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Survey Research
Survey data
• Survey data are obtained when individuals respond to questions asked by interviewers or when the individual responds to questions that he has read
• Quantitative and qualitative information
• Census or sample?
Survey Sampling
• Sample Survey– Sample of the population
(e.g., sample of Alberta CEOs)
• Census Survey– Complete population
(e.g., all CEOs in Lethbridge)
Functions
• Descriptive
• Causal (limited function)
• Exploratory (limited function)
Information Provided by Surveys
• respondent’s knowledge of facts – how many times a month do you buy cookies?
• respondent’s attitudes – “chocolate chip is my favorite variety of cookie.”
• May describe processes undertaken by respondent– Stages in the purchase decision, for example
• usually self-report data
• The type of information gathered depends on a survey’s objectives.
• Surveys typically have multiple objectives
Classifications• Method of Communication
– Telephone– Mail– Personal interview
• Degree of Structure– Unstructured– structured
• Degree of Disguise
Limitations:
Structure and disguise
are not clear categories;
most surveys are hybrids
• Temporal classifications– Cross sectional studies– Longitudinal studies
• Trend Studies– Samples general population at each point; complete turnover in who is
actually sampled
• Cohort studies (tracking studies)– Samples from one group over time; e.g., sample of a graduating class
• Panel studies– sample cohort, same specific respondents each sample
Method of Communication
• Media
• Personal Interviews
• Telephone Interviews
• Self administered Questionnaires
Media
• Human interactive
• Electronic interactive: researcher and respondent interact using digital technology
• Non-interactive media
Personal interview• Direct communication between business
and consumers in which interviewers ask respondents questions in face to face situations
• Key advantages:– Opportunities for feedback– Probing for complex answers– Length of interview
Personal interview
• Direct communication between business and consumers in which interviewers ask respondents questions in face to face situations
Key advantages: Personal interview
• Opportunities for feedback
• Probing for complex answers
• Length of interview
• Completion rates
• Ability to use props
• High participation/low refusal rate (especially if using call back)
Key disadvantages:
• Anonymity of respondent
• Interviewer bias
• Interviewer cheating
• cost
Types of personal interviews
• Door to door interviews: – Low refusal rates – Provide a more representative sample– Provide a less representative sample (under-
representation of certain groups)
Types of personal interviews
• Mall intercept: – Lower cost– Provide a larger sample– Useful if targeting particular population– Increased use of visual aids– Higher refusal rate– Provide a less representative sample
Telephone interviews
• Considered to be the primary method of survey research
• Why: – representative samples– Technology– Perception of anonymity
Key advantages: Telephone interview
• Central location - increased quality of supervision
• Computer assisted telephone interviewing - data entry
• Speed
• Cost
• Anonymity- absence of face to face contact
• Less interviewer cheating
• Less researcher bias
• Cooperation???
• Representative samples (RDD)
• Call backs easier
Key disadvantages:
• Cooperation
• Lack of visual media
• Limited duration
Mail and self-administered questionnaires
• A very popular method of data collection
Types of Mail Surveys
– Ad Hoc Mail Surveys:• Questionnaires for a particular project sent to
selected names and addresses with no prior contact by the researcher.
– Mail Panels:• Precontacted and screened participants who are
periodically sent questionnaires.
• A mail panel is a type of longitudinal study. A longitudinal study in one in which the same respondents are resampled over time.
Key advantages: Self-administered
• Geographical flexibility
• Cost
• Respondent convenience - accuracy and reflection
• Anonymity
• Standardized questions - increase validity
Key disadvantages: Self-administered
• Time
• Length (6 pages)
• Interviewers absence
• Response rates
Tactics Employed to Increase Response Rate
• Advance postcard or telephone call alerting respondent of survey
• Follow-up postcard or phone call (coding/keying)
• Monetary incentives (nickel, dime, quarter, half-dollar)
• Premiums (pencil, pen, keychain, etc.)
• Postage stamps rather than metered envelopes
• Self-addressed, stamped return envelope
• Assurances regarding length
• Promise of contributions to favorite charity
• Entry into drawing for prize
• Emotional appeals
• Affiliation with universities or research institutions
• Multiple mailings of the questionnaire
• Bids for sympathy
• Reminder that respondent participated in previous study
• Interesting questions; well laid out
• Ask the right people
• A cover letter
Cover Letter
• introduces who you are• purpose and importance of study• relevance of survey to respondent
– especially if they receive several survey’s a week, need to be convinced survey results matter to them
• why and how they were selected – why their input is crucial– e.g., “As a respected member of the
Trustees, you have a unique perspective on....”)
• big name sponsor, if any– e.g., University of Lethbridge, Heart
Foundation, etc.
• give due date – make reasonable but specific
• contact number if they have any questions – include email these days too
• end by thanking them for completing survey
• explain direct incentive, if any (optional)
Not just the mail...
• At point of service
• Fax surveys (respond by fax; deliver by fax)
• Email surveys
• Computerized questionnaires (computer interactive)
• Internet surveys
Factors Determining Choice of Particular Survey Method
• Sampling Precision Required
• Budget Available
• The Need to Expose the Respondent to Various Stimuli
• Quality of Data Required
• Length of the Questionnaire
• Necessity of Having Respondent Perform Certain Specialized Tasks
• Incident Rate– Percentage of people or households in the
general population that fit the qualifications to be sampled.
• Degree of Structure of the Questionnaire
Error
Types of Error in Survey Research
• Random Sampling Error (Random error)– Error that results from chance variation – Impact can be decreased by increasing sample
size and through statistical estimation (confidence interval) or “rule of thumb”
• Systematic Error (non sampling error)– Error that results for the research design or
execution.
R an d om E rro r
N on resp on se e rro r
D e lib era te F a ls ifica tion U n con sc iou s m is rep resen ta tion
A cq u iescen ce E xtrem ity b ias In te rviewer b ias A u sp ices b ias soc ia l d es irab ility
R esp on se b ias
R esp on d en t e rro r
D ata P rocess in g S am p le se lec tion
In te rviewer ch ea tin g In te rviewer e rro r
A d m in is tra tive e rro r
S ys tem atic E rro r
Tota l E rro r
Types of Systematic Error
1. Administrative Error– Error that results from improper execution.
• Data Processing Error– Quality of data depends on quality of data
entry.– Use of verification procedures can minimize
• Sample Selection Error– Systematic error resulting from improper
sampling techniques either in design or execution.
• Interviewer Error– Data recorded incorrectly (error or selective
perception).
• Interviewer Cheating– Mitigate by random checks
2. Respondent Error– Humans interviewing humans...
• Non-response error– Statistical difference between a survey that
includes only those who responded and a survey that also includes those who failed to respond.
– Non-respondent: person not contacted or who refuses to participate
– Self selection bias: extreme positions represented
• Response bias– Errors that result from tendency to answer in “a
certain direction”.– Conscious or unconscious misrepresentation
• Types:– 1. Deliberate falsification (why?)
• Why would people deliberately falsify data– Appear to be what they are not– Don’t trust confidentiality– Protect– To end the interviewer quicker– “Average man effects”
• Types of response bias continued:– 1. Deliberate falsification– 2. Unconscious misrepresentation
• Reasons for unconscious misrepresentation:– Question format– Question content– Misunderstanding of question leading to biased
answer– Lack of time to consider answer fully– Communication or semantic confusion– other
Types of response bias
• Acquiescence bias: individuals have a tendency to agree or disagree with all questions or to indicate a positive/negative connotation
• Extremity bias: results for response styles varying from person to person; some people tend to use extremes when responding to questions
Types of response bias continued...
• Interviewer bias: Bias in the responses of the subject due to the influence of the interviewer
• Auspices bias: respondents being influenced by the organization conducting the study
• Social desirability bias: caused by respondents’ desire, either consciously or unconsciously to gain prestige or to appear in a different social role