).

Global economy

o The economic outlook for Europe is deteriorating (particularly in the EU). People

take fewer, shorter holidays, and may take cheaper accommodation that 5-star

lodges. This can influence the sector.

o The strength of BRICS economies may offer new markets – takes a lot of effort to

get into this market. Some of these have peculiarities – eg some nationalities travel

in large groups, language issues, cultural issues

82

o Botswana tourism is expensive – overseas visitors may chose a cheaper country, and

locals mostly cannot afford hotels and lodges

Competition

o Other countries have similar products – how well does Botswana compare?

o Service providers mostly speak English – need multilingual skills (French, German,

Mandarin, Japanese)

Other Transboundary issues - Botswana’s tourism product requires a high degree of

transboundary cooperation (eg KAZA) – all countries would be more successful if they

worked together (to foster complimentary land use, apply similar standards, undertake

joint marketing, and offer complimentary products)

Political stability – in Botswana and SADC

Health - eg outbreaks such as Ebola; HIV/AIDS; Malaria

Security issues - crime (Botswana is close to RSA; some tourists may wrongly perceive

terrorist groups (ie Bok Haram) to be a threat to their safety in Botswana)

83

Table 5.2 Development scenarios for the tourism sector over the next 10 years

CURRENT SITUATION

(BASELINE SCENARIO)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL

SCENARIO

(LOW GROWTH +

INFLATION)


NDP11 period]

HIGH GROWTH SCENARIO


Assumptions:


(within Botswana or

bilaterally)

Modest marketing

improvements

No big change in Zimbabwe

Relative competitiveness of

SADC countries remains

the same

No major economic crisis in

“north”

Poaching levels remain

about the same

Assumptions:

Aggressive marketing (eg in

BRICS, Japan, USA)

New tourism products offered

(cultural, mineral, events)

Neighbours improve their

products (Zimbabwe, Zambia,

Namibia, Mozambique, RSA) –

but don’t cooperate

Visa accessibility is made easier,

especially for package tourists

Economic crisis in the “north” –

tourists reduce their holidays

(spend less time in Botswana or

choose closer destinations)

Poaching levels remain about the

same

Mining encroaches into tourism

areas

Major infrastructure

improvements (airports, Trans-

Frontier Conservation Areas,

border posts, ICT, etc.)

Peace and security is maintained

HIV/AIDS is stable

Crime is an increasing problem

(RSA and Botswana)

Taxes imposed on imports by

‘bakkie’ tourists (on food and

alcohol); and an increase in park

and camping fees for such

tourists

Number of rooms increases by

50% from baseline

Growth areas are Kalahari-

Makgadigadi, Gaborone,

Francistown, Maun, Trans-

Kalahari Highway

21% of all arrivals are

holiday/leisure tourists7

Breakdown of leisure arrivals

(2012)8:

Africa: 68.57%

South Africa: 31.425

Americas: 8.05%


holiday/leisure tourists


holiday/leisure tourists –figure

stays same, even though number

of tourists increases dramatically

7 Dept Tourism – informal communication 8 Estimated tourist arrivals 2012, Dept of Tourism

84

Asia/Pacific: 5.64%

Europe: 17.08%

95% of holiday/leisure

tourists visit nature-based

products

Fly-in holiday/leisure tourists:

mostly from EU

Drive in holiday/leisure

tourists:

All arrivals combined: 2.,3

million (excluding day

visitors) 20129

Length of stay: 5.3 nights

(2012)

Average bed occupancy

rate: 38.6 (2013)10

High (80%)/Low seasons

(20%) are a feature of the

industry in leisure areas

RSA visitors dominate real

tourist self-drives (90%)

No official collaboration

with neighbours to

promote regional packages

Policy conflicts undermine

tourism/make it difficult

Batswana own 57% of

tourism facilities, Joint

venture are 22.6% 11

Locals largely alienated

from management

positions – white

dominated industry

Downstream industries

(aircraft, restaurants) not

locally owned

Too much leakage (40%)

Contribution to GDP 3.7%

95% of holiday/leisure

tourists visit nature-based

products

Fly-in holiday/leisure

tourists: mostly from EU

(no major change)

Drive in holiday/leisure

tourists: (no change)

All arrivals combined: 2.5

million (excluding day

visitors) 2020

Length of stay: 5.3 nights

(no change)

Average bed occupancy

rate: 50%

High (80%)/Low seasons

(20%) are a feature of the

industry (no change)

RSA visitors dominate real

tourist self-drives (90%) (no

change)

No official collaboration

with neighbours to promote

regional packages (no

change)

Policy conflicts slightly

reduced (hunting allowed).

Some Management Plans

implemented (e.g. ODMP)

Batswana own 57% of

tourism facilities, Joint

venture are 22.6% [no

change]

Locals largely alienated

from management positions

– white dominated industry

Downstream industries

(aircraft, restaurants) still

not locally owned

Still too much leakage

(40%) (no change)

Contribution to GDP 3.5%

(slight decline)

90% of holiday/leisure tourists

visit nature based-products – with

increase in cultural and mining

tourism

Fly-in holiday/leisure tourists:

mostly from EU, but increasing

from BRICS, USA etc

Drive in holiday/leisure tourists:

(no change)

All arrivals combined: 4 million

(excluding day visitors) 2025

Length of stay: 6 nights

Average bed occupancy rate:

50% (no change)

High (80%)/Low seasons (20%)

are a feature of the industry (no

change)

RSA visitors dominate real tourist

self-drives (90%) (no change)

Modest official collaboration with

neighbours to promote regional

packages (small change)

Policy conflicts even less

(hunting allowed). More

Management Plans implemented

(e.g. ODMP)

Batswana own 80% of tourism

facilities

Locals gradually occupying more

management positions – industry

fairly equitable

Downstream industries (aircraft)

still not locally owned

Much less leakage (20%)

Contribution to GDP 5%

(because mining and energy grow

dramatically)

9

10 Dept Tourism 2013: Accommodation report 11 Dept Tourism licence ownership structure data 2014

85

People employed 17,000 People employed 17,000

(no change)

People employed 23,000

The baseline figures are according to the Department of Tourism - guided by the UNWTO International Recommendations on Tourism Statistics (IRTS 2008) and the Tourism Satellite Account – Recommended Methodological Framework TSA:RMF 2008, both of which are

UN approved international standards for the measurement of tourism. They are therefore consistent with other measurement frameworks

such as the System of National Accounts, Balance of Payment Manual, WTO Trade in Services Manual etc. which are used to measure other economic sectors. These therefore define tourism as: “activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment

for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes”.


To achieve high growth in this sector, it is assumed that there will be aggressive marketing,

particularly to promote key growth areas such as Kalahari-Makgadigadi, Gaborone, Francistown,

Maun, and possibly along the route of the proposed Trans-Kalahari Highway. Also new tourism

products will be developed, eg focused on Botswana’s cultural heritage, mineral/mining-based

tourism and, events. But it is recognised that Botswana’s neighbours are also likely to improve their

tourism products and be in competition. This will drive a modest improvement in cooperation, eg to

enable tourists to more easily secure visas and to gain smooth access through new Trans-Frontier

Conservation Areas. There will also be major infrastructure improvements (eg increased bed rooms,

upgrades to airports and border posts and improved ICT), and Batswana will own at least 80% of

tourism facilities (helping to reduce ‘leakage’ to about 20%) – with locals gradually occupying more

management positions.

The growth in the sector will see tourism’s contribution to GDP increase (from 3.7%, current) to 5%

by 2025 - mainly because of dramatic growth in the mining and energy sectors. Available jobs will

also increase, from 17,000 (current) to 23,000 (2025).

The tourism sector will become more robust and adaptable, particularly in order to respond to external

factors such as economic crises which may reduce international tourism volume, and to internal

challenges such as increasing crime, continued poaching and encroachment of other activities in

tourism areas (eg mining and agriculture). It is assumed that the country will remain peaceful and

secure and that there will be no significant increase in the levels of HIV and AIDS.

It is projected that Botswana will see a dramatic increase in the number of tourists, rising from 2.3

million (current) to 4 million (2025) (excluding day visitors), with a small increase in the number of

nights spent in the country. However, the proportion arriving for holiday/leisure purposes (currently

21%) is unlikely to change. Most of the latter (90%) will continue to visit nature-based products. An

increasing number of fly-in tourists will come from BRICS and the USA (currently they are mainly

from the EU). But the number of drive-in tourists will remain the same as now (mainly from South

Africa).

5.3 Sustainability appraisal of the tourism sector


Development initiatives/activities associated the high-growth scenario for tourism (see Table 5.2.) and

objectives/goals and projected initiatives identified for the sector in the draft Framework for a Long-Term


(initiatives, projects, policy thrusts, etc) likely to be implemented over the next 10 years:

Aggressive marketing (eg in BRICS, Japan, USA)

86

Easing of visa accessibility, especially for package tourists

Upgrading of nature-based tourism (Vision)

Development of new tourism products - increase in cultural and mining tourism,

Focus on growth areas: Kalahari-Makgadigadi, Gaborone, Francistown, Maun, Trans-Kalahari

Highway

Taxes imposed on imports by ‘bakkie’ tourists (on food and alcohol);

Increase in park and camping fees for such tourists

Promote increase in available rooms (likely increase of 50% from baseline)

Push to increase in length of stay of tourists (likely to increase from 5.3 to 6 nights)

Promote tourism industry to employ more locals in management positions – making the industry

fairly equitable

Promote increase in numbers of people employed in tourism (likely to rise from 7,000 to

c.23,000)

Improve tourism-sector skills [Vision ]

Enhance cross-border collaboration for tourism [Vision]


for assessment in the sustainability appraisal workshop for the tourism sector:

Activity 1: Upgrading nature-based tourism [Vision] through increasing the number of mainly

international tourists (through marketing), and increasing the duration of their stay (bed

nights) and improving local involvement and skills in tourism [Vision]

Activity 2: Promoting new tourism products (cultural tourism; heritage tourism; mining

tourism; and meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) )

Activity 3: Enhancing transboundary collaboration and tourism products

5.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the tourism sector

Botswana is well established and widely regarded as one of southern Africa’s prime wildlife tourism

destinations. It is a strategic sector for generating foreign exchange, attracting foreign direct

investment, creating employment and reducing poverty in the country.

The government of Botswana recognizes the need for economic diversification and is therefore

encouraging greater investment into tourism. There is immense potential for growth and the

development of new products (e.g. cultural/heritage products, conferences and adventure tourism) in

various parts of the country.

However, neighbouring countries also have good tourism options, so Botswana will have to improve

its standards as well as upgrade and diversify its products, services and facilities to be competitive in

the region and globally. However, there is limited potential for increasing the number of lodges in

prime areas, given that the de facto policy is to focus on high-value, low-volume tourism. Thus, the

logical expansion option is to improve bed night occupancy within existing establishments.

It is expected that if the plans for the Trans-frontier Conservation Areas come to fruition (and if

passport control procedures are streamlined), there will be increased movement of tourists through the

region wanting to experience the wide range of destinations offered. This will establish central-

southern Africa as one of the world’s most attractive tourism destinations, and Botswana stands to

benefit from the potential synergies that regional tourism development offers.

From a sustainability perspective, the activities appraised below are mainly beneficial with positive

economic, social, governance and environmental outcomes. However, large-scale transboundary

87

tourism initiatives (linked to transboundary conservation) would benefit greatly from the application

of a sustainability assessment.


Table 5.3: Sustainability appraisal of selected activities in the tourism sector

Activity 1: Upgrading nature-based tourism [Vision] through increasing the number of mainly

international tourists (through marketing), and increasing the duration of their stay (bed nights)

and improving local involvement and skills in tourism [Vision] On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

As noted above, Botswana’s tourism sector is already well established, but the country needs to upgrade and diversify its

nature-based products, improve its services and facilities to remain competitive in the region and globally. There is

limited potential for increasing the number of lodges in prime areas, given that the de facto policy is high-value, low-

volume tourism. Thus, the logical expansion option is to improve bed night occupancy within existing establishments.

From a sustainability perspective, tourism impacts are overwhelmingly positive given that nature-based activities are

located in remote areas in need of development (thus not adding to pressure in urban centres). Tourism is labour

intensive and creates employment. Nature-based tourism inherently promotes conservation and has potential for

community involvement. However, a variety of negative impacts are evident and these need to be managed, and the

sector needs greater Batswana ownership. Another key issue is the need to reduce leakage so that there is greater value

adding within the national economy.


The torusim sector can find synergies with: the Botswana excellence strategy, infrastructure development (roads,

airports), agriculture (food for lodges, agricultural tourism, livestock and game farming integrated), mining (mining

tourism), education (environmental awareness), and water (e.g. dams being tourist attractions). The tourism sector could

work more closely with law enforcement agencies (including BDF) in combatting poaching.


Tourism vs mining (e.g. Okavango), tourism vs livestock (e.g. western Ngamiland),


Leakage is a feature of the tourism sector, which reduces Botswana’s ability to obtain maximum economic benefits.

The unequal distribution of income is also an issue that needs attention.

Economy & employment Social upliftment Environment Governance, safety & security

Positive impacts

Increased direct and

indirect jobs

Improved contribution

to GDP

Increased FOREX

earnings

Promotes foreign and

local investments

(lodges, hotels,

transport, other

services)

Stimulates

infrastructure

improvement (including

technology innovation,

ICT, bookings,

transfers, ease of

payments)

Positive impacts

Improved skills

development (+ job

progression)

Positive impacts

Lodges/tourism generally

promote conservation

(because they require

wilderness and wildlife),

and minimise the

presence of sectors that

have higher negative

impacts (e.g. mining)

Tourism promotes

conservation through

raising environmental

awareness, shared

learning, litter-free

countryside, re-stocking

with wildlife, good range

management, etc.

Tourism presence

disuades illegal activities

such as poaching

Tourism has raised

awareness about

economic benefits of

nature

Positive impacts

Tourism promotes crime

prevention because tourists

avoid high-crime areas.

Tourism can result in

improved policies (eg

promoting conservation, free

movement of wildlife,

integrated land use planning)

and policy consistency

between conservation/

tourism and other sectors (eg

agriculture, mining)

88

How to enhance

Provide ‘decent’ jobs –

more Batswana

managers, good service

conditions, job security

Improve the value chain

and reduce leakage (eg

through local sourcing,

transport, curios,

booking offices, food)

Improve ease of doing

business (this will assist

newcomers in the

sector)

Promote domestic

tourism

Tax self-drive tourists

(restrict import of beer,

meat, etc.) to reduce

leakage

Improve the capture of

GoB tourism rents and

levies (eg on fuel, park

entry, accommodation),

and promote the

investment of these

rents/levies in

conservation/tourism

upliftment, HWC

management, etc.

How to enhance

Promote

local/community

ownership (eg

through CBNRM

programmes)

Strengthen tourism

training (through

public private

partnerships), but

focus on needed

skills and

competencies, rather

than academic

qualifications

How to enhance

Tourism sector should get

more involved in

environmental education

and conservation

programmes, including

reducing human-wildlife

conflicts

How to enhance

Maintain peace, security,

ease of travel, and general

atmosphere of tolerance, etc.

Retain/improve Botswana’s

“low corruption” reputation

Negative impacts

Tourism sector regarded

as too exclusive, with

Batswana not

benefitting enough

economically

Negative impacts

Tourism projects may

displace agriculture/

increase HWC

Prostitution, spread

of HIV and AIDS

Social disruption and

tension could occur

when foreigners

interact

inappropriately

(possibly due to

ignorance) with rural

communities that

have strong cultural

values

Unequal incomes

(rich tourists visiting

poor areas) can cause

anger and resentment

Negative impacts

Various impacts:

Loss of local habitat,

biodiversity and

ecosystem services

through land clearing for

infrastructure, and

activities such as off-road

driving

River bank erosion from

boats creating waves

Pressure on water (for

drinking, washing,

laundry, etc. at lodges).

Tourists consume more

water per capita than the

average rural-dwelling

Batswana

Carbon footprint

(because of international

air travel)

High carbon footprint/

environmental cost of

bottled water and other

over-packaged products

imported from afar –

major cause of landfill

congestion as most

packaging is non-

biodegradable

Pollution (water, soil, air)

from lodge waste, fuel

spillages, exhaust fumes,

Negative impacts

Possible infiltration of

undesirable people posing as

tourists, exacerbated in

“regional tourism” scenario,

if people would be able to

travel between countries on a

single visa

Increased pressure on law

enforcement agencies (crime,

corruption, accidents, etc.)

89

How to mitigate

Improve local

ownership and

involvement in tourism

enterprises

Source local produce

wherever possible

New leases should

preferably be offered to

Batswana or local

dominated joint venture

partnerships

How to mitigate

See column 1

Provide tourists with

socio-cultural

information to reduce

misunderstandings

Educate local people

about tourism and

other cultures, so they

better understand the

industry and the

visitors


be paid to workers in

the industry

(minimum wage in

the Labour Act may

not be a living

wage?)

Conservation levies

are an opportunity to

raise funds to

undertake projects

that reduce HWC

light

Wildlife harassment (eg

on game/boat drives, low

flying aircraft)

Spread of alien invasive

species (mostly plant

seeds that are carried on

vehicles, shoes, baggage

or planted in gardens)

How to mitigate

Carbon offsets for air

travel (needs a SADC

approach)

Improved uptake of

Botswana Tourism Eco

Certification Standards

(ensure these adequately

address issues such as

avoiding use of bottled

water, recycling, off-road

driving, boat excursions,

low-flying aircraft,

physical footprint of

lodges, alien invasives,

etc)

Sustainability assessment

to understand cumulative

impacts of tourism and

other developments in the

Makhadighadi, central

Kalahari12

The tourism sector should

increasingly adopt clean

technology (solar power,

waste recycling, water

efficiency)

How to mitigate

None obvious

Activity 2: Promoting new tourism products (cultural tourism; heritage tourism; mining

tourism; and meetings, incentives, conferences & exhibitions (MICE) ) On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons)

Foreign tourists will likely appreciate the opportunities to experience aspects of local cultures and practices. Cultural and

mining tourism will probably be small-scale, and not result in major economic benefits to the economy. However,

participating communities that are strategically located, could enjoy significant employment and economic benefits.


Same as activity 1.

Antagonisms within and between sectors:

Same as activity 1.


A key assumption is that communities/villages and mine operators will be interested to develop and offer tourism

products, and make the necessary investments. Experience elsewhere has shown that communities involved in tourism

have a ‘love-hate’ relationship with visitors. Whilst they welcome the economic and employment opportunities offered

by tourism, they can resent the invasion of privacy, which is an inevitable consequence. Also, the presence of foreign

tourists in traditional societies can, on the one hand, promote the preservation of traditional practices (since these are the

products being presented). But on the other hand, tourists can introduce foreign behaviour that undermine local values.


Positive impacts

Positive impacts

Positive impacts

Positive impacts and

enhancement

12 These are emerging tourism hubs. An SEA has already been done for the Okavango Delta area

90

Promoting diversified

economy (national and

local levels)

Reduced leakage

because communities

are more involved in

developing and

presenting the products

High multiplier effect as

it stimulates more local

development,

investment, and product

innovation

There is potential for

more conference and

events tourism because

of Botswana’s location

and attractions. This

kind of tourism

generally requires

visitors to stay more

nights than

conventional tourists

See activity 1 for

additional impacts

How to enhance

Improve ease of doing

business (this will assist

newcomers in the

sector)

Promote domestic

tourism

Provide literature on

cultural diversity of

Botswana, and promote

the places where this

can be experienced

Most cultural and

events tourism

activities are locally

hosted and organised,

thus enhancing

control and

ownership.

Compared to other

major economic

sectors, cultural

tourism offers

relatively more

opportunities to

women

Exposure to different

cultures may improve

people’s

understanding and

acceptance of others

Heritage tourism will

promote conservation

and appreciation of

heritage sites

Villages that are open

to cultural tourism

are more likely to

value and preserve

their own cultures,

and the nation’s

values and practices

How to enhance

Specialised training

for village people so

that they understand

opportunities and

tourist needs, and so

that they are able to

offer a good product

and service

Produce information

materials about the

cultural villages/

products and

distribute these to

tourists, lodges,

operators

Mines that are open to

tourism are likely to have

a good environmental

programme

Villages open to tourism

more likely to take care

of their surroundings (eg

less litter, neater, etc.)

International conferences

demand facilities that

have environmental

standards, thus prompting

good environmental

practices

How to enhance

Promote dialogue

between the mining and

tourism sectors to explore

opportunities for

collaboration

Similar to general tourism –

see activity 1

Negative impacts

Increases local inflation

(including property

values)

May exacerbate local

labour shortage in

farming sector as people

become more involved

in tourism

Negative impacts

Conferences are more

likely to promote

prostitution, spread of

STDs, etc.

Tourism may

undermine local

cultures and values,

and even result in

selling of family

assets and heirlooms

(e.g. traditional

jewelry)

Jealousy between

villages, as cultural

tourism may increase

Negative impacts

Adventure tourism events

can cause harm to

biodiversity (especially if

they are located in

wilderness areas)

Conferences require big

energy inputs.

Negative impacts

Same as general tourism (see

activity 1)

More conferences will

require more hotels, placing

greater pressure on local

authorities to make land,

services and water available

Land speculation, resulting in

price and accessibility

distortions

91

How to mitigate

None obvious

wealth relative to

others

Botswanan cultures

could be falsely/

misleadingly

portrayed to attract

tourists

Damage to heritage

sites

Elite capture within

the village

How to mitigate

Awareness raising in

conference centres

about the risks of

STDs

Tour operators should

sensitise their guests

about appropriate

behaviour in

Botswana generally,

and when visiting

communities

Communities need to

be made aware of the

importance of

maintaining integrity

with regards to the

products they offe.

GoB (in collaboration

with the tourism

sector) should

develop guidelines

for cultural tourism

How to mitigate

Same as general tourism

– see activity 1

How to mitigate

Same as general tourism – see

activity 1

Activity 3: Enhancing transboundary collaboration and tourism products On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

Tourism is a cornerstone of Botswana’s economy. The Kavango Zambezi Transboundary Conservation Area (KAZA –

see Figure A6.3, Appendix 6) initiative presents the most significant need for a sustainability assessment (SA) for

transboundary conservation/tourism, because this extensive area - covering Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and

Angola - has a complex interaction of potentially conflicting policies, plans, programmes and projects. These need to be

assessed in an integrated way to achieve the desired level of synergy and to mitigate potential antagonisms. At a smaller

scale, there is strong case to conduct a transboundary SA for the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Conservation Area. Such SAs

would significantly improve the planning and implementation of Activity 3 and promote sustainable development in

Botswana and her neighbours as it would need to address economic, governance, social and environmental issues, and

the interplay between them.


There is considerable potential for collaboration in marketing tourism packages and in cross-border wildlife

management (through transfrontier conservation areas – TFCA) between Botswana and neighbouring SADC countries

(particularly Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe). There is also potential (because of valuable tourism

products) for a more integrated approach towards the management of transboundary environmental and social impacts

resulting from ‘upstream’ projects such as dams and irrigation on shared rivers.

Cooperation and harmonisation between airline operators in the region (e.g. code sharing, interchangable tickets, carbon

offset arrangements, baggage handling) would greatly assist in the realisation of the transboundary tourism initiative.


Policy conflicts between different countries, and between sectors within countries, may undermine this potential

transboundary tourism synergy. For example, if there are different environmental/service/tariff standards for lodges and

operators, then the “package” is inconsistent. Also, there may be different land/natural resource management practices in

one country to those across the border (e.g. hunting allowed in Namibia but not in Botswana), and a contradictory

objectives of promoting unfettered transboundary wildlife movement on the one hand, and preventing it (through

92

veterinary fences), on the other.


The greatest risk is that countries will not accept free movement of tourists across borders without them having to go

through onerous passport control. This is the main reason why countries are reluctant to undertake joint product

development and marketing and enable seamless cross-border tourist movements. The fact that the visionary TFCA and

transboundary tourism initiative has not yet taken off, is evidence that greater political will is required to implement a

mechanism to enable transboundary tourism whilst still safeguarding a country’s security requirements.


Positive impacts

Same as general tourism

(see activity 1), but at

broader scale

How to enhance

Improve regional

collaboration

(especially through the

TFCA initiative,

RETOSA, SADC and

SACU)

Positive impacts

Improved community

connectivity across

national borders

Greater benefits and

opportunities from

natural resources

How to enhance

Achieve consistency

between countries

with regards to the

extent to which

communities may

access resources in

protected areas

Positive impacts

Wildlife migration

‘corridors’ enable/improve:

mobility and expanded

range (access to forage

and water) for wildlife

genetic variability

habitat management in

areas previously enclosed

and overcrowded

resilience to climate

variability, including

drought

wildlife to repopulate

areas they previously

occurred in, but where

they recently became

depleted

How to enhance

Develop a landscape-

based management plan

for a TFCA: otherwise

ensure consistency of

individual management

plans for the protected

areas in each adjoining

country

Apply common standards

(and raise them) for

environmental/tourism

management

Positive impacts

Promotes neighbourliness

and the need for

harmonisation between laws

in neighbouring countries

Stimulates collaboration in

anti poaching, peace, defense

and security, etc.

How to enhance

Improve the efforts and

efficiency of RETOSA and

TFCA initiatives – this

requires a SADC-wide

approach

Formalise and intensify

cross-border anti-poaching

collaboration

Negative impacts

None evident

Negative impacts

Social disruption and

tension could occur

when foreigners

interact

inappropriately

(possibly due to

ignorance) with rural

communities that

have strong cultural

values

Unequal incomes

(rich tourists vising

poor areas) can cause

anger and resentment

How to mitigate

Provide tourists with

socio-cultural

information to reduce

Negative impacts

Spread of alien invasive

species across national

boundaries

How to mitigate

Lodges and operators

involved in

transboundary operations,

Negative impacts

Undesirable transboundary

movement of people

How to mitigation

Establish a practical

mechanism to enable the easy

transboundary movement of

93

misunderstandings

Educate local people

about tourism and

other cultures, so they

better understand the

industry and the

visitors


be paid to workers in

the industry

(minimum wage in

the Labour Act may

not be a living

wage?)

Tour operators should

sensitise their guests

about appropriate

behaviour in

Botswana and other

countries, and when

visiting communities

must implement a

common policy with

regards for

eradicating/preventing

the existence/spread of

alien invasive species

tourists whilst still

safeguarding national

security requirements


Botswana’s tourism sector is already well established and its importance to the economy is growing.

It creates jobs and local incomes and generates contributions to government revenues. But only 10%

of tourism revenues are currently retained locally since the bulk of bookings are handled in South

Africa.

The draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision identifies tourism as a key economic driver. To harness

its potential and achieve high growth, it sets out a strategy that will involve: reviewing the positioning

and marketing of tourism; improving access to skills; enhancing cross-border collaboration;

leveraging new markets; offering new products and locations; ensuring a steady increase in sector

value added.

The challenge for the new Vision and the implementation options set out in NDP11 will be to ensure

that Botswana upgrades and diversifies its nature-based products and improves its services and

facilities to remain competitive in the region and globally. As noted in our analysis, there is limited

potential for increasing the number of lodges in prime areas under the high-value/ low-volume policy

for tourism. So a big push is needed to increase bed night occupancy within existing establishments.

New products could include cultural, mining-based and agriculture-based tourism. However, such

enterprises are likely to be small-scale, and will not contribute in a significant way to the national

economy. But the Vision and NDP11 need to encourage involvement of local communities in such

initiatives so that they can enjoy (potentially significant) employment and economic benefits.

Nature-based tourism is focused on remote areas which need development (and thus does not increase

the pressure in urban centres), promotes conservation and offers good potential to engage local

communities. So its impacts are very positive and will contribute to sustainable development.

However, there are some negative impacts (eg social disruption, loss of local habitats, pollution – see

Table 5.3, Activity 1). So policies emanating via the new Vision and initiatives under NDP11 will

need to ensure that these are mitigated and managed effectively. It will also be important that these

instruments identify ways to reduce leakage in the sector to ensure greater value adding within the

national economy.

94

The analysis in Section 4.3 identifies a number of ways in which the tourism sector can work in

synergy with other sectors and initiatives, eg infrastructure, agriculture, mining, education, water, law.

and the Botswana Excellence Strategy. NDP11 should identify opportunities and programmes to

promote such cooperation and shared projects in which several sectors can engage.

The Kavango Zambezi Transboundary Conservation Area (KAZA) initiative offers major

opportunities to Botswana to capture regional tourists and grow the sector. But the issues and

challenges connected with KAZA are significant and complex. There is a clear need for a trans-

boundary sustainability assessment of KAZA to examine the interaction of potentially conflicting

policies, plans, programmes and project in an integrated way to achieve synergies and mitigate

potential antagonisms. Such an assessment will need to be undertaken as a collaborative venture with

Angola, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Vision should identify this requirement and NDP11

should commit to exploring how it can be achieved with the above countries.

It is also recommended that NDP11 commits to undertaking a smaller scale sustainability assessment

of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Conservation Area. It would significantly improve the planning and

implementation of this initiative and promote sustainable development in Botswana and her

neighbours as it would need to address economic, governance, social and environmental issues, and

the interplay between them.

95

6: WATER SECTOR

6.1 Baseline situation in the water sector

6.1.1 Importance to economy

Industry is a major element of the economy, generating jobs and taxes. Water is an essential medium

for many processes in industries. Botswana's economy has been built on the foundation of diamond

mining. Mining, agriculture and ecosystems are the main consumers of water. There is already

evidence of over-extraction of underground water, some of which is for industrial use. The further

growth of mining will place more pressure on fresh water supply (mines, except for Orapa, harvest

their water or buy some from the Water Utilities Corporation).

Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population, supplies about 50% of

food needs and accounts for 3% of GDP. Cattle raising predominates. But the sector is plagued by

erratic rainfall. Currently 2,000 ha are irrigated. But there are plans to increase this area to about

10,000 ha, mainly in NE Botswana, significantly increasing the demand for water. It will be delivered

from the Zambezi via a third extension to the North-South Carrier (NSC3). Additional irrigation,

particularly of horticultural crops, may be possible using treated effluent.

Botswana’s economic success has transformed quality of life through provision clean drinking water.



A national Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) plan (support by UNDP and GEF)

was completed in 2013. It marks one of the MDG7 targets and has facilitated coordination of various

stakeholders in the water sector to achieve greater ecological and socio-economic efficiencies. Plan

preparation supported some elements of Water Sector Reform such as the formulation of a National

Water Resources Management Policy and capacity[building for local authorities in water resources

planning. The reform also includes the separation of roles between service providers and regulators.

The SADC Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems (2000) asserts that “State parties shall

take all appropriate measures to prevent the cause of significant harm to other watercourse States”

The SADC Directorate of Infrastructure & Services (I&S), is tasked with overall coordination and

management of the SADC Water Programme. The Protocol revision in 2000 was to recognize the UN

Watercourses Convention which came into force in 2003. It promotes the establishment of shared

watercourse agreements and institutions and enshrines the principles of reasonable use and

environmentally sound development of the resource. It supports Integrated Water Resource

Management (IWRM) and the Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources

Development and Management (RSAP-IWRM). The Protocol also supports strengthening the

principles of integrated management of shared basins with specific provisions for equitable utilization,

planned measures, no significant harm, and emergency situations.

Botswana’s Standard for Drinking Water Quality (BOS 32:2000) are available at:

http://www.wuc.bw/wuc-content.php?cid=17#)

http://www.wuc.bw/wuc-content.php?cid=17

96


The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) under Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources,

is responsible for water resource management and planning and the construction of strategic water

infrastructure

Surface water assessment is done solely by DWA, but ground water assessment is shared between

DWA and the Department of Geological Survey (DGS) - with DGS focusing mainly on preliminary

assessment work and DWA in most cases following up the work done by DGS to accurately define

groundwater reservoirs and develop well fields. DWA also acts as the Secretariat to the Water

Apportionment Board (WAB). The WAB is a statutory body established under the Water Act 1956 to

issue water abstraction and wastewater discharge rights to water consumers and/or users. The WAB

will be abolished after the water sector reforms have been concluded. Water development and supply

functions are a shared responsibility between DWA and other key stakeholders such as the Water

Utilities Corporation, District Councils, Ministry of Local Government (MLG) and Ministry of

Agriculture (MOA).

The Department of Geological Survey (DGS) has responsibility for administering the Borehole Act

of 1956. It investigates and monitors major groundwater systems in the country, and maintains the

National Borehole Archive for the assessment of groundwater potential.

The Water Utilities Corporation (WUC) - a paratstatal – is concerned with the supply of both treated

and raw water to settlements, households and industry. This mandate has been extended through the

recent Water Sector Reform to cover not just urban areas but the entire country. WUC is the

management authority for all the major dams in the country. Its responsibilities/mandate cover: bulk

water supply to industries; management of raw water reservoirs and water treatment; operation and

maintenance of water supply infrastructure, wastewater management and treatment.

The overall objective of the Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control (DWMPC) -

under Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism - is to prevent and control pollution resulting

from inappropriate and inadequate waste management practices. The Department’s responsibilities

include: coordination and monitoring of sanitation and waste management; administration of policy,

legislation and programmes regarding waste management and pollution control; and planning and

development of wastewater treatment works.

Other key institutions include:

The Ministry of Lands and Housing - responsible for administering Land Boards. These and land

use planners use the 8 km distance (between water points) rule to plan the use of groundwater

resources for livestock farming.

The Ministry of Agriculture (Water Development Division) - responsible for the development of

small agricultural dams; and groundwater resources for irrigation.

Self providers eg mines and farmers - many develop and manage their own water supplies

subject to attaining user rights from Land Board and WAB.

Botswana is a member of four River Basin Organisations concerned with the Limpopo, Okavango,

Orange-Senqu, Zambezi rivers (for details of their responsibilities, see Table A7.2. Appendix 7)

6.1.4 Main water resources and sector products

Botswana is characterised by scarce water resources. It has low rainfall with high rainfall intensities,

rainfall seasonality, high temporal variability and high spatial variability. Drought years are

97

progressively intensified by climate change.

Drought-hit pasture land in Botswana

The country’s water sources consist primarily of surface water (in rivers, pans and dams of various

sizes) and underground water in aquifers - some of which are of a fossil nature with no recharge.

6.1.4.1 Surface water

All of Botswana’s perennial rivers are shared with neighbouring countries. There are six drainage

basins/catchments (See Figure A7.1, Appendix 7), five of which are shared:

o Molopo/Nossop (with South Africa in South)

o Limpopo (with S.Africa in East)

o Makgadikgadi basin

o Kwando/Linyati/Chobe (with Angola & Namibia in North)

o Okovango basin & delta (with Angola & Namibia in Northwest)

o Internal drainage system (central Kgalagadi)

Botswana has an allocation of 500Mm3 from the Chobe/Zambezi, and a modest allocation from the

Nata River. Transfer from the Okavango is not recommended. The Limpopo is mostly used by South

Africa. Botswana gets up to 7.9 Mm3/yr from the Molatedi dam on the Marico River,

near Zeerust, North West South Africa – although the amount is under revision. It can apply for

withdrawals from the Orange-Sequu River Basin.

Quantity of flow

The Department of Water Affairs (Ministry of Mineral Resources and Water Affairs) has operated a

network of gauging stations on rivers and impoundments since 1969. There are 10 recorded stations,

some of which have automatic chart recorders, which are visited daily, weekly or monthly. There are

four WHYCOS stations that are installed or planned, which will collect water level data on a

continuous basis, and download it via satellite link. These stations form part of the FRIEND network

coordinated by the Institute of Hydrology (UK). The data are captured in an electronic database called

HYDATA, in Gaborone. The users are mainly consultants and researchers, to whom it is supplied free

of charge on request. (Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/X9751E/x9751e05.htm).

Dams

Of the eight major dams in Botswana (Table 6.1 and Figure A7.2, Appendix 7), Dikgatlhong

(completed in 2012) is the largest with a capacity of 400Mm3. Botswana’s storage capacity is one of

the lowest in the region, owing to its flat topography.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marico_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeerust

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_Province,_South_Africa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/X9751E/x9751e05.htm

98

Table 6.1: Major dams in Botswana

Dam Catchment Km2 Capacity Mm3 Sustainable yield Mm3 %

Dikgatlhong ? 400Mm3 ? 51.6

Gaborone 4300 144.2 10.0 18.2

Thune 10.1

Letsibogo 5690 104.0 20.0 12.0

Nnyane 238 2.3 0.3 0.3

Bokaa 3570 18.5 1.1 2.4

Shashe 3630 85.3 40.0 1.1

Ntibale ? 26.5 2.9 3.4

TOTAL 380.8 73.2 100.0

Botswana has reached her peak of dam development owing to the flat topography of the country. With

economical development of dams declining with any additional sites, the need for efficient use of

existing dams is even greater. As dams also act as wetlands, the challenge of managing them as such

is prominent.

Dams are currently managed by the Water Utilities Corporation (WUC). The primary use of the dams

currently is water storage, but they also have other economic and ecological uses: tourism, real estate,

fisheries, biodiversity conservation and agriculture. These untapped opportunities represent losses in

numbers of decent jobs, contribution to GDP, and improvement of ecosystems.

Botswana has 100 reservoirs (most small and used for agriculture), 92 of these are small-medium

dams (most for livestock) (listed by the Ministry of Agriculture). The WUC manages 6 large

reservoirs (90% of country’s storage capacity): safe yields are only 20% of total capacity due to

erratic flows, high evaporation and limited dam site suitability. They supply less than half the

country’s annual water consumption. The three latest dams to be constructed (the last suitable sites)

are Dikgatlhong (400Mm3), Lotsane and Thune (in the East) will double available safe yield. There

are 34 potential small-medium dam sites with some potential (according to DWA).

Pipelines

The North-South Carrier (NSC) is a water transfer scheme that takes raw water from various dams

south for a distance of 360 kilometres to Gaborone. Phase 1 was completed in 2000. Phase 2 of the

NSC, under construction, will duplicate the pipeline to carry water from the Dikgatlhong Dam. A

proposed extension (NSC3) to deliver water from the Zambezi would add another 500 to 520

kilometres to the total pipeline length (Figure A7.3, Appendix 7).

The WUC Network is responsible for the more than 2000 km of pipes varying in sizes from 15mm to

1200mm diameters in towns of Gaborone, Francistown, Selibi-Phikwe, Jwaneng and Sowa. It is

accountable to more than 100,000 consumers.

6.1.4.2 Groundwater

Groundwater data are in two separate databases (Dept Geol Surveys & DWA) and need integrating,

and there is a need for a national spring monitoring network. Figures A7.4 and A7.5 (see Appendix 7)

show the distribution of Botswana’s aquifers.

Groundwater resources are the largest source of water in the country. They account for 56% of total

water use. But they are of limited quality and quality, and are unevenly distributed. Most well-fields

are found in the East and North. Aquifer recharge is zero in the West; and about 40mm in the North.

99

There is an estimated 100 billion m3 water held in Botswana’s aquifers. In 2003, there were 30 well

fields and 13 proposed. The government operated 22 well fields in 2003, and 13 are proposed. Data

on yields are variable and unclear – more assessment work is needed. Each well field has an average

30 boreholes. In the East, sand rivers are a potential source. Mines, livestock & rural communities

depend on groundwater.

Every borehole drilled in Botswana must submit a drill record, after which a borehole certificate is

issued. In the process, the location, depth to water, casing type, total dissolved solids (TDS) and pump

test data are recorded in an electronic database maintained by the Department of Water Affairs, but

shared with Geological Services. This database was begun in 1992. About a fifth of the boreholes are

privately owned. Drilling is now done by private contractors, who require a registration number and

must provide the drill logs to the government.

Well fields are monitored for water table levels and major ion chemistry. The water yield of each well

in the well field is recorded monthly. The depth records of the 17 boreholes are automatically

recorded and reported via satellite. The data originally went into the WELLMON database which is

now too small, so a new database is now under development. The main users are the Ministry itself,

and managers and consultants in the water sector. The monitoring of individual boreholes is now the

responsibility of local government.

The wells around mining areas are monitored for pollutants by the mining companies themselves.

Water Affairs supervises this process.

6.1.4.3 Irrigation

The extent of irrigated land in the country is unclear. Participants in the sustainability appraisal

workshop for the water sector indicated that about 2000 ha are currently irrigated, but FAO statistics

(2012) indicate the area currently equipped for irrigation is 1,438.6 ha whilst that actually irrigated is

only 620.1 ha (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2: Irrigation in Botswana Source: FAO Aquastat/Univ Bonn, 2012) (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/bwa/botswana.pdf)

Region Area equipped for irrigation (ha) Area actually irrigated

Central 586.5 358.7

Francistown 208.3 45.5

Gaborone 149.7 38.7

Northwest 194.4 71.9

Southern 249.9 103.3

Western 49.8 2.0

Botswana total 1438.6 620.1

With groundwater 665.4

With surface water 773.2

Water abstraction, use and consumption for irrigation is not measured, data is fragmented, and

abstraction cannot be reliably estimated. Irrigation relies heavily on groundwater (60.2%). 34% of

farmers use water from rivers, 5.8% use dams.

6.1.4.4 Wastewater recycling

There were 64 treatment works in 2003 – mostly based on the pond system. But there are no data on

inflows/outflows. Current records show 55 wastewater treatment facilities in the entire country

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/bwa/botswana.pdf

100

(Botswana’s Water Sector Policy Brief 2012).

Some wastewater infrastructure systems have exceeded their design limits, presenting a risk of

polluting freshwater and water tables (eg Kasane and Gumare: both in important wetlands - Chobe

and Okavango, respectively). Other systems are approaching design limits (eg Gantsi).

The Ministry of Agriculture has partnered with the Water Utilities for the economic utilisation of

recycled water from Gaborone city sewage treatment plant with plans to follow a similar pattern with

other cities in the rest of the country through roll-out of the National Master Plan for Arable

Agriculture and Dairy Development (NAMPAADD). A number of government institutions including

schools and army camps have established grey-water recycling facilities, thus reducing the demand on

clean water for uses such as gardening and brickmaking.

6.1.4.5 Water consumption

Villages generally have a lower per capita consumption than urban centres, although trends in overall

consumption in villages have been rising, especially in peri-urban areas. Villages have on average

about 0.15m3 /day per capita consumption while cities and towns have as high as 0.55m

3 /day.

Data for 2008 (Botswana Water Statistics, CSO 2009) show that in 2008, amongst the urban areas, the

highest per capita consumption was in Selebi Phikwe (0.433m3/day) and the lowest in Francistown

(0.178m3/day), with Gaborone and Jwaneneg both having levels of 0.184m

3/day. For major villages,

the highest total consumption was in Molepolole, followed by Maun, Kanye, Mogoditshane and

Serowe – all of which were above 7,000m3 /day. Kanye had the highest water losses.

6.1.4.6 Water quality

Pollution is likely to increase with economic growth and diversification, and control measures are

needed. There is insufficient legal protection of groundwater, and inadequate protection of catchment

areas. There is also a problem due to the natural salinity of groundwater. High solar radiation results

in high evaporation, leaving salts in water.

A new and sophisticated water analysis laboratory is located at Water Affairs in Gaborone. Samples

are drawn weekly from about 87 stations nationwide and analysed for inorganic chemical

constituents.

6.1.5 Sustainability issues

Water is limited in Botswana, and baseline water resources are already used unsustainably.

The in-feed to water assets mainly comes from external sources (shared rivers). This makes Botswana

vulnerable to water-related actions in other countries and subject to transboundary impacts.

Botswana needs to have a say in what neighbours are doing. One route is through River Basin

Commissions. Transboundary environmental assessment mechanisms are needed - perhaps

transboundary EA protocols. This has already been initiated by ORASECOM (under the SADC treaty

on Shared Watercourses), but the process is stalled. Protocols could be legally linked to RBO

Agreements. The need to develop a transboundary EIA protocol is under discussion in OKACOM.

Botswana is vulnerable to climate variability and climate change. Its social and economic

development programmes and goals will be at risk if climate change is not addressed. At the same

time, the contribution of Botswana’s economic sectors to greenhouse gas emissions is comparatively

small. There is agreement on the following climate changes for the region (based on: (a) Scientific

Analysis Report for Botswana Climate Change Policy, Dec 2014); and (b) Post et al. 2014):

increased temperatures (1-3 degrees);

drier in the future during mid-summer;

101

o Averaged across the country, the dry future projection is for a reduction in rainfall of

50 mm (10%);

o median projection is for a reduction of 15 mm (3%);

o wet projection is for an increase of 13 mm (also around 3%);

increases in frequency of very hot days and heat waves;

drying trend for shared rivers arising outside Botswana is likely;

increased annual precipitation over south east South Africa, decreased December-January-

February rainfall over southern Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the possibility of decreased

October-November rainfall over central Zambia;

with implications for water availability and impact a number of sectors, particular agriculture

and hydrology in what are already vulnerable.

For the water sector, it is expected that climate change will result in a decrease in annual dam yields,

and an average increase in unmet water (Table 6.3). A change in the timing and onset of rainfall will

impact on the character and quality of ecosystem services.

Table 6.3: Sectoral climate change impacts

(Source: INC and SNC, Department of Meteorological Services. Botswana)

Sector Impacts

Crops Changes in growing season length

Changes in crop productivity

Health Shift in malaria band

Morbidity and mortality children under five (5) years of age

Water Decrease in annual dam yields

Average increase in unmet water

Grassland and Livestock Deterioration of: calving rates, rangeland quality, changes in abundance of species

groups

Forestry Tree-line shifts, bush encroachment

Thus, will there be enough water for high growth unless choices on how to use water are made? The

water resource accounts argue that the greatest value adding is for mining and tourism. Should

Botswana set aside any plans for further irrigated agriculture? Or plan to reduce quantities of

livestock?

Success in providing safe drinking water in urban and rural areas has also had positive impacts on

health and sanitation, thus contributing to the other MDGs, especially on gender equality and child

mortality. Collecting water and ensuring that there is enough water for household use is usually the

domain of women and girls. This, in addition to other household tasks, can be labour-intensive and

time consuming

The so-called virtual water trade is concerned with the water flows associated with imports and

exports. Crops have high water requirements. The current trade patterns of large food imports and

large livestock product exports are efficient in terms of water use.

Botswana will face increasingly acute water shortages Botswana. This needs to be factored into

development decisions and trade-offs considered. For example, exporting coal-generated electricity

is, in part, exporting water. So the gains need to be assessed critically.

Increased irrigation planned for the new dams (Thune and Dikgatlhong) and in NE Botswana using

water piped from the Zambezi, and irrigation using treated wastewater, may lead to pollution (from

fertilizers), and soil salinisation from overwatering if appropriate technology such as drip irrigation is

102

not applied. A delicate balance will be needed to achieve the most optimal water use and highest

efficiencies to bring about food security at the lowest of ecological and social costs. Women are likely

to be disadvantageously affected more than men in accessing irrigation technologies and finance for

them – measures will be need to ensure their effective participation so as to provide, in-turn, for food

security.

There is a risk that water supply may be solely prioritised at the expense of IWRM and water demand

management

The following issues are raised by the Botswana Water Policy Brief (Seanama Conservation

Consultancy, 2012):

Water Demand Management

Considering the limited supply of water and the evident declines in rainfall owing to climate change,

per capita consumption remains high for some of Botswana’s urban areas. At nearly double the per

capita consumptions of other urban areas, Selebi Phikwe presents a major water demand management

challenge. Against this background is also the significant decrease in per capita consumption in Sowa

(needs analysis and lessons drawn).

Management of water demand hinges on technology investments for efficient water use within the

industry, especially agriculture and mining. Progress has been visible in the mining sector - especially

as regards water use for diamond-processing, and agriculture’s interest in drip irrigation. The scale of

drip-irrigation in Botswana is still too low to bring out empirical strength. Pilot initiatives through the

Department of Water Affairs have shown effective reduction in water demand in schools. However,

the wider replication of these pilots for more empirical strength is negated by the lack of policy

regarding water efficiency within the Ministry of Education, or even basic per-capita consumption

standards against which the institution’s administration is measured.

The neglect of water demand management can result in severe food shortages, disruption of business

and essential services such as health and education. The ever rising water demand requires prudent

management and employment of technology to optimise efficiencies.

Managing demand is more important that investing is water development because it makes available

the same amount of water at a lower cost, thus making the economy more efficient. Reducing losses

and water wastage decreases water processing and transmission costs in the form of electricity and

chemicals used for purification. These green savings not only reduce the negative environmental

impacts of coal-generated electricity, but also make WUC more viable - thus securing jobs. The

application of technology can also reduce water losses substantially, eg leak detection devices,

pressure and flow control sensors with real-time and on-line data transmission, automated pressure

valves and a GIS-based computerised system to manage these components.

Use of groundwater

All of the western part of the country depends on underground water for both human consumption and

livestock. The mining sector also depends largely on underground water (CSO 2009). Current

extraction rates exceed sustainable levels for the aquifers - a challenge that ecological limits will be

exceeded; and an even bigger challenge for fossil aquifers or those with low recharge rates. With

climate change causing progressive declines in rainfall, recharge rates are projected to be even lower

(Department of Meteorological Services, 2009).

Further challenges with underground water relate to the land-use planning and positioning of such

facilities as landfills. Prudent management of facilities such as petroleum stations and sewage

treatment plants is important to ensure zero-contamination of underground water.

103

Water Losses

Waste water/effluent constitutes 16% of all the water resources of which only 20% is re-used. There is

an opportunity to use treated wastewater for irrigation. There are significant water losses and wastage.

An estimated 46% of purified water is not accounted for (Ministry of Finance and Development

Planning, 2010). Water efficiency levels need to be increased drastically. Most villages are at the peak

of their resource availability with water losses factored in. A 46% increase in water availability may

be achieved by either developing more water resources (assuming infinite availability) or reducing

water losses.

Water, health and sanitation

The quality of drinking water, management of sanitation infrastructure, positioning of potentially

hazardous facilities such as oil reservoirs, waste landfills and wastewater processing plants require

greater institutional diligence. Although waterborne sanitation systems are allocated according to the

size of the settlement and within the settlement, these are allocated to middle and upper income

residences. In many village locations, seepage from pit-latrines and soak-away systems represent a

risk to aquifers. Raised nitrate levels are a problem in Maun.

Of the current 55 wastewater treatment facilities, data on their capacities is available for 33. It

indicates that a total of 103,400m3 /day of water is spent on water-borne sanitation (Department of

Waste Management & Pollution Control, 2012). Assuming twice the volume when adding the

unknown figures and considering the projected 300,000 m3 by 2020 quoted in the National Policy on

Wastewater and Sanitation Management (Ministry of Local Government, 2001), the current figure

could be in the range of 210,000m3/day. The policy advocates for Sealed Dry Composting Latrines

(SDCLs), but specifically for areas where there is no piped water. The benefits may therefore need to

be compared with the infrastructure costs and water considered as an ecological limit to the universal

use of a water-borne sanitation system. The World Toilet Organisation (WTO) has supported many

governments to transform into a dual sanitation system of water-borne and dry sanitation for different

parts of the country. There are health issues to consider (Peasey, 2000) as well as the agricultural

benefits from dry waste.

The expansion of waterless sanitation will reduce costs to the beef industry currently resulting from

measles and other parasitic veterinary diseases caused by cattle coming into contact with human

faecal matter in rural Botswana. It will also reduce the potential for contamination of aquifers. The

risk-levels of aquifers needs mapping. Gantsi Township is a priority-area where improved sanitation

needs to be implemented across the township and not restricted to high-income residential areas. Dry

sanitation will also save drinking water, contribute to agriculture through reduced parasites in

livestock, and increase soil fertility.

Water for ecosystem/ecological services

The IWRM process has raised awareness about the ecological role of water – particularly for rivers

and wetlands (including dams). As fewer villages draw their drinking water directly from rivers,

concerns about water quality may minimise. But pollution of watercourses can reduce biodiversity (eg

eliminate certain species of fish) and alter riverine ecosystems. More needs to be understood about the

ecological vulnerability of Botswana’s riverine ecosystems. There is formal requirement for the dam

authority to release water from dams to maintain downstream ecosystems.

Underground storage

The lack of further economical dam-sites in Botswana should stimulate consideration of underground

storage of surface run-off water.

104

Use of economic instruments

Instruments are needed to control economic behaviour in relation to water resources, eg:

Payment for ecosystem services - where local communities residing upstream within catchment

areas are incentivised to prevent soil erosion and pollution for the benefit of the rivers and dams

downstream. Plus, identifying and terminating perverse incentives such as water consumption

subsidies for employees. Setting tradable pollution permits which recognise that some element of pollution will exists side-

by-side with economic development, but that such pollution is to be within specific Limits to

Acceptable Change. Polluters may therefore trade their permit amounts through an authority

whose costs are covered by a share of such trade. Such a system has the benefit of stimulating

reduction in pollution as a measure of a company’s progression to a greener economy and a

means of financing such a transition.

6.2 Development scenarios for the water sector


main influences on the development of the water sector over the coming decade (Table 6.4). These



Table 6.4: Development drivers for the water sector

SD pillar Drivers

Environmental Climate change

o Water

Shared rivers are already stressed, with increased water demand in

neighbouring countries (SADC Agreement on Shared Water is a key

instrument – need to agree a Transboundary EIA protocol)

Erratic/lower rainfall will cause reduced aquifer recharge

Land use change

o Urban sprawl, habitat deterioration, reduces runoff and aquifer recharge

Social Population growth

o More people require more water (estimated 1.26%/yr population increase

nationally in 2014 – according Indexmundi1)

o Urbanisation (2.07% annual rate of change for 2010-15 estimated by

Indexmundi2) – urban people consume more water – due to increased

affluence

Economic Mining

o More mines require more water (especially coal), including associated

infrastructure which uses water

Agriculture

o More irrigation requires more water

o Feedlots (industrial beef) – require water

Power generation

o Power stations – use water

Budget constraints

o Inadequate funding for dams, pipelines

Technology and awareness

o Desalination of saline groundwater (costs and suitability are key factors)

o Better knowledge/technology will increase understanding of groundwater

availability, as well as lead to reduced leakages and wastage, and groundwater

recharge

Other Policy, politics and awareness

105

o UN declaration on water as a human right and the SDGs will stimulate water-

borne sanitation

o Incentives and technologies for recycling, water saving, and water re-use

o Food security policy - drives irrigation

o Water sector reforms – that stimulate cost recovery, efficiency, IWRM

o Better information/awareness about need to conserve water (regionally variable)

o Politicisation of water

Neighbours

o Shared rivers – what is the risk of future regional conflict over access to water?

o SADC peace and security (developments in other countries will affect

Botswana’s water availability)

o Improved water sharing agreements between neighbours 1: http://www.indexmundi.com/botswana/population_growth_rate.html

2: http://www.indexmundi.com/botswana/urbanization.html

Table 6.5: Development scenarios for the water sector over the next 10 years

CURRENT SITUATION

(BASELINE SCENARIO)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL

(LOW GROWTH +

INFLATION)


NDP11 period]

HIGH GROWTH


Assumptions:

No new big dam sites

available. Catchments

yielding overall similar as

now (erratic)

NSC phase 2 not fully

completed

Dams under construction

are completed

Masama emergency well

field commissioned

(3million litres per day)

Increased demand by

RSA on Lesotho water,

minimal excess for

Botswana

Major increases in

industrial activity (mines,

power stations)

SADC peaceful

No change in water

restrictions

Urbanisation, population

growth, new urban

infrastructure

Assumptions:

No new big dam sites available.

Catchments yielding overall

similar as now (erratic)

NSC phase 2 fully completed

New dams fully connected to NSC

pipelines

New Zambezi connection pipeline

done (part of NSC 3 – will connect

at Palapye)

More irrigation (food security)

Lesotho water importation in place

(feasibility study commenced in

2015) – maybe new pipelines.

Increased coal and other mines and

power stations

SADC peaceful

No change in water restrictions

Ongoing urbanisation, pop growth,

new urban infrastructure,

Water resource accounts

recommendations only partly

implemented

Siltation of dams gets worse

because of accelerated land

degradation – maybe not in the

short term

No major new technology for deep

well water exploration

http://www.indexmundi.com/botswana/population_growth_rate.html

http://www.indexmundi.com/botswana/urbanization.html

106

Shared river basin commissions

are operational – protocols agreed

and signed –EIA transboundary

protocol implemented

8 large dams. Full available

capacity: 800Mm3 (380

now)

Sustainable yield from

dams: 156 Mm3 pa

Dams silted at <1% (some

>10%) (sediments are not

monitored, dam design does

not include sediment

efficiency)

92 small farm dams.

Groundwater supplies 56%

of total water use

Underground storage

capacity: 131,290 Mm3

Rainwater harvesting close

to zero

Sustainable yield of

aquifers: 96 Mm3 pa

Rural consumption: 0.15m3

per person day - literature

(30-50 litres more realistic

for small settlements, 70-80

litres for larger DWA

villages - according to SA

workshop). Water-borne

sanitation is the main

reason for increases in

DWA villages

Urban consumption:

0,55m3 pppd

(more realistically 150-170

litres pppd domestic)

Water Demand: 200 Mm3

pa

20% water re-use

Water pumped from private

boreholes not metered

Irrigation area: 6200 ha

(2000 ha under irrigation

now, 4000 ha irrigable)

o 60% using

groundwater,

o 34% rivers,

o 6% dams

Agric overall 74,6 Mm3 pa

Water for mines: 34.6 Mm3

pa

Water for power: 0.103

Mm3 pa

Water for manufacturing:

3.4 Mm3 pa

8 large dams. Full

available capacity:

800Mm3 (800 actual)

Sustainable yield from

dams: 300 Mm3 pa

Dams silted at <1% (some

>10%)

(10% increase on current

base): 101 small farm

dams..

Groundwater supplies 45-

50% of total water use

Underground storage

capacity: 131,290 Mm3

Rainwater harvesting

close to zero

Sustainable yield of

aquifers: 96 Mm3 pa

Rural consumption: 0.2m3

pp pd

Urban consumption:

0,6m3 pppd

Water Demand: 330-380

Mm3 pa by 2020

25% water re-use

Water pumped from

private boreholes not

metered

Irrigation area: 8000 ha

o 50% using

groundwater

o 34% rivers

o 16% dams

Agric overall 130 Mm3 pa

Water for mines: 50 Mm3

pa

Water for power: 1 Mm3

pa

Water for manufacturing:

4 Mm3 pa

8 large dams. Full available

capacity: 800Mm3 (800 actual)

Sustainable yield from dams: 300

Mm3 pa

Dams silted at 1% (some >10%)

(15% increase on current base):

106 small farm dams.

Groundwater supplies 55-65% of

total water use

Underground storage capacity:

131,290 Mm3

Rainwater harvesting close to 5%

of water sourcing

Sustainable yield of aquifers: 96

Mm3 pa

Rural consumption: 0.25m3 pp pd

(more realistically may increase to

60-80 litres pppd for small

villages, 100 litres pppd for larger

DWA villages)

Urban consumption: 0,7m3 pppd

Water Demand: 400-440. Mm3 pa

by 2020

35-45% water re-use

Water pumped from private

boreholes not metered

Irrigation area: 10,000 ha

o 40% using groundwater

o 50% rivers

o 10% dams

Agric overall 200 Mm3 pa

Water for mines: 70 Mm3 pa

Water for power: 3 Mm3 pa

Water for manufacturing: 4.5 Mm3

pa

107

Water for domestic use sold

by utilities: 83.7Mm3 pa

Water infrastructure

North-South Carrier 1

Sewerage treatment

facilities (55) – released to

environment

Grey water treatment plants

(some micro facilities)

Purified water losses

(leakage or unmetered use)

46%

Water for domestic use

sold by utilities:150Mm3

pa


NSC 2 in place

Sewerage treatment

facilities (60)– released to

environment

Grey water treatment

plants (some micro

facilities) 10% increase on

current base

Purified water losses 30%

Water for domestic use sold by

utilities: 160Mm3 pa


NSC 3 constructed

Sewerage treatment facilities (70)

– released to environment

Grey water treatment plants (some

micro facilities): 30% increase on

current base)

Purified water losses 20%


The high growth scenario for the water sector is based on a number of assumptions. No new dams will

be constructed since all available sites are already used, and the yields of existing dams will remain

erratic (mirroring rainfall variability) and similar to current ones at best, and possibly reducing over

time as dams suffer increasing siltation because of accelerated land degradation.

Phase 2 of the North-South Carrier will be completed with all major dams connected to pipelines, and

an extension to draw water from the Zambezi will be completed by 2025. The more recent dams and

Zambezi access will provide water for irrigated agriculture. particularly large schemes in NE

Botswana near Pandamatenga. The total area of irrigated land will increase from about 2000 ha (note

that data are unclear – one source estimates that the actual area being irrigated is only about 600 ha) to

about 10,000 ha. Water will also be imported from Lesotho through pipelines. Demand will be

managed to equitably distribute water to various users: growing urban populations and infrastructure,

industries, mines and power stations.

Botswana will work closely with neighbouring countries to ensure that the shared river basin

Commissions are operational and work effectively to manage water resources - with protocols agreed

and signed (notably an EIA Transboundary Protocol will be implemented).

The country’s eight large dams have an available capacity of 800Mm3 when full, providing an

estimated annual sustainable yield of 300 Mm3. There will be a modest increase in the number of

small on-farm dams (perhaps 15%). Groundwater is likely to provide a greater proportion of total

water supplies than at present (an estimated 10-15% increase), but underground storage capacity will

remain unchanged (currently 131,290 Mm3). Overall water demand is likely to double by 2020 (to at

least 400 Mm3), with water consumption (both urban and rural) inevitably rising as population grows

and lifestyles change.

There will be a significant increase in the number of sewerage treatment facilities (from 55 at present

to about 70) and the number of grey water treatment plants will increase by about 15% (actual

numbers are not clear).

108

6.3 Sustainability appraisal of the water sector


Development initiatives/activities associated the high-growth scenario for water (see Table 6.5) and

objectives/goals and projected initiatives identified for the sector in the draft Framework for a Long-

Term Vision for Botswana (27 October 2015) were reviewed. This identified the following activities

(initiatives, projects, policy thrusts, etc.) likely to be implemented over the next 10 years:

North-South Carrier (NSC) phase 2 is fully completed

New dams now being constructed are fully connected to NSC pipelines

NSC 3 (new Zambezi connection pipeline) is constructed

Lesotho water importation is in place

Expand irrigation (promoting food security) (irrigated area rising from current 2000 ha to

10,000ha)

Government will continue investing in irrigation schemes that utilize treated wastewater and in

the meantime will seek improvement of their water productivity [Vision]

Ensure shared river basin commissions are operational – with protocols agreed and signed –

particularly a transboundary EIA protocol is implemented

Promote increase in re-use of water (likely to rise from 20% to 35-40%)

Promote increase in sewage treatment facilities (likely to rise from 55 to 70 plants)

Promote increase in greywater treatment plants (likely 30% increase)

Promote water demand management and water resources stewardship [Vision]

Establish prioritized demand categories and quantities that are exempted for efficiency allocation

process, and strict application of water allocation efficiency guidelines to all other users [Vision]

Undertake sectorial integrated water resources management assessment, including cost-benefit

analysis for priority sectors to inform water allocation decisions [Vision]

Incorporate integrated water resources management (IWRM) into strategies and policies of

economic growth, trade and investment, as well as undertake environmental impact assessments

of both projects and strategies [Vision]

Encourage roof top harvesting of water for domestic use [Vision].

Develop and implement a catchment area management approach [Vision].

Strengthen management of shared water resources [Vision]


for assessment in the sustainability appraisal workshop for the water sector:

Activity 1: NSC phase 2 (including the Masama emergency well field) and NSC3 (Zambezi link)

are fully completed (including providing smaller pipes to villages, and abstraction from aquifers,

dams and rivers).

Activity 2: Reclamation, treatment and re-use of waste water (including sewage) (sewage

treatment works to rise from 55 to 70).

6.3.2 Overall perspective on the sustainability of the water sector

Botswana is a water-stressed country. Surface water sources are essentially limited to shared rivers

(eg Zambezi/Chobe, Orange, Okavanago, Limpopo) which are subjected to heavy and escalating

abstraction by upstream countries. In addition to abstraction, other developments in neighbouring

countries (eg construction of infrastructure, urban expansion, land clearing and industrial

development) undermine the ability of rivers to continue performing essential ecological services.

The evidence indicates that underground water sources in Botswana are being over-extracted - some

of this is for industrial use. But water is essential for most of the country’s industries (eg diamond

109

mining) which are key contributors to the economy and generate employment, and for agriculture.

The latter is limited by erratic and low levels of rainfall, high rates of evaporation and

evapotranspiration, and predominantly poor soils. It is dominated by livestock keeping and accounts

for about 3% of GDP due to the predominance of diamond mining, but it underpins the livelihoods of

more than 80% of the population and generates about half of the country’s food requirements.

The further growth of mining projected in the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision will place

added pressure for public water supply, although some mining companies (eg the diamond mine at

Orapa) harvest their own water; and mines and many industries recycle water in their operations.

Currently 2,000 ha of land are irrigated. But it is proposed to expand irrigation (to an estimated

10,000 ha), notably in the Pandamatenga area in NE Botswana following the development of the

NSC3 to draw water from the Zambezi. This proposal is of concern. Whilst it will be beneficial in

terms of food security, it is likely to result in a range of significant environment and social negative

impacts. The 2013 report on Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water in Botswana, considers

that the opportunity costs of water consumption for irrigation are “high” and need to be carefully

considered in development planning. The report also recommends that economic diversification

should favour the service sectors and trade policies that recognise Botswana’s comparative

disadvantage in water resources.

Some irrigation will also be possible as a result of proposals to treat wastewater. Such treatment

should be maximised wherever possible and, from a sustainable development perspective, makes

perfect sense. Water saving should be the norm in Botswana, given the water stress the country faces,

rather than being promoted only during times of acute water crisis.

Given the overall criticality of water to Botswana, there is a strong case to undertake a sustainability

assessment (SA) of the water sector, addressing economic, social, environmental and governance

issues related to water and the interactions between them. This SA should take into account both

supply and demand concerns and developments at a river basin level, and examine the cost-benefits of

proposed initiatives and alternatives to them, and options such as aquifer recharge.

110

6.3.3 Sustainability appraisal of selected activity

Table 6.5: Sustainability appraisal of selected activity in the water sector

Activity 1: NSC phase 2 (including the Masama emergency well field) and 3 (Zambezi link)

fully completed (includes providing smaller pipes to villages, and abstraction from

aquifers, dams and rivers) On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons):

It is essential to the nation (for both economic and social reasons) to ensure that water from available surface sources

(ie rivers and dams) and groundwater supplies (ie well fields) is accessed and transported to the main population

centres and industries (including for irrigated agriculture). It is equally essential that water losses (considered to be

high due to poor infrastructure) are minimised, and that as much water as possible, is recycled. The construction and

operation of the water infrastructure facilities (mainly pipelines) projected under this activity will be of clear economic

and social benefit to the country (as a whole) and to communities and individuals. There will also be some negative

consequences, and some negative environmental impacts. The significant expansion of irrigated farming (for food

crops) linked to NSC3 will also benefit the country (eg contributing to the economy, enhancing food security and

generating jobs). But this initiative to open up large areas of industrial agriculture is likely to generate a great variety

of significant negative social and environmental impacts and there are doubts about its financial viability. It requires

careful thought and a sustainability assessment to address the many likely cumulative impacts and measures to

minimise/mitigate them, and how to enhance possible synergies with other sectors.


The planning of water infrastructure development needs to be fully integrated with broader land use planning and

undertaken at the landscape level. This will enable appropriate routes for pipelines to be determined. Irrigated

agriculture development should be supported by analysis of the suitability of the land for irrigated crops and be

based on prior land evaluation to assess and zone land according to its suitability for different potential uses.

The development of water infrastructure will benefit considerably by working closely with sectors that require

and depend on water supplies (eg agriculture, mining and tourism); with sectors in which water has in important

role/influence (eg health and associated structures such as HIV and AIDS Management Committees); and those

agencies dealing with social issues such as gender and poverty eradication.


Land previously used for traditional agriculture may be alienated for mega irrigation projects associated with

NSC3. Also, these projects will be located adjacent to major rivers (Zambezi/Chobe) that are important for

biodiversity and already utilised for tourism. There will likely be conflicts between irrigated crop production and

wildlife (eg elephants trampling and eating crops).

Botswana has submitted proposals to the Zambezi River Commission (ZAMCOM) for water abstraction and use

of water for irrigation. No formal objections have been raised, so it presumed to be acceptable. But this

abstraction could lead to tensions (since other member States also have increasing water needs for the different

development priorities) unless formal agreement is reached through ZAMCOM It is strongly recommended that

Botswana uses its influence within SADC and the various river basin commissions, to develop catchment-

specific Transboundary EA Guidelines so that developments in the basins are better coordinated and planned.


Importing water or food (produced by irrigation) from other countries externalises the environmental costs (the

water demand to grow those crops) to the producing country (ie it generates what is known as a ‘virtual water’

demand).

The national budget will continue to subsidize water provision to enable food production in the interests of

“national security”.

Note: [WAVES could broaden its natural capital accounting to address irrigation and emerging mining, power

and other uses of water].

Economy & employment Social upliftment Environment (Natural

Capital)

Governance, safety & security

Positive impacts

Jobs during

construction and

implementation

Water availability

stimulates economic

growth (manufacturing,

mining, energy,

Positive impacts

Improved water

availability and

employment

opportunities will

enhance and diversify

livelihood options and

family incomes

Positive impacts

None obvious

Positive impacts

Improved food security (from

irrigation crops - a national

issue)

Improved water security

111

irrigation, tourism,

aquaculture etc.) and

employment in the

above industries

Irrigation projects

associated with NSC3

will stimulate ancillary

industry and services

(engineering, transport,

banking, etc.); and

provide crops for export

(FOREX earnings) and

import substitution

Improved security of

water supply improves

investor confidence, and

thus enhances FDI

New pipelines improve

water delivery

efficiency (less water

loss than old pipelines)

Overall benefit to

national economy

through multipliers

How to enhance

Repair leaking pipes

Rationalise water

pricing (currently the

government

subsidises capital

costs, but consumers

must pay full cost

recovery for water

consumed)

Local hiring

Skills transfer

Local ownership (of

irrigation projects)

Small villages will

have improved access

to high quality, safe

drinking water –

improving health and

sanitation (a social

good)

New skills acquired

(particularly in

irrigation projects)

Irrigation projects

associated with NSC3

will stimulate more

services & social

infrastructure in the

NE area of Botswana

(eg schools, clinics);

and people in that area

will have less need to

seek jobs elsewhere

How to enhance

Strengthen local level

institutions (eg

catchment

management

committees and

maintenance centres)

that manage and

maintain infrastructure

Local hiring

Skills transfer

Local ownership

How to enhance

Improve wildlife

habitats in dams

(attractive for

tourism)

How to enhance

Establishment of Catchment

Management Committees will

empower communities

Accessing water from shared

rivers and addressing upstream

and downstream water

demand issues in such rivers

will be enhanced through

improving efforts towards

regional cooperation (through

shared river basin

Commissions), particularly

full and effective

implementation of the SADC

Protocol on shared water

courses

Improve integration of sector

development planning with

work of shared river

Commissions

Further decentralisation of

water management institutions

Negative impacts

Cost of water will

increase (because of the

capital cost of

construction and

pumping)

Some reduction of

farmers’ incomes due

to their exclusion from

grazing in areas fencing

off for pipeline

servitudes

If number of irrigation

projects increases

significantly following

Negative impacts

Involuntary

displacement of people

along pipeline routes

(and for development

of irrigation projects

associated with NSC3)

Social disruption due

to migrant workers

(and squatters) during

construction (including

increased risk of HIV

and AIDS)

Worker influx can

distort prices of goods

Negative impacts

Pipelines with cause:

Habitat

fragmentation and

loss of biodiversity

Elevated levels of

poaching by

construction

workers

Cumulative impacts of

irrigation projects

associated with NSC3:

Reduced

environmental flow

Negative impacts

Increased corruption

associated with big projects

(irrigation, pipes).

Possible tension with

Zambezi basin states

concerning water abstraction

for irrigation associated with

NSC3

Illegal in-migration because

of lure of jobs and economic

opportunities in irrigated

areas associated with NSC3

Possible increase in crime

112

completion of NSC3,

then:

a) There could be

opportunity costs –

water could be used

better (e.g. mining)

b) Could negatively

affect tourism

because of altered

sense of place

How to mitigate

Demand management

and improved efficiency

will reduce water costs

Introduce a step-price

system (eg people who

use very little pay

nothing, while those

who use vast quantities

pay treble, with a

sliding scale in

between)

Cross subsidization may

need to be considered

(some industries could

be required to pay more

so that others get a

discount)

Compensate farmers

who lose grazing

(short term)

High water costs may

place pressure on local

livelihoods

Abuse of illegal

immigrants (often

subjected to poor

conditions: low pay,

long hours, etc.)

How to mitigate

Subsidize water

according to agreed

criteria

Resettle displaced

people

EIAs/ EMPs for

irrigation projects must

address social and

health issues


developers should

implement/enforce

approved codes of

conduct for their

workers regarding

social interaction with

communities

Land use planning

(including zonation)

to rationalise

settlement patterns and

plan better for water

infrastructure

development and

associated

developments (modify

district plans)

through over-

abstraction of water

(cumulatively by the

projects and other

sectors)

Habitat loss &

fragmentation due to

clearing for

agriculture and

towns, restricting

wildlife migration

routes

Human-wildlife

conflicts

Increased poaching

Pollution and

eutrophication

(through excess use

of artificial

fertilisers)

How to mitigate

Smaller pipes to

villages (max pop

size: 8-10,000) will

cause some

disruption (as

houses are not

located in a linear

manner, so the pipes

will pass through

‘yards’)

Develop a code of

practice for irrigated

agriculture that

includes following

recommended

application

rates/levels and

application methods

for agro-chemicals

used in irrigation

projects

How to mitigate

Improve transparency in

government contract

procedures

Simplify visa

requirements/procedures for

foreign workers

In respect of the irrigated areas

in NE Botswana associated with

NSC3:

Modify relevant District Plans

(to improve allocation of areas

for various types of

development, housing,

infrastructure, etc.)

Increased security and

administrative capacity will be

needed

Activity 2: Reclamation, treatment and re-use of waste water (including sewage) (sewage

treatment works to rise from 55 to 70) On balance perspective [summary conclusion of pros and cons]

The components of this activity are important elements of an Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

approach. They will contribute positively to the economy and have positive environmental and social outcomes.

Reclamation and reuse of water will reduce overall demand and provide opportunities for small-scale enterprises (eg

irrigation of horticultural crops). It will also lead to improve health of local communities (through improved

sanitation), although if water treatment fails to remove dangerous contaminants, there could be significant negative

social impacts.


Water and: agriculture, health, environment.

Within water sector: between water institutions (utilities, regulation (DWA), Dept Waste management).


113

None obvious

Assumptions & risks

Treated water has multiple uses

Water treatment will be improved to ensure removal of contaminates (eg salts, heavy metals, human waste) to

ensure it is safe to drink

Risk of technical malfunction leading to health risk – because some may consume unpotable water

Social risk of non-acceptance of using treated water – requires awareness-raising of safety of fully treated water

Not clear what is the average yield of water treatment facilities since outflows are not measured

Problem of households no connecting to sewers installed by government - need to incentivise connections

Need to look at cost-effectiveness of waste water treatment

Economy &

employment

Social upliftment Environment Governance, safety & security

Positive impacts

Good economic

return on

investment in

water

infrastructure

Increase in

downstream

economic

activities (eg small

horticultural

enterprises)

Import substitution

for crops produced

Job creation

In theory, treating

waste water

reduces the need

to import or pump

water (and thus

reduces costs)

How to enhance

Install dual

pipelines in large

cities (eg

Gaborone) so that

public areas (eg

sports fields,

parks) can be

irrigated using

grey water

Positive impacts

Could improve

sanitation if waste

water is used to

flush toilets– and

improve health (less

breeding

opportunities for

mosquitoes in pit

latrines)

How to enhance

Provide for low-

income households

to connect to sewers

and install flush

toilets

Positive impacts

Reduced water demand

benefits environmental

flows in surface waters and

to groundwater

Treated wastewater can be

used for landscape

enhancement (parks, hotel

gardens, etc.)

Toilet flushing (column 2)

means less pit latrines

which will reduce

groundwater contamination

(although toilets may be

flushed to soak-aways that

will pollute groundwater)

How to enhance

Improve connection of

toilets to the sewer network

for toilets

Positive impacts

Contributes (marginally) to

increased food security

Contributes to integrated water

resource management (IWRM)

How to enhance

No obvious measures

Negative impacts

None obvious

Negative impacts

None obvious

How to mitigate

Improve

transparency of

Negative impacts

Contaminated crops

irrigated with ‘bad’ water

(eg containing heavy

metals)

Over-irrigation with water

high in salts (not removed)

will contaminate soil –

reduce soil ability to hold

nutrients and reduce soil

productivity, etc.

How to mitigate

Strengthen water utilities to

enforce trade effluent

Negative impacts

None obvious

114

water institutions

(through them

providing

information)

agreement


Botswana suffers from erratic rainfall and droughts and is vulnerable to climate variability and

climate change. It will face increasingly acute water shortages. Water resources are already scarce and

used unsustainably. Surface waters are limited and underground water is being over-extracted, and the

in-feed to water assets is mainly from external sources (shared rivers). The North-South

Carrier (NSC) takes raw water from various dams to Gaborone and a duplicate pipeline is being

constructed, with a further extension to the Zambezi proposed.

Water is an essential medium for many industrial processes, and is critical for mining and agriculture

and for the functioning of ecosystems. The continued growth of mining will increase the demand for,

and pressure on, fresh water supplies. Effective and sustainable water management is therefore

critical. The draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision includes a number of goals that will support

such management:

Emphasis on water resource stewardship and water demand management rather than capital

development works;

Raising the water productivity of agriculture;

An expansion of the cattle cluster that must be commercially viable with cost of water fully

covered;

Strict application of water allocation efficiency guidelines – although the Framework also

proposed to establish prioritised water demand categories and quantities to be exempted from

efficiency allocation process;

Sectoral water resources management assessment;

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) incorporated in strategies and policies for

economic growth, trade and investment; with EIAs of projects and strategies;

Efforts to reduce water distribution losses;

Increased use of treated wastewater (eg for irrigation);

Adoption of the catchment area management approach;

Strengthened management of shared water resources.

Many of the goals of the draft Framework will only be achieved if choices are made on how to use

water. These will include issues such as whether Botswana should continue with plans to expand

irrigated agriculture, or whether the numbers of livestock should be reduced. Debate on such concerns

should be part of the deliberations to agree the new Vision. Account should be taken of the argument

in the water resource accounts that the greatest value adding is for mining and tourism.

Water pollution is likely to increase with economic growth and diversification, including from

seemingly green activities such as using treated wastewater for irrigation. NDP11 should ensure that

effective pollution control measures are implemented. The Vision should set a goal to ensure that

adequate legal protection is provided for groundwater and for the protection of catchment areas.

Because Botswana’s rivers are shared with other countries, it is vulnerable to their actions to abstract

water and also to the transboundary impacts of such actions (eg upstream over-abstraction from the

Okavango threatens the delta, and river pollution from upstream agriculture). The Vision should

commit to ensuring that the shared river basin Commissions work effectively so that Botswana has a

say in what neighbours are doing.

115

Given the overall criticality of water to Botswana, there is a strong case that NDP11 should include

provisions for a sustainability assessment of the water sector addressing economic, social,

environmental and governance issues related to water and the interactions between them. This

assessment should take into account both supply and demand concerns and developments at a river

basin level, and examine the cost-benefits of proposed initiatives and alternatives to them, and options

such as aquifer recharge.

116

7: CROSS-SECTOR LINKAGES AND CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

7.1 Cross-sector linkages

In planning for, and investing in, Botswana’s future development, it will be important to identify the

linkages between sectors to help indicate where there is a need to work together to, for example:

promote and enhance outcomes beneficial to linked sectors;

avoid or minimise developments in a sector that could impact negatively on other sectors or

inadvertently undermine or impede development policies or initiatives in other sectors;

analyse issues of mutual concern;

address common or interacting concerns;

jointly promote solutions to challenges;

engage in integrated planning.

The sustainability appraisals presented in Tables 2.3 (mining), 3.2 (agriculture), 4.4 (energy), 5.3

(tourism – including wildlife) and 6.5 (water) indicate clear potential synergies between these five

priority sectors as well as infrastructure (highlighted in Table 7.1) – that should be explored during

planning to identify how they can be enhanced to maximise positive impacts and benefits. There are

also existing and potential antagonisms between some sectors (highlighted in Table 7.2) that will need

to be addressed to minimise negative impacts, reduce conflicts, and avoid undermining or negation of

development efforts.

Table 7.1: Cross-sector interactions (synergies)

Mining Agriculture Energy Tourism

(and wildlife)

Water Infrastructure

Mining X X X

Agriculture X (localised) X X

Energy X

Tourism (and

wildlife)

X X

Water

Infrastructure

Table 7.2: Cross-sector interactions (antagonisms)

Mining Agriculture Energy Tourism

(and wildlife)

Water Infrastructure

Mining X X

Agriculture X X

Energy

Tourism (and

wildlife)

X

Water

Infrastructure

The obvious inter-sectoral synergies and antagonisms are summarised in Table 7.3, but deeper

appraisal would be likely to reveal further linkages.

117

Table 7.3: Summary of key cross-sector synergies and antagonisms

Linkage Synergies Antagonisms

Mining and agriculture

Mining can conflict with agriculture if it

requires large tracts of land and scarce

groundwater, and if pollution threatens the

health of rangelands and livestock.

During prospecting for minerals, field

teams usually traverse large areas of

farmland, often coming into conflict with

farmers.

Mining and tourism

Potential to develop mining tourism Conflicts often arise between mining and

tourism (eg in the Okavango).

Mining and water

Mining is heavily dependent on water for

its operations, and thus places stress on

water available for use in other sectors

(except where saline water or recycled

water is used).

Mining and

infrastructure

Infrastructure improvments will be

sparked by mining (eg roads and social

services), and these will benefit other

sectors, eg tourism, as well as society

and the economy as a whole.

Mining and education Education and skills development -

which inherently accompany mining

activities - can similarly be regarded as

a national good.

Mining and other

sectors The emergence of new mining areas –

often several mines close to each other

(mining hubs) - will likely stimulate

other development/investments as

opportunities emerge and the economy

grows and diversifies, thus stimulating

the need for forward planning at

district and local levels.

Mining and sensitive

areas

Mining in or near important certain

areas needs to be avoided - particularly

areas that are highly sensitive, are

important for conservation and

tourism, are biodiversity rich, contain

important archaeology, or have been

designated as having special global

status such as World Heritage or

International Wetland sites.

Agriculture and energy

New mega coal-fired power stations may

affect livestock farming in the vicinitiy

(<20km) of the facilities because of air

pollution and additional water use.

Agriculture and

tourism (including

wildlife)

There is potential for agro-tourism

(visitors to cattle posts).

Value-adding could take the form of

manufacturing of leather goods and the

selling of cured hides for tourists or

interior decoration and furniture

purposes.

Integrated game-livestock farming

could be promoted in some areas,

including tourism, to achieve greater

economic benefits from the land.

Communities near to tourism hubs

could supply lodges and restaurants

with fresh produce that is currently

imported.

Potential to develop agricultural

tourism

Tourism is in conflict with livestock

keeping in particular areas (eg western

Ngamiland).

The proximity of livestock to certain types

of wildlife (eg buffalo) increases the risk of

disease transfers and human-wildlife

conflicts.

Conversely, game farms may result in an

increase in pests and predators, which may

negatively affect adjacent livestock farms.

Agriculture and conservation may find it

difficult to coexist in areas where crops are

susceptible to raiding by wildlife (eg

elephants trampling and eating crops).

118

Agriculture and

sensitive areas

In order to reduce land use conflicts,

livestock farming needs to be avoided in

wilderness areas that are highly sensitive

and important for conservation and tourism.

Agriculture and water

Land previously used for traditional

agriculture may be alienated for mega

irrigation projects.

Agriculture (irrigated)

and integrated

planning

In NE Botswana, it is possible to

enhance the synergies between

planned large-scale irrigation and

industrialisation (agro-industries), and

the achievement of local value-adding.

Also, this initiative provides an

impetus for better multi-sector

integration and improved long term

spatial planning.

Large irrigation projects are usually located

adjacent to major rivers that are important

for biodiversity and already utilised for

tourism.

Energy and other

sectors Power security will support all sectors,

and stimulate development in

particular sectors such as mining and

manufacturing.

The placing of solar panels on

peoples’ houses (or on offices,

warehouses, etc.) creates opportunities

for synergies between energy

generation and: banking (for loans),

town planning and building, and

education (awareness and training).

All stakeholders/sectors need to work

together to achieve the desired

outcomes.

Energy and

neighbouring countries

Increased availability of baseload

power will offer improved

transboundary synergies in energy

trading through the SAPP, thus

boosting the regional economy.

Energy and

infrastructure New coal-fired power stations will

obtain coal from a new/existing mine.

There will be a need to integrate them

with planning for a new/expanded

town/village, and associated health and

social services, communications

infrastructure, power lines, roads, etc.

in order to achieve synergy and avoid

duplication.

Tourism and water

Potential for dams to be developed as

tourist attractions.

Tourism and

infrastructure

Tourism stimulates infrastructure

development (roads, airports),

Cooperation and harmonisation

between airline operators in the region

(eg code sharing, interchangable

tickets, carbon offset arrangements,

baggage handling) would greatly assist

in the realisation of transboundary

tourism initiatives.

Tourism and other

sectors The tourism sector could work more

closely with law enforcement agencies

(including BDF) in combatting

poaching.

The tourism sector can work closely

with the education sector to raise

environmental awareness.

There is considerable potential for

collaboration in marketing tourism

packages and in cross-border wildlife

management (through transfrontier

Policy conflicts between different

countries, and between sectors within

countries, may undermine this potential

transboundary tourism synergy. For

example, if there are different

environmental/service/tariff standards for

lodges and operators, then the “package” is

inconsistent. Also, there may be different

land/natural resource management practices

in one country to those across the border

(eg hunting allowed in Namibia but not in

119

conservation areas – TFCA) between

Botswana and neighbouring SADC

countries (particularly Namibia, South

Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe).

There is also potential (because of

valuable tourism products) for a more

integrated approach towards the

management of transboundary

environmental and social impacts

resulting from ‘upstream’ projects

such as dams and irrigation on shared

rivers.

Botswana), and contradictory objectives of

promoting unfettered transboundary

wildlife movement on the one hand, and

preventing it (through veterinary fences),

on the other.

Water and other sectors The planning of water infrastructure

development needs to be fully

integrated with broader land use

planning and undertaken at the

landscape level. This will enable

appropriate routes for pipelines to be

determined.

Irrigated agriculture development

should be supported by analysis of the

suitability of the land for irrigated

crops, and be based on prior land

evaluation to assess and zone land

according to its suitability for different

potential uses.

The development of water

infrastructure will benefit considerably

by working closely with sectors that

require and depend on water supplies

(eg agriculture, mining and tourism);

with sectors in which water has in

important role/influence (eg health and

associated structures such as HIV and

AIDS Management Committees); and

those agencies dealing with social

issues such as gender and poverty

eradication.

Reclamation, treatment and re-use of

waste water (including sewage) will

benefit the agriculture and health

sectors as well as the environment.

Botswana has submitted proposals to the

Zambezi River Commission (ZAMCOM)

for water abstraction and use of water for

irrigation. No formal objections have been

raised, so it presumed to be acceptable. But

this abstraction could lead to tensions

(since other member States also have

increasing water needs for the different

development priorities) unless formal

agreement is reached through ZAMCOM.

It is strongly recommended that Botswana

uses its influence within SADC and the

various river basin commissions, to develop

catchment-specific Transboundary EA

Guidelines so that developments in the

basins are better coordinated and planned.

Water sector – internal

linkages Within the water sector, synergies can

be achieved between water institutions

(utilities, regulation (DWA), Dept

Waste management).

The natural resource base in Botswana, like everywhere else in the world, is an integrated functional

system. Its utilisation, administration and management is, however, organised along separate but

interrelated development and conservation processes, for administrative expediency. All ministries in

the central government have portfolio responsibility for some aspect(s) of development. Some

ministries also have responsibility for certain aspects of environmental management. A number of

statutory and non-statutory boards have been established to administer, manage and control some

aspects of natural resources, their products and services.

There are a number of institutional shortcomings in the current arrangements, which include:

gaps and overlaps in environmental policy formulation;

inadequate coordination, integration of activities and appropriate land use zonation (so there is a

need for consistent policies, planning, implementation and monitoring) (Box 7.1);

limited monitoring and response capability;

insufficient coordination;

lack of capacity to resolve differences; and

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inadequate response capability.

Box 7.1: Zonation in prime conservation areas

The setting aside of large conservation areas (such as national parks) aims primarily to maintain essential

ecological patterns and processes – particularly those associated with preserving functioning examples of

different biomes and landscapes, as well as cultural heritage. Large size also enhances the aesthetic appeal and

sense of place of an area.

In any national park, there are certain areas that can be considered more sensitive or important than others,

based on criteria such as the occurrence of rare habitats and species, spectacular landscapes, high tourism

appeal, etc. Usually these areas are zoned as “core”, “wilderness” or “specially protected”, with a set of

specific rules applicable to them (eg no mining or human settlements). A park zoning plan should minimize

conflicts between different users by separating potentially antagonistic activities whilst ensuring that activities

which do not clash with the park’s values and objectives can continue as appropriate.

From a conservation perspective, it is crucial that park management plans are respected and implemented

consistently. It is also essential that developments which are contrary to such plans are not allowed in national

parks and other protected areas.

It has also been observed that the enforcement of the various legislative provisions has been

inadequate. A number of reasons have been given, including the following:

the poor and/or inadequate communication of the law to stakeholders;

administrative and institutional inefficiency;

dualistic assignments to enforcing agencies;

reliance on criminal sanction as a primary sanction, instead of it being seen as a last resort;

the inadequacy of licensing as an instrument of administrative control;

the unavailability of viable alternatives to prohibited activities; and

the command and control posture of the law.

7.2 Cross-cutting issues

A number of issues cut across the sectors discussed in previous sections. These include infrastructure,

HIV and AIDs, rural policy and land tenure

7.2.1 Infrastructure

The works, transport and communications infrastructure is particularly important for the sustainable

development of a country such as Botswana given its large area, unevenly distributed population and

landlocked nature. Partly because of these characteristics, as well as the sandy terrain, semi-arid

climate, topographical conditions and shortage of construction materials, the provision of

infrastructure is relatively more expensive in terms of per capita expenditure on development and

maintenance than most countries.

A balanced and efficient works, transport and communications infrastructure is an important catalyst

for economic development. Since independence, government has emphasized its facilitative role

through the development of infrastructure and has accorded it priority. This is reflected by successive

years of major resource allocations to the works, transport and communications sectors.

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Works infrastructure consists mainly of buildings for office accommodation of public institutions.

Transport infrastructure includes roads, railways and airports. Communications infrastructure includes

telecommunications and postal services.

Botswana has made significant progress in recent years in building its infrastructure (Table 7.3), but

the country faces a variety of important infrastructure challenges:

power sector - lack of generation capacity and insufficient power supply, leaving the economy

vulnerable to power price shocks and load shedding;

completion of the critical 600 MW Morupule power generation project, which will restore

supply-demand balance in the country;

implementing the ambitious institutional reforms in the water sector, and balancing investment

and maintenance spending in the transport sector;

international transport connections and internet connectivity lag behind comparable countries;

progress in connecting to the continent’s western and eastern submarine cables;

Botswana loses US$68 million/yr to inefficiencies and faces a funding gap of US$305/yr, entirely

in the power sector. Botswana is in good position to meet infrastructure goals if it can reduce

inefficiencies, increase public-sector receipts, and attract more public funding.

Table 7.3: Achievements and challenges in Botswana’s infrastructure sectors (World Bank 2011) Achievements Challenges

Roads Procuring resources for road network

expansion and maintenance of existing

assets.

Achieving good internal connectivity

among main cities and population centres.

Creating institutional mechanisms to guarantee

funds for increasing the preservation needs of an

extended (and further extending) road network.

Increasing the competitiveness of Botswana’s

segments of international corridors.

Improving rural accessibility.

Improving logistics and other cross-border

elements of international corridors.

Railways Keeping existing railway infrastructure in

good condition relative to regional

standards.

Decreasing freight traffic levels due to increasing

regional competition.

Minimizing subsidies to freight tariffs.

Air transport Developing a clearer strategy for air

transport.

Equipping Air Botswana with new and

modern jets to provide links to regional

hubs.

Incorporating Botswana under international

safety oversight and standards.

Liberalizing, diversifying and deconcentrating

the air transport market.

Irrigation Increasing the area with irrigation infrastructure.

Increasing water storage availability.

Water and

sanitation Allocating increased and sustained

resources in support of the needs of the

sector.

Significantly increasing access to and

quality of services.

Establishing an efficient water utility

provider.

Overcoming the high development costs that

geography imposes on expanding rural area

services.

Introducing a flexible tariff regime that better

aligns costs with prices and introduces periodic

tariff revisions.

Power Doubling electrification rates.

Setting in place a very efficient power

distribution utility.

Completing the on-going expansion power

generation capacity.

Introducing a flexible tariff regime and policy

that better aligns costs with prices and introduces

periodic tariff revisions, ensuring its

implementation through an independent

regulator.

ICT Increasing mobile penetration to the

highest rate in Africa via the successful

liberalization of the sector.

Improving access to Internet.

Improving regulation.

The regulator (BTA) should begin by levelling

the playing field for newcomers.

Eliminating the BTC monopoly in fibre optics

and gateways.

Accelerating the privatization of BTC.

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The transport and energy-power sectors are expected to see the most growth over the next decade - as

a result of the government's aim to expand the mining industry and stimulate economic growth by

diversifying the economy.

"The construction market contracted sharply during the economic recession, and investors are

reluctant to invest in new infrastructure projects. Government funds have been diverted to priority

sectors and many ongoing projects have been put on hold, with future projects being delayed until

such time as funding becomes available. The government is now also considering public-private

partnerships as a means to develop infrastructure in Botswana."

Over 30 multi-million dollar projects are ongoing in Botswana. Investment in the transport and

energy-power sectors accounts for 84.7% of US$12.81 billion of infrastructure development in the

country.

The Chinese have a high success rate of winning infrastructure project tenders in the country. The

ability of Chinese investors to undercut costs (because of the subsidies they receive from their

government) gives them an unfair advantage in the selection process and stifles the growth of

domestic service suppliers.

Botswana has posted a strong investment record in the road and water and sanitation sectors, and has

successfully increased rural access to power. The country’s power and water utility post some of the

highest levels of operational efficiency to be found in Africa. Botswana has also made strides in

expanding mobile telephony, with the number of cellular subscriptions exceeding the number of

inhabitants for the first time in 2010 (WB).

7.2.2 HIV and AIDS

In 2010, it was estimated that Botswana had an adult HIV prevalence of 24.8%13

, the second highest

in the world after Swaziland – this translates into an estimated 300,000 people living with HIV in the

country or almost one quarter of the population aged 15 and over (UNAIDS, 2010). Although this

figure is high, it is down from an estimated 37.3% prevalence rate in 2003 (www.who.int).

Considering Botswana’s population is below two million, the epidemic has had a devastating impact:

life expectancy at birth fell from 65 years in 1990-1995 to less than 40 years in 2000-2005 (UN,

2004). The loss of adults in their productive years has serious economic implications, with families

being pushed into poverty through the costs of HIV and AIDS medical care, loss of income, and

funerals. The economic output of Botswana has been reduced by the loss of workers and skills;

agriculture and mining are among the worst affected sectors. The loss of adults to AIDS has also had a

significant effect on children in Botswana: an estimated 93,000 children have lost at least one parent

to the epidemic (UNAIDS, 2008). It is vital these children have access to education, but this is

problematic in families already weakened by AIDS where children may be providing care for ill

relatives or supporting siblings.

Populations at high risk in Botswana include migrant workers, construction workers, miners and sex

workers (NACA Botswana, 2010). A study in the densely populated mining town of Selebi-Phikwe,

showed an overall prevalence of 52.2%, the highest in the country (NACA Botswana, 2003). Mining,

especially when the mine is in a remote area and/or the mine workers live in single sex hostels, has

shown to bring men into increased contact with multiple partners. Sex work has become increasingly

common around these richer mining towns, at infrastructure construction sites, and at border

crossings, as this offers the best livelihood for some young, poor and vulnerable women. The influx of

13

The BAIS III estimate in 2008 gave the prevalence figure of 17.6%, but this is not reflected in the UNAIDS

Country Report for 2010. For the sake of consistency in data comparisons, all HIV epidemiological data used in

this study has been sourced from the UNAIDS Country Reports for 2010.

http://www.who.int/

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immigrant workers (non-Motswana) has exacerbated this activity due to the increased spending power

of the immigrants compared to locals.

The implementation of development projects has a profound impact on women and young girls in

Botswana. Most of the major development projects such as the construction of major roads and dams

are found in semi-urban and rural communities whose female population is mainly disadvantaged

economically and disempowered socially. These disadvantages contribute to the vulnerability of this

population group to HIV Infection. In many instances, rural women are impoverished and without

reliable means of support to provide care for children and the elderly. Women also bear the brunt of

care-giving for those infected by HIV and AIDS. This undeniably results in an increase in their need

for material support and an enlarged cash base. With little or no education and very bleak prospects of

employment, commercial and transactional sex work becomes an attractive option. Young girls are

often offered as objects of sex by their guardians in exchange for basic necessities, it has been

reported that children as young as 12 years old are coerced or allowed to enter into sexual relations

with immigrant workers by their families. It is therefore evident that the vulnerability of women and

girls to HIV infection in Botswana needs to be factored in when conducting Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA).

Another factor affecting the current (and future) performance of agriculture is the country’s

vulnerability to the HIV AIDS epidemic, which has had a devastating impact: life expectancy at birth

fell from 65 years in 1990-1995 to less than 40 years in 2000-2005 (UN, 2004). The loss of adults in

their productive years has serious economic implications, with families being pushed into poverty

through the costs of medical care and funerals, and loss of income. The economic output of Botswana

has been reduced by the loss of workers and skills; agriculture and mining are among the worst

affected sectors.

7.2.3 Rural policies

Besides agricultural policies, policies influencing rural development include the Rural Development

Policy (2003) and the National Settlement Policy (1998). The underlying thrust of these policies is to

discourage rural-urban migration and encourage the provision of infrastructure and facilities in rural

areas so as to develop the economic base. But this has largely been unsuccessful in that urban

migration has continued and the economic base of the rural areas has stagnated, even while

infrastructure (eg roads, water and electricity supplies) has been provided in rural areas at very high

cost. However, NDP10 takes a somewhat different approach in recognising that “urbanisation is an

inevitable consequence of economic development that must be recognised and provided for.

Urbanisation also presents a wide range of opportunities, including increased access to public

services” (p20).

Despite a strong role for rural development in the overall development policy framework and the

allocation of large amounts of public resources to agriculture and the rural areas, there has been little

explicit attention paid to access to finance, whether in the country as a whole or in rural areas in

particular. However, NDP 10 does indicate that, in principle, at least government wishes to promote

financial sector development and, in particular, to improve access to financial services for the poor.

The aim is to remove barriers to wider formal sector provision (eg the high cost of operating banking

services in rural areas) and to create incentives for private sector financial institutions to improve

access (p147). The high cost of operating banking services in the rural areas, which could benefit

farming and non-agricultural SMEs, has been identified as a major constraint for several years (GoB,

2002; World Bank, 2008; CSO, 2010). Government’s approach as outlined in NDP 10 is to “create an

enabling environment for financial sector development by putting in place appropriate regulatory

structures that promote more competition, allow space for innovation, improve consumer education

and infrastructure, and facilitate entry and exit to the market and institutional growth. Government

will also use its own economic position to leverage change by encouraging financial innovation, eg by

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moving to smartcard based payments systems and by providing improved and timely data” (para

9.64).

7.2.4 Land tenure

Botswana has three types of land tenure systems, each with different sets of laws and regulations

regarding access, ownership and sale/transfer (ie marketability): freehold land, state land and tribal

land. There are also different types of permitted land use, including agricultural (with sub-uses

including grazing, arable and mixed farming), commercial, industrial, community/social and

residential. The vast majority of land in the country is tribal land, followed by state land (including

national parks and the majority of urban land) and a small amount of freehold land (in both urban and

agricultural areas). Despite having one of the lowest population densities in the world (3.5 persons per

km2), Botswana has severe land shortages in certain areas. The reasons for this are complex, but

essentially reflect inflexible land tenure systems that do not easily allow change of land use in

response to evolving economic needs. As a result of laws, customs and regulations, land markets do

not function effectively in most parts of the country. So the expansion of major urban areas is

constrained by surrounding agricultural land, which cannot easily be converted to more productive

uses. And because of very low agricultural productivity, very large land areas are required for

agriculture, even to produce the country’s small agricultural output.

7.2.5 Transboundary issues

The governments of all southern African countries recognise the need for expanding their national

economies. They are initiating, facilitating or allowing an increasing number of large-scale

developments in their countries, or between themselves and neighbours. The most significant are

transport corridors, telecommunication networks, irrigated agriculture, power generation and

transmission, dams and water transfer schemes, tourism and mining. Nearly all types of development

require a great variety of new and/or upgraded physical and social infrastructure. Thus, there is a

multitude of primary, secondary and cumulative ecological, social, health, infrastructure and

institutional impacts from such developments, particularly when they involve a number of projects in

the same area at the same time (resulting in ‘development hubs’). Many of these impacts are

transboundary, and one of the most worrying examples is the possibility of the Okavango Delta

drying up or being greatly reduced in size and functionality, because of upstream development.

Most SADC countries have adopted a comprehensive code of national environmental legislation, and

the need for assessing transboundary impacts is recognised implicitly. However, the legislative

measures or accompanying regulations or guidelines for assessing transboundary impacts, and for

consulting stakeholders in the potentially affected States, requires further detailed elaboration.

The key to ensuring that transboundary impacts are assessed is that the Terms of Reference for EIAs

for individual projects must stipulate the need for transboundary assessment. Transboundary EIA is

not a separate assessment type, but refers merely to the geographical scope of the assessment.

Marsden (2010) defines transboundary environmental impact assessment ( TBEIA) as “a process

applied by one or more States to evaluate the significant environmental effects from proposals within

their own territory (eg a power station) or which physically cross borders (eg a pipeline) and which

may impact upon the territory of another State or States”. As with all EIAs, TBEIA is designed to

provide better information for decision-makers, as well as involve stakeholders in the process

(including the public and NGOs as well as relevant government departments).

Fortunately, there are a number of international legal instruments which, though not directly

applicable to Botswana and her neighbours, are widely accepted to exemplify best practice as regards

the environmental assessment of transboundary impacts. For example, the 1991 UNECE (Espoo)

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context obliges Parties to

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assess the environmental impact of certain activities at an early stage of planning and sets down the

general obligation of States to notify and consult each other on all major projects under consideration

that are likely to have a significant adverse environmental impact across boundaries. Transboundary

EIA guidelines have been/are being compiled, respectively, for the Orange-Senqu Basin (under

ORASECOM) and the Okavango Basin (under OKACOM). Hopefully, these guidelines will be

completed and implemented soon. Similar guidelines are urgently needed for the Kwando/Chobe,

Zambezi and Limpopo shared water systems.

Another, though quite different, example of a transboundary issue and the appropriate response is the

collaborative management of shared ecosystems. There are already bodies in place to coordinate the

management of shared waters (eg ORASECOM and OKACOM), as well as transfrontier conservation

to manage shared wildlife. A good example of the latter is the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier

Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA). This area (Figure 7.1) supports large herds of elephant and

buffalo, plus rare and endangered species such as roan, sable antelope and African wild dog. KAZA

promotes the maintenance of important corridors for animal movement within the greater region. In

addition to State-owned parks, the area includes numerous community conservation areas, forest

reserves, and iconic tourism destinations such as the Victoria Falls and Okavango Delta. KAZA aims

to broaden the protected areas network, thus increasing biodiversity, expanding historical game

migration routes and creating potential to draw more tourists to the area. In a place where local people

often bear the costs of living with wildlife, KAZA aims to make the protection of wildlife and wild

places economically more attractive to rural communities.

Figure 7.1: The Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area

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8: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Putting development on a sustainable pathway is important for Botswana and its citizens, as it is for

all countries. But whilst some steps have been taken (eg leading implementation of the Gaborone

Declaration on Sustainability in Africa (GDSA), and committing to address sustainable development

in NDP11), much remains to be done. Failure to take the necessary steps to commit to, and invest in,

transitioning to sustainable development is likely to undermine the countries efforts to implement

Vision Beyond 2016 and make many of it goals unachievable.

A significant effort is needed to raise awareness amongst stakeholders (government, private sector

and civil society) at all levels in Botswana about what sustainable development is, how it can be

realised, and the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders.

Chapters 2 – 6 provide an analysis of the sustainability of policies, plans and particularly projects for

each of the priority sectors: mining, agriculture, energy, tourism and water, They do not appraise the

draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision itself (although account was taken of the main proposed

objectives and strategies set out in the Framework). Nor were the sector appraisals able to address the

sustainability of NDP11 since draft text was not available and the NDP11 process was suspended at

the time (although account was taken of the Keynote Policy Paper (KPP) and Thematic Key Issues

Papers (TKIPs).

However, the sector appraisals do identify a range of issues for each sector that the new Vision and

NDP11 should take into account (related to key policy thrusts, initiatives and projects likely to be

included in these instruments and implemented over the next 10 years). And the appraisals also make

recommendations for commitments and provisions that should be considered for inclusion in these

instruments – see summary sections to Chapter 2 – 6. Amongst these, it is recommended that

provision needs to be made in NDP11 to conduct a number of sustainability assessments (Box 8.1),

using the platform of Botswana’s SEA regulations.

Box 8.1: Options for sustainability assessments

Mining Conduct an sustainability assessment (SA) of one or more of Botswana’s “mineral hubs“ (eg western

copperbelt, NE hub, central Kalahari CBM) to better understand cumulative impacts and plan sector and inter-

sectoral co-investment in avoidance/mitigation actions.

Irrigated agriculture Large-scale irrigated agriculture is planned in north-east Botswana, which is likely to result in significant

impacts - both social (eg involuntary resettlement, social disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS) and

environmental (eg habitat loss, wildlife displacement, pollution). These concerns and the opportunities for

integrated multi-sector and spatial planning would benefit greatly from an SA.

Tourism Tourism is a cornerstone of Botswana’s economy, and there are high expectations from this sector. Large-scale

transboundary tourism initiatives (linked to transboundary conservation areas) would benefit greatly from the

application of an SA. The Kavango Zambezi Transboundary Conservation Area (KAZA) initiative presents the most significant

opportunity and need for a transboundary SA, because this extensive area covering Botswana, Namibia,

Zambia, Zimbabwe and Angola, has a complex interaction of potentially conflicting policies, plans,

programmes and projects. These need to be assessed in an integrated way to achieve the desired level of

synergy and to mitigate potential antagonisms. At a smaller scale, there is strong case to conduct a

transboundary SEA for the Kagaladi Transfrontier Conservation Area.

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Water Given the overall criticality of water to Botswana, there is a strong case to undertake an SA of the water sector

(addressing economic, social, environmental and governance issues related to water and the interactions

between them). This SA should take into account both supply and demand concerns, developments at a river

basin level; and examine the cost-benefits of proposed initiatives and alternatives to them, and options such as

aquifer recharge.

Other sectors

It is also suggested that a transboundary SA be undertaken of the Trans Kalahari Railway before any decision

is taken to commit to this venture.

Some key recommendations for individual sectors that the Vision and NDP11 need to address are

listed in Box 8.2.

Box 8.2: Key sector recommendations for Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11

Mining

o Surface and open pit mining generate multiple environmental and social impacts (see Box 2.1 and

Appendix 3). These include, for example, land degradation, habitat alteration, biodiversity loss,

community disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS. As part of its strategic planning function, guided by the

Vision Beyond 2016, NDP11 will need to take steps to ensure that these aspects of the sustainability of

mining are addressed and impacts are appropriately managed.

Agriculture

o Whilst the Vision emphasises improving niche-marketing of Botswana’s naturally-produced beef, the

Vision and NDP11 also need to recognise the critical importance of traditional subsistence farming to

rural communities, and particularly their reliance on small-stock such as goats and sheep. These

instruments should elaborate ways to support improvements and investment in such farming, develop local

markets for products, and increase job opportunities.

o Both the Vision and NDP11 should strongly emphasise the need to move to a more integrated approach to

rangeland management.

Energy

o Although coal-powered energy is an obvious option for Botswana, a mix that includes a greater

contribution of renewables is a more appropriate long-term approach in the context of transitioning to

sustainable development, given that fossil fuel burning has significant environmental and social impacts.

The Vision needs to more fully address the balance and trade-offs between the benefits to the economy

and energy security of expanded coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation on the one hand, and

significantly increased carbon emissions on the other hand. Admittedly, the draft Framework for a Long-

Term Vision does recognise the need to stay within sustainability constraints by reducing coal-fired

energy generation. But the final Vision should set ambitious targets and align policies, plans, programmes

and projects to facilitate the long-term transition from fossil fuels to renewables.

Tourism

o The Vision and NDP11 need to encourage involvement of local communities in new, (likely) small-scale

tourism products such as cultural, mining-based and agriculture-based tourism - so that they can enjoy

(potentially significant) employment and economic benefits.

o Whilst nature-based tourism is a strongly positive contribution to sustainable development, it nevertheless

has some negative impacts (eg social disruption, loss of local habitats, pollution). So policies emanating

via the new Vision and initiatives under NDP11 will need to ensure that these are mitigated and managed

effectively.

o The Vision and NDP11 should identify ways to reduce leakage in the sector to ensure greater value adding

within the national economy.

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Water

o Many of the goals of the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision will only be achieved if choices are

made on how to use water. The Vision process and NDP11 need to consider issues such as whether

Botswana should continue with plans to expand irrigated agriculture, or whether the numbers of livestock

should be reduced. Account should be taken of the argument in the water resource accounts that the

greatest value adding is for mining and tourism.

o Water pollution is likely to increase with economic growth and diversification, and including from

seemingly green activities such as using treated wastewater for irrigation. NDP11 should ensure that

effective pollution control measures are implemented. The Vision should set a goal to ensure that adequate

legal protection is provided for groundwater and for the protection of catchment areas.

o Botswana’s rivers are shared with other countries, so it is vulnerable to how they abstract water and to the

transboundary impacts of such actions (eg upstream over-abstraction from the Okavango threatens the

delta, and river pollution from upstream agriculture). The Vision should commit to ensuring that the

shared river basin Commissions work effectively so that Botswana has a say in what neighbours are doing.

In addition, the business-as-usual and high-growth scenarios generated for each sector were prepared

by reference to a range of development drivers. These are listed in Tables 2.1 (mining), 3.1

(agriculture), 4.2 (energy), 5.1 (tourism) and 6.4 (water). In further developing the Vision, it will be

important to review which of these drivers have already been accounted for, and which not, and how

objectives and strategies may need to be adjusted to take them into account. Responses may be

required in terms of development initiatives that may need to be included by in NDP11.

The new Vision and NDP11 will need to be linked effectively to the preparation of new district, urban

and village development plans as well as regional and local physical/spatial development plans. The

Vision should provide a platform for successive national development plans (NDPs) to set out

medium-term actions to drive Botswana towards achieving its goals.

But it must be recognised that the process of preparing successive National Development Plans in

Botswana has been essentially government-centric to date. The implementation of NDP11 will likely

remain dependent mainly on government financing, while the role of the private sector and civil

society is not immediately apparent. For a truly national development plan, opportunities for the

private sector and civil society to contribute need also to be identified. Some people have argued that

both the private sector and civil society need to develop their own parallel national plans that are

integrated with NDPs. The process of developing NDP11 will need to establish meaningful and

effective mechanisms to engage the private sector and civil society so that the objectives, activities

and modalities of triad members (government, private sector and civil society – see Figure 1.3) are

integrated and balanced. A process to develop a National Strategy for Sustainable Development is the

obvious way to facilitate the participation of both the private sector and civil society, together with

government - as advocated under the Gaborone Declaration for Sustainability in Africa (GDSA).

As Botswana seeks to move beyond Middle Income Country status, it will need to more directly

address poverty, social concerns and inequalities, create decent jobs and sustainable growth, and put

in place measures to counter environmental decline (loss of ecosystem services, biodiversity and

natural capital), and invest in sound environmental management. Meeting these challenges is central

to transitioning to sustainable development.

The Vision Beyond 2016 needs to place sustainable development at its core and as an umbrella

objective if it is to realise prosperity for all Botswana’s citizens across generations. Furthermore,

NDP11 really needs to be positioned as a transitional NDP with budget resources allocated to

undertake key processes (eg undertaking sustainability assessments of major sectoral initiatives) and

for establishing the processes and institutional arrangements to promote sustainable development

across government and so as to engage the private sector and civil society in a partnership with

government.

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The world is now moving from Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) towards Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs). Botswana will need to consider how it might align its long-term

aspirations (as to be set in Vision Beyond 2016) and development frameworks with the new global

framework being developed for the medium- to long-term in order better to pursue a pathway towards

sustainable development, and how the SDGs might be ‘domesticated’ in an appropriate and

meaningful way to support development. This will make it easier to implement and report on global

requirements at the same time that the country is implementing and reporting on its own development

agenda, ie it will avoid the duplication of efforts that often arise from parallel systems established to

address local and international requirements. It will also put Botswana at the forefront of the emerging

post-2015 development agenda so that, by the time the post-2015 framework is in place, Botswana

will be well placed to move forward quickly and effectively. Thus, as the Vision Beyond 2016 and

NDP11 processes progress, sustainable development issues and the post-2015 framework will be

brought clearly to the attention of a wider range of stakeholders in Botswana.

The DEA, with support from UNDP-Botswana, is spearheading the development of a National

Framework for Sustainable Development. This will be in synergy with the new Vision Beyond 2016

and NDP11, aiming to ensure sustainable development is integrated fully in both processes and across

sectors. The Framework will need to ensure that Botswana’s Strategy for Sustainable development is

not developed as a different, new master plan for sustainable development. Rather it should comprise

a set of coordinated mechanisms and processes that, together, offer a participatory system to support

the inclusion of goals and targets for sustainable development in Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11 and

subsequent NDPs, and should establish cross-sector mechanisms to coordinate implementation and

review of progress towards sustainable development. A sustainable development strategy should not

be a one-off initiative. It needs to be a continuing participatory process, with monitoring, learning and

continuous improvement.

The scenario analyses undertaken for priority sectors, discussed in earlier chapters, mapped the ways

in which each sector is likely to develop under business-as usual and high-growth scenarios (as

envisaged in the draft Framework for a Long-Term Vision) and identified major activities which are

currently in the pipeline or likely to be completed or initiated during the next decade. These activities

and the major policy directions, proposals and initiatives heralded in the draft Framework for a Long-

Term Vision for Botswana (27 October 2015) provided the substrate for sustainability appraisals for

each priority sector. The latter examined some of the complex web of interlocking issues that will

need to be addressed by sectors individually and on an inter-sectoral basis as part of overall national

development planning. They have also enabled experts to identify the main economic, social,

environmental and governance-related impacts (both positive and negative) likely to result from the

major activities and initiatives within each sector.

In the mining sector the activities proposed have significant environmental impacts (land degradation,

habitat alteration, biodiversity loss), and social impacts (community disruption, HIV and AIDS) that

need to be avoided and/or mitigated. There are also concerns around competition for scarce resources

(eg water and energy) and land use conflicts (mining in areas important for agriculture, conservation

and tourism) that could result in serious opportunity costs.

Whilst the agriculture sector, makes a modest contribution to GDP (it is dwarfed by diamond

mining), it plays a vital role (particularly subsistence agriculture) in underpinning rural livelihoods,

providing food, income and employment for the majority of the rural dwellers. But the sector is one of

the most vulnerable to climate change in Botswana and therefore requires very careful planning.

There are varied activities proposed in this sector, which have different implications for sustainable

development. Significant sustainable development concerns are raised by the proposed large-scale

irrigated agriculture in north-east Botswana, which is likely to result in significant impacts – both

social (eg involuntary resettlement, social disruption, spread of HIV and AIDS) and environmental

(eg habitat loss, wildlife displacement, pollution). The policy to erect and maintain veterinary fences

will also need significant assessment from a sustainable development perspective. Good policy

options include Integrated Land Management (ILM), Conservation Agriculture (CA) and improved

130

integration of the livestock and crop farming sub-sectors.

From a sustainable development perspective, in the longer-term, the energy sector needs to move to a

more diverse energy mix, seeking a greater contribution from, and a gradual transition to, renewable

energy sources. This would respond to the concern that burning fossil fuel leads to significant

environmental and social (health) impacts. At this stage, solar solutions may be better suited to niche

developments (eg tourism lodges), high density places that only need power in the daytime, or very

remote villages/mines where building long power lines would be too expensive and environmentally

damaging.

The tourism sector competes with neighbouring countries which also offer good attractions, so

Botswana will have to improve its standards, upgrade and diversify its products, services and facilities

to be competitive in the region and globally. However, there is limited potential for increasing the

number of lodges in prime areas, given that the de facto policy (which is in line with sustainability

principles) is to focus on high-value, low-volume tourism. Thus, the logical expansion option is to

improve bed night occupancy within existing establishments, as well as offer additional tourism

products (eg cultural and mining tourism). Also, the opportunities to be gained from collaborating

with neighbouring countries that offer complimentary tourism products should not be ignored.

From a sustainability perspective, proposed activities are mainly beneficial with positive economic,

social, governance and environmental outcomes.

The water sector is critical to an arid country like Botswana. Surface water sources are essentially

limited to shared rivers and underground water sources are being over-extracted. Mining and

industrial developments will place added pressure on public water supply. Plans to expand irrigation

raise considerable sustainable development concerns and, whilst beneficial in terms of food security,

are vulnerable to climate variability and likely to result in a range of significant environment and

social negative impacts. Some irrigation will also be possible as a result of proposals to treat

wastewater, and from a sustainable development perspective, this is positive. Water saving should be

the norm in Botswana, given the water stress the country faces, rather than being promoted only

during times of acute water crisis.

As indicated above, it is strongly recommended that independent sustainability assessments be

budgeted for and commissioned (using Botswana’s SEA regulations as the framework) for key

activities and initiatives in the priority sectors (see Box 8.1)– to address cumulative impacts (positive

ones – so as to identify how best to enhance possible synergies; and negative ones – so as to maximise

efforts at mitigation).

Other key strategies for improving sustainability include the use of EIA, environmental management

plans and post-implementation monitoring (for individual projects). Some of these safeguards might

require institutional reforms, such as increased staff and training in government departments, or

increased use (at proponent cost) of consultants to do the work. A key question is what are the most

appropriate arrangements for post-project closure and rehabilitation (eg mines), especially regarding

the setting aside of funds for closing and rehabilitating mines.

Given Botswana’s vulnerability to activities in neighbouring countries (eg in shared river basins), it is

strongly recommended that the GoB uses its influence within SADC to speed up the process of

developing transboundary EIA guidelines and protocols. This will improve Botswana’s ability to

influence policies, plans, programmes and projects that may undermine sectors such as agriculture and

tourism.

The professional and focused contributions of participants in these workshops underscored that

Botswana has expertise and skills in areas concerned with sustainable development. But it is critical to

continue to provide opportunities for such experts to engage in processes that critically assess the

challenges the country faces and support planning and decision-making.

131

132

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134

APPENDICES

1 Lists of participants in the scenario workshops

2 Lists of participants in the sustainability appraisal workshops

3 Baseline information for the mining sector

4 Baseline information for the agriculture sector

5 Baseline information for the energy sector

6 Baseline information for the tourism sector

7 Baseline information for the water sector

8 Supplementary information on infrastructure

9 Definitions of terms

135

Appendix 1: Lists of participants in the scenario workshops

NAME INSTITUTION

Agriculture

Thato Supang Agribusiness Forum Database Botswana

Kgotso Oteng Ministry of Agric (Animal Production)

Nyasha Chapata AT & T Travel

Tiny Motlhaodi Dept of Agric Research

Dr Davis Marumo Botswana College of Agriculture

MC Bonyongo SASSCAL

MBK Darkoh UB

Linnet Nyandoro Enviro Affairs

Mining

Fred Jansen Bots Chamber of Mines

Neeraj Saxena Jindal Botswana

Ngonidzashe I. Tobani Dept of Geological Surveys

Taboka Mabudi Ecosurv

Rutang Moses SAFDICO & Diamond Technology Park

Tourism

Nyasha Chapata Alenwood

Duly C Otimile Dept of Lands

Temalo M. Lesetlhe Dept of Tourism

Maitseo M. M. Bolaane University of Botswana

Myra Sekgororoane Hospitality Planet

Sarah Mulwa Enviroplan

Shepherd Chakalisa Dept of Town and Regional Regional

Mosimanegape Nthaka DEA

Linnet Nyandoro Enviro Affairs

Ruud Jansen Consultant

Sekgowa Motsumi OKACOM

Energy

Linnet Nyandoro Dept of Enviro Affairs

Judith MAifala Enviro Affairs

Sarah Mulwa

Karen Giffard SO Solar

Bonolo Baker So Solar

Tebalebo Baletlwa Farmer

Nozipho Wright Bebezip/Energia

Martin Dube Van Der Merwe & Sons

Mokgadi Monamati Dept Environmental Affairs-Tsabong

David Lesolle Univ Botswana

Ken Johnstone BITRI

Water

BP Parida Univ Botswana (civil engineering)

PK Kenabatho Univ Botswanav science)

David Lesolle

Neeraj Saxena

Ruud Jansen

Fred Jansen

MC Bonyongo

136

Appendix 2: Lists of participants in the sustainability appraisal workshops

NAME ORGANISATION

Taboka Mabudi ECOSURV

Oageng Disang DEA

Nyandoro Linnet Kakiso DEA

Tsosoloso Matale DEA

David Parry ECOSURV

David Farr EXPLORATION

Sekgowa Motsumi OKACOM

Gabriel Monageng NSO

Khulekani Mpofu DEA

Tsalano P Kedikilwe DEA

Ngonidzashe Isaac tabani DGS

Hossia Chimbombi DOM

Mokgadi Monamaii DEA

Stephen Chakalina DTRP

Maina Bolokwe DWA

Shatho Mathangwane DTRP

Gareutlwane Gaopatwe DVS

Setshwane Khetse DAP

Grace G Mafhoko DCP

Nametso Monametsi DAR

Otlaadisa Naane NSO

Douglas Machacha DAR

Chada Koketso AGRIC HUB

Jaap Arntzen CAR

Davis Marumo BCA

Janet Selato DMS

Ruud Jansen CONSULTANT

Thato B Morule NSO

Keletso Senabye MTI-DIT

Mpho Motsonkana DWA

Gorata Modise DWA

Mmathapelo Laletsang DOT

One Tshukudu ECOSURV

Liny Rakorong HATAB

Mosimanegape Nthaka DEA

Alex Masiziani DTRP

Ramogampi Gaborekwe DEA

Kuvare Venjonokova DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

Rakgati BITRI

Martin Dube VAN DER MERWE & SONS HOLDINGS

Kwashirai chigodora STATISTICS BOTSWANA

Tshepo Baakile DEA

Karabo Magetse SOLAHART BOTSWANA

Sarah S.B Mulwa ENVIROPLAN

Karen Giffard SO SOLAR

Bonolo Baker SO SOLAR

Unopa Sikuku GEOFLUX

K.F. Dintwa STATISTICS BOTSWANA

Tshepo Setlhogile CENTRE FOR APPLIED RESEARCH

Lesego Seakanyeng DEA

Saniso Sakuringwa DWA

Bogadi Mathangwane DWA

Saidy Motladiile DWNPC

Robert Gumiremhete WELLFIELD CONSULTING SERVICES

137

Patrick Seitiso MFDP-PDC

Eben Chonguiza OKACOM

Kakanyo Dintwa STATISTICS BOTSWANA

Tej Bakaya WATER RESOURCE CONSERVANTS

Sarah S.B Mulwa ENVIROPLAN

Portia Segomelo WAVES SECRETARIAT

Oldman Koboto UNDP

Bame Mannathoko UNDP

Charles Nkile DWA

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Appendix 3: Baseline information for the mining sector

Table A3.1: Botswana’s legislative framework for mining and prospecting (modified from Mengwe 2010, SAIEA

2012)

Date of

enactment

Legislation Brief description Implications for environmental

management/safeguards 1967 Mineral Rights in

Tribal Territories

Act

Right of prospecting, mining or disposing of minerals vested in the state

Land ownership or stewardship has no right to the mining / or non-mining of minerals in or

around the Okavango Delta

1967 Mines and Minerals

Act

Provisions for granting of prospecting and

mining licences

Environmental requirements within these

provisions must be fulfilled for licence holders to retain their rights. Non compliance can be

reported by stakeholders to the mining authorities

1968 Waterworks Act Amongst other aims, prevents pollution of public water bodies

Offers added protection to the water quality of wetlands and aquifers (within Botswana)

1971 Atmospheric

Pollution

Prevention Act

This statutory regulation for the control of air

pollution empowers the state to monitor and

regulate emissions from industry

Any deterioration in air quality as a result of

mining can be reported to authorities in order to

take action

1971 Mineral Rights Tax

Act

Mechanism for the generation of state

income through minerals taxation

Use of tax income to enable investment and

development in other sectors


Act (updated)

Regulates mining and prospecting activities

including the granting and termination of licences. Provisions for environmental

protection are included

Non-compliance in terms of environmental

protection can result in licences being revoked

1978 Mines, Quarries, Works and

Machinery Act

Complimentary to the Mines and Minerals Act which makes provision for the regulation

of health and safety standards within mining

operations, and includes quarrying as a mining activity

Quarrying for building materials are subject to this Act

1981 Public Health Act Prohibits the disposal of waste or noxious

substances into water courses or beds not approved for such disposal

See Waterworks Act above

1984 Employment Act Provisions requiring mining operations to

provide medical benefits to employees, and

offers severance protection to employees

Employment benefits offered for mining attracts

trained workers, potentially creating capacity

voids elsewhere

1998 Waste Management

Act

Provisions for the prevention of pollution

from waste disposal sites

Waste disposal (waste rock, tailings, or other

waste has the potential to impact on water

quality. Mining operations’ waste management facilities need to be up to standard where this

potential exists


Act (updated)

Update of the 1977 Act, includes provisions

to creating a favourable environment for mining investment

Same as Mines and Minerals Act 1977;

Increased mining pressure on other land use in general

2005 Environmental

Impact Assessment Act

Requires all mining activities and other major

developments to conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment prior to commencing

operations, and to implement impact

mitigation and monitor its effect on the receiving environment

Land and natural resource users are recognised as

stakeholders in the EIA process for developments.

2006 Radiation

Protection Act

Entered into force in 2007. Provides for the

safe use of atomic energy and nuclear technology and for matters incidental thereto.

Established the Radiation Protection

Inspectorate

2008 Acquisition of Property Act

Includes provision authorizing the acquisition of property for public and other purposes,

and for settling the amount of any

compensation to be paid, or any matter in difference.

2010 Environmental

Assessment Act

Update to the Act of 2005. Stresses

intersectoral cooperation. Includes substantial penalties for non-compliance

Enables more collaborative decision making with

regard to the issuing / renewal of mining licences if they impact on other users.

139

Generic impacts of mining

The generic impacts of mining are well documented - see: www.elaw.org/files/mining-eia-

guidebook/Chapter1.pdf) which describes the following to be the main impacts from mining:

Impacts on water resources:

o Acid mine drainage and contaminant leaching;

o Erosion of soils and mine wastes into surface waters;

o Impacts of tailings impoundments, waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach facilities;

o Impacts of mine dewatering;

Impacts on air quality:

o Mobile sources (vehicles and machinery);

o Stationery resources (combustion and power generation);

o Fugitive emissions (dust and fumes);

Noise and vibration.

Impacts on biodiversity:

o Habitat loss;

o Habitat fragmentation;

Impacts on soil quality.

Impacts on social values:

o Human displacement and resettlement;

o Impacts of migration;

o Lost access to resources;

o Impacts on livelihoods;

o Impacts on health (particularly HIV and AIDS);

o Impacts on gender;

o Impacts to cultural and aesthetic resources;

Climate change impacts:

o Lost CO2 uptake;

o CO2 emitted by machines;

o CO2 emitted by processing activities.

Table A3.2 summarises the activities and impacts associated with mining through its different phases in a

Botswana context.

http://www.elaw.org/files/mining-eia-guidebook/Chapter1.pdf

http://www.elaw.org/files/mining-eia-guidebook/Chapter1.pdf

140

Table A3. 2: Overview of the Potential Environmental Impacts associated with the different stages of

mining activities in a Botswana context (source: Adapted from Mengwe (2004, 2010), Misra (1994), Rao and Yerpude (1996))

Stage of

Mining

Activities

Potential Environmental Impacts

Exploration, surveying and

mine site

development

Geochemical, geophysical and airborne surveys

Drilling and trenching.

Establish temporary camp and facilities

Access road and rail construction.

Waste disposal (garbage) and sanitation

facilities.

Stripping/storing of waste (overburden).

Waste rock stock piles.

Piling of low and high-grade ore stock.

Mine construction, roads, power lines, offices, housing, recreation facilities, vehicle

and machinery parks, fuel points, storage areas, service bays etc.

Installation of mine and surface water

treatment equipment.

Construction of processing plants, smelters

and refineries.

Landscaping of site.

Temporary employment.

In migration of labour

Loss and/or displacement of habitats and biodiversity.

Soil erosion along trenches and transects – could result in siltation of drainage lines.

Dumping of drill cores and waste.

Demand on local water resources.

Pollution of soil and groundwater (eg acid rock drainage).

Increased demand on local water sources.

Land alienation and restricted public access.

Noise and light pollution

Loss of heritage sites.

Aesthetic deterioration.

Altered drainage patterns and run-off flows.

Displacement of people.

Impacts on livelihoods.

Increase in job seekers.

Spread of HIV (AIDS)

Mining and

beneficiation

Blasting of rock.

Extraction of ore (mechanical – crushing and

milling, chemical – flotation and leaching.

Smelting / roasting.

Transport of product and wastes.

Development of service industries.

Increased job opportunities.

Increased national revenue.

In migration of labour and job seekers.

Air pollution, including dust, heavy metals, organics and sulphur dioxide.

Leakages and spillages leading to soil and water pollution

Energy usage (electricity, diesel etc).

Increased demand for electricity

Noise and vibration

Aesthetic and sense of place impacts (including

light pollution).

Loss of biodiversity, fragmentation, disturbance of ecological processes.

Strain on existing infrastructure (medical, education, accommodation, roads, electricity etc).

Noise pollution

Loss of heritage sites.


Increased demand on water resources.


Acid mine drainage.

Chemical spills.

Economic dependence on mining.

Skills drain on other industries.

Increased spending on alcoholism / prostitution (HIV and AIDS).

Increased crime.

Mine closure and

rehabilitation

Removal of infrastructure.

Physical, chemical and biological rehabilitation of mine sites.

Water management (pumping, chemical treatment etc.).

Management of safety aspects (fencing of voids,

subsidence).

Retrenchment / redeployment of labour.

Loss of employment.

Out migration.

Impact on related industries.

Disrepair of infrastructure (roads, railways, pipelines).

Decline in local economy.

141

Appendix 4: Baseline information for the agriculture sector

Table A4.1: Botswana’s legislative framework for agriculture

State Land Act of 1966

Defines state land of Botswana and provides for its disposal.

Provides for the imposition of a service levy as may be considered necessary to

defray any expenditure incurred or to be incurred for the grant of such land and for

the provision of services and other amenities in connection with the use of such

land.

Fees due to the state for the use of areas on state lands are to be administered

under this Act.

Agricultural Resources

Conservation Act (1974)

Makes provision for the conservation and improvement of the agricultural

resources of Botswana;

Establishes an Agricultural Resources Board and to define its powers and

functions; to provide for conservation committees and subordinate conservation

committees and prescribe their functions; and to

Provide for matters incidental to the foregoing.

Agricultural Resources

Conservation Act of 1974 (as

amended 2011)

This Act Is under revision.

Provides for the conservation and improvement of agricultural resources of

Botswana (soils, waters, vegetation and animals).

The 2011 amendment focuses on the utilisation of veld products. In the

amendment it is noted that veld products of such as mopane worm, motshikiri

thatching grass require a permit if the amount to be harvested exceeds certain

thresholds.

Herbage Preservation Act of

1977 [under revision.]

This Act was instituted to control bush and other fires. It states that every person

before burning of vegetation on land of which he is the owner or on which he is

permitted or authorised to burn, shall give reasonable notice to all owners or

occupiers of the adjoining land of his intention to do so and of the time at which

the burning is to begin.

Livestock and Meat Industries

Act (2007)

Re-enacts, with amendments, the Livestock and Meat Industries Act,

Provides for the slaughter of domestic livestock, farmed game, wild game and

poultry for human consumption,

Controls the operation of abattoirs, slaughter slabs, cold storage facilities, meat

processing plants, cutting premises, canning plants and the marketing, grading and

inspection of livestock, livestock products and other matters related thereto.

Table A4.2: Agricultural parastatal organisations

Parastatal Role

Botswana Meat Commission

(BMC)

Established to purchase and slaughter livestock, process and sell meat and other

animal products in such a manner as to promote the interest of the livestock

industry in Botswana.

The BMC owns marketing subsidiaries in the United Kingdom, Germany and

Holland, an insurance company in the Cayman Islands, cold storage facilities in

the United Kingdom and South Africa, and transport companies in Botswana.

Botswana College of

Agriculture

Established in 1991 as an associate institute of the University of Botswana. Its

mandate is to provide education and training in the science and practice of

agriculture as well as conduct research.

Botswana Agricultural

Marketing Board (BAMB)

Established in 1974 to secure a stable market for both the producers and customers

for scheduled produce against market related prices. Is also the custodian of the

strategic gain reserve for government.

Botswana Vaccine Institute

Established in 1980 to produce FMD vaccine to enhance ability of the country to

import beef. Over the years it diversified and it now produces Rinderpest, Anthrax,

Blackquarter, CBPP and PPR vaccines.

Banyana PTY (Ltd) Established in 1998 as a government owned company whose mandate is

breeding/rearing good quality beef cattle to supply breeding stock to farmers and

finished stock to BMC and local butcheries.

http://www.bmc.bw/

http://www.bmc.bw/

142

Figure A4.1: Ministry of Agriculture organogram

143

Appendix 5: Baseline information for the energy sector

Table A5.1: Botswana’s legislative and policy framework for energy

MAIN OBJECTIVES / ACTIONS & STRATEGIES

ELECTRICITY SUPPLY ACT 1973

Provision for licensing & control of undertakings for

generation & supply of electricity & connected matters

Enables issuing of licences (to generate/supply

electricity)

Acquisition of land for electricity purposes (eg for

generation/supply)

Wayleaves over land (eg for transmission lines)

Rights of entry (eg for inspection, maintenance of lines,

meters, apparatus)

NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY (final draft) (March 2009)

Responsible agency: Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources, Energy Affairs Division

Policy issues

Inadequate security & reliability of energy supply

Poor access to affordable energy services

(particularly for low-income & marginalised)

Lack of energy, hampering socio-economic

development & causing social hardships

Ineffective institutional arrangements & governance

for energy sector

Inadequate government capacity for service delivery

Lack of energy information for policy, planning and

decision-making

Negative energy-related safety, environmental &

health impacts of energy use & exploitation

Weak energy trade & international cooperation

Inefficient service delivery & utilisation of energy

sources – no demand-side management program

Ineffective energy-related research & development

programs

Ineffective private sector participation & low

investment in energy sector

Gender, age and socio-economic status not taken into

consideration in formulating energy policies &

programs

Regional elements

SADC Energy Protocol – regional integration &

cooperation in energy development

Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) – energy trade

through interconnected electricity network

Western Corridor Project - ??

Regional Petroleum & Gas Association – not yet

operational

Regional Research Alliance

Regional Electricity Regulators Association

International elements

Volatile oil prices & insecure supplies

Promotion of renewables

Botswana ratified Kyoto Protocol – carbon

emissions trading

Policy Vision

Secure, safe, sustainable & reliable energy supply for

social and economic activities for all sectors & for

the disadvantaged segment of society;

Information on energy readily available;

Active participation by the private sector including

local citizens and robust investment in the energy

sector by the private sector;

144

Equitable, transparent and consultative regulatory

system that is people-sensitive and promotes

efficiency and accountability; and

Energy related research and development programs

that address the country’s development needs.

Overall policy goal

“To meet the energy needs of Botswana for social and

economic development in a sustainable manner” (ie to

include elements of economic, social, efficiency and

environmental sustainability).

Policy Goals

1. Improved security and reliability of energy supply to

all sectors of the economy.

2. Increased and equitable access to affordable energy

services for all sectors of the economy, particularly

the low income and marginalized.

3. Energy contributing to socio-economic development

and social wellbeing of all the people of Botswana.

4. Effective institutional arrangement and governance

for the energy sector.

5. Improved capacity for service delivery for all key

stakeholders in the energy delivery chain.

6. Improved availability of energy information for

policy and planning.

7. Minimized energy related environmental, safety and

health impacts.

8. Strengthened energy trade and cooperation for

enhanced energy security and reduction in costs.

9. Improved energy efficiency for all energy sources in

all sectors for economy, increased security and

environmental protection.

10. An effective and sustainable energy research and

development program that addresses the country’s

energy development priorities.

11. Effective private sector participation and investment

at all levels in the energy sector.

12. Gender, age and socio-economic status are

mainstreamed in all energy policies and programs.

Policy objectives

Increasing access to affordable energy services to all

sectors of the economy

Stimulating sustainable economic growth by

promoting competition, efficiency and investment in

the sector and thus achieve poverty reduction

Improving institutional arrangements and

governance in the energy sector

Improving capacity in the various players in the

energy development and delivery chain

Improving the availability of energy information

Managing energy related environmental and health

impacts

Improving energy security through diversity in

supply and through regional cooperation and energy

trade

Mainstreaming gender, age and socio-economic

considerations in energy planning and development

POLICY IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 2009

Implementation Areas

Institutional arrangements:

o Generally accepted accounting principles;

o Creation of energy regulator;

o Independent power producer framework.

Energy efficiency:

o Demand side management;

145

Increasing access to modern energy:

o Renewable Energy Programme: biomass. biogas,

energy, biofuels, solar (solar PV, solar heaters,

solar thermal);

Security of supply.

Institutional needs

o Energy Water Regulator

o Independent Power Produce (IPP) Framework

o Energy Efficiency Office

o Modern Energy Access Office

o Renewable Energy Office

o Oil Secretariat

o National Petroleum Company

Figure A5.1: Southern Africa power supply

146

Figure A5.2: Botswana’s domestic electricity distribution network

Figure A5.3: National powerline map

147

Box A5.1: Key energy statistics (2014)

Peak power demand: 578 MW (2012) – est 902 MW (2020) (56% increase).

Peak demand: 598 MW

Current supply: 392 MW (excluding 200 MW emergency supply from Eskom)

Shortfall 206 MW

Average load growth rate/yr 5.5%

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Appendix 6: Baseline information for the tourism sector

Table A6.1: Botswana’s legislative and policy for tourism

MAIN OBJECTIVES ACTIONS & STRATEGIES

TOURISM POLICY 1990

Definition: A “tourist is a temporary visitor staying at least 24

hours away from his/her place of permanent residence in order

to pursue purposes related to leisure or business”

Focus for tourism: wildlife & wilderness, rock paintings,

industrial activities, historical monuments & museums

Area/site attributes:

Possess certain resources: wildlife & scenic beauty,

Have rare aesthetic, ecological, social or cultural

attributes.

Be accessible at affordable prices.

Offer degree of protection.

Convey spirit of hospitality.

General policy objective [para 3.8]

Obtain , on a sustainable basis, the greatest possible net

social & economic benefits for Batswana from their

tourism resources; scenic beauty; wildlife & unique

ecological, geological & cultural characteristics [para 3.8].

Specific policy objectives [para 3.1]

Increase foreign exchange earnings & govt revenues.

Generate employment, mainly in rural areas.

Raise incomes in rural areas – to reduce urban drift.

Provide rural development & stimulate provision of other

services in remote areas.

Improve quality of national life by providing educational

& recreational opportunities.

Project a favourable national image to the outside world.

Tourism is on ecologically sustainable basis.

Provide local communities with direct/indirect benefits.

Tourism objectives to be pursued within two constraints:

o Wildlife Conservation Policy 1986 – requires

complete protection of NPs & Game Reserves [need

to address potential conflicts from increased tourist

numbers].

o National Policy on Economic Opportunities –

requires increased participation of nationals in

ownership/management of tourism enterprises [may

inhibit foreign investments].

Shift the mix of tourists away from casual campers to

occupying permanent accommodation [para 2.2.7].

(B) TOURISM ACT 1992

Provisions:

Establish Director of Tourism

Licensing tourism enterprises

Requires classifies categories of tourism enterprises

Establishes Tourist Industry Licensing Board

Grading of tourism enterprises

(C) WILDLIFE CONSERVATION & NATIONAL PARKS ACT 1992

Provisions:

Enables declaration, control, management &

maintenance of national parks

Prohibits certain acts in parks (eg convey weapons,

hunt, cause damage, introduce or remove

animals/vegetation, etc) & in other specified areas

Require permission for new mining

Declare game reserves & sanctuaries, private game

149

reserves, & wildlife management areas

Specify protected & partially protected game

animals

Licensing/permitting of hunting/capturing outside

parks & reserves

Sets out landholders’ privileges

Permitting game farms & ranches

Issuing professional guide and hunters licenses

Control of export/import of animals. Trophies,

meat; & sale/manufacturing of articles from

trophies

(D) BOTSWANA TOURISM ORGANISATION ACT NO. 14 2009

Vision: “To develop Botswana into a unique preferred tourism

destination of choice in order to increase the sector’s

contribution to the nation’s economic growth, through active

participation of the local and international communities for the

sustainable utilization of tourism resources”

Repealed Botswana Tourism Board Act 2003, &

established the Botswana Tourism Organisation to

market and position Botswana as a premier tourist

destination; promote investment in the tourism sector;

and to classify and grade tourism facilities.

Figure A6.1: National parks in Botswana

150

Figure A6.2: Most visited destinations in Botswana (2006-2010) (Source: http://www.mewt.gov.bw/uploads/files/Tourism/Tourism%20Statistics%202006-2010%20V2%200.pdf)

Figures A6.3-6: Location of Lodges

http://www.mewt.gov.bw/uploads/files/Tourism/Tourism%20Statistics%202006-2010%20V2%200.pdf

151

152

Box A6.1: Key statistics/data for the tourism sector

International Tourist Arrivals: 2,145,079

Day visitors (2010) 386,900

Total visitors 2,531,979

Average Annual Growth Rate: Tourist Arrivals 2006-2010 10.7%

Average Length of Stay of International Tourists (nights) 5.3

International Tourist Expenditure (pula) 5.1 billion

International Tourist Average Spend/Night (pula) 450

Domestic Overnight Tourist Trips 1,166,141

Domestic Tourist Expenditure: Day and Overnight Trips (pula) 955 million

Accommodation Room Occupancy Rate 48.1%

Accommodation Bed Occupancy Rate 40.7%

Average Length of Stay in Accommodation (nights) 2.2

Leisure tourists 2010

>58% of all leisure tourists stayed in a lodge

37% camped

90% of VFR tourists stayed in private accommodation

57% also visited South Africa

Accommodation use 2010

(Source: http://www.mewt.gov.bw/uploads/files/Tourism/Tourism%20Statistics%202006-2010%20V2%200.pdf

There has been a sharp increase in the utilisation of lodges by tourists over the period 2007-2010, mainly at the expense of

hotels and private accommodation. Camping has also increased in popularity

Hotel 14.2

Lodge 39.9

B&B 6.7

Camping 20.9

Self-catering 1.2

Hostel 0.7

Private 23.5

Other 4.4

Status of the graded facilities (Source: BTO 2012/13)

1 Star 86

2 Star 79

3 Star 56

4 Star 42

5 Star 27

Grade Pending 83

No Award 51

Total 424

Accommodation statistics 2011

Number of Rooms 7,131

Number of Beds 4,386

Room Occupancy Rate 55.1%

Bed Occupancy Rate 43.3%

Average Length of Stay 2.5 Nights

Accommodation Employment 9,600

Accommodation Turnover Pula 2.3 Billion

Total Wages & Salaries Pula 57 Million

Number of facilities 428

Room 7,131

Beds 14,386

Rooms occupied 1,341,507

Beds occupied 2,274,292

Occupancy rate 51.5%

http://www.mewt.gov.bw/uploads/files/Tourism/Tourism%20Statistics%202006-2010%20V2%200.pdf

153

Table A6.1: Transport used 2010

All tourists Lesire tourists Business Visit family/relatives

Bus 26%

Own car 25%

Hire car 21%

Other 20%

Air 8%

Hire car 33%

Bus 25%

Air 16%

Own car 14%

Other 12%

Air 44%

Own car 32%

Other 5%

Bus 6%

Hire car 3%

Bus 38%

Other 35%

On car 18%

Air 8%

Hire car 1%

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Appendix 7: Baseline information for the water sector

Table A7.1: Legislative and policy framework, and related issues

MAIN POLICY OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES

WATER ACT 1968

Comment:

Many elements now ineffective in dealing with present &

future challenges of water resources management (eg

population increase, climate change).

Establishes Water Apportionment Board.

Sets out ownership & inherent rights to use public

water:

o Casual rights (eg for watering stock, drinking,

washing/cooking, use in a vehicle, sink,

wells/boreholes & abstract for domestic purposes);

o Sets out right to abstract & use water for mining &

forestry (under their sector Acts);

o Prohibits free diversion, damming, storing &

abstraction of water, & discharge of water discharge

of effluent to public water.

Registration of existing rights.

Granting & revision/variation of water rights.

Creation of servitudes (rights to access, eg to

construct/maintain water works).

Powers to inspect, demolish unlawful works, establish

hydro stations and make surveys.

DRAFT NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2012) [Not seen – analysis relies on BIRMWE Plan doc]

Objectives

Foster good quality water for all users.

Advocates sustainable development of water

resources in support of economic growth,

diversification & poverty eradication.

Decentralised catchment area approach,

Establish Water Resources Board – responsible for

equity & sustainable allocation of water resources, &

efficient implementation of IWRM plan,

Form a Water Regulator – to ensure financial

sustainability, guide & monitor development &

implementation of water tariff structures, ensure service

providers comply with standards.

Key focus areas

Water for growth

Water demand management and water conservation

Domestic water supply & sanitation

Water for environment & tourism

Water for agriculture

Water for mining & industry

Water for energy

Information management

Research & development

International cooperation

Monitoring & evaluation

Comments on policy made in Botswana Integrated

Resource Management & Water Efficiency Plan 2013

Climate change adaptation strategies not addressed

Water pricing not mentioned

No details on how water allocation to be pursued

Water use for environment highlighted, but limited

attention to water protection & water quality issues

Mobilisation & financing of water infrastructure get

insufficient attention

Stakeholder participation in IWRM needs stipulating

Conflict resolution not addressed

BOTSWANA INTEGRATED RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND WATER EFFICIENCY PLAN, MAY 2013

Goal

“To improve people’s livelihoods & welfare & contribute

to sustained economic growth, economic diversification,

social justice and poverty eradication through efficient,

equitable and sustainable water resources development &

management”

Elevate agricultural production & food security

Expand number people accessing potable water

& proper sanitation

Increase & improve water delivery supplies

Diversify economy

Offers coordinating & catalytic framework

Implementation driven by DWA

10 Strategic areas for action (55 activities recommended: 9

immediate. 35 short-term – by 2015; 17 medium-term – by

2023; 3 long-term – by 2030)

Efficiency of water allocation

Water supply & demand management

IWRM main streaming in development & land use

planning

Establish an IWRM-WE (water efficiency) enabling

environment

Development of catchment area management approach

Management of shared water resources

Institutional capacity-building in IWRM

Stakeholder participation in IWRM

Maintaining water quality & pollution control

Integration of ecological water requirements

155

Plus:

Creation of enabling environment (policy, legislative &

institutional framework)

Challenges

Water resources increasingly scare

Opportunities of additional water infrastructure are

limited & costs very high

Growth of mining will increase competition for

scarce water more than anticipated in Water Master

Plan

Future Irrigation development will strain water,

unless use treated effluent

Options

Need for water stewardship and water demand

management – rather than capital development works

Re-use /recycle all treated wastewater

IWRM Principles adopted

Water resources are ecological, economic and social

goods that need to be managed accordingly;

Water management is not the sole responsibility of

government, but of all stakeholders, including water

users, women, the private sector, academia and civil

society;

Decentralised water management is most effective,

eg at the water catchment Area level;

Water resources need to be wisely used and

governed.

Institutional features

Greater inclusiveness & participation of stakeholders

Holistic approach – close linkages to development &

land use planning

Decentralised catchment area institutions liked to

national institutions

Separation of water sector management tasks

Full integration of transboundary water management

Based on current institutional capabilities, & realistic

capacity-building

Integration of fresh & wastewater planning &

management

Plus: M&E

REVIEW OF NATIONAL WATER MASTER PLAN 2006 (NWMPR)

Review of first BNWP 1991 – identified 0utstanding recommendations from 1st plan

Need to promote WDM, water stewardship & use of non-conventional water, eg rainwater

Need national policy on rainwater harvesting

Need amendments to Building Control Regs & Development Control Code

Reduce water losses in distribution system

Increase water use efficiency in industrial & institutional sectors

Govt should encourage development in central Botswana to reduce water delivery costs

Presents WDM recommendations

Promotes SEA of development plans to determine impact on water demand

Curb pollution

Locate water dependent industries close to water sources

Incorporate water saving measures into building regs

Encourage water saving technologies

Request use of shared water resources – under international agreements

Manage water based on international best practice & IWRM

Develop National Water Resources Strategy

NATIONAL MASTER PLAN FOR WASTEWATER & SANITATION 2003 (NMPWWS)

Preceded by Policy for Wastewater & Sanitation

Management 2001:

“To promote the health & well-being of Batswana

through the provision of appropriate & sustainable

wastewater/sanitation management & to introduce

mechanisms for the protection & conservation of

water resources”

Enact legislation for wastewater & sanitation sector

o Licenses for facilities

o National asset register

o Permit system for commercial discharges of

effluents

o Monitoring of trade effluent agreements

Recover operational costs for households – national

tarriff

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Overall objective of NMPWWS

“To evaluate the current scenario on wastewater

generation & disposal, on-site sanitation facilities & their

impact on the environment, & to develop planning &

implementation strategies for regulating the generation,

collection & disposal of wastewater in an environmentally

friendly & acceptable manner”

Wastewater plans & facilities – required in 70

settlements

Wastewater treatment, reuse & recycling – national

target for 2030: increase reuse to 96% of outflow or

48% of inflow

Coordinate IWRM-WE Plan with relevant national

policies (listed)

NDP 10

Implement water sector reform programme

More dams – complete Dikgatlhong, Lotsane, Thune,&

Mosetse dams

Further groundwater investigations

LEGISLATION AND NATIONAL POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE BOTSWANA WATER SECTOR

Development

Revised National Policy for Rural Development (2002)

Rural Development Policy and Strategy (2001)

Vision 2016

Community Based Rural Development Strategy (1996)

Industrial Development Policy (1998)

Poverty reduction strategy (2003)

Environment & biodiversity

National Conservation Policy(1990)

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)

(2007)

National Action Programme to Combat Desertification

(2006)

National Policy on Natural Resources Conservation and

Development (2007)

Community-Based Natural Resources Management

Policy (2007)

Wildlife Conservation Policy (1986)

Water & wetlands

Wetlands Policy and Strategy (2001)

Okavango Delta Management Plan (2007)

Land

National Settlement Policy (1998)

National Policy on Land Tenure (1985)

Review of the National Land policy (2003)

National Policy on Tribal Grazing Land (1975)

Forests

Draft National Forestry Policy (2005)

Agriculture

Arable Land and Development Programme (1997)

Arable Lands Development Programme (1976)

National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy

Development (NAMPAD) (2001)

National Policy on Agriculture Development (NPAD)

(1991)

Tourism

Ecotourism Strategy (2002)

Game Ranching Policy of Botswana (2002)

Tourism Master Plan (2000)

Tourism Policy (1990)

Energy

National Energy Policy (2004)

National Energy Policy and Master Plan (2006)

Gender

National Policy on Women in Development (1995)

National Policy on Gender and Development (2008)

Other legal instruments described in Botswana

Integrated Water Resources Management & Water

Efficiency Plan:

Environmental Impact Assessment Act of 2011. - provides

for EIA for projects and strategic environmental assessments

(SEA) for policies, strategies and programmes. The SEA

and EIAs have to be approved by the DEA. The EIAs and

SEAs guidelines need to adopt the IWRM concept

Town and Country Planning Act 32:09 of 1978. - controls

the land use planning in urban areas. Urban planning should

adopt IWRM and link land and water resources planning

(e.g. storm water), & Botswana Integrated Water Resources

Water Efficiency Plan Volume 1

Tribal Land Act and Amendment Act Cap 32:02 of 1993.

- provides for the allocation and management of Tribal Land.

Land Boards are the key institution responsible for allocation

of Tribal land, issuing of user rights and imposing land use

restrictions. Land use and allocation processes have a

profound impact on water resources and demand, and

therefore IWRM needs to be fully integrated in the

implementation of the Tribal Land Act;

Agricultural Resources (Conservation) Act 1974. - deals

with veld products and has little direct relevance to water

resources. It also covers Agricultural Resources

Conservation (utilisation of veld products) regulations

(December 2006);

Tourism Act of 1992. - control tourism operations in the

country and requires operations to be registered and licensed

through the Department of Tourism. Water Conservation

measures could be integrated in the license requirements

(e.g. similar

to the ecotourism grading system);

Forestry Act No 23 of 1968, No 29 of 1980 and No 8 of

2005. The 1968 Act provides for the establishment of Forest

Reserves, Protected Trees, control of forest produce through

licensing and imports and exports of endangered tree species

in line with CITES. Maintaining forest resources and control

of exotic species that consumer excessive water are

important aspects of IWRM-WE;

Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act 28 of 1992.

- aims to preserve and sustainably use wildlife resources in

Parks and WMAs respectively. It provides for different

wildlife zones and licenses for hunting, Park fees etc.

Waste Management Act Cap 65.06 of 1998. - deals with

solid waste, including hazardous waste (from households,

industries and government) and requires districts, towns and

cities to prepare waste management plans. The Department

of Waste Management and Pollution Control (DWMPC) has

the overall responsibility for waste management. Licenses

are requires for waste collection and disposal. Improper

waste management and disposal poses risks of water

pollution. Failure to prepare waste management plans is

157

therefore an IWRM concern;

Mines and Mineral Act No 17 of 1999. - provides for

prospecting and mining licenses for minerals. The

prospecting license gives holders the rights to drill boreholes

Table A7.2: Responsibilities of River Basin Commissions

RBC Responsibilities

Permanent Okavango

River Basin Water

Commission

(OKACOM)

Established by the OKACOM Agreement 1994) advises the three riparian states (Botswana,

Namibia & Angola) about the best possible use of the Okavango River's natural resources. Its

responsibilities are to:

Determine the long term safe yield of the river basin

Estimate reasonable demand from the consumers

Prepare criteria for conservation, equitable allocation and sustainable utilisation of water

Conduct investigations related to water infrastructure

Recommend pollution prevention measures

Develop measures for the alleviation of short term difficulties, such as temporary droughts

Address other matters determined by the Commission.

The Orange-Senqu

River Commission

(ORASECOM)

Formalised in 2000 – following regional ratification of the SADC Protocol on Shared Water

Course Systems - promotes the equitable and sustainable development of the resources of the

Orange-Senqu River. ORASECOM provides a forum for consultation and coordination between

the riparian states to promote integrated water resources management and development within the

basin. The goals of ORASECOM are to:

Develop a comprehensive perspective of the basin

Study the present and planned future uses of the river system

Determine the requirements for flow monitoring and flood management

Zambezi Watercourse

Commission

ZAMCOM

The ZAMCOM Agreement (2004) came into force in 2011. Its goal is to assist the Riparian States

(Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe) achieve

regional cooperation and integration through sharing treasured benefits from the water resources

of the Zambezi river basin. Responsibilities are:

Collect, evaluate and disseminate all data and information on the Zambezi Watercourse for

implementation of the Agreement;

Promote, support, coordinate and harmonize the management and development of the water

resources of the Zambezi Watercourse;

Advise Member States on the planning, management, utilization, development, protection

and conservation of the Zambezi Watercourse as well as on the role and position of the

Public with regard to such activities and the possible impact thereof on social and cultural

heritage matters;

Advise Member States on measures necessary for the avoidance of disputes and assist in the

resolution of conflicts among Member States with regard to the planning, management,

utilization, development, protection and conservation of the Zambezi Watercourse;

Foster greater awareness among the inhabitants of the Zambezi Watercourse of the equitable

and reasonable utilization and the efficient management and sustainable development of the

resources of the Zambezi Watercourse;

Cooperate with the institutions of SADC as well as other international and national

organizations where necessary;

Promote and assist in the harmonization of national water policies and legislative measures.

Limpopo Watercourse

Commission

(LIMCOM)

Established by the LIMCOM Agreement (2003) to advise the Contracting Parties (Botswana,

South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique) and provide recommendations on the uses of the

Limpopo, its tributaries and its waters for purpose and measures of protection, preservation and

management of the Limpopo. Functions of the LIMCOM Council are:

Measures and arrangements to determine the long term safe yield of the water available from

the Limpopo;

The equitable and reasonable utilisation of the Limpopo to support sustainable development

in the territory of each Contracting Party and the harmonisation of their policies related

thereto;

The extent to which the inhabitants in the territory of each of the Contracting Parties

concerned shall participate in the planning, utilisation, sustainable development, protection

and conservation of the Limpopo and the possible impact on social and cultural heritage

matters;

All aspects related to the efficient and effective collection, procession and dissemination of

data and information with regard to the Limpopo;

158

Contingency plans and measures for preventing and responding to harmful conditions

whether resulting from natural causes such as drought or human conduct as well as

emergency situations that result suddenly from natural causes such as floods or human

conduct such as industrial accidents;

The investigations and studies, separately or jointly by the Contracting Parties with regard to

the development of the Limpopo including the construction, operation or maintenance of any

water works;

Measures with a view to arriving at settlement of a dispute.

Figures A7.1 River basins in Southern Africa

159

Figure A7.2

160

Figure A7.3: The North South Carrier

Figure A7.4: Botswana’s main aquifers

161

Figure A7.5: Botswana’s aquifers and their yields

Box A7.1: Key statistics for the water sector

Access to water

Access to safe drinking water (overall) 97%

Access to drinking water in urban areas 99.5% (2008)

Access to drinking water in rural areas 81.45% (2008)

Access to improved sanitation 79.8% (2010)

Rainfall

Mean annual rainfall 416 mm, (650 mm in N - 250 mm in SW)

Dams

Total dam capacity c. 800Mm3

Sustainable yield of storage dams 73.2 Mm3/yr

Additional sustainable yield of dams under construction 72.7 Mm3 /yr

New dams will increase to: 317 Mm3 ; 415L/person/day

Groundwater

Underground capacity (developed resources) 131,290 m3/day

Sustainable yield

Sustainable yield of aquifers 96 Mm3/yr

Sustainable yield per capita/day 216L/person/day

Planned sustainable yield per capita/day 415L/person/day

Potential sustainable yield from shared water courses 550 – 1750Mm3/yr

Est combined sustainable yield of well fields and dams: 165 Mm3 ; 216L/person/day

Water demand and consumption

Annual water consumption (2003): 170Mm3; , now est 200Mm3

Current water demand: 200 Mm3 ; 262L/person/day

National per-capita consumption 0.15m3/d

Annual water abstraction (water accounts) 195Mm3

Use by self providers 51.8%

Use by service providers 48.2%

Water supply

Self-providers (mostly mines & borehole owners) (86Mm3);

WUC 50Mm3;

District Councils 22Mm3

DWA 12Mm3

Water losses: 25% (2010-12)

162

Appendix 7: Supplementary information on Botswana’s infrastructure

A7.1 Institutional arrangements

The mission of the Ministry of Infrastructure, Science & Technology (MIST) is to deliver quality

building infrastructure, promote socio-economic oriented technological research, and the safe

application of nuclear technology, in partnership with its stakeholders to enhance economic

diversification and efficiency. Subdivisions include: Department of Building and Engineering

Services - provides sustainable buildings in partnership with its stakeholders; Radiation Protection

Inspectorate; and Department of Research, Science and Technology.

A7.2 Some key facts

Rail lines 971 kilometers (603 miles)

Roads 18,482 km (11,484 miles) (23% paved),

Airports 92 (12 with paved runways.

Telephones: 160,488 (2012).

A much greater density of transport, power, and ICT infrastructure is observed in the east

(particularly in the southeast) than in the rest of the country

A7.3 Transport links

Botswana's rail network is in desperate need of expansion. The country has a single North-South rail

corridor with three small branches, connecting only two of its neighbours, Zimbabwe and South

Africa. An estimated US$8.4 billion will be invested in expanding the railway network. This

investment will see Botswana connected to Namibia and Mozambique through two new rail links

(Figure A7.1), allowing the efficient transportation of minerals for export. It is hoped that the

improved rail network will also transform Botswana into a transport hub in southern Africa, with the

country facilitating trade in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Botswana railways’ single main line runs along the north-south corridor and currently transports only

freight. It serves to provide access to the South Atlantic coast (at Walvis Bay) when connecting via

the proposed Trans-Kalahari railway.

Botswana has a strong record of road network expansion, quality, and to much lesser extent

maintenance. 80 % of the main road network and 73 % of the rural network are in good or fair

condition. Other indicators, such as network density and road traffic, are below the typical levels for

low income countries. The low network density is correlated to the desert geography of much of the

country rather than to a lack of connectivity.

The aircraft fleet of Air Botswana, the main airline of the country, is one of the newest on the

continent. The country is taking full advantage of its proximity to one of the most important air

transport hubs in Africa: Johannesburg. Botswana does well to provide short local and regional links

to South Africa, which in turn serves as the international gateway to the country.

163

Figure A7.1: Regional rail links – existing and proposed

A7.4 Air quality

The air pollution control division of the Department of Mines is responsible for air quality. A small

number of bubbler samplers for SO2 have operated since the mid-1970s. Total suspended aerosols

have been measured since the 1990s. A new air quality network is proposed, consisting of 17 sites in

ten towns, at which SO2 (14 sites), NOx (nine sites), CO (four sites), O3 (four sites), particulates (two

sites) and hydrocarbons (one site) will be monitored on a continuous basis. The first samplers were

commissioned in June 1999.

Precipitation chemistry is measured at Maun.

A7.5 Weather and climate

The Meteorological Department in the Ministry of Transport and Works operates a network of about

400 rainfall stations and 14 temperature and humidity stations. The geographical coverage is sparse in

the central Kalahari, which has few inhabitants and few roads. Data is measured daily on paper forms

and submitted on a monthly basis to the head office in Gaborone, where they are entered onto the

CLICOM database. Hourly surface meteorological data is measured at Gaborone, Ghanzi, Maun and

Francistown, and upper-air soundings daily at Gaborone, Tsabong, Letsekane and Maun.

The earliest rainfall record is from 1909. The major part of the network was established after 1930,

with the temperature stations added after 1958.

In addition to the above, there are 20 automatic weather stations (11 operated by the meteorological

office, and nine by the Department of Hydrology). They collect temperature, wind, humidity, solar

radiation and rainfall data hourly, and download the information via satellite. These stations are

designed to fill the information gaps in the sparsely populated parts of the country, and only require

servicing once every two years.

The Meteorological Department has a Meteosat and NOAA receiver, and has collected these data for

four years. They have investigated the use of Cold Cloud Duration for rainfall estimation in remote

areas.

164

A7.6 Information and communications

Botswana’s ICT policy is called Maitlamo - building on the National ICT Vision and Objectives

(2004): “Botswana will be a globally competitive, knowledge and information society where lasting

improvements in social, economic and cultural development is achieved through effective use of ICT”:

Creation of an enabling environment for the growth of an ICT industry in the country;

Provision of universal service and access to information and communication facilities in the

country; and

Making Botswana a Regional ICT Hub so as to make the country’s ICT sector globally

competitive.

An ICT Legal Framework accompanies the policy. Seven Task Forces have been established to

develop key aspects of the ICT Policy: Community Access and Development, Government, Learning,

Healthcare, Economic Development and the ICT Sector, Infrastructure, and Legal and Policy.

Highlights of the National ICT Policy are:

Connecting Communities Programme: All communities over 2000 inhabitants to be

connected to high speed network access by 2016;

All appropriate government information & services on-line;

ThutoNet - provide literacy, skills and knowledge required for both formal and non-formal

learners in the networked world;

e-Health Botswana - simple applications, eg Healthcare Portal and improving health related

information delivered over the radio and television. Over time, more sophisticated solutions

such as Telehealth (healthcare advice provided over the telephone) and Telemedicine

(healthcare services provided over the Internet) will be introduced;

ICT and Economic Diversification - further development of the International Financial

Services Centre (IFSC) and positioning the country as an attractive location for Business

Process Outsourcing (BPO) investment;

Connecting Botswana - design and deployment of an enabling technical infrastructure for

Maitlamo.

Table A7.1: Status of National Environmental Observing Systems

Government Organizations

Ministry Department EIS Functions

Ministry of Transport and Works Meteorological Department Collects, analyses and disseminates weather data

Ministry of Agriculture Agricultural Resources Board Wide powers, especially around drought interventions and fires

Dept. of Agricultural Planning and Statistics Collects and publishes (annually) data on agricultural

inputs and outputs

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Aerial survey of wildlife

Botswana Range Inventory and Monitoring

Project (BRIMP)

Vegetation inventory and monitoring of rangeland

condition

Ministry of Mineral Resources and

Water Affairs

Dept. of Water Affairs Monitoring ground and surface waters, quantity and

quality

Dept. of Mines, Air pollution control division Air quality

Ministry of Local Government, Lands

and Housing

National Conservation Strategy Advisory

Board

Coordination between government departments on

sustainable development

Ministry of Health Environmental Health Unit Hazardous waste, human health issues

Ministry of Finance Central Statistics Office Economic and population statistics

Parastatal Organizations

Botswana Power Generation

Corporation

Operates the only thermal power station in Botswana

Non-governmental Organizations

Kalahari Conservation Society Wildlife and birds

Veld Products Community-based natural resource management

165

A7.2: District Map

166

Appendix 9: Definitions of terms

Beneficiation

In mining, beneficiation (occasionally spelled "benefication") is one of a variety of processes that

take extract ore from mining and separate it into the desirable mineral andgangue, the part of the ore that is

unusable.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of different types of life found on earth. It is a measure of the variety

of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation,

or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be

highest near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary

productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is the richest in the tropics. There are latitudinal

gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing

through time but will be likely to slow in the future.

Climate change

Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an

extended period of time (ie decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average

weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (ie more or fewer

extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar

radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been

identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming".

Coal-bed methane

Coal-bed methane (CBM) – also called coalbed gas, coal seam gas, or coal-mine methane (CMM) - is a form

of natural gas extracted from coal beds. In recent decades it has become an important source of energy in USA,

the Canada, Australia, and other countries. The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal.

It is called 'sweet gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulphide. The presence of this gas is well known from its

occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk. Coal-bed methane is distinct

from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir, as the methane is stored within the coal by a

process called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called

the matrix). The open fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with

water. Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coal-bed methane contains very little heavier

hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and no natural-gas condensate. It often contains up to a few

percent carbon dioxide. Some coal seams contain little methane, with the predominant coal seam gas being

carbon dioxide.

Community-based natural resource management

A process by which landholders gain access and use rights to, or ownership of, natural resources; collaboratively

and transparently plan and participate in the management of resource use; and achieve financial and other

benefits from stewardship.

Conservation agriculture

Defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN as “a concept for resource-saving agricultural

crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels

while concurrently conserving the environment”. Conservation agriculture applies three key principles:

minimum mechanical soil disturbance (tillage) which is essential to maintaining minerals within the soil,

stopping erosion, and preventing water loss from occurring within the soil.

managing the top soil to create a permanent organic soil cover that can allow for growth of organisms

within the soil structure which will break down the mulch that is left on the soil surface.

crop rotation with more than two species.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_extraction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_processing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangue

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_variation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biotic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_eruptions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firedamp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firedamp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agricultural_Organization

167

Cumulative effects/impacts

Effects on the environment caused by the combined results of past, current and future activities. Over time,

direct and indirect human activities, which may be relatively minor, combine to have a collectively significant

impact on the environment. These effects may differ from the original, individual activities. For example,

ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities, such as air, land, and/or water

pollution, improper handling of industrial waste, and other human development activities. Global warming is the

cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas, and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain.

Decent jobs / work

The availability of employment in conditions of freedom, equity, human security and dignity. According to the

International Labour Organization, decent work involves opportunities for work that is productive and delivers a

fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better prospects for personal

development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the

decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men.

Development drivers

Factors, issues, or trends that are having, or are likely to have, an influence on or determine the course of

development directions, initiatives, or decisions

Ecosystem services

The collective benefits that societies and communities derive from. Ecosystem services are regularly involved in

the provisioning of clean drinking water and the decomposition of wastes. While scientists and

environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services implicitly for decades, the ecosystem services concept

itself was popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in the early 2000s. This grouped

ecosystem services into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the production of food and

water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and

crop pollination; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits. To help inform decision-makers, many

ecosystem services are being assigned economic values.

Ecotourism

A form of tourism involving visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively undisturbed natural areas, intended as a low-

impact and often small scale alternative to standard commercial (mass) tourism. Its purpose may be to educate

the traveler, to provide funds for conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political

empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and for human rights. Ecotourism

focuses on socially responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. It typically involves

travel to destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions., and is intended to

offer tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of

our natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects

of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. An integral part

of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, and creation of economic

opportunities for local communities.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

The formal process used to predict the potential environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a

development activity. Preferably EIA is undertaken prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed

action. It is usually applied at the level of individual projects and is distinguished from strategic environmental

assessment which at the higher levels of policies, plans and programmes. Formal impact assessments may be

governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision-

making, and may be subject to judicial review. An impact assessment may propose measures to adjust (mitigate)

impacts to acceptable levels or to investigate new technological solutions. The purpose of the assessment is to

ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental (and social) impacts when deciding whether or not to

proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an EIA as "the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_waste

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_of_opportunity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposition

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalists

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Ecosystem_Assessment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient_cycles

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_conservation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_heritage

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conventional_tourism&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_law

168

process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of

development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made." EIAs are unique in that

they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-

makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed

environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.

Environmental (and social) management plan

An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) (or environmental and social management plan, ESMP) describes

the strategies, processes and actions that a project proponent or organization will follow to maximize its

compliance with environmental (and social) standards or requirements, and mitigate/minimize environmental (

and social) harm or enhance environment (and social) benefits . This plan also helps a proponent/organization to

map its progress toward achieving continual improvements.

Fossil fuel

Fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the

organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million

years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Other more

commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane. They range from volatile materials

with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to non-volatile materials composed of almost

pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in

the form of methane clathrates.

Gaborone Declaration for Sustainability in Africa

In May 2012, ten African heads of states in collaboration with some public and private sector partners held a

two day summit on sustainable development. The summit resulted in the Gaborone Declaration for

Sustainability in Africa (GDSA) where countries recommitted to implementing all conventions and declarations

that promote sustainable development. The overall objective of the Declaration is “To ensure that the

contributions of natural capital to sustainable economic growth, maintenance and improvement of social capital

and human well-being are quantified and integrated into development and business practice.” This was

propelled by the signatories’ realization of the limitations that GDP has as a measure of well-being and

sustainable growth. The following action statements are the impetus of the Declaration:

Action Statement 1: Integrating the value of natural capital into national accounting and corporate planning

and reporting processes, policies, and programs, in agreed efforts.

Action Statement 2: Building social capital and reducing poverty by transitioning agriculture, extractive

industries, fisheries and other natural capital uses to practices that promote sustainable employment, food

security, sustainable energy and the protection of natural capital through protected areas and other

mechanisms.

Action Statement 3: Building knowledge, data, capacity and policy networks to promote leadership and new

model in the field of sustainable development and to increase momentum for positive change.

The GDSA signatories agreed to meet regularly in order to share information on progress made with regards to

the action statements that they have committed to.

Green economy

Definitions of green economy/growth vary:

The UNEP report interprets a green economy (GE) as “an economy that results in improved human well-

being and reduced inequalities over the long term, while not exposing future generations to significant

environmental risks and ecological scarcities”. This is a ‘do-no-harm’ approach.

According to the OECD, green growth is “the fostering of growth and development while ensuring that

natural assets continue to provide the environmental resources and services on which human well-being

relies”.

UNEP defines green growth simply as “resource-efficient, low-carbon, climate-resilient & socially-

inclusive growth”, and also uses the (interchangeable) term “green economy”.

The World Bank has defined green growth as “a strategy for promoting economic growth while adding an

ecological quality to existing economic processes and creating additional jobs and income opportunities

with a minimal environmental burden”.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_decomposition


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_clathrates

169

The Global Green Growth Institute also takes a strategic view by stating that it is “growth that leapfrogs the

resource-intensive and environmentally unsustainable model of industrial development pioneered by

advanced economies”.

The Green Economy Coalition defines green economy as a “fair and resilient economy, which provides a

better quality of life for all achieved within the ecological limits of one planet”.

Groundwater

The water located beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of

rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at

which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water

table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often

occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn

for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the

distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.

Habitat

An ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant, or other type

of organism. It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that

surrounds a species population. A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of

temperature, and availability of light as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence

of predators. But a habitat is not necessarily a geographic area—for a parasitic organism it is the body of its

host, part of the host's body such as the digestive tract, or a cell within the host's body.

Human-wildlife conflicts

Human–wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative

impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing human populations

overlap with established wildlife territory, creating a reduction of resources, or access to resources, for people

and/or wild animals. The conflict takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and animals

both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources, to loss and degradation of habitat.

Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control, translocation, regulation of population size and

preservation of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific research for better

management outcomes, such as behaviour modification and reducing interaction. As human-wildlife conflicts

inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the mitigation of human-wildlife conflict is an important issue in

the management of biodiversity and protected areas.

Integrated land management

ILM – sometime referred to as sustainable land management – is the use of land resources ( including soils,

water, animals and plants) for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously

ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental

functions” (UN Earth Summit, 1992). It means the adoption of land use systems that, through appropriate

management practices, enables land users to maximize the economic and social benefits from the land while

maintaining or enhancing the ecological support functions of the land resources. It is crucial to minimizing land

degradation, rehabilitating degraded areas and ensuring the optimal use of land resources for the benefit of

present and future generations. It is based on four common principles:

land-user driven and participatory approaches;

integrated use of natural resources at ecosystem ands farming systems lecels;

multi-level and multi-stakeholder involvement; and

targeted policy and institutional support, including development of incen tives.

Its application requires collaboration and partnership at all levels – land users, technical experts and policy-

makers – to ensure that the causes of the degradation and corrective measures are properly identified, and that

the policy and regulatory environment enables the adoption of the most appropriate management measures.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_table

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_table

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_recharge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_well

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moisture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_index

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_animals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_degradation

170

Integrated rangeland management

A strategy for managing rangeland that aims to sustain the values and uses of rangeland including livestock

grazing, wildlife habitat, healthy watersheds, wildland recreation, and aesthetic value. The interactions between

the three major components – vegetation, livestock and people – are complex and not easy to manage. IRM

seeks to establish a framework for those with interest in the rangelands to develop strategies and actions to

sustainably manage change and ensure a viable legacy for future generations. The challenge is to balance the

diverse economic, cultural and social needs of rangeland residents, users and other stakeholders with the need to

maintain its natural resources and conserve the biological and cultural heritage. Since rangeland systems are

cross-sectoral in nature, there is a need for effective management strategies so as to enhance their sustainability.

An holistic approach is therefore needed to identify the values, needs and threats, and to suggest appropriate and

effective management interventions.

Integrated water resource management

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) has been defined by the Global Water Partnership as "a

process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in

order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the

sustainability of vital ecosystems".

Mainstreaming (sustainable development)

The informed inclusion of sustainable development concerns (environmental, social, economic and institutional)

into the decisions and institutions that drive development policy, rules, plans, investment and action.

Middle income country

The world’s Middle Income Countries (MICs) are defuined by the World Bank as having a per capita gross

national income of US$1,026 TO $12,475 (2011). They are a diverse group by size, population and income

level. And are home to five of the world’s seven billion people and 73% of the world’s poor people. At the time,

MICs represent about one third of gloibal GDP and are major engines of global growth.

Millennium development goals

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international development goals (each with specific

targets, and dates for achieving those targets) that were established following the Millennium Summit of

the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration. All

189 United Nations member states at the time (there are 193 currently), and at least 23 international

organizations, committed to help achieve the following Millennium Development Goals by 2015:

1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. To achieve universal primary education

3. To promote gender equality and empower women

4. To reduce child mortality

5. To improve maternal health

6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

7. To ensure environmental sustainability[1]

8. To develop a global partnership for development

The MDGs are due to be replaced by new sustainable development goals at the end of 2015.

Molapo

Molapo fields are located close to or in a floodplain or river channel where soils are moistened by seasonal

flooding or the draining of water into low-lying ground, supplemented by rainfall. During the recession of the

floods the fields gradually dry up and strips parallel to the remaining water can be successively planted as the

water recedes.

National Development Plan

For many developing countries, the norm for development planning continues to be the 5-year national

development plan (NDP). These are usually driven by Ministries of Development Planning or Ministries of

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Water_Partnership

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Summit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_member_states

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_organizations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_organizations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_primary_education

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_mortality

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_health

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals#cite_note-1

171

Finance as the main vehicle for structuring the allocation of budgetary resources to sectors and achieving

economic development. Botswana’s Third NDP covers the period to 2016

(http://www.nationalplanningcycles.org/sites/default/files/country_docs/Botswana/ndp_botswana.pdf) when it

will be replaced by NDP11.

National Strategy for Sustainable Development

Perception of what should constitute a National Strategy for Sustainable development has evolved.. It was once

seen as a single, new, master plan for sustainable development. Today there is consensus that it should comprise

a set of coordinated mechanisms and processes that, together, offer a participatory system to develop visions,

goals and targets for sustainable development, and to coordinate implementation and review. It is also accepted

that a strategy cannot be a one-off initiative but needs to be a continuing participatory process, with monitoring,

learning and continuous improvement. In this vein, rather than develop a stand-alone NSDS, the Department of

Environmental Affairs, with support from UNDP-Botswana, is currently leading efforts to prepare a National

Framework for Sustainable Development that will be in synergy with the new Vision Beyond 2016 and NDP11,

aiming to ensure sustainable development is integrated fully in both processes and across sectors.

National Vision (for development)

A National Vision defines broad future trends and reflects the aspirations, objectives and culture of a country.

By shedding light on the future, the Vision illuminates the fundamental choices that are available to a country

and its society. Simultaneously, it aims to inspire people to pursue common goals related to their future. A

vision will usually define the long-term outcomes for the country as a whole rather than the processes for

reaching these outcomes. It will provide a framework within which national and more local development plans

and strategies can be developed. Botswana’s current Vision expires in 2016 when it will be replace by a new

Vision Beyond 2016 – currently being developed (led by the National Strategy Office).

River basin/catchment

A river basin is an extent or area of land where surface water from rain, melting snow, or ice converges to a

single point at a lower elevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as

a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean. For example, a tributary stream of a brook that joins a

small river is tributary of a larger river, which is thus part of a series of successively smaller area but higher

elevation drainage basins. Similarly, the Kafue and Luangwa (in Zambia), Cuando and Luaiana (in Angola)

and rivers in northern Zimbabwe each have their own drainage basins but are all part of the greater Zambezi

River basin.

Other terms that are used to describe river basins are catchment, catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area,

drainage basin, and water basin. In North America, the term watershed is commonly used to mean a river basin,

though in other English-speaking countries, it is used only in its original sense, to mean a drainage divide, the

one meaning an area, the other its high elevation perimeter of that area.

Scenarios

Scenarios focus on the joint effect of many factors and provide alternative views of the future. They identify

some significant events, main actors and their motivations, and they convey how the world functions. Building

and using scenarios can help us explore what the future might look like and the likely changes of living in it.

Scenario planning (also called scenario thinking/analysis) is a method for thinking systematically about and

understanding the nature and impact of the most uncertain and important driving forces affecting our future. It is

a usually a flexible and adaptable group process to encourage knowledge exchange and development of mutual

understanding of central issues important to sustainable development. But the purpose of scenario planning is

not to imminently decide which scenario is correct; rather it is to look at each plausible future scenario and

examine how prepared an organisation or company is or how robust a policy/plan/programme (PPP) is, for the

potential change and consequences. Scenario planning provides a learning mechanism to enable policies, plans

or programmes to be more robust and capable of responding to or adapting to shocks and surprise. It helps

policy-makers, planners and decision-makers make more resilient strategic decisions.

http://www.nationalplanningcycles.org/sites/default/files/country_docs/Botswana/ndp_botswana.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_water

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmelt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_divide

172

Social upliftment

Social development refers to the qualitative changes in the structure and framework of society, that help the

society to better realize its aims and objectives. Social upliftment refers to efforts to enable society (particularly

the poor and disadvantaged) to improve their situation, and overcome social inequalities and deprivations,

Strategic environmental assessment

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is an umbrella term for analytical and participatory approaches

applied at the very earliest stages of decision-making to integrate environmental considerations and evaluate the

inter linkages with economic and social considerations. It thus helps to formulate policies, plans and

programmes and assess their potential development effectiveness and sustainability. An SEA can be initiated

due to administrative or legal requirement in a country, or following a request from donor agency or initiative on

part of government champion.

Sustainability appraisal

See section 1.3. There is no accepted international definition of sustainability appraisal or sustainability

assessment, and no common approach. The term is variously applied for both generic and specific approaches.

But it is particularly valuable when used as a mainstream tool to proactively assess the impact of proposed

actions. As a decision tool, sustainability appraisal provides a means of specific input and a potential vector for

effecting longer term policy change (as well as informing the wider discourse on critical issues). This ex ante

approach is often undertaken through existing, formal processes such as impact assessment or land use planning.

It can be defined as any process that provides for (a) some form of integrated analysis of the economic,

environmental and social aspects of development actions, and (b) an evaluation of their effects with regard to

agreed aims, principles or criteria of sustainable development (Dalal-Clayton and Sadler 2014).

Sustainable development

Sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of

investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and

enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations. It is not static or a fixed pattern

of socio-economic growth, land use, or social development, but an evolving agenda to achieve a quality of

continuity or a condition or state that can be maintained into the future. Sustainable development has been

defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, the report of the

World Commission on Environment and Development (also known as the Brundtland report) WCED 1987):

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding

priority should be given; and

the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the

environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

Sustainable development goals

A set of sustainable development goals are due to be launched at the UN post-2015 Summit in September 2015.

The process of their development has been led by UN Member States with broad participation from Major

Groups and other civil society stakeholders as a key component of developing a post 2015 development agenda.

The development of SDGs was agreed as one of the main outcomes of the United Nations Conference on

Sustainable Development (Rio+20), held in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012. Rio+20 did not elaborate specific goals

but stated that the SDGs should be limited in number, aspirational and easy to communicate. The goals should

address in a balanced way all three dimensions of sustainable development and be coherent with and integrated

into the UN development agenda beyond 2015. The 30-member, constituency-based Open Working Group

(OWG) of the General Assembly was established in January 2013 (most of the seats in the OWG are shared by

several countries), tasked with preparing a proposal on the SDGs. The OWG is co-chaired by the UN Permanent

Representatives of Hungary and Kenya (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/owg.html). The Rio+20 outcome

document, The Future We Want, gave the mandate that the SDGs should be coherent with and integrated into

the UN development agenda beyond 2015.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/owg.html

173

After 17 months of debate among representatives of 70 countries, the OWG has proposed a comprehensive and

potentially transformative set of 17 goals and 169 targets. The goals and targets will be further elaborated

through indicators focused on measurable outcomes.

The UN states that the goals and targets are “action oriented, global in nature and universally applicable. They

take into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respect national policies

and priorities. They build on the foundation laid by the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)s, seek to

complete the unfinished business of the MDGs, and respond to new challenges. These goals constitute an

integrated, indivisible set of global priorities for sustainable development. Targets are defined as aspirational

global targets, with each government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but

taking into account national circumstances. The goals and targets integrate economic, social and environmental

aspects and recognize their inter-linkages in achieving sustainable development in all its dimensions”

(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html).

In addition to tackling core dimensions of poverty eradication, other critical areas of concern such as inequality,

climate change, sustainable consumption and production, and sustainable cities are included. And other

important areas receive strengthened attention—such as targets on ecosystems and natural resources, and on

transparent institutions and access to information—that go well beyond the MDGs.

Thematic Working Groups

During the preparation of the Tenth National Development Plan (NDP10), for each Key Result Area (KRA),

one or more themes were identified. Each theme was assigned to a Lead Ministry to form a Thematic Working

Group (TWG). The TWGs discussed and prepared the thematic and sector submissions that formed part of

NDP10. The TWGs proved to be a useful mechanism for bringing all the development partners together to

discuss and consolidate contributions to the NDP10 process. This structure and mechanism was retained for the

TWGs to meet on a periodic basis when necessary to review and validate the implementation of their respective

programmes under NDP10; and for the preparation of NDP11.

Virtual water

Virtual water (also known as embedded or embodied water) refers to the hidden flow of water if food or other

commodities are traded from one place to another. For instance, it takes 1,600 cubic meters of water on average

to produce one metric tonne of wheat. The precise volume can be more or less depending on climatic conditions

and agricultural practice. Hoekstra and Chapagain have defined the virtual-water content of a product (a

commodity, good or service) as "the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place

where the product was actually produced". It refers to the sum of the water use in the various steps of the

production chain.

The virtual water concept was introduced to support the argument that countries in the Middle East can save

their scarce water resources by relying more on import of food. The water is said to be virtual because once the

wheat is grown, the real water used to grow it is no longer actually contained in the wheat. The concept of

virtual water helps to realize how much water is needed to produce different goods and services. In semi-arid

and arid areas, knowing the virtual water value of a good or service can be useful towards determining how best

to use the scarce water available.

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html

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