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SURVIVAL and RECOVERYThis is a "civilianized" version of the United States Army,Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force's 1999 document,SURVIVAL, EVASION, AND RECOVERY − MultiserviceProcedures for Survival, Evasion, and Recovery.
The only changes that have been made are the removal oftwo chapters, Evasion and Induced Conditions (Nuclear,Biological, and Chemical), and the removal of items specificto combat situations. Chapters and items have beenrenumbered as a result of these removals, but the order of allitems, and the wording and illustrations, remain unchanged(some illustrations have had their captions redone becausethe originals were nearly illegible).
The intent of this version of this document is to provide thegeneral aviation pilot (or anyone who could potentially findthemselves stranded in the wilderness) with a concisesurvival manual.
The original is marked, "approved for public release;distribution is unlimited", and that statement applies to thisversion as well.
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Table of Contents
Chapter I − Navigation
Stay or Move Considerations − Navigation and PositionDetermination − Travel Considerations − River Travel − Ice andSnow Travel − Mountain Hazards − Summer Hazards − DryClimates − Tropical Climates − Open Seas
Chapter II − Radio Communications and Signaling
Radio Communications − Signaling
Chapter III − Recovery
Responsibilities − Site Selection − Site Preparation − RecoveryProcedures
Chapter IV − Medical
Immediate First Aid Actions − Common Injuries and Illnesses −Plant Medicine − Health and Hygiene − Rules for AvoidingIllness
Chapter V − Personal Protection
Priorities − Care and Use of Clothing − Other ProtectiveEquipment − Shelters − Fires
Chapter VI − Water
Water Requirements − Water Procurement − Water Preparationand Storage
Chapter VII − Food
Food Procurement − Food Preparation − Food Preservation
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Chapter I − Navigation
Stay or Move Considerations1. Generally, stay with the aircraft.A. Leave only when:B.
There is some danger.i. Are certain of your location, have a known destination,and have the ability to get there.
ii.
Can reach water, food, shelter, and/or help.iii. Convinced rescue is not coming.iv.
Consider the following if you decide to travel:C. Determine which direction to travel and why.i. Decide what equipment to take or cache.ii.
Leave information at your starting point that includes:D. Destination.i. Route of travel.ii. Personal condition.iii. Supplies available.iv.
Navigation and Position Determination2. Determine your general location by:A.
Developing a working knowledge of the operationalarea.
i.
Geographic checkpoints.a. Man−made checkpoints.b. Previous knowledge of operational area.c.
Using the Rate x Time = Distance formula.ii. Using information provided in the map legend.iii. Using prominent landmarks.iv. Visualizing map to determine position.v.
Determine cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) by:B. Using compass.
CAUTION: The following methods are NOT highlyaccurate and give only general cardinal direction.
i.
Using stick and shadow method to determine a truenorth−south line (Figure I−1).
ii.
3
Remembering the sunrise/moonrise is in the east andsunset/moonset is in the west.
iii.
Using a watch to determine general cardinal direction(Figure I−2).
iv.
Digital watches. Visualize a clock face on thewatch.
a.
Northern Hemisphere. Point hour hand at thesun. South is halfway between the hour hand and12 o'clock position.
b.
Southern Hemisphere. Point the 12 o'clockposition on your watch at the sun. North ishalfway between the 12 o'clock position and thehour hand.
c.
Using a pocket navigator (Figure I−3).v.
4
Gather the following necessary materials:Flat writing material (such as an MREbox).
•
1−2 inch shadow tip device (a twig, nail,or match).
•
Pen or pencil.•
a.
Start construction at sunup; end construction atsundown. Do the following:
Attach shadow tip device in center ofpaper.
•
Secure navigator on flat surface (DONOT move during set up period).
•
Mark tip of shadow every 30 minutesannotating the time.
•
Connect marks to form an arc.• Indicate north with a drawn arrow.
Note: The shortest line between base ofshadow tip device and curved line is anorth−south line.
•
b.
Do the following during travel:Hold navigator so the shadow alignswith mark of present time (drawn arrownow points to true north).
• c.
Remember the navigator is current forapproximately 1 week.
d.
Using the stars (Figure I−4):vi.
5
North Star is used to locate true north−southline.
a.
Southern Cross is used to locate truesouth−north line.
b.
Orient the map by:C. Using a true north−south line (Figure I−5).i.
Unfold map and place on a firm, flat, levelnonmetallic surface.
a.
Align the compass on a true north−south line.b. Rotate map and compass until stationary indexline aligns with the magnetic variation indicatedin marginal information.
Easterly (subtract variation from 360°).• Westerly (add variation to 360°).•
c.
6
Using acompass rose(Figure I−6).
ii.
Place edge of the lensatic compass on magneticnorth line of the compass rose closest to yourlocation.
a.
Rotate map and compass until compass reads360°.
b.
If there is NO compass, orient map using cardinaldirection obtained by the stick and shadow method orthe celestial aids (stars) method.
iii.
Determine specific location.D. Global Positioning System (GPS).i.
DO NOT use GPS for primary navigation.a. Use GPS to confirm your position ONLY.b. Select area providing maximum satellitec.
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reception.Conserve GPS battery life.d.
Triangulation (resection) with a compass (Figure I−7).ii. Try to use 3 or more azimuths.a. Positively identify a major land feature anddetermine a line of position (LOP).
b.
Check map orientation each time compass isused.
c.
Plot the LOP using a pencil.d. Repeat steps (b) through (d) for other LOPs.e.
Use the compass for night navigation by:E. Setting up compass for night navigation (Figure I−8).i.
8
Aligning north−seeking arrow with luminous line andfollow front of compass.
ii.
Using point−to−point navigation.iii. Route selection techniques follow:F.
Circumnavigation.i. Find a prominent landmark on the opposite sideof the obstacle.
a.
Contour around obstacle to landmark.b. Resume your route of travel.c.
Dogleg and 90° offset (Figure I−9).ii.
Straight−line heading as follows:iii. Maintain heading until reaching destination.a. Measure distance by counting the number ofpaces in a given course and convert to mapunits.
One pace is the distance covered eachtime the same foot touches the ground.
•
Distances measured by paces areapproximate (example in open terrain,900 paces per kilometer [average], orexample in rough terrain, 1200 paces perkilometer [average]).
•
b.
Use pace count in conjunction with terrainevaluation and heading to determine location.An individual's pace varies because of factors
c.
9
such as steep terrain, day/night travel, orinjured/uninjured condition. Adjust estimationof distance traveled against these factors to getrelative accuracy when using a pace count.
Deliberate offset is:iv. Used when finding a point on a linear feature(that is, road or river).
a.
Intentionally navigated to left or right of targetso you know which way to turn at the linearfeature.
b.
Point−to−point is same as straight line.v. Pick out landmarks on the heading and walk thetrail of least resistance to a point.
a.
On reaching a point, establish another landmarkand continue.
b.
Travel Considerations3. Pick the easiest and safest route.A. Maintain a realistic pace; take rest stops when needed.B. Avoid overdressing and overheating.C. Consider food and water requirements.D. Take special care of feet (change socks regularly).E. Pack equipment to prevent loss, damage, pack imbalance, andpersonal safety.
F.
Go around obstacles, not over or through them.G. Travel on trails whenever possible.H. Travel in forested areas if possible.I. Avoid creek bottoms and ravines with NO escape in the event ofheavy rains.
J.
Consider the following for swamps, lakes, and unfordable rivers:K. Circumnavigate swamps, lakes, and bogs if needed.i. Travel downstream to find people and slower water.ii. Travel upstream to find narrower and shallow water.iii.
River TravelRiver travel may be faster and save energy when hypothermia is not afactor. It may be a primary mode of travel in a tropical environment.
4.
Use flotation device (raft, log, bamboo, etc.).A. Use a pole to move the raft in shallow water.B.
10
Use an oar in deep water.C. Stay near inside edge of river bends (current speed is less).D. Keep near shore.E. Watch for the following DANGERS:F.
Snags.i. Sweepers (overhanging limbs and trees).ii. Rapids (DO NOT attempt to shoot the rapids).iii. Waterfalls.iv. Hazardous animals.v.
Consider using a flotation device when crossing rivers orlarge/deep streams.
G.
Ice and Snow TravelTravel should be limited to areas free of hazards.
5.
DO NOT travel in:A. Blizzards.i. Bitterly cold winds.ii. Poor visibility.iii.
Obstacles to winter travel follow:B. Reduced daylight hours (BE AWARE).i. Deep soft snow (if movement is necessary, makesnowshoes [Figure I−10]). Travel is easier in earlymorning or late afternoon near dusk when snow is frozenor crusted.
ii.
Avalanche prone areas to avoid:iii.
11
Slopes 30°−45° or greater.a. Trees without uphill branches (identifies prioravalanches).
b.
Heavy snow loading on ridge tops.c. If caught in an avalanche, do the following:iv.
Backstroke to decrease burial depth.a. Move hand around face to create air pocket asmoving snow slows.
b.
Frozen water crossings.v. Weak ice should be expected where:
Rivers are straight.• Objects protrude through ice.• Snow banks extend over the ice.• Rivers or streams come together.• Water vapor rising indicates open orwarm areas.
•
a.
Air pockets form when a frozen river losesvolume.
b.
When crossing frozen water, distribute yourweight by laying flat, belly crawling, or usingsnowshoes.
c.
Glacier travel is hazardous and should be avoided.C.
Mountain Hazards6. Lightning. Avoid ridge tops during thunderstorms.A. Avalanche. Avoid areas prone to avalanches.B. Flash floods. Avoid low areas.C.
Summer Hazards(see paragraph 3, Travel Considerations, items h through k.)
7.
Dense brush.A. Travel on trails when possible.i. Travel in forested areas if possible.ii. Avoid creek bottoms and ravines with no escape in theevent of heavy rains.
iii.
Swamps, lakes, and unfordable rivers.B. Circumnavigate swamps, lakes, and bogs if needed.i. Travel downstream to find people and slower water.ii. Travel upstream to find narrower and shallow water.iii.
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Dry Climates8. DO NOT travel unless certain of reaching the destination usingthe water supply available.
A.
Travel at dawn or dusk on hot days.B. Follow the easiest trail possible, avoiding:C.
Deep sandy dune areas.i. Rough terrain.ii.
In sand dune areas:D. Follow hard valley floor between dunes.i. Travel on the windward side of dune ridges.ii.
If a sandstorm occurs:E. Mark your direction of travel.i. Sit or lie down in direction of travel.ii. Try to get to the downwind side of natural shelter.iii. Cover the mouth and nose with a piece of cloth.iv. Protect the eyes.v. Remain stationary until the storm is over.vi.
Tropical Climates9. Travel only when it is light.A. Avoid obstacles like thickets and swamps.B. Part the vegetation to pass through. Avoid grabbing vegetation; itmay have spines or thorns (use gloves if possible).
C.
DO NOT climb over logs if you can go around them.D. Find trails:E.
Where 2 streams meet.i. Where a low pass goes over a range of hills.ii.
While traveling trails:F. Watch for disturbed areas on game trails; they mayindicate a pitfall or trap.
i.
Use a walking stick to probe for pitfalls or traps.ii. DO NOT sleep on the trail.iii.
Open Seas10.
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Using currents:A.
Deploy sea anchor (Figure I−11). Sea anchor may beadjusted to make use of existing currents.
i.
Sit low in the raft.ii. Deflate the raft slightly so it rides lower in the water.iii.
Using winds:B. Pull in sea anchor.i. Inflate raft so it rides higher.ii. Sit up in raft so body catches the wind.iii. Construct a shade cover/sail (Figure I−12). (Sail aids inmaking landfall.)
iv.
Making landfall. Indications of land are:C. Fixed cumulus clouds in a clear sky or in a cloudy skywhere all other clouds are moving.
i.
Greenish tint in the sky (in the tropics).ii. Lighter colored reflection on clouds (open water causesdark gray reflections) (in the arctic).
iii.
Lighter colored water (indicates shallow water).iv. The odors and sounds.v.
Odors from swamps and smoke.a. Roar of surf/bird cries coming from onedirection.
b.
Directional flights of birds at dawn and at dusk.vi. Swimming ashore:D.
Consider physical condition.i. Use a flotation aid.ii.
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Secure all gear to body before reaching landfall.iii. Remain in raft as long as possible.iv. Use the sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength ifthrown from raft.
v.
Wear footgear and at least 1 layer of clothing.vi. Try to make landfall during the lull between the sets ofwaves (waves are generally in sets of 7, from smallest tolargest).
vii.
In moderate surf.viii. Swim forward on the back of a wave.a. Make a shallow dive just before the wave breaksto end the ride.
b.
In high surf.ix. Swim shoreward in the trough between waves.a. When the seaward wave approaches, face it andsubmerge.
b.
After it passes, work shoreward in the nexttrough.
c.
If caught in the undertow of a large wave:x. Remain calm and swim to the surface.a. Lie as close to the surface as possible.b. Parallel shoreline and attempt landfall at a pointfurther down shore.
c.
Select a landing point.xi. Avoid places where waves explode upon rocks.a. Find a place where waves smoothly rush ontothe rocks.
b.
After selecting a landing site:xii. Face shoreward.a. Assume a sitting position with feet 2 or 3 feetlower than head to absorb the shock of hittingsubmerged objects.
b.
Rafting ashore:E. Select landing point carefully.i. Use caution landing when the sun is low and straight infront of you causing poor visibility.
ii.
Land on the lee (downwind) side of islands or point ofland if possible.
iii.
Head for gaps in the surf line.iv.
15
Penetrate surf by:v. Taking down most shade/sails.a. Using paddles to maintain control.b. Deploying a sea anchor for stability.
CAUTION: DO NOT deploy a sea anchor iftraveling through coral.
c.
Making sea ice landings on large stable ice flows. Icebergs,small flows, and disintegrating flows are dangerous (ice can cuta raft).
F.
Use paddles to avoid sharp edges.i. Store raft away from the ice edge.ii. Keep raft inflated and ready for use.iii. Weight down/secure raft so it does not blow away.iv.
16
Chapter II − Radio Communications andSignaling
Inventory and review the operating instructions of all communications andsignaling equipment.
Radio Communications (Voice and Data)1. General.A.
Ensure locator beacon is operational.i. Follow standing plans for on/off operations to conservebattery use.
ii.
Make initial contact as soon as possible.B. Locate spare radio and batteries (keep warm and dry).C. Transmissions.D.
Use sites that optimize line of site (LOS).i. Face recovery asset.ii. Keep antenna perpendicular to intended receiver (FigureII−1).
iii.
DO NOT ground antenna (that is finger on antenna orattaching bolt, space blanket, vegetation, etc.).
iv.
17
If transmitting in the blind, ensure a clear LOS towardsthe equator.
v.
Listening (use reception times as directed by recovery forces).E.
Signaling2. Pyrotechnic signals.A.
Prepare early (weather permitting).i. Use as directed by recovery forces.ii. Extend over raft's edge before activating.iii.
Signal mirror (Figure II−2).B.
Use as directed by recovery forces.i. Cover when not in use.
Note: Make a mirror from any shiny metal or glass.
ii.
Strobe/IR lights.C. Prepare early, consider filters and shields.i. Use as directed by recovery forces.ii. Conserve battery life.
Note: May produce one residual flash when turned off.
iii.
Pattern signals.D. Materials:i.
Manmade (space blanket, signal paulin,parachute).
a.
Natural use materials that contrast the colorand/or texture of the signaling area (rocks,brush, branches, stomped grass).
b.
Location.ii. Maximize visibility from above.a.
18
Provide concealment from ground observation.b. Size (large as possible) and ratio (Figure II−3).iii. Shape (maintain straight lines and sharp corners).iv. Contrast (use color and shadows).v.
Pattern signals (Figure II−4; numbers 6 to 9 are for usein Canada only).
NO. MESSAGE SYMBOL
1 REQUIRE ASSISTANCE V
2REQUIRE MEDICALASSISTANCE X
3 NO or NEGATIVE N4 YES or AFFIRMATIVE Y
5PROCEEDING IN THEDIRECTION >
6 ALL IS WELL LL7 REQUIRE FOOD AND WATER F8 REQUIRE FUEL AND OIL L9 NEED REPAIRS W
vi.
Sea dye marker.E. DO NOT waste in rough seas or fast moving water.i. Conserve unused dye by rewrapping.ii. May be used to color snow.iii.
Considerations:F. Use a fire at night.i. Use smoke for day (tires or petroleum products for darkii.
19
smoke and green vegetation for light smoke). (FigureII−5)
Use signal mirror to sweep horizon.iii. Use audio signals (that is, voice and whistle).iv.
20
Chapter III − Recovery
Responsibilities1. Establish radio contact with recovery forces (if possible).A. Maintain communication with recovery forces until recovered.B. Follow recovery force instructions, be prepared to report:C.
Recovery site characteristics (slope, obstacles, size, etc.).i. Number in party/medical situation.ii. Signal devices available.iii.
If no radio, a ground−to−air signal may be your only means toeffect recovery.
D.
Site Selection2. Locate area for landing pick−up, if practical (approximately 150feet diameter, free of obstructions, flat and level).
A.
Site Preparation3. Pack and secure all equipment.A. Prepare signaling devices (use as directed or as briefed).B. Mentally review recovery methods (aircraft, ground, boat, etc.).C.
Recovery Procedures4. Assist recovery force in identifying your position.A. For a landing/ground recovery:B.
DO NOT approach recovery vehicle until instructed.i. Beware of rotors/propellers when approaching recoveryvehicle, especially on sloping or uneven terrain. Secureloose equipment that could be caught inrotors/propellers.
ii.
For hoist recovery devices (Figures III−1 and III−2).C.
21
Use eye protection, if available (glasses or helmet visor).i. Allow metal on device to contact the surface beforetouching to avoid injury from static discharge.
ii.
Sit or kneel for stability while donning device.iii. Put safety strap under armpits.iv. Ensure cable is in front of you.v. Keep hands clear of all hardware and connectors.vi. DO NOT become entangled in cable.vii. Use a thumbs up, vigorous cable shake, or radio call tosignal you are ready.
viii.
Drag feet on the ground to decrease oscillation.ix. DO NOT assist during hoist or when pulled into therescue vehicle. Follow crewmember instructions.
x.
For nonhoist recovery (rope or unfamiliar equipment):D.
Create a "fixed loop" big enough to place under armpits(Figure III−3).
i.
22
Follow the procedures in paragraph C above.ii.
23
24
Chapter IV − Medical
WARNING: These emergency medical procedures are for survival situations.Obtain professional medical treatment as soon as possible.
Immediate First Aid Actions
Remember the ABCs of Emergency Care:Airway Breathing Circulation
1.
Determine responsiveness as follows:A. If unconscious, arouse by shaking gently and shouting.i. If no response:ii.
Keep head and neck aligned with body.a. Roll victims onto their backs.b. Open the airway bylifting the chin(Figure IV−1).
c.
Look, listen, and feel for air exchange.d. If victim is not breathing:iii.
Check for a clear airway; remove any blockage.a. Cover victim's mouth with your own.b. Pinch victim's nostrils closed.c. Fill victim's lungs with 2 slow breaths.d. If breaths are blocked, reposition airway; tryagain.
e.
If breaths still blocked, give 5 abdominal thrusts:Straddle the victim.• Place a fist between breastbone andbelly button.
•
Thrust upward to expel air fromstomach.
•
f.
Sweep with finger to clear mouth.g. Try 2 slow breaths again.h. If the airway is still blocked, continue (c)through (f) until successful or exhausted.
i.
25
With open airway, start mouth to mouthbreathing:
Give 1 breath every 5 seconds.• Check for chest rise each time.•
j.
If victim is unconscious, but breathing:iv. Keep head and neck aligned with body.a. Roll victim on side (drains the mouth andprevents the tongue from blocking airway).
b.
If breathing difficulty is caused by chest trauma, refer toparagraph 1D, Treat Chest Injuries.
CAUTION: DO NOT remove an impaled object unlessit interferes with the airway. You may cause more tissuedamage and increase bleeding. For travel, you mayshorten and secure the object.
v.
Control bleeding as follows:B. Apply a pressure dressing (Figure IV−2).i.
If STILL bleeding:ii. Use direct pressure over the wound.a. Elevate the wounded area above the heart.b.
26
If STILL bleeding:iii. Use a pressure point between the injury and theheart (Figure IV−3).
a.
Maintain pressure for 6 to 10 minutes beforechecking to see if bleeding has stopped.
b.
If a limb wound is STILL bleeding:
CAUTION: Use of a tourniquet is a LAST RESORTmeasure. Use ONLY when severe, uncontrolledbleeding will cause loss of life. Recognize thatlong−term use of a tourniquet may cause loss of limb.
iv.
Apply tourniquet (TK) band just above bleedingsite on limb. A band at least 3 inches (7.5 cm) orwider is best.
a.
Follow steps illustrated in Figure IV−4.b. Use a stick at least 6 inches (15 cm) long.c. Tighten only enough to stop arterial bleeding.d. Mark a TK on the forehead with the timeapplied.
e.
DO NOT cover the tourniquet.
CAUTION: The following directions applyONLY in survival situations where rescue is
f.
27
UNLIKELY and NO medical aid is available.If rescue or medical aid is not available for over2 hours, an attempt to SLOWLY loosen thetourniquet may be made 20 minutes afterapplication. Before loosening:
Ensure pressure dressing is in place.• Ensure bleeding has stopped• Loosen tourniquet SLOWLY to restorecirculation.
•
Leave loosened tourniquet in position incase bleeding resumes.
•
g.
Treat shock. (Shock is difficult to identify or treat under fieldconditions. It may be present with or without visible injury.)
C.
Identify by one or more of the following:i. Pale, cool, and sweaty skin.a. Fast breathing and a weak, fast pulse.b. Anxiety or mental confusion.c. Decreased urine output.d.
Maintain circulation.ii. Treat underlying injury.iii. Maintain normal body temperature.iv.
Remove wet clothing.a. Give warm fluids.
DO NOT give fluids to an unconsciousvictim.
• b.
28
DO NOT give fluids if they cause victimto gag.
•
Insulate from ground.c. Shelter from the elements.d.
Place conscious victim on back.v. Place very weak or unconscious victim on side, this will:vi.
Allow mouth to drain.a. Prevent tongue from blocking airway.b.
Treat chest injuries.D. Sucking chest wound. This occurs when chest wall ispenetrated; may cause victim to gasp for breath; maycause sucking sound; may create bloody froth as airescapes the chest.
i.
Immediately seal wound with hand or airtightmaterial.
a.
Tape airtightmaterial overwound on 3sides only(Figure IV−5)to allow air toescape from thewound but notto enter.
b.
Monitor breathing and check dressing.c. Lift untapped side of dressing as victim exhalesto allow trapped air to escape, as necessary.
d.
Flail chest. Results from blunt trauma when 3 or moreribs are broken in 2 or more places. The flail segment isthe broken area that moves in a direction opposite to therest of chest during breathing.
ii.
Stabilize the flail segment as follows:Place rolled−up clothing or bulky padover site.
•
Tape pad to site• DO NOT wrap tape around chest.•
a.
Have victim keep segment still with handpressure.
b.
Roll victim onto side of flail segment injury (asc.
29
other injuries allow).Fractured ribs.iii.
Encourage deep breathing (painful, butnecessary to prevent the possible developmentof pneumonia).
a.
DO NOT constrict breathing by taping ribs.b. Treat fractures, sprains, and dislocations.E.
Control bleeding.i. Remove watches, jewelry, and constrictive clothing.ii. If fracture penetrates the skin:iii.
Clean wound by gentle irrigation with water.a. Apply dressing over wound.b.
Position limb as normally as possible.iv. Splint in position found (if unable to straighten limb).v. Improvise a splint with available materials:vi.
Sticks or straight, stiff materials fromequipment.
a.
Body parts (for example, opposite leg,arm−to−chest).
b.
Attach with strips of cloth, parachute cord, etc.vii. Keep the fractured bones from moving by immobilizingthe joints on both sides of the fracture. If fracture is in ajoint, immobilize the bones on both sides of the joint.
CAUTION: Splint fingers in a slightly flexed position,NOT in straight position. Hand should look like it isgrasping an apple.
viii.
Use RICES treatment for 72 hours.ix. Rest.a. Ice.b. Compression.c. Elevation.d. Stabilization.e.
Apply cold to acute injuries.x. Use 15 to 20 minute periods of cold application.xi.
DO NOT use continuous cold therapy.a. Repeat 3 to 4 times per day.b. Avoid cooling that can cause frostbite orhypothermia.
c.
30
Wrap with a compression bandage after cold therapy.xii. Elevate injured area above heart level to reduceswelling.
xiii.
Check periodically for a pulse beyond the injury site.xiv. Loosen bandage or reapply splint if no pulse is felt or ifswelling occurs because bandage is too tight.
xv.
Common Injuries and Illnesses2. Burns.A.
Cool the burned area with water.i. Use immersion or cool compresses.a. Avoid aggressive cooling with ice or frigidwater.
b.
Remove watches, jewelry, constrictive clothing.ii. DO NOT remove embedded, charred material that willcause burned areas to bleed.
iii.
Cover with sterile dressings.iv. DO NOT use lotion or grease.v. Avoid moving or rubbing the burned part.vi. Drink extra water to compensate for increased fluid lossfrom burns. (Add 1/4 teaspoon of salt [if available] toeach quart of water.)
vii.
Change dressings when soaked or dirty.viii. Eye injuries.B.
Sun/snow blindness (gritty, burning sensation, andpossible reduction in vision caused by sun exposure).
i.
Prevent with improvised goggles. (See ChapterV, Figure V−2.)
a.
Treat by patching affected eye(s).Check after 12 hours.• Replace patch for another 12 hours ifnot healed.
•
b.
Use cool compresses to reduce pain.c. Foreign body in eye.ii.
Irrigate with clean water from the inside to theoutside corner of the eye.
a.
If foreign body is not removed by irrigation,improvise a small swab. Moisten and wipegently over the affected area.
b.
31
If foreign body is STILL not removed, patch eyefor 24 hours and then reattempt removal usingsteps (a) and (b).
c.
Heat injury.C. Heat cramps (cramps in legs or abdomen).i.
Rest.a. Drink water. Add 1/4 teaspoon of salt per quart.b.
Heat exhaustion (pale, sweating, moist, cool skin).ii. Rest in shade.a. Drink water.b. Protect from further heat exposure.c.
Heat stroke (victim disoriented or unconscious, skin ishot and flushed [sweating may or may not occur], fastpulse).
CAUTION: Handle heat stroke victim gently. Shock,seizures, and cardiac arrest can occur.
iii.
Cool as rapidly as possible (saturate clothingwith water and fan the victim). Remember tocool the groin and armpit areas. (Avoidovercooling.)
a.
Maintain airway, breathing, and circulation.b. Cold injuries:D.
Frostnip and frostbite:i. Are progressive injuries.
Ears, nose, fingers, and toes are affectedfirst.
•
Areas will feel cold and may tingleleading to:
•
Numbness that progresses to:• Waxy appearance with stiff skin thatcannot glide freely over a joint.
•
a.
Frostnipped areas rewarm with body heat. Ifbody heat WILL NOT rewarm area in 15 to 20minutes, then frostbite is present.
b.
Frostbitten areas are deeply frozen and requiremedical treatment.
c.
32
CAUTION: In frostbite, repeated freezing andthawing causes severe pain and increasesdamage to the tissue. DO NOT rub frozentissue. DO NOT thaw frozen tissue.
Hypothermia:ii. Is a progressive injury.
Intense shivering with impaired abilityto perform complex tasks leads to:
•
Violent shivering, difficulty speaking,sluggish thinking go to:
•
Muscular rigidity with blue, puffy skin;jerky movements go to:
•
Coma, respiratory and cardiac failure.•
a.
Protect victim from the environment as follows:Remove wet clothing.• Put on dry clothing (if available).• Prevent further heat loss.
Cover top of head.♦ Insulate from above and below.♦
•
Warm with blankets, sleeping bags, orshelter.
•
Warm central areas before extremities.Place heat packs in groin,armpits, and around neck.
♦
Avoid causing burns to skin.♦
•
CAUTION: Handle hypothermia victim gently.Avoid overly rapid rewarming which may causecardiac arrest. Rewarming of victim withskin−to−skin contact by volunteer(s) inside of asleeping bag is a survival technique but cancause internal temperatures of all to drop.
b.
Skin tissue damage.E. Immersion injuries. Skin becomes wrinkled as indishpan hands.
i.
Avoid walking on affected feet.a. Pat dry; DO NOT rub. Skin tissue will besensitive.
b.
Dry socks and shoes. Keep feet protected.c.
33
Loosen boots, cuffs, etc., to improve circulation.d. Keep area dry, warm, and open to air.e. DO NOT apply creams or ointments.f.
Saltwater sores.ii. Change body positions frequently.a. Keep sores dry.b. Use antiseptic (if available).c. DO NOT open or squeeze sores.d.
Snakebite.
CAUTION: This snakebite treatment recommendation is forsituations where medical aid and specialized equipment are notavailable.
F.
Nonpoisonous. Clean and bandage wound.i. Poisonous.ii.
Remove constricting items.a. Minimize activity.b. DO NOT cut the bite site; DO NOT use yourmouth to create suction.
c.
Clean bite with soap and water; cover with adressing.
d.
Overwrap the bite site with a tight (elastic)bandage (Figure IV−6). The intent is to slowcapillary and venous blood flow but not arterialflow. Check for pulse below the overwrap.
e.
34
Splint bitten extremity to prevent motion.f. Treat for shock (paragraph 1C).g. Position extremity below level of heart.h. Construct shelter if necessary (let the victimrest).
i.
For conscious victims, force fluids.j. Marine life.G.
Stings.i. Flush wound with salt water (fresh waterstimulates toxin release).
a.
Remove jewelry and watches.b. Remove tentacles and gently scrape or shaveskin.
c.
Apply a steroid cream (if available).d. DO NOT rub area with sand.e. Treat for shock (paragraph 1C); artificialrespiration may be required (paragraph 1A).
f.
DO NOT use urine to flush or treat wounds.g.
35
Punctures.ii. Immerse affected part in hot water or apply hotcompresses for 30−60 minutes (as hot as victimcan tolerate).
a.
Cover with clean dressing.b. Treat for shock as needed.c.
Skin irritants (includes poison oak and poison ivy).H. Wash with large amounts of water. Use soap (ifavailable).
i.
Keep covered to prevent scratching.ii. Infection.I.
Keep wound clean.i. Use iodine tablet solution or diluted betadine to preventor treat infection.
ii.
Change bandages as needed.iii. Dysentery and diarrhea.J.
Drink extra water.i. Use a liquid diet.ii. Eat charcoal. Make a paste by mixing fine charcoalparticles with water. (It may relieve symptoms byabsorbing toxins.)
iii.
Constipation (can be expected in survival situations).K. DO NOT take laxatives.i. Exercise.ii. Drink extra water.iii.
Plant Medicine3. Tannin.A.
Medical uses. Burns, diarrhea, dysentery, skin problems,and parasites. Tannin solution prevents infection andaids healing.
i.
Sources. Found in the outer bark of all trees, acorns,banana plants, common plantain, strawberry leaves, andblackberry stems.
ii.
Preparation.iii. Place crushed outer bark, acorns, or leaves inwater.
a.
Leach out the tannin by soaking or boiling.Increase tannin content by longer•
b.
36
soaking time.Replace depleted material with freshbark/plants.
•
Treatments.iv. Burns.
Moisten bandage with cooled tannin tea.• Apply compress to burned area.• Pour cooled tea on burned areas to easepain.
•
a.
Diarrhea, dysentery, and worms. Drink strongtea solution (may promote voiding of worms).
b.
Skin problems (dry rashes and fungalinfections). Apply cool compresses or soakaffected part to relieve itching and promotehealing.
c.
Lice and insect bites. Wash affected areas withtea to ease itching.
d.
Salicin/salicylic acid.B. Medical uses. Aches, colds, fever, inflammation, pain,sprains, and sore throat (aspirin−like qualities).
i.
Sources. Willow and aspen trees (Figure IV−7).ii.
Preparation.iii.
37
Gather twigs, buds, or cambium layer (soft,moist layer between the outer bark and thewood) of willow or aspen.
a.
Prepare tea as described in paragraph 3A(iii).b. Make poultice.
Crush the plant or stems.• Make a pulpy mass.•
c.
Treatments.iv. Chew on twigs, buds, or cambium for symptomrelief.
a.
Drink tea for colds and sore throat.b. Use warm, moist poultice for aches and sprains.
Apply pulpy mass over injury.• Hold in place with a dressing.•
c.
Common plantain.C. Medical uses. Itching, wounds, abrasions, stings,diarrhea, and dysentery.
i.
Source. There are over 200 plantain species with similarmedicinal properties. The common plantain is shown inFigure IV−7.
ii.
Preparation.iii. Brew tea from seeds.a. Brew tea from leaves.b. Make poultice of leaves.c.
Treatments.iv. Drink tea made from seeds for diarrhea ordysentery.
a.
Drink tea made from leaves for vitamin andminerals.
b.
Use poultice to treat cuts, sores, burns, andstings.
c.
Papain.D. Medical uses. Digestive aid, meat tenderizer, and a foodsource.
i.
Source. Fruit of the papaya tree (Figure IV−7).ii. Preparation.iii.
Make cuts in unripe fruit.a. Gather milky white sap for its papain content.b. Avoid getting sap in eyes or wounds.c.
38
Treatments.iv. Use sap to tenderize tough meat.a. Eat ripe fruit for food, vitamins, and minerals.b.
Common Cattail.E. Medical uses. Wounds, sores, boils, inflammations,burns, and an excellent food source.
i.
Source. Cattail plant found in marshes (Figure IV−7).ii. Preparation.iii.
Pound roots into a pulpy mass for a poultice.a. Cook and eat green bloom spikes.b. Collect yellow pollen for flour substitute.c. Peel and eat tender shoots (raw or cooked).d.
Treatments.iv. Apply poultice to affected area.a. Use plant for food, vitamins, and minerals.b.
Health and Hygiene4. Stay clean (daily regimen).A.
Minimize infection by washing. (Use white ashes, sand,or loamy soil as soap substitutes.)
i.
Comb and clean debris from hair.ii. Cleanse mouth and brush teeth.iii.
Use hardwood twig as toothbrush (fray it bychewing on one end then use as brush).
a.
Use single strand of an inner core string fromparachute cord for dental floss.
b.
Use clean finger to stimulate gum tissues byrubbing.
c.
Gargle with salt water to help prevent sore throatand aid in cleaning teeth and gums.
d.
Clean and protect feet.iv. Change and wash socksa. Wash, dry, and massage.b. Check frequently for blisters and red areas.c. Use adhesive tape/mole skin to prevent damage.d.
Exercise daily.B. Prevent and control parasites.C.
Check body for lice, fleas, ticks, etc.i. Check body regularly.a.
39
Pick off insects and eggs (DO NOT crush).b. Wash clothing and use repellents.ii. Use smoke to fumigate clothing and equipment.iii.
Rules for Avoiding Illness5. Purify all water obtained from natural sources by using iodinetablets, bleach, or boiling for 5 minutes.
A.
Locate latrines 200 feet from water and away from shelter.B. Wash hands before preparing food or water.C. Clean all eating utensils after each meal.D. Prevent insect bites by using repellent, netting, and clothing.E. Dry wet clothing as soon as possible.F. Eat varied diet.G. Try to get 7−8 hours sleep per day.H.
40
Chapter V − Personal Protection
Priorities1. Evaluate available resources and situation, then accomplishindividual tasks accordingly.
A.
First 24 hours in order of situational needs:B. Construct survival shelter according to selection criteria.i. Procure water.ii. Establish multiple survival signals.iii. Build Fire.iv.
Second 24 hours in order of situational needs:C. Construct necessary tools.i. Procure food.ii.
Care and Use of Clothing2. Never discard clothing.A. Wear loose and layered clothing.B.
Tight clothing restricts blood flow regulating bodytemperature.
i.
Layers create more dead air space.ii. Keep entire body covered to prevent sunburn and dehydration inhot climates. When fully clothed, the majority of body heatescapes through the head and neck areas.
C.
Avoid overheating.D. Remove layers of clothing before strenuous activities.i. Use a hat to regulate body heat.ii. Wear a hat when in direct sunlight (in hot environment).iii.
Dampen clothing when on the ocean in hot weather.E. Use salt water, NOT drinking water.i. Dry clothing before dark to prevent hypothermia.ii.
Keep clothing dry to maintain its insulation qualities (dry dampclothing in the sun or by a fire).
F.
If you fall into the water in the winter:G. Build fire.i. Remove wet clothing and rewarm by fire.ii. Finish drying clothing by fire.iii.
If no fire is available:H. Remove clothing and get into sleeping bag (if available).i. Allow wet clothes to freeze.ii.
41
Break ice out of clothing.iii. Keep clothing clean (dirt reduces its insulation qualities).Examine clothing frequently for damage.
I.
DO NOT sit or lie directly on the ground.i. Wash clothing whenever possible.ii. Repair when necessary by using:iii.
Needle and thread.a. Safety pins.b. Tape.c.
Improvised foot protection (Figure V−1).J. Cut 2 to 4 layers of cloth into a 30−inch square.i. Fold into a triangle.ii. Center foot ontriangle withtoes towardcorner.
iii.
Fold front over the toes.iv. Fold side corners, one at a time, over the instep.v. Secure by rope, vines, tape, etc., or tuck into other layersof material.
vi.
Other Protective Equipment3. Sleeping bag.A.
Fluff before use, especially at foot of bag.i. Air and dry daily to remove body moisture.ii. Improvise with available material, dry grass, leaves, drymoss, etc.
iii.
Sun and snow goggles (Figure V−2).B.
Wear in bright sun or snow conditions.i. Improvise by cutting small horizontal slits in webbing,bark, or similar materials.
ii.
42
Gaiters (Figure V−3).Used to protect fromsand, snow, insects, andscratches (wrap materialaround lower leg andtop of boots).
C.
Shelters4. Site selection.A.
Near signal and recovery site.i. Available food and water.ii. Avoid natural hazards:iii.
Dead standing trees.a. Drainage and dry river beds.b. Avalanche areas.c.
Location large and level enough to lie down in.iv. Types.B.
Immediate shelters. Find shelter needing minimalimprovements (Figure V−4).
i.
General shelter. Temperate climates require any shelterthat gives protection from wind and rain.
ii.
43
Thermal A Frame, Snow Trench, Snow Cave. (FiguresV−5 through V−7). Cold climates require an enclosed,insulated shelter.
iii.
Snow is the most abundant insulating material.a.
44
Air vent is required to prevent carbon monoxidepoisoning when using an open flame insideenclosed shelters.
b.
Note: As a general rule, unless you can seeyour breath, your snow shelter is too warm andshould be cooled down to preclude melting anddripping.
Shade shelter. Hot climates require a shade shelter toprotect from ultraviolet rays (Figure V−8).
iv.
To reduce the surface temperature, the shelterfloor should be elevated or dug down(approximately 18 inches).
a.
For thermal protection, a minimum of 2 layersof material suspended 12−18 inches above thehead is required. White is the best color toreflect heat (inner most layer should be of darkermaterial).
b.
Elevated platform shelter (Figure V−9). Tropical/wetclimates require enclosed, elevated shelter for protectionfrom dampness and insects.
v.
45
Shelter construction.C. Have entrance 45°−90° from prevailing wind.i. Cover with available material.ii.
If natural materials are used, arrange them inlayers starting at the bottom with each layeroverlapping the previous one. See Figure V−10for an example.
a.
If using porous material like parachute, blankets,etc.:
Stretch as tight as possible• Use a 40°−60° slope.• Use additional layers in heavy rain.•
b.
Shelter construction materials:D. Raft and raft parts.i. Vehicle or aircraft parts.ii. Blankets, poncho, or parachute material.iii. Sheet of plastic or plastic bag.iv. Bark peeled off dead trees.v. Boughs, broad leaves, dry moss.vi. Grass and sod.vii. Snow.viii. Sand and rocks.ix.
Bed construction. Construct a bed to protect from cold, damp,ground using:
E.
Raft or foam rubber from vehicle seats.i. Boughs, leaves, or dry moss.ii.
Fires5. Fire building. The 3 essential elements for starting a fire are heat,fuel, and oxygen.
A.
Heat sources:i.
46
Note: If possible, carry a fire−starting device with you.Matches or lighter.a. Flint and steel (experiment with various rocksand metals until a good spark is produced).
b.
Sparks from batteries.c. Concentrated sunlight (use magnifying glass orflashlight reflectors).
d.
Pyrotechnics, such as flares (last resort), etc.e. Friction method (Figure V−11). Without priortraining, this method is difficult to master andrequires a lot of time to build the device.
f.
Fuel is divided into 3 categories: tinder, kindling, andfuel. (Gather large amounts of each category beforeigniting the fire.)
ii.
Tinder. Tinder must be very finely shaved orshredded to provide a low combustion point andfluffed to allow oxygen to flow through. (To gettinder to burn hotter and longer, saturate withVaseline, Chapstick, insect repellant, aircraftfuel, etc.) Examples of tinder include:
Cotton.• Candle (shred the wick, not the wax).• Plastic spoon, fork, or knife.• Foam rubber.• Dry bark.•
a.
47
Dry grasses.• Gun powder.• Pitch.• Petroleum products.•
Kindling. Kindling must be small enough toignite from the small flame of the tinder.Gradually add larger kindling until arriving atthe size of fuel to burn.
b.
Fuel. Examples of fuel include:Dry hardwood (removing bark reducessmoke).
•
Bamboo (open chambers to preventexplosion).
•
Dry dung.•
c.
Types. Fires are built to meet specific needs or uses.B. Tepee fire(Figure V−12).Use the tepeefire to producea concentratedheat source forcooking, lighting, or signaling.
i.
Log cabin fire(Figure V−13).Use the logcabin fire toproduce largeamounts oflight and heat, to dry out wet wood, and provide coalsfor cooking, etc.
ii.
Sod fire and reflector (Figure V−14). Use fire reflectorsto get the most warmth from a fire. Build fires againstrocks or logs.
iii.
48
CAUTION: DO NOT use porous rocks or riverbedrock−they may explode when heated.Dakota fire hole (Figure V−15). Use for high winds.iv.
Improvised stoves (Figure V−16). These are veryefficient.
v.
49
50
Chapter VI − Water
Water RequirementsDrink extra water. Minimum 2 quarts per day to maintain fluid level.Exertion, heat, injury, or an illness increases water loss.
Note: Pale yellow urine indicates adequate hydration.
1.
Water Procurement2. DO NOT drink:A.
Urine.i. Fish juices.ii. Blood.iii. Sea water.iv. Alcohol.v. Melted water from new sea ice.vi.
Water sources:B. Surface water (streams, lakes, and springs).i. Precipitation (rain, snow, dew, sleet) (Figure VI−1).ii.
Subsurface (wells and cisterns).iii. Ground water (when no surface water is available)(Figure VI−2).
iv.
Abundance of lush green vegetation.a.
51
Drainages and low−lying areas.b. "V" intersecting game trails often point to water.c. Presence of swarming insects indicates water isnear.
d.
Bird flight in the early morning or late afternoonmight indicate the direction to water.
e.
Snow or ice.v. DO NOT eat ice or snow.
Lowers body temperature.• Induces dehydration.• Causes minor cold injury to lips andmouth.
•
a.
Melt with fire.Stir frequently to prevent damagingcontainer.
•
Speed the process by adding hot rocksor water.
•
b.
Melt with body heat.Use waterproof container.• Place between layers of clothing.• DO NOT place next to the skin.•
c.
Use a water generator (Figure VI−3).d.
52
Open seas.vi. Water available in survival kits.a. Precipitation.
Drink as much as possible.• Catch rain in spray shields and life raftcovers.
•
Collect dew off raft.•
b.
Old sea ice or icebergs.
OLD SEA ICE NEW SEA ICE
Bluish or blackishShatters easilyRounded cornersTastes relatively salt−free
Milky or greyDoes not breakeasilySharp edgesTastesextremely salty
c.
Tropical areas.vii. All open sources previously mentioned.a. Vegetation.
Plants with hollow sections can collectmoisture.
•
Leaning Tree. Cloth absorbs rainrunning down tree and drips intocontainer (Figure VI−4).
•
b.
53
Banana plants.• Water trees (avoid milky sap).
Tap before dark. Let sap stoprunning and harden during thedaytime.
♦
Produce most water at night.♦
•
Vines (Figure VI−5A).
Cut bark (DO NOT use milkysap).
♦
If juice is clear and water like,cut as large a piece of vine aspossible (cut the top first).
♦
Pour into hand to check smell,color, and taste to determine ifdrinkable.
♦
DO NOT touch vine to lips.♦ When water flow stops, cut off6 inches of opposite end, waterwill flow again.
♦
•
Old bamboo.•
54
Shake and listen for water.♦ Bore hole at bottom of sectionto obtain water.
♦
Cut out entire section to carrywith you.
♦
Filter and purify.♦ Green bamboo (Figure VI−5B).
CAUTION: Liquid contained in greencoconuts (ripe coconuts) may causediarrhea.
•
Beach well. Along the coast, obtain water bydigging a beach well (Figure VI−6).
c.
Dry areas.viii. Solar still (Figure VI−7).a.
Vegetation bag (Figure VI−8).b.
55
Transpiration bag (Figure VI−9).Water bag must be clear.• Water will taste like the plant smells.•
CAUTION: DO NOT use poisonous/toxicplants in vegetation/transpiration bags.
c.
Seepage basin (Figure VI−10).d.
Water Preparation and Storage3.
56
Filtration. Filter through porous material (sand/charcoal).A. Purification.B.
Water from live plants requires no further treatment.i. Purify all other water.ii.
Boil at least 1 minute.a. Pour from one container to another to improvetaste to aerate.
b.
Water purification tablets. Follow instructionson package.
c.
Potable Water.C. If water cannot be purified, obtain water from a clear,cold, clean, and fast running source (if possible).
i.
Put in clear container and expose to the sun's ultravioletrays to kill bacteria.
ii.
Storage. To prevent contamination, use a clean, covered orsealed container.
D.
Trash bag.i. Prophylactic.ii. Section of bamboo.iii. Flotation gear.iv.
57
58
Chapter VII − Food
Food Procurement1. Sources and location.A.
Mammals can be found where:i. Trails lead to watering, feeding, and beddingareas.
a.
Droppings or tracks look fresh.b. Birds can be found by:ii.
Observing the direction of flight in the earlymorning and late afternoon (leads to feeding,watering, and roosting areas).
a.
Listening for bird noises (indication of nestingareas
b.
Fish and other marine life locations (Figure VII−1).iii.
Reptiles and amphibians are found almost worldwide.iv. Insects are found:v.
In dead logs and stumps.a. At ant and termite mounds.b. On ponds, lakes, and slow moving streams.c.
59
Procurementtechniques.
B.
Snares:i. Work while unattended.a. Location:
Trails leading to water, feeding, andbedding areas.
•
Mouth of dens (Figure VII−2).•
b.
Construction of simple loop snare.Use materials that will not break underthe strain of holding an animal.
•
Use a figure 8 (locking loop) if wire isused (Figure VII−3).
Once tightened, the wire locksin place, preventing reopening,and the animal's escape.
♦
•
To construct a squirrel pole (FigureVII−4) use simple loop snares.
•
c.
60
Make noose opening slightly larger thanthe animal's head (3−finger width forsquirrels, fist−sized for rabbits).
•
Placement of snares (set as many as possible).Avoid disturbing the area.• Use funneling (natural or improvised)(Figure VII−5).
•
d.
Noose stick (easier and safer to use than the hands).ii. Twist stick (Figure VII−6).iii.
Insert forked stick into a den until somethingsoft is met.
a.
Twist the stick, binding the animal's hide in thefork.
b.
Remove the animal from the den.c. Be ready to kill the animal; it may be dangerous.d.
61
Hunting and fishing devices. (See Figure VII−7 forfishing procurement methods.)
iv.
Club or rock.a. Spear.b. Slingshot.c. Pole, line, and hook.d. Net.e. Trap.f.
Precautions:v. Wear shoes to protect the feet when wading inwater.
a.
Avoid reaching into dark holes.b. Kill animals before handling.c. DO NOT secure fishing lines to yourself or theraft.
d.
Kill fish before bringing them into the raft.e. DO NOT eat fish with:f.
62
Spines.• Unpleasant odor.• Pale, slimy gills.• Sunken eyes.• Flabby skin.• Flesh that remains dented when pressed.•
DO NOT eatfish eggs orliver (entrails).
g.
Avoid all crustaceans above the high tide mark.h. Avoid cone−shaped shells (Figure VII−8).i. Avoid hairy insects; the hairs could causeirritation or infection.
j.
Avoid poisonous insects, for example:Centipedes.• Scorpions.• Poisonous spiders.•
k.
Avoid disease carrying insects, such as:Flies.• Mosquitoes.• Ticks.•
l.
Plant Foods.
Note: If you cannot positively identify an edible plant andchoose to try an unknown plant, these guidelines may helpdetermine edibility.
C.
Selection criteria.i. Before testing for edibility, ensure there areenough plants to make testing worth your time
a.
63
and effort. Each part of a plant (roots, leaves,stems, bark, etc.) requires more than 24 hours totest. DO NOT waste time testing a plant that isnot abundant.Test only 1 part of 1 plant at a time.b. Remember that eating large portions of plantfood on an empty stomach may cause diarrhea,nausea, or cramps. Two good examples aregreen apples and wild onions. Even after testingfood and finding it safe, eat in moderation.
c.
Avoid plants with the following characteristics:
Note: Using these guidelines in selecting plants for foodmay eliminate some edible plants; however, theseguidelines will help prevent choosing potentially toxicplants.
ii.
Milky sap (dandelion has milky sap but is safeto eat and easily recognizable).
a.
Spines, fine hairs, and thorns (skinirritants/contact dermatitis). Prickly pear andthistles are exceptions. Bracken fern fiddleheadsalso violate this guideline.
b.
Mushrooms and fungus.c. Umbrella shaped flowers (hemlock iseliminated).
d.
Bulbs (only onions smell like onions).e. Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.f. Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.g. Old or wilted leaves.h. Plants with shiny leaves.i. White and yellow berries. (Aggregate berriessuch as black and dewberries are always edible,test all others before eating.)
j.
Almond scent in woody parts and leaves.k. Test procedures.
CAUTION: Test all parts of the plant for edibility. Some plantshave both edible and inedible parts. NEVER ASSUME a partthat proved edible when cooked is edible raw, test the part raw
D.
64
before eating. The same part or plant may produce varyingreactions in different individuals.
Test only 1 part of a plant at a time.i. Separate the plant into its basic components (stems,roots, buds, and flowers).
ii.
Smell the food for strong acid odors. Remember, smellalone does not indicate a plant is edible or inedible.
iii.
DO NOT eat 8 hours before the test and drink onlypurified water.
iv.
During the 8 hours you abstain from eating, test forcontact poisoning by placing a piece of the plant on theinside of your elbow or wrist. The sap or juice shouldcontact the skin. Usually 15 minutes is enough time toallow for a reaction.
v.
During testing, take NOTHING by mouth EXCEPTpurified water and the plant you are testing.
vi.
Select a small portion of a single part and prepare it theway you plan to eat it.
vii.
Before placing the prepared plant in your mouth, touch asmall portion (a pinch) to the outer surface of your lip totest for burning or itching.
viii.
If after 3 minutes there is no reaction on your lip, placethe plant on your tongue and hold it for 15 minutes.
ix.
If there is no reaction, thoroughly chew a pinch and holdit in your mouth for 15 minutes (DO NOT SWALLOW).If any ill effects occur, rinse out your mouth with water.
x.
If nothing abnormal occurs, swallow the food and wait 8hours. If any ill effects occur during this period, inducevomiting and drink a water and charcoal mixture.
xi.
If no ill effects occur, eat 1/4 cup of the same plantprepared the same way. Wait another 8 hours. If no illeffects occur, the plant part as prepared is safe for eating.
CAUTION:Ripe tropical fruits should be peeled and eatenraw. Softness, rather than color, is the bestindicator of ripeness. Cook unripe fruits anddiscard seeds and skin.
⋅
xii.
65
Cook underground portions when possible toreduce bacterial contamination and easedigestion of their generally high starch content.
⋅
Food PreparationAnimal food gives the greatest food value per pound.
2.
Butchering and skinning.A. Mammals.i.
Remove the skin and save for other uses.a. One cut skinning of small game (Figure VII−9).
Open the abdominal cavity.• Avoid rupturing the intestines.• Remove the intestines.• Save inner organs (heart, liver, andkidneys) and all meaty parts of the skull,brain, tongue, and eyes.
•
b.
Wash when ready to use.c. If preserving the meat, remove it from the bones.d. Unused or inedible organs and entrails may beused as bait for other game.
e.
Frogs and snakes.ii. Skin.a. Discard skin, head with 2 inches of body, andinternal organs.
b.
Fish.iii. Scale (if necessary) and gut fish soon after it iscaught.
a.
Insert knifepoint into anus of fish and cut openthe belly.
b.
Remove entrails.c. Remove gills to prevent spoilage.d.
66
Birds.iv. Gut soon after killing.a. Protect from flies.b. Skin or pluck them.c. Skin scavengers and sea birds.d.
Insects.v. Remove all hard portions such as the legs ofgrasshoppers or crickets. (The rest is edible.)
a.
Recommend cooking grasshopper−size insects.
CAUTION: Dead insects spoil rapidly, DONOT save.
b.
Fruits, berries, and most nuts can be eaten raw.vi. Cooking.
CAUTION: To kill parasites, thoroughly cook all wild game,freshwater fish, clams, mussels, snails, crawfish, and scavengerbirds. Saltwater fish may be eaten raw.
B.
Boiling (most nutritious method of cooking−drink thebroth).
i.
Make metal cooking containers from ration cans.a. Drop heated rocks into containers to boil wateror cook food.
b.
Baking.ii. Wrap in leaves or pack in mud.a. Bury food in dirt under coals of fire.b.
Leaching. Some nuts (acorns) must be leached toremove the bitter taste of tannin. Use one of thefollowing leaching methods:
iii.
First method:Soaking and pouring the water off.• Crushing and pouring water through.Cold water should be tried first;however, boiling water is sometimesbest.
•
Discarding water.•
a.
Second method:Boil, pour off water, and taste the plant.• If bitter, repeat process until palatable.•
b.
67
Roasting.iv. Shake shelled nuts in a container with hot coals.a. Roast thinly sliced meat and insects over acandle.
b.
Food Preservation3. Keeping an animal alive.A. Refrigerating.B.
Long term.i. Food buried in snow maintains a temperature ofapproximately 0°C (32°F).
a.
Frozen food will not decompose (freeze inmeal−size portions).
b.
Short term.ii. Food wrapped in waterproof material and placedin a stream remains cool in summer months.
a.
Earth below the surface, particularly in shadyareas or along streams, is cooler than thesurface.
b.
Wrap food in absorbent material such as cottonand re−wet as the water evaporates.
c.
Drying and smoking removes moisture and preserves food.C. Use salt to improve flavor and promote drying.i. Cut or pound meat into thin strips.ii. Remove fat.iii. DO NOT use pitch woods such as fir or pine; theyproduce soot giving the meat an undesirable taste.
iv.
Protecting meat from animals and insects.D. Wrapping food.i.
Use clean material.a. Wrap pieces individually.b. Ensure all corners of the wrapping are insectproof.
c.
Wrap soft fruits and berries in leaves or moss.d. Hanging meat.ii.
Hang meat in the shade.a. Cover during daylight hours to protect frominsects.
b.
Packing meat on the trail.iii.
68
Wrap before flies appear in the morning.a. Place meat in fabric or clothing for insulation.b. Place meat inside the pack for carrying. Softmaterial acts as insulation helping keep the meatcool.
c.
Carry shellfish, crabs, and shrimp in wetseaweed.
d.
DO NOT store food in the shelter; it attracts unwanted animals.E.
69
70
