Succession & Sustainability...Hargreaves, Shawn Moore and Dean Fink 32 SEVEC’s Community Involvement Program - Cathleen Cogan Bird 38 Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation share

TTTThhhheeee CCCCAAAAPPPP JJJJoooouuuurrrrnnnnaaaa llllRESOURCES FOR SCHOOL-BASED LEADERSHIPRESOURCES FOR SCHOOL-BASED LEADERSHIP

Volume 16 No. 1, Winter 2008Volume 16 No. 1, Winter 2008

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The Canadian Association of Principals

The CAP Journal© Canadian Association of Principals

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CAP Executive and Directors

President Maria Di PernaPresident-Elect Tom HierckPast-President Ted WhitelandEastern VP Connie PottieCentral VP Terry YoungWestern VP Les DukowskiNLTASAC James HibbsPEIASA Marian GrantNSSAA Michael KnowlesNBTA Eric EstabrooksAAESQ Jim JordanCPCO Dan TigheOPC Lisa VincentCOSL/MTS Joycelyn Fournier-GawrylukSSBA Shawn LarsonATACSA Kathleen Murphy-HouseBCPVPA Marilyn MerlerNTTASAC Janette VlanichAYSA Jan WallaceFNT David Serkoak

CAP Executive Assistant Marie Schutt

TTTThhhheeee CCCCAAAAPPPP JJJJoooouuuurrrrnnnnaaaa llllThe Canadian Resource for School-Based Leadership

Volume 16. No. 1, Winter 2008

Contents

2 President’s Message - Maria Di Perna

4 CAP and A Code of Ethics - Les Dukowski

5 Succession Planning: Four issues we really need to consider - Simon Blakesley

10 Secondary School Principal Rotation & Succession:Understanding Sound Practices - Robert White, Karyn Cooper and Carol Brayman

15 Succession & Trust Development - Shawn Northfield, Robert B. Macmillan and Matthew J. Meyer

19 Strategic Leadership for Succession - Shawn Northfield

26 The Carousel of Leadership Succession - Andy Hargreaves, Shawn Moore and Dean Fink

32 SEVEC’s Community Involvement Program - Cathleen Cogan Bird

38 Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation share research that studies barries to post secondary educationfor Canadian Students

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The CAP Journal 1

President’s Message

The Canadian Association of Principals 2

Dear Colleagues, A storm is raging over Montreal as I sit to write, this on a Sunday, one week before Christmas. As 60 cm of blowing snow swirl down, I think of the probability of a snow day and schools being closed. All that needs to be done will now need to be done in one less day. There is never enough time – never enough to do all we want, to accomplish all we hope. As you receive the Journal, it is the month of February with half the school year already over. Doesn’t it seem as though the school doors just opened in September? And yet, preparations for graduation have already begun. So little time. Before the holidays, CAP received the news that Tom Hierck, our President-elect, was promoted to the position of Assistant Superintendent of School District 46 (Sunshine Coast) in BC, effective February 1 of this year. Consequently, Tom has resigned his Executive position with CAP. At the Board of Directors meetings this month, a new President-elect will have been appointed. Tom will be missed. We extend to Tom our warmest congratulations and good wishes in his new endeavours. Additional CAP news….. at the February meeting, the Board welcomed back former President of CAP, James Hibbs, who replaces Wade Verge as Director from Newfoundland/Labrador for the remainder of the year. It’s great to have you back, Jim! CAP continues to be involved in a multitude of activities with our partners, below are but a few to give you a glimpse of how we represent and advocate for our members and their schools.

In October, the Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development “gave birth” to the Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development at St. Justine’s Hospital in Montreal. The encyclopedia (http://www.excellence-earlychildhood.ca/home.asp?lang=EN) is a tremendous resource for parents of children 0-5 years of age and available in English and French. The topics are addressed from three perspectives: development, services and policies. Close to 300 international authors have contributed to 33 topics. I recommend you share this resourceful tool with your school communities.

Jean-Louis Caya, Regional Director at the Public Health Agency is cutting the official umbilical-ribbon with Richard E. Tremblay, Director of the Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development.

In November. the Media Awareness Network (MNet), partnering with the Canadian Teachers’ Federation, had a very successful 2nd National Media Education Week, providing schools with numerous resources, holding information workshops for parents and debuting the French e-Parent tutorial Devenir e-parent. The tutorial has been awarded The Boomerang Award, recognizing exceptional interactive communication tools and websites by Quebec companies. As well, MNet, reached an agreement with the Ontario Ministry of Education, placing their media literacy materials in two-thirds of all Canadian schools.

In December, UNESCO held a meeting in Ottawa

focussing on adult learning and preparations for International Adult Learners’ Week in Canada, March 3-9. In the teaching of youth, one of our goals is to instil the motivation and competencies required to be a lifelong learner. It is commendable to see how many organizations come together to carry that torch into adulthood, to provide adults with a myriad of programs and options for continued literacy.

The CAP Journal 3

CAP has again signed an agreement with NASSP which provides our members with a discount on NASSP’s international membership package. Visit the CAP website for more information (www.cdnprincipals.org). We’re presently in the process of crafting a similar agreement with NAESP for its international associate membership package. Both associations offer a wealth or resources available to us through membership.

Recipients of Canada’s Outstanding Principal Award,

representing excellence in our profession, will be honoured by The Learning Partnership and CAP at the Delta Chelsea Hotel in Toronto on February 26. Our congratulations are extended to each.

The shortage of school administrators to lead our schools is real and has reached serious proportions. As “baby boomer” principals and vice-principals retire, the basin from which we hope to find their replacements is not as plentiful. As well, the principal’s workload is such that the job does not easily attract the interest of the younger generation. How then, do our school districts and school communities ensure leadership continuity and encourage individual advancement? Succession and Sustainability is the focus of this issue of the CAP Journal. - Simon Blakesley contends that, “In order for succession

planning to be truly effective, both broad and deep educational conversations must occur. When viewed in this way, succession planning presents not as something to be feared and avoided, but instead holds promise as a catalyst for thoughtful and insightful educational transformation.”

- In Secondary School Principal Rotation & Succession, White. Cooper and Brayman investigate the plans, policies and procedures of three school districts in Canada

and the US, with the intent of furthering our understanding of sound practices in principal succession and rotation.

- Northfield, MacMillan and Meyer, in Succession and Trust Development, speak of the principal’s need to develop trust quickly to make succession successful In, Strategic Leadership for Succession, Northfield examines a number of factors that influence the succession process.

- In The Carousel of Leadership Succession, Hargreaves, Moor and Fink provide us with numerous recommendations to ensure that our succession practices are more successful – and less gruesome - than those of Emperor Caligula or Saturn!

It may be stated in different ways by different people but conclusively, successful succession requires adequate planning and careful preparation. Sustaining improvement and success from one leader to the next requires the combined efforts of many in the district and community. Enjoy reading through the Journal (please take special note of Les Dukowski’s piece asking for your feedback on a CAP Code of Ethics) and I hope to see you in St. John’s Newfoundland for CAP’s 26th Annual National Conference! Best Regards, Maria Di Perna CAP President 2007-2008

The Canadian Principals’ Handbook Ab Dukacz

From the review by Marny Beale, in the Spring 2007 CAP Journal: “. . . an exquisite guide for all practising and aspiring principals in Canada. . . a precise and insightful guide through the history of Canadian educational institutions right up to our current conditions. . . . . . a clearly written guide that provides the reader with valuable insights into wise decision-making strategies and important qualities that current and future administrators need in their interactions with all school community partnerships. I heartily recommend this book to everyone involved in education [and as] an excellent resource for principals’ courses across Canada.”

For excerpts, other reviews and comments from purchasers, visit www.canprin.ca

Send cheque or purchase order for $60.00 (including taxes and shipping) per cop y to Canprin Publications, 2400 Dundas St.W., Suite 6 #524, Mississauga, ON L5K 2R8.

Addresses key concerns of school leaders: how leadership evolves; today’s trends and challenges; built-in role conflicts; working with parents and community; effective meetings and performance appraisal

Is painstakingly researched with a special focus on Canadian voices, context and examples, and also ranging far beyond educational research to movies, novels, television, and other influences that define our schools

Is written in plain jargon-free language

Links the “What do I know?” to the “What do I do?” of school leadership

Includes areas ignored in other texts: working with secretaries, custodians and superintendents, the mass media, delegation, the grievance procedure, and principals’ organizations

“An Association ofSchool Leaders”

TTHHEE CCAAPP BBOOAARRDD

TTOO CCOONNSSIIDDEERR

CCOODDEE OOFF EETTHHIICCSS CAP is considering adopting a Code of Ethics. The Board met on November 9 and 10 and reviewed a first draft of a proposed code. The Board meets again on February 8 and 9 to discuss the draft plus any information that has been generated from feedback solicited from principals and vice-principals in the provincial and territorial affiliates. You are invited to provide further thoughts on this proposed Code prior to a possible presentation at the CAP conference in St. John’s on May 15 and 16. Please see the draft below.

This is a significant step for our association to take. Principals and vice-principals from across the country need to have the opportunity to give their thoughts on a document that reflects the principles under which they lead the learning their schools. If you have not already had a chance to make your views known, please e-mail Les Dukowski, Weste rn Vice-President at lduk ow sk i@ bcpvpa.bc.ca prior to March 31.

CAP CODE OF ETHI CS

Canadian Association of Principals is the advocate for principals and vice-principals at the national level. Worki ng with ot her national

educational groups, CAP presents the views and opinions of principals and vice-principals regarding a variety of

issues and in many different forums. Our work with public and private sector partners provides invaluable

services to all facets of the educational community.

Our Mission

The Mission of the Canadian Association of Principals is to represent the professional perspectives of principals and vice-principals at the National level and to provide the leadership necessary to ensure quality educational opportunities for Canadian students.

The Code of Ethics of the Canadian Association of Principals defines the guiding moral principles and values of its members.

As Principals and Vice-Principals, we:

1. consider first the well-being and success of every student in our care

2. treat each individual with fairness, dignity, and respect and honour their rights

3. are honest and conduct ourselves with integrity

4. maintain confidentiality except when this conflicts with our responsibility to the law

5. work cooperatively with other educators and associated professionals in education

6. faithfully carry out all duties as specified by governing bodies

7. engage in lifelong learning to maintain and improve our professional knowledge, skills and attitudes

8. promote practice that is based on research and the generally held standards of the profession

9. support student learning in partnership with the family and the wider community

10. collaborate with other principals and vice-principals in the education of students and advocating for the success of public education


Succession planning:

Four issues we really need to consider

Run your finger down the directory of school administrators in your district. A quick check might reveal the following trends. While variances will occur from region to region across the Canadian landscape, the preponderance of school administrators will be white males over the age of 50- particularly at the high school level or in rural areas. Regardless of gender, many will be “empty nesters” with a retirement horizon of 3-5 years or less. If my suggestion is found to be wrong in relation to your district, I’ll take that as a hopeful indication that efforts have been undertaken to address the reality that the school administrative force is aged and departing.

This article locates the topic of this edition of the CAP Journal within four interrelated issues hindering succession planning initiatives from reaching their full potential. While in the throes of the generational shift affecting Canadian education organizations, school and system leaders must acknowledge and grapple with the issues outlined below in order for succession initiatives to be sustainable.

I propose that the following factors have restricted the initiation of succession planning efforts and prevented them from reaching their potential as a significant vehicle for educational growth and change. I hope that by surfacing them, the questions raised in this article will encourage thoughtful attempts geared not solely as a means of filling slots on the organizational chart, but promote proactive rather than reactive succession planning.

Issue 1: What kind of leaders for what kind of future?

Succession planning implies far more than simply filling slots on the organizational chart. If approached and conducted in such a manner, the true potential of succession planning may never be realized. What should precede succession planning are

conversations regarding valued educational ends. Unfortunately, such discussions are rare, and action upon them rarer still. It stands to reason that particular kinds of leadership mobilize the means to realize desired ends, however defined. Little educational growth and change will result in the absence of such conversations.

About the Author:

Simon Blakesley has been a teacher and school administrator for 18 years. Prior to that he served as a jet engine technician in the Canadian Air Force. He is currently seconded by the Yukon Department of Education to the Canadian Council on Learning’s Health and Learning Knowledge Centre at the University of Victoria. He is entering the research phase of the Ph.D. in Educational Studies program at UBC, examining educational leadership in rural and northern communities.

The true potential therefore lies in the ability of succession planning to go beyond posting and filling and be used strategically to help realize a desired future for schools and children. Based upon this assumption, planning for succession should then include broader input from a range of constituents. I base this assertion on a key factor: the power and primacy of the role of the principal as both “educational change agent” and head learner. Rapid change of principals ill-suited to the nature and context of their position does little to sustain educational improvement. It also encourages a short-term focus on management rather than longer term growth and progress. Therefore, succession planning needs to be tied in as a core aspect of broader educational planning.

Issue 2: The s eductive nature of demographics

There exists no shortage of projections and journal articles on the topic of succession. We’ve known for years that the school administrative force, similar to teachers, doctors, dentists, and other professions, is an aging one. My own Yukon-situated research

5The CAP Journal

affirmed this in 1999, determining that the average age of the Yukon administrative group was 52 years (Blak esley, 1999). It is a harsh reality, but lik e it or not, every year we each get one year older. So too w ill the average age of the w ork force if younger people are not inducted. Yet, if this fact of life has appeared abundantly obvious to us, w hy then is succession planning even an issue in the present? Defining demography as the study of human populations, Dr. David Foot (1996) identifies w hat I believe is a second core issue w e may not even consciously recognize w hen he states: “Demographics affect every one of us as individuals, far more than most of us have ever imagined. They also play a pivotal role in the economic and social life of our country. Yet because demographic facts seem so obvious once they are pointed out, many people are inclined to resist them. Life, they say, can’t possibly be that simple” (p.2).

Foot’s assertion perhaps reinforces a lack of urgency w hich has engendered a dangerous result: succession planning has become something w e can easily talk about- next meeting, next month, or considered for next budget year. It may even be left for someone else, if those in senior educational positions are on the cusp retirement (which they most lik ely are). The effects of “putting things off” are multiplied by the imbalance resulting from the departure of the larger “Baby Boomer” legion and its replacement by a smaller “Generation-X” cohort.

Issue 3: The Archie Bunker- Meat Head dichotomy

M ost of you w ill probably remember the tw o antagonists played by Carrol O’Connor and Rob Reiner in the 70’s show “All in the Fam ily”. These two characters effectively illuminate the

distinctions, tensions, and clashing of tw o different generational cohorts each with their own val ues, professional goals, and w orldview s. M entoring can also bring members of tw o distinct cohorts into direct and close contact.

There is not a clamouring of teachers lining up to take the place of school administrators. One reason behind this may be the different goals of tw o distinct generational groupings. Zemk e et al (2000) highlight the importance of understanding generational distinctions and their effects on the workplace. T hey refer to the Boomer generation as “the cohort group that invented “Thank God, it’s M onday” and the 60 hour work we ek” (p. 21). In contrast, Gen-X is described as “very clear about the meaning of the word “ balance” in their lives: Work is wo rk . And they work to liv e, not live to work” (p .21). The point to be made is tw ofold: the challenge exists both to get teachers to consider administration as a career, and to k eep them there.

What does any of this have to do w ith mentors and mentoring? An example to illustrate: Workplace com mitment-how ever defined- may be judged in drastically different w ays by mentors and protégés. The perhaps single, or empty-nest, administrator w ho chooses to be at school for 7 a.m. each day to get on top of paperw ork may find that their protégé is one-half of a w ork ing couple. Early in the day, they may instead be helping dress a primary-aged child for school. Most lik ely, their spouse is also rushing to get out the door to w ork . When the w eek end arrives, this may be sacrosanct family time, distinct from the more fleeting “quality time” heralded in the 80’s. Both dedicated educators, the need exists for greater

acknowledgement, unde rstanding, and acceptance of their distinctiveness.

The particular sk ills and k now ledge that a 30-year educator possesses are invaluable. The development of broad and deep educational insights sculpted by time and experience, k now ing how to navigate a system w ith a multiplicity of layers, and the sense to prioritize the myriad of demands facing an administrator are vitally important. Yet, to say that the 28-year old rook ie should lead as w ould the 60-year old veteran w ould be an unrealistic expectation. M entoring is not, and cannot be about copying or emulation. Rather, it is about the flow of k now ledge from one to another, the creation of a safe environment for protégés to develop their craft, the fostering of reflective sk ills, and mentors guiding protégés to find their own way a nd place as leaders. We need to ensure that this is w hat w e expect of the mentoring relationship, otherw ise its effects becomes greatly diminished. Replicating particular styles of leadership risk s staleness and complacency resulting in a mismatch betwee n a static style and a fluid educational context.

Issue 4: Post-gradu ate study equals more effective leaders

Ambiguity surrounds the role that post-secondary education plays-or should play- in the development of future educational leaders. Debates on this topic are not solely Canadian. They exist in the United States, whe re there are multitudes of post-secondary institutions granting masters degrees in educational administration and leadership. Levine (2005) highlights the dichotomy that exists here, stating that w hile superintendents and principals are no longer required to be managers but leaders w ho redesign schools and systems, “sharp differences emerged about w hat shape

6The Canadian Association of Principals

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The CAP Journal 7

administrator preparation programs should tak e” (p. 15). Of further concern is Levine’s assertion that the reputation of school leadership programs “had declined sufficiently that critics could credibly suggest scrapping those programs altogether…” (p.18). On this side of the border, recent examinations of educational leadership programs echo similar concerns. The BC-based research by Stack et al (2006) highlights the incoherent purpose of educational leadership and administration (ELA) programs, stating:

“On the one hand, they are charged with prepa ring people to work with in hierarchical administrative systems…On the other hand, ELA programs play a role in sustaining important public conversations about how to help Canada’s youth develop the k now ledge, sk ills, dispositions, and attitudes they need to find their w ay in

the w orld and contribute to society… Our research, how ever, indicates that the majority of ELA programs in B.C. emphasize the former at the expense of the latter” (p. 58).

Here exists a core succession planning issue: If credentials are a requirement for advancement to educational leadership positions- and in most jurisdictions they are k ey- then both the relevance, quality, and stated ends become even more vital to the future of educational leadership in light of the current demographic context.

Coming full circle, this stated absence of purpose brings us back to the first issue raised in this article. In order for succession planning to be truly effective, both broad and deep educational conversations must occur. When view ed in this w ay, succession planning presents not as something to be feared and avoided, but instead holds promise as a catalyst for

thoughtful and insightful educational transformation.

References

Blakesley, S. (2000). Creating and designing leadership learning for prospective school administrators. Victoria: Royal Roads University.

Foot, D., & Stoffman, D. (1996). Boom, bust, and echo: How to profit from the upcoming demographic shift. Toronto: Macfarlane Walter and Ross.

Levine, A. (2005). Educating school leaders. The Wallace Foundation. Retrieved October 2, 2007 from http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Final313.pdf

Stack, M., Coulter, D., Grosjean, G., Mazawi, A., & Smith, G. (2006). Fostering Tomorrow’s Educational Leaders. Vancouver: UBC.

Zemke, R., Raines, C., & Filipczak, B. (2000). Generations at work: Managing the clash of veterans, boomers, Xers, and Nexters in your workplace. New York: Amacon.

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administrator preparation programs should tak e” (p. 15). Of further concern is Levine’s assertion that the reputation of school leadership programs “had declined sufficiently that critics could credibly suggest scrapping those programs altogether…” (p.18). On this side of the border, recent examinations of educational leadership programs echo similar concerns. The BC-based research by Stack et al (2006) highlights the incoherent purpose of educational leadership and administration (ELA) programs, stating:

“On the one hand, they are charged with preparing people to work with in hierarchical administrative systems…On the other hand, ELA programs play a role in sustaining important public conversations about how to help Canada’s youth develop the k nowledge, sk ills, dispositions, and attitudes they need to find their way in

the world and contribute to society… Our research, however, indicates that the majority of ELA programs in B.C. emphasize the former at the expense of the latter” (p. 58).

Here exists a core succession planning issue: If credentials are a requirement for advancement to educational leadership positions- and in most jurisdictions they are k ey- then both the relevance, quality, and stated ends become even more vital to the future of educational leadership in light of the current demographic context.

Coming full circle, this stated absence of purpose brings us back to the first issue raised in this article. In order for succession planning to be truly effective, both broad and deep educational conversations must occur. When viewed in this way, succession planning presents not as something to be feared and avoided, but instead holds promise as a catalyst for

thoughtful and insightful educational transformation.

References

Blakesley, S. (2000). Creating and designing leadership learning for prospective school administrators. Victoria: Royal Roads University.

Foot, D., & Stoffman, D. (1996). Boom, bust, and echo: How to profit from the upcoming demographic shift. Toronto: Macfarlane Walter and Ross.

Levine, A. (2005). Educating school leaders. The Wallace Foundation. Retrieved October 2, 2007 from http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Final313.pdf

Stack, M., Coulter, D., Grosjean, G., Mazawi, A., & Smith, G. (2006). Fostering Tomorrow’s Educational Leaders. Vancouver: UBC.

Zemke, R., Raines, C., & Filipczak, B. (2000). Generations at work: Managing the clash of veterans, boomers, Xers, and Nexters in your workplace. New York: Amacon.

www.jostens.com

Pride is inside us all.

Jostens brings it out.

The CAP Journal 9

Repri nted fro m Vol. 9 No. 1 of T he Register with permiss ion from the Ont ario Pri ncipa ls' Cou ncil.

SSeeccoonnddaarryy SScchhooooll PPrriinncciippaall RRoottaattiioonn && SSuucccceessssiioonn

UUnnddeerrssttaannddiinngg SSoouunndd PPrraaccttiicceess By Robert White, K aryn Cooper and Carol Brayman

Although principal/vice-principal succession and rotation are pivotal events in the lives of administrators and the school community, literature remains sparse on the topic. Canadians have conducted few studies and even fewer address rotation/ succession issues. Researchers such as MacMillan in The Sharp Edge of Educational Change; Huberman, in The Lives of Teachers;Wenger in Communities of Practice and Gabarro in The Dynamics of Taking Charge have begun to break that ground. Succeeding Leaders (2003, OPC), provides more direction. However, in the field, support for regular rotation of principals generally relies on experiential and anecdotal evidence. Given the limited research, what practices for succession/rotation in schools and school districts are successful?

To further our understanding of sound practices in principal succession and rotation, this study investigated the plans, policies and procedures of three school districts located in Central and Eastern Canada, and in the US. We interviewed each district’s administrators and examined the practices and philosophies that influenced them. To conceptualize data from the interviews, we modified a framework based on a standard policy analysis model to capture components of the rotation/ succession process, including the pre-placement, placement and post-placement phases. In this report, the school districts and personnel names are pseudonyms to protect anonymity.

THE SCHOOL DISTRICTS

Cartier School District, in Central Canada, is a large board with written policies for specific areas of principal rotation/succession. It comprises three distinct demographic areas within a large Canadian city. This district contains numerous secondary schools with over 1,000 students and administrative teams consisting of a principal and two to three vice-principals. As well as being in a growth phase, the district is socio-economically diverse. Although Cartier has integrated succession planning through long-term leadership recruitment, development and mentoring, addressing rotation and succession issues over time continues to be a challenge. Cartier maintains relationships

with outside experts in informing leadership policy and practice, and sometimes recruits school leaders from outside the district.

In contrast, Harbourside School District in Eastern Canada is more informal in its principal rotation/ succession processes. Like Cartier, the district is a fast growing one, serving approximately 25,000 students throughout a large rural geographical area. Having simultaneously the largest and smallest school populations in the province, Harbourside has an urban/rural makeup posing unique challenges. The economy varies from manufacturing and industry to farming and fishing, and the school district represents a variety of cultures. A significant shift in student population in one area has resulted in the closing of six small high schools and opening two large schools .Administrators reported that formal and informal communication and trusting relationships make up for written policies, and subsequently influence placement. District leaders welcome outside expertise through partnerships with universities.

The third case study focuses on Jefferson School District in the north-eastern US. Jefferson Secondary School is relatively large by US standards with over 5,000 students. Schools in this “bedroom community” rank among the top in the area. Unlike the Canadian districts, Jefferson Secondary School, the only secondary school in the district, is rich with administrative support – each of its three storeys contain a house office with a principal, a secretary, an attendance aid and two counsellors. While the school district is not overly ethnically diverse, a spectrum of socially related economic issues still exists.

PRE-PLACEMENT PHASE

Each district’s philosophy is at the heart of its succession and rotation practice. Cartier district administrators view rotation as necessary for principals’ development and advancement.

The district has complex processes that usually include consultation with stakeholders. Provincial policy related toSchool Councils dictates that members of those bodies be consulted as to general characteristics they would like to see in an incoming principal.

Cartier endorses a systems view of rotation/succession and its policies reflect the philosophy of promoting from within, although there is also recruitment from other districts. Area offices, supported by central departments, are responsible for professional learning programs and programs of principalselection and promotion. Various professional developmentprograms and an induction process assist to identify and promote vice-principal and principal candidates to anadministrative pool. Cartier’s process is ongoing and, in recent years, school administrators often changed simultaneously or in rapid succession.

Although a high degree of centralization and consultation exist, rotation/succession processes seldom occur and onlyin the wake of retirement or promotion. While no formaltransition process exists, area supervisors oversee the induction and training of incoming principals. This process is not used as part is an exit strategy for outgoing principals even though administrators’ exits directly affect the school. Several interviewees mentioned sensitivity to the schoolcommunity’s need for stability in explaining why rotation occurred so infrequently in Harbourside.

In Jefferson School District, similar to Cartier, principalrotation is generally viewed as professional advancement but, as with Harbourside, it occurs at irregular intervals.Succession/rotation is not routine and becomes an area of focus for board personnel only when new positions becomeavailable. There is no philosophy that rotation is unnecessary, but rather in Jefferson and Harbourside the philosophy is one of stability.

Another aspect in the pre-placement phase of succession and rotation is affecting criteria, originating from outside the school district and impacting on factors such as attracting and retaining principals. In Cartier, and the rest of Ontario,mandated School Advisory Councils, increased workloadand accountability and government-mandated removal ofadministrators from teacher federations have been among criteria affecting succession. However, unlike the other districts studied, administrators in Harbourside are included in the teachers’ district-wide collective agreement.

In Harbourside, as in many districts, the principalship hasbecome challenging, stressful and demanding, partly due togovernment or board mandated policies. This may influencepeople to bypass opportunities for available promotion and may be why recruitment levels have been disappointing.Jefferson also has external issues that affect the internal management of the district. While no evidence suggestsdistrict mandates – such as accountability and workloadpolicies related to the “No Child Left Behind” legislation –influence principal rotation/succession policies, concerns with budgetary issues remain paramount.

PLACEMENT PHASE

In Cartier, policy processes facilitate rapid rotation, as administrators are employees of the board rather than of aschool. Individuals can apply for rotation as well as be “tapped” to move. Because of the dense population inCartier, unlike Harbourside, there is opportunity for movement without distance being an issue; however, due toretirements and resignations, rotation that used to occur once a year and affect individual administrators about every fiveyears, now occurs more frequently.

In the light of Gabarro’s findings that it takes two to fiveyears to learn the organization and its culture in order toengender successful, enduring change, Cartier’s recentpractice of rapid rotation has implications for studentsuccess and leader satisfaction. In addition, the ensuing domino effect of moving a principal or vice-principal has created subsequent voids so the timing of appointments iscritical. Hiring from outside has sometimes minimized thischallenge. Therefore, to build a strong leadership pool, Cartier identifies leadership characteristics and candidates,and allows for self-identification while keeping systemneeds in mind. The board of trustees gives final approvalbased on recommendations of the promotion teams.

Harbourside currently has no formal policy for principal rotation. Rotation/succession of principals occurs withinhistorical and traditional context. As smaller boards haveamalgamated into larger boards, some traditions have beenlost and others gained in a general re-culturing of schoolsand school districts. Amalgamation has helped develop arelaxed but, from the administrators’ perspective, relatively effective process of principal rotation/succession. In the district, principals can indicate their willingness to move byapplying for advertised positions. As in Cartier, School Advisory Councils are in the hiring process. However, onlyone representative rather than the whole council is involvedon a committee with board personnel.

Although there are some district guidelines regarding selection to a pool, the hiring criteria are individual to each school. In the event of transfer, a candidate list is providedfor the SAC representative, teacher representative and designated board member. Committee members thenestablish “must-haves” and supplementary talents desired, before coming to consensus about a “Best Fit.” If the candidate is accepted, both the incoming and outgoingprincipals confer. In most situations, such communication issufficient, although the lack of written expectations has ledto some problems such as incoming principals inheriting deficit budgets.

In Jefferson District, the superintendent, equivalent to anOntario director, designs and implements district policies. Although there is a strong centralized governance model at the board office, shared decision-making occurs at the school level. Principal rotation is not a major governance issue and no formal policy exists regarding promotion fromwithin. Stakeholders participate in the hiring processes,


The district has complex processes that usually include consultation with stakeholders. Provincial policy related toSchool Councils dictates that members of those bodies be consulted as to general characteristics they would like to see in an incoming principal.

Cartier endorses a systems view of rotation/succession and its policies reflect the philosophy of promoting from within, although there is also recruitment from other districts. Area offices, supported by central departments, are responsible for professional learning programs and programs of principalselection and promotion. Various professional developmentprograms and an induction process assist to identify and promote vice-principal and principal candidates to anadministrative pool. Cartier’s process is ongoing and, in recent years, school administrators often changed simultaneously or in rapid succession.

Although a high degree of centralization and consultation exist, rotation/succession processes seldom occur and onlyin the wake of retirement or promotion. While no formaltransition process exists, area supervisors oversee the induction and training of incoming principals. This process is not used as part is an exit strategy for outgoing principals even though administrators’ exits directly affect the school. Several interviewees mentioned sensitivity to the schoolcommunity’s need for stability in explaining why rotation occurred so infrequently in Harbourside.

In Jefferson School District, similar to Cartier, principalrotation is generally viewed as professional advancement but, as with Harbourside, it occurs at irregular intervals.Succession/rotation is not routine and becomes an area of focus for board personnel only when new positions becomeavailable. There is no philosophy that rotation is unnecessary, but rather in Jefferson and Harbourside the philosophy is one of stability.

Another aspect in the pre-placement phase of succession and rotation is affecting criteria, originating from outside the school district and impacting on factors such as attracting and retaining principals. In Cartier, and the rest of Ontario,mandated School Advisory Councils, increased workloadand accountability and government-mandated removal ofadministrators from teacher federations have been among criteria affecting succession. However, unlike the other districts studied, administrators in Harbourside are included in the teachers’ district-wide collective agreement.

In Harbourside, as in many districts, the principalship hasbecome challenging, stressful and demanding, partly due togovernment or board mandated policies. This may influencepeople to bypass opportunities for available promotion and may be why recruitment levels have been disappointing.Jefferson also has external issues that affect the internal management of the district. While no evidence suggestsdistrict mandates – such as accountability and workloadpolicies related to the “No Child Left Behind” legislation –influence principal rotation/succession policies, concerns with budgetary issues remain paramount.

PLACEMENT PHASE

In Cartier, policy processes facilitate rapid rotation, as administrators are employees of the board rather than of aschool. Individuals can apply for rotation as well as be “tapped” to move. Because of the dense population inCartier, unlike Harbourside, there is opportunity for movement without distance being an issue; however, due toretirements and resignations, rotation that used to occur once a year and affect individual administrators about every fiveyears, now occurs more frequently.

In the light of Gabarro’s findings that it takes two to fiveyears to learn the organization and its culture in order toengender successful, enduring change, Cartier’s recentpractice of rapid rotation has implications for studentsuccess and leader satisfaction. In addition, the ensuing domino effect of moving a principal or vice-principal has created subsequent voids so the timing of appointments iscritical. Hiring from outside has sometimes minimized thischallenge. Therefore, to build a strong leadership pool, Cartier identifies leadership characteristics and candidates,and allows for self-identification while keeping systemneeds in mind. The board of trustees gives final approvalbased on recommendations of the promotion teams.

Harbourside currently has no formal policy for principal rotation. Rotation/succession of principals occurs withinhistorical and traditional context. As smaller boards haveamalgamated into larger boards, some traditions have beenlost and others gained in a general re-culturing of schoolsand school districts. Amalgamation has helped develop arelaxed but, from the administrators’ perspective, relatively effective process of principal rotation/succession. In the district, principals can indicate their willingness to move byapplying for advertised positions. As in Cartier, School Advisory Councils are in the hiring process. However, onlyone representative rather than the whole council is involvedon a committee with board personnel.

Although there are some district guidelines regarding selection to a pool, the hiring criteria are individual to each school. In the event of transfer, a candidate list is providedfor the SAC representative, teacher representative and designated board member. Committee members thenestablish “must-haves” and supplementary talents desired, before coming to consensus about a “Best Fit.” If the candidate is accepted, both the incoming and outgoingprincipals confer. In most situations, such communication issufficient, although the lack of written expectations has ledto some problems such as incoming principals inheriting deficit budgets.

In Jefferson District, the superintendent, equivalent to anOntario director, designs and implements district policies. Although there is a strong centralized governance model at the board office, shared decision-making occurs at the school level. Principal rotation is not a major governance issue and no formal policy exists regarding promotion fromwithin. Stakeholders participate in the hiring processes,

The CAP Journal 11

especially with the hiring of a new principal. Although the final decision rests with the superintendent, a less formalcommittee of “mixed representation” is preferred over the formal process of school board selection. In Jefferson SchoolDistrict, as in the other districts, the rapid pace of mandatedchange is a concern. Amendments to the Education and other Acts, as well as human rights and health and safety legislation, rank high in changing existing procedures. Principals see the separation of the administrators’ unionfrom the teachers’ union as beneficial since there are fewer conditions constraining their decision-making than those constraining teaching staff.

POST-PLACEMENT PHASE

Effective policy analysis models frequently feature a built-inreview phase. Cartier uses a cycle of school improvementplanning and professional development to observe how well the process is proceeding. In lieu of a policy model, both Harbourside and Jefferson award positions from within the district before outside applications are considered. With few expectations and little movement within these districts, the view is that there is little reason to consider more formal rotation/succession policies for the time being.

Challenges for all districts in this study continue in the form of increasing workload demands and stresses, an insufficient candidate pool and rapid demographic change including early retirements. The latter, in particular, creates gapsbetween incoming and outgoing knowledge as newercandidates enter into administration. A major challenge influencing implementation of succession/rotation policy, inall the districts under study, is an apparent leadership crisis relating to the growing complexity of the position, the relatively low rate of remuneration and, particularly inHarbourside and Jefferson districts, growing suspicionsurrounding the efficacy of the teaching profession in general. Thus, once principals are placed, the districts provide varying ongoing formal or informal professionaldevelopment and support. FINDING S AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Although administrators in the three school districts search for “sustainable leadership resources” through rotation/succession and related policies, no single plan encompasses every aspect and eventuality. Providing a significant interview process honouring voices of all parties to develop a sustainable talent pool remains a significantchallenge. While Cartier provides a good model ofleadership development, in the other districts induction programs, mentoring programs and professionaldevelopment programs require further attention.

The administrators perceive a need for greater depth of knowledge and length of service by principals. Concernswith the average age of principals, compounded by taskcomplexity and apprehensions of potential candidates aboutthe dubious benefits of the task, lead to a dearth ofexperienced candidates. Succession policy directives,

including working to attract suitable candidates of a varietyof ages, may prove beneficial in preventing a “crest and trough” effect pertaining to incoming, insider and outgoingknowledge. Encouraging, supporting and promoting capable, competent people – women, representatives of diversecommunity populations, or individuals with disabilities – is a continuing goal identified by all districts in this study.

In each district, plans that could have been in place were not;for example while principals expressed the need for assistance through protocols for school administrator entries and exits, some districts had not considered that necessary. In addition, collaborative work environments were notalways in place. More formal expectations and opportunities for development in that area may be beneficial to policymakers. Clear, transparent communications, which all districts in this study regarded as highly important, areextremely important. As such, concerted efforts should be made for potential leaders to voice their concerns regardingnegative aspects of the positions. When problem areas are addressed or at least acknowledged, the jobs become more attractive. This may also be beneficial for retention of administrators in the school board.

Mentoring is an integral part of rotation/successionprocesses. Since each school maintains a unique ethos, if the selection cycle can occur early enough, it may be feasible for both incoming and outgoing administrators to work together for the latter part of the school year in a kind of mentorshipprogram.

A policy model, capturing essential components of principalrotation/ succession that clarifies relevant issues, may contain pre-policy, policy and post-policy phases. The pre-policy phase concerns collection and preparation of policystatements around mega-policy and meta-policy.

A strong mega-policy articulates the philosophy surrounding rotation/succession, goals and values relating to this process,as well as acknowledgement of historical perspectives that impact rotation/succession practices. Meta-policy identifies resources used throughout the process, including researchstudies, surveys, questionnaires and other information bearing on rotation/succession and the principal experience. At this stage, the policy is designed and/or evaluated; the screening committee is formed and needs are determined.

There are six steps in the policy-making phase of the model. The first is to recognize the need for a flexible transfer process. Second, discussion occurs to determine who isavailable, under what circumstances, as well as the implications of the transfer. Third, testing of alternatives before, during and after the interview process takes intoconsideration factors such as candidates’ strengths and weaknesses and the affected schools’ climates. Considerations that may render it unfeasible to place certaincandidates in certain positions are realized at this point. Fourth, a short-listing of candidates provides alternatives toget the best fit. Fifth, a decision in principle is made to place the suitable candidates. As offers are accepted or rejected,


there may be opportunities for refinement. The final step is the adoption of the policy, comprising acceptance of the offer and, depending on the district, contract formalization.

The post-policy phase comprises three review stages. Thefirst is the induction of the incoming principal or vice-principal. This may include elements already present through professional development initiatives, rules ofconduct and regulations. In the second stage, communication takes place between incoming and outgoing principals and their supervisors. After ongoing development, the final stage includes evaluation of the new principal’s work. It is also an opportunity to review and modify the entire policy-making process, as necessary. In this way, school districts can develop a sustainable leadership pool and a supportivedistrict-wide environment in which individuals and thedistrict may flourish.

Robert White is assistant professor in the School ofEducation at St. Francis Xavier University in Nova Scotiaand has taught in public school systems across Canada.

Karyn Cooper is assistant professor in Curriculum, Teaching and Learning at the Ontario Institute for Studies inEducation of the University of Toronto.

Carol Brayman is a doctoral candidate in Theory and Policy Studies at the University of Toronto, consultant and retiredsecondary school principal.

E-mails: [email protected] [email protected]

[email protected]

The CAP Journal 13

The 26th National CAP 2008 Conference Planning Committee

invites you to chart your course from May 14th-16th, 2008 in St. John’s, NL Experience world-renowned speakers Gwynne Dyer, Barry MacDonald, Avis Glaz e, and Alfie Kohn Seize the opportunity to experience our famous hospitality while exploring our scenic city

Registration is now available online at www.cap2008.ca

Payments may be made by cheque, Visa, Mastercard or P.O. Full spousal program available

See you b y the SEA.

SSuucccceessssiioonn && TTrruusstt DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

Shawn Northfield, University of Nottingham (U.K.) Robert B. Macmillan, University of Western Ontario Matthew J. Meyer, St. Francis Xavier University

The process of succession as experienced by educational stakeholders is largely influenced by those who lead during the transition. Although leadership can be derived from many people and groups in a school (Leithwood & Louis, 1998), the principal continues to be regarded as having the highest legitimate authority and can exert a great deal of influence (Davis et al., 2005; Leithwood & Reihl, 2003). A principal succession event provides an opportunity for a re-examination of a school’s culture and leadership protocol. It also reveals the potential vulnerability of all constituents and illustrates the critical importance of building and maintaining trust. For principals, leadership legitimacy begins with trust (G reenleaf, 1977) and can be developed over time as relationships mature and individuals are able to gather and evaluate increasing amounts of trust relevant information (Lewicki et al., 1998). To ease the potentially tumultuous nature of succession and implement and sustain necessary school reforms, principals new to a school must find ways to establish and develop trust as quickly as possible. Research indicates that teachers’ trust in their principal as well as their colleagues has been linked to the effectiveness of schools (Bryk & Schnieder, 2002; Tarter et al., 1995). Trust is a complex, multidimensional and dynamic construct (Joseph & Winston, 2005) and is largely a function of the nature of the relationship that exists between participants. In situations of interdependence, trust functions as a way of reducing uncertainty (H olmes & Rempel, 1989) and safeguarding one’s sense of vulnerability when relying on another (Mishra, 1996). Since interpersonal relationships within organizations are not devoid of power differentiation (Baier, 1986), and operate within varying contexts,

constraints and influences, the nature of vulnerability may change as the level of interdependence and stage of relationship changes (Tschannen-Moran & H oy, 2000). The conceptual definition of trust in its most basic sense is the “belief in the capabilities of others to care for something important to the trustor” (Tschannen-Moran & G aresis, 2004, p.4). A more comprehensive analysis of the term sees it as an individual’s or group’s willingness to be vulnerable to another party based on the confidence that the latter party is benevolent, reliable, competent, open and honest (H oy & Tschannen-Moran, 1999). Trust is a reciprocal relationship in that to trust someone requires tacit as well as explicit agreement to rely on another. This may include the sharing of knowledge (Davenport & Prusack, 1998), protection from risk (H armon & Toomey, 1999), and an expectation for appropriate action (Kanter, 2004). From an organizational standpoint, trust between individuals and groups of individuals is known as ‘relational trust’ and deemed necessary for the attainment of institutional objectives as people and groups rely on each other to perform and carry out expected tasks (Bryk & Schneider, 2002). In recognizing that principals and teachers are ultimately responsible for the follow through of educational reform and school improvement initiatives, the notion of trust among constituents becomes essential and can be regarded as the “bridge that reform must be carried over” (Louis, 2003, p.31). The development of trust for administrators, including beginning and experienced principals new to a particular position/school, occurs along a fluid four stage continuum (Macmillan, Meyer & Northfield, 2005, 2004) [Figure 1].

15The CAP Journal

Figure 1: Continuum of Trust

Stages of Trust Descr iption of the Level

Role Trust Teachers and vice-principals tru s t t he principa l t o fu nct ion wit hin t he leg a l manda t e of t he position, that is, the pr incipa l will follow the laws, policies and regulations that go vern schoolsand th e position.

P ract ice T ru s t Aft e r observing t he principa l’s pract ice , t eachers and vice-principa ls can predict how a principa lwill respond in a given situation .

Integra tive Trust

After observ a tio n of th e pr incipa l in a multitud e of situa tions, te achers’ and vi ce-principals’ trustis based on th eir identif ication of underly ingprinciples/values on which th e pr incipal makesdecisions.

Correla tive Trus t

Teachers’ and v ice-prin cipals’ tr ust is based on a deep und erstand ing and sharing o f the principa l’s belief s and philosoph y such th at theyare able t o fu nct ion as part of a mu t u a llysupportive team.

Adapted from Description of Levels of Trust by Macmillan, Meyer & Nort hfie ld, 2005, as cit ed in Examining the Practices of Scho ol Administratio n in C anad a - Armstrong, 2005.

Initially, discernment begins with [role] and [practice] trust,where actions of the principal can be anticipated and judgedaccording to legally ascribed expectations of the principal’s‘role’ and predicted over time as a result of accumulatedobservations and experiences with the principal’s ‘practice’. Trust then becomes [integrative] where the intentions of the principal’s actions can be accurately interpreted, understoodand associated with corresponding values and beliefs. Atthis point, trust can stagnate, diminish or deepen. If the principal’s actions, policies and values are perceived byparticipants as acceptable, appropriate, and congruent, thenthe [correlative] construct of trust can be realized. Here, there is a “thickening” of trust (Bottery, 2005) or anincreased “degree” of cognitive “confidence” (Rousseau et al., 1998) where shared values and mutual respect serve as the foundation for an intuitive working relationship.

The Development of Trust in the New Principal

To describe the criteria individuals use to discern trust we use two sets of descriptors, one focused on ability,

and the other on interpersonal relations [Figure 2]. First, ability is not only knowledge and skills about what ought tobe done (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2000), but also the competence to use the knowledge and skills to do the job assigned (Covey, 1992) in ways that are consistent withestablished practice and congruent with the ethos and culture of the organization (Gabarro, 1987). Second, prior and ongoing social relationships are the means through which webuild up a bank of knowledge about an individual such thatthe scope of her/his actions can be predicted with somedegree of accuracy (Bottery, 2003). Here, the character and integrity of an individual are measured on a personal basis. To trust an individual we must believe that person to care forour best interests, preserve our dignity and maintainconfidentiality of our private information and personal perceptions.

Figure 2: Criteria fo r T rust_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

TRUST = Ability + Inte rpersonal Relations

Ability - knowledge/skills - compet ence - cons is t ency

Interpersonal Relations - care for ot hers (sacrifice se lf-int e res t ) - charact e r (mora l/e t hica l choices) - integr ity of action (congru ence of APV)

(prese rve ot her' s dig nit y/confident ia lit y)

(Nort hfie ld e t a l. ,2006) __________________________________________________________________________


Trust is usually recognized as an emotive construct; a feeling one has, very often visceral in nature and yet, eitherintentionally or unknowingly realized as a result of ongoingand reflective cognitive analysis. Discernment of trust is predicated upon one’s disposition to trust (Mayer et al., 1995) and can be viewed through a multitude of perceptuallenses brought to bear by one’s unique negotiation of livedexperiences which are expressed as a result of an accumulation of one’s personal history and life-learnings and are fundamentally based on the assumptions andpreferences associated with one’s belief system (Northfield et al., 2006).

Although individuals bring their own experiences and values to judge others as being trustworthy, they must also be able

to predict actions and see the intentions of others as being benevolent if not at least benign in the relationship thatexists. To secure this cognitive and emotional arrangement with any degree of confidence constituents must clearly see the underlying values of each others’ decisions and actions.

During a succession event, teachers will initially use their perceptions analysis to ascertain whether or not the newprincipal meets their trust criteria focused on ability andinterpersonal skills. From this analysis, teachers will create their perceptual lens in determining the credibility, congruence and compatibility of the new principal’s actions, policies and values (APV), [Figure 3].

Figure 3: APV for integrative level of trust

AA PP VVActions:

What is done

Policies:

What to Do

Values:

What is impor tant

The APV framework is premised on the theoretical underpinnings of the work of Bryk and Schneider (2002) on‘relational trust’ in school settings and, as in their case, borrows from the traditions of behavioral social scientific research and philosophic argument to suggest that trust is founded both on judgments of observed behavior and rootedin primary beliefs (p.184).

Although a principal’s values (mandated or self-revealed) lead to decisions and subsequent actions, during a successionevent, it is the actions of the new principal that teachersactually see and experience first in attempting to developtrust with the new principal. As teachers consolidate links between the new principal’s actions, policies and values they are able to progress to the ‘integrative’ level of trust and move beyond merely observing and predicting the new principal’s action within a given context to understandingthe reasoned decision making and values of the new principal’s actions. By clearly seeing the connectionsbetween what the new principal does on a daily basis, why it

is important and what values are being exhibited, teachersare able to develop a more complete and ‘integrated’understanding of the new principal.

For principals working to instill substantial levels of trust with their staff it is important for them to understand andembrace the criteria that individuals will use to judgetrustworthiness - namely components of ability andinterpersonal relations. They must also recognize that trustbuilding takes time and progresses along a fluid four stage continuum on an individual basis. Ultimately, to expeditethis process, principals must overtly coalesce their actionswith their values and beliefs (APV). This entails clearly communicating and consistently demonstrating how their underlying policies and decisions for their actions directlyrelate to their foundational values and beliefs. By doing so, mutually respectful work relationships may be realized andsupport for initiating and sustaining necessary schoolreforms can be harnessed.

17The CAP Journal

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6-10.Botter y, M. (200 3). Th e man agement and mismanag ement of t ru s t . Educational

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leadership study: Developing successful principals. Th e Wallace Foundation .Gabarro, J.J. (19 87). The dynamics of taking charge. Boston : Harv ard Business School

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Hesselbein , M. Goldsm ith, & I. Somerville (Eds.) Leading beyond the walls (pp. 251-259). San Francisco , CA: Jossey -Bass

Holmes , J. G. , & Rempel, J. K. (1 9 89 ). T ru s t in close relationships . In C. Hendrick (Ed.), Close relationships (pp.187 -220). Newbur y Park, CA: Sage.

Hoy, W.K., & Tschannen-Moran , M. (1999). Fiv e faces of trust: An empirical conformation in urb an elementar y s chools. Journal of School Leadership, 9(3), 184- 208.

Joseph, E., & W inston, B . (2005). A correlation of servant lead ership, leader trust, and organizatio nal trust. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 26(1), 6-22.

Kanter, R.M . (2004). Confidence. New York: Corwin Busine ss. Leithwood , K., & Lou is, K.S. (1 998). Organ izational learn ing in schools. Lisse: Swets &

Zeit ling er.Leithwood , K., & Reihl, C. (200 3). What we kno w about successf ul school leaders hip.

P hilade lphia , P A: Labor ator y for Studen t Su ccess. Lewicki, R.J. , McAlliste r, D.J., & Bies, R . J. (19 98). Trust and distrust: New r e lat ionships

and rea lit ies .Academy of Management Review, 23, 438-458. Louis, K . S. (20 03). Trust and improvement in s chools. Pap er presented at BELMAS

annu a l conference , Milt on Keynes , Oct ober.Macmillan, R. , Meyer, M. , & Nort hfie ld, S. (2005). P rincipa l su ccess ion and t he

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Macmillan, R. , Meyer, M. , & Nort hfie ld, S. (2004). T ru s t and it s role in principa l succession: A preliminar yexamination of a continuum of tru s t. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 3(4), 275-294.

May er, R.C., D avis, J.H., & Scho orman, F.D. (19 95). An integr ative model of organizatio nal trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709-734 .

Mishra, A.K. (1 996). Organ izationa l responses to crisis: Th e cen t rality of trust. I n R.M. Kramer, & T . R. T yler, (Eds. ),Trust in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: S age P u blica t ions .

Nort hfie ld, S. , Macmillan, R. , & Meyer, M. (2006). Trust durin g transi tion: How vice- principals develop trust with new prin cipa ls during pr incipal succession. A p aper presented at th e annual meeting of the American ResearchEducation Association , San Francisco, CA.

Rousseau, D., Si tkin, S.B., Bur t , R., & Camerer, C. (1998) . Not so differ ent aft e r all: Across discipline view of t ru s t . Academy of Management Review, 23, 393-40 4.

Tarter, C.J., Sab o, D., & Hoy, W.K. (1995) . Middle schoo l climate, faculty trust, an d e ffect iveness : A pa t h ana lysis . Journal of Research and Development in Education, 29, 41-49.

Tschannen-Mor an, M. , & Garesis, C. (2004). Principals’ sense of efficacy and tru s t. A paper present ed a t t he annu a l meet ing of t he American Edu ca t iona l Research Associa t ion, San Dieg o, CA.

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Author’s Contact Information

Shawn Northfield (403) 912 2803Fax (403) 945 257217 – 1008 Woodside Way Airdrie, Alberta, Canada T4B 2T7 Email: [email protected] Secondary Email: [email protected]

About the Authors

Shawn Northfield is a doctoralstudent specializing in educationalleadership and has previously worked as a professor at St. Francis Xavier University.

Bob Macmillan is the Associate Deanof Education at the University ofWestern Ontario.

Matthew Meyer is a professor at St. Francis Xavier University.

These scholar educators have workedtogether on a four year SSHRCfunded research project to examine various aspects of principalsuccession. The authors would like to thank the Social Science andHumanities Research Council of Canada for their support.


Visit us online @www.cdnprincipals.org

19The CAP Journal

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ffoorr SSuucccceessssiioonn

by Shawn Northfield

The dominance of economic rationales for change combined with a climate of criticism of educational institutions and the general absence of additional funding to secure improvement pervades current political agendas and administrative exchange in western democratic education systems (Bottery, 2007). Although educational reform is not unique to the 21st century, the type of reform including a focus on learning for all students with increased visibility and accountability combined with an increased delegation of responsibilities to site management without devolution of power has created a different and more complex environment in which school leaders play a pivotal role (Crow, 2007). Essentially, the current context of educational reform places greater responsibility on principals to positively impact student achievement via direct influence on the teaching and learning process while, at the same time, requiring them to perform increased bureaucratic and management tasks that ultimately limit and reduce their ability to do so. The ever-present reality of mass centralization of educational governance in Canadian and international public education systems, multi-million dollar budgetary cutbacks, the amalgamation of school boards, the consolidation of schools and the replacement of deteriorating physical plants all contribute to a difficult, and often uncertain, working environment in schools. While attempting to adapt to a changing and complex educational reality, principals and teachers are also expected to introduce and sustain school improvement initiatives. However, in many schools, they often do not have the luxury of Fullan’s (2001) 3 to 6 year time span to institutionalize these initiatives. School districts, for various reasons, also contribute to the problem by transferring administrators, either by design (e.g. systematic rotation policies) or necessity (e.g. retirements) resulting in ever increasing rates of principal succession. Principal Succession Principal succession can be described as the complex social process characterized by interactions among a school’s faculty and their new principal, and among the principal and others from the time of his/her appointment until such a time that he/she has been inducted into the school’s culture and is perceived to have taken charge as leader, usually within two years of the new appointment (Greenfield, 1993). The precise beginning or end of the succession process or transition period may be influenced by a number of factors including: 1) the local school environment; 2) the external environment; 3) and pre-succession events (Hart, 1993). Gabarro (1987) suggests that leadership succession involves five major

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CATHOLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR’S TOOLKITA Dynamic & Innovative Online Resource for Educational Leaders in the Twenty-first Century

Professional Learning For Today’s Educators

CONTACT INFORMATIONNelly Kelders, Member Services Director

TESTIMONIALS:

“What an awesome tool for a �rst-time principal. I can’t believe these resources are so accessible!”

“Why re-invent the wheel when by the stroke of a key you can access the information?”

“I like the fact that I can contribute to the Toolkit. It allows me to share my learning and experiences with my colleagues.”

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FEATURES OF THE TOOLKIT:Developed by practising Catholic school administratorsTemplates/documents/websites for school management Articles, research and power points for instructional leadershipA dynamic resource re�ective of current research and practiceResponsive to the needs of school leadersBuilding capacity through an interactive and supportive network

LICENSES:

Site licenses may be purchased by principals’/vice-principals’ associations or school boards.Individual licenses are available for members and non-members.

CATEGORIES:Faith, Community, CultureCelebrations, Culture, Inspirations, Prayers, Sacraments, Social Justice

School OrganizationCorrespondence, Facilities Management, Handbooks/Policies, Newsletters, P/VP Management, School Entry/Exit Plan, Sta�, Student Organization, Volunteers

Caring, Healthy & Safe SchoolsHealthy Schools, Legal Issues, Medical Management, Parental Engagement, Safe School Management, Safe School Planning

Instructional LeadershipAboriginal Learners, Assessment & Evaluation, Cultural Responsiveness, Curriculum, English Language Learners, Learning Communities, School Improvement, Special Education, Sta� Appraisal

CATHOLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR’S TOOLKITA Dynamic & Innovative Online Resource for Educational Leaders in the Twenty-first Century


CONTACT INFORMATIONNelly Kelders, Member Services Director

TESTIMONIALS:

“What an awesome tool for a �rst-time principal. I can’t believe these resources are so accessible!”

“Why re-invent the wheel when by the stroke of a key you can access the information?”

“I like the fact that I can contribute to the Toolkit. It allows me to share my learning and experiences with my colleagues.”

stages: 1) taking hold; 2) immersion; 3) reshaping; 4)consolidation; and 5) refinement. The degree to which a succession event is successful depends in part on the principal’s ability to participate effectively in 1) assessingthe organization and diagnosing its problems; 2) building a team focused on a set of shared expectations; and 3) bringing about timely changes that address organizationalchallenges.

Unfortunately, the current context of chronic succession brought about by accelerated rates of principal turnover has created a resilient yet resistant cultural context for succeeding principals to lead where staffs have learned toinoculate themselves from the effects of rapid principal turnover by learning to resist and ignore their leader’s efforts. Often times, this leads to principals new to a school/position condemned to instituting piecemeal efforts to ensure that teachers comply with outside mandates as best they can, rather than working with their colleagues to achieve shared, internally developed improvement goals for their schools (Fink & Brayman, 2006).

Role of the Principal At present, the moral and legal responsibility for

instituting and overseeing school reform continues to residewith the school principal. However, the role of the principal has swelled to include a staggering array of professionaltasks and competencies in order to meet the learning needsof all students while at the same time attend to the often conflicting needs and interests of a multitude of educational stakeholders (Davis et al., 2005). At any one time, and oftenat the same time, principals are expected to be educational visionaries, instruction and curriculum leaders, assessment experts, budget analysts, facility managers, special program administrators, as well as guardians of various legal, contractual, and policy mandates and initiatives (p.4).

A successful principal must be able to utilize a combination of two distinguishable skill sets: leadership andmanagement. Management is concerned with efficientoperations, doing things right and attending to questions of how and when, whereas, leadership involves dealing withpeople and emotions for purposes of doing the right thingand answering questions of what and why (Bennis, 2003).To establish and sustain processes aimed at increasing teacher effectiveness and student achievement, it is leadership that is paramount.

The School Leadership Study: DevelopingSuccessful Principals (Davis et al., 2005) points to a growing consensus in research that successful school leaders positively influence student achievement through two important pathways – the support and development of effective teachers and the implementation of effectiveorganizational processes. Core leadership practices essential for improving student achievement and organizationalperformance include: developing people through activesupport and modeling; setting directions for the organization through shared goals, communication, and monitoring; and redesigning the organization through collaboration, building a positive culture and modifying organizational structures tofacilitate performance (Leithwood et al., 2004).

Strategic Leadership The basic concept of leadership involves two

essential components: the process of influencing other’s behavior, and in doing so, procured for the purposes of goaldevelopment and goal achievement. At best, however, leadership is subjective and takes form according to variables such as task, resources, influences, constraints and participants (Northfield, 2002). For principals new to a school/position, who must work to accommodate individualstakeholder concerns while attending to a big picture reality, there is a need to be ‘strategic’ in their leadership focus.

Strategic leadership can be described as the implementation of emergent planning, processes, and approaches to set and achieve organizational intents. Thisview originates in the work of Davies (2004), and builds onMintzberg’s (1994) rejection of strategic planning. Strategic leadership does not focus solely on a fixed definable,quantifiable goal and attendant pathways to achieve the goal, but does focus on an overall intent that shapes the practices, approaches and processes that a leader uses to achieve the desired direction for the organization. Strategic leaders have a vision for the organization rooted in a set of moralpurposes and values that shape the strategies used. The idea is to connect moral purpose and values to organizational processes and behavioral norms such that they become so strongly embedded in the school’s professional culture thatthe teaching and learning community sustains them.

Strategic Architecture When configuring what types of goals and

strategies to implement as a new principal of a school it is important to consider the “strategic architecture” of a schoolincluding: learning, resources, relationships, and culture (Davies, 2004). Organizational intents and strategies shouldfocus on improving processes and behaviors in each of theseareas to fortify the ‘instructional core’ in order to meet performance outcomes.

Although principals may differ in their personalities and in their management strengths and weaknesses, thefoundational leadership characteristic common to all that contributes to their school’s evolving culture of leadershipand increased performance is their understanding of self and clarity of values (Lambert, 2005). It is fundamentally important for principals to establish structures and processes that actively engage staff in openly communicating and articulating beliefs in the areas of learning, resources, relationships and culture. This can be achieved through the principal’s ongoing use of formal and informal ‘strategic conversations’ with staff and educational stakeholders tobolster mutual understanding, participation and motivation.

To facilitate the support and development ofeffective teachers it is important that the practices, processes, and approaches utilized by the principal not onlyfocus on the ‘strategic architecture’ of the school but also address the deeper dimensions of teachers’ work.

Dimensions of Teachers’ Work There are four dimensions of teachers work

including: technical, intellectual, socio-political, and socio-

The CAP Journal 21

emotional (Bascia & Hargreaves, 2000). The technical dimension focuses on teaching as a highly rational enterprisethat has a set of prescribed techniques or methods that can be learned and then practiced for proficiency. Teachers’ work is focused on determining ‘effective’ practice, and how best to implement it. The purpose of collaborative endeavors andprofessional development is to share ideas and techniques that work in particular contexts.

The intellectual dimension views teaching as a highly multifaceted phenomenon that necessitates a knowledge base developed from research and continuousprofessional inquiry. Teachers’ curriculum and programplanning is centered on fundamental principles and beliefs about teaching and learning, and the larger issues of schoolimprovement. The purpose here is to develop shared valuesand a common perspective.

The socio-political dimension views teachers, individually and collectively, as professionals and colleagues working in contexts that are inescapably political. This dimension describes the understood and negotiated rules for interaction between people, within groups and between groups.

The socio-emotional dimension involves the belief that teachers feel a responsibility for promoting an environment that encourages a healthy social and emotional environment in which students and teachers learn. Hereteachers focus on ways to create and ensure a safe, orderly

and supportive teaching and learning environment. This entails cooperatively maintaining a secure and predictable measure of consistency and fairness for staff and student behavior expectations. This type of positive and supportive climate is necessary for teachers in order that they may feel confident and productive and maintain a strong sense of efficacy in their planning, delivery of lessons and in their own professional development.

SummaryIn Canada, contemporary principals can expect their

leadership role to continue to be increasingly demanding andcomplex as they have to manage far more than theadministrative tasks traditionally associated with leadingschools (Normore, 2004). Sustainability of improvementrequires that principals mesh the soul of leadership with the life-world of teaching and learning. For educational leaders, and especially succeeding principals, it is important torecognize and value the different dimensions of teachers’ work when leading school reform. When configuring organizational intents around fundamental components of a school’s strategic architecture (learning, resources, relationships, culture) it is useful to implement emergentplanning, processes, and approaches across each dimension of teachers’ work to set and achieve goals (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Matching Areas of Intent to Dimensions of Teachers’ Work Technical

(craft practice, ways and means, methods)

Intellectual (underlying beliefs,

philosophies, and ideas)

Socio-political (procedures, rules ofinteraction, protocol)

Socio-emotional (sense of responsibility and

efficacy)

Learning

- Pedagogy- Lessons - Assessment - Extra-curricular - Andragogy

- Principles of Learning - Learning styles - Differentiation of Instruction- Outcomes Framework -Age/Skill groupings

- Academic support and discipline - IEPs - Supervision/feedback - Professional growth targets

- Personal and professional respect based on competence and legitimate authority

Resources

- Faculty/Personnel - Curriculum- Facilities - Time and space - Technology- Financials/Capital

- Multicultural - Equal access - Multiple intelligences - Distribution

mechanisms

- Prioritization- Use and acquisition - Outsourcing - Fundraising

- Valued for self and contribution of skills and expertise - Perceptions of fairness and justice

Relationships

- Staff /Student dynamics - PD - PLCs - Mentoring/Coaching - Counseling - Community/Parent contact/communications

- Self Esteem built upon feeling: Capable Connected Contributing Or act out with power, attention, revenge,avoidance

- Students/Parents- Professional/Collegial - Community/Business - School Board - Government - Associations

- Personal and professional identity and acceptance - Collegial trust - Role expectations

Culture

- Autonomous vs. Collaborative - Expertise vs. Entitlement - Values driven/connected - Organizational and sub-group norms

- Learner and learning centered - Capacity building - Diversity

- Formal and Informal power groups - Info/Expectations communication and feedback mechanisms

- Organizational trust - Conformity vs. Risk taking - Individual and group identity


References

Bascia, N., & Hargreaves, A. (2000). The sharp edge of educational change. New York: RoutledgeFalmer

Bennis, W. (2003). On becoming a leader. New York: Basic Books.Bottery, M. (2007). Reports from the front line: English headteachers’ work in an era of

practice centralization. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(1), 89-110.

Crow, G. (2007). The professional organizational socialization of new English headteachers in school reform contexts. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(1), 51-71.

Davies, B. (2004). Developing the strategically focused school. School leadership & management, 24(1), Feb, 2004.

Davis, S., Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., & Meyerson, D. (2005). School leadership study: Developing successful principals. The Wallace Foundation.

Fink, D., & Brayman, C. (2006). School leadership succession and the challenges of change. Education Administration Quarterly, 42(1), 62-89.

Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.Gabarro, J.J. (1987). The dynamics of taking charge. Boston: Harvard Business School

Press. Greenfield, W. (1993). Introduction. In Hart, A. Principal succession: Establishing

leadership in schools. Albany: StateUniversity of New York Press.Hart, A. (1993). Principal succession: Establishing leadership in schools. Albany: State

University of New York Press.Lambert, L. (2005). Leadership for lasting reform. Educational Leadership, Feb. 62-65. Leithwood, K., Seashore-Louis, K., Anderson, & Wahlstrom, (2004). Executive

summary: How leadership influences student learning. Learning from Leadership Project, The Wallace Foundation.

Mintzberg, H. (1994). The rise and fall of strategic planning. New York: The Free Press.Normore, A. (2004). Leadership success in schools: Planning, recruitment, and

socialization. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 8(10). Northfield, S. (2002). Teachers’ perceptions of principal succession. An unpublished

master’s thesis, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Author’s Conta ct Information

Shawn Northfield (403) 912 2803 Fax (403) 945 2572 17 – 1008 Woodside WayAirdrie, Alberta, CanadaT4B 2T7 Email: [email protected] Secondary Email: [email protected]

About the Author

Shawn Northfield is a doctoral student at the University of Nottingham (U.K.) specializing in educational leadership. Shawn spent 15years as a teacher and educational leader inthe Separate and Independent school systems in Calgary before working as a professor at the School of Education (St. Francis Xavier University) at both the B.ed. and M.Ed levels. He has also worked as an invitedguest professor for the Royal University ofBhutan at the graduate level as part of a CIDA project. Shawn collaborated with Bob Macmillan (UWO) and Matthew Meyer (St.FX) on a four year SSHRC funded research project to examine various aspects of principal succession. The author would like to thank the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for their support.

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Allergy Alert: Understandingfood labeling can save livesAn estimated 600,000 Canadians1 areafflicted with life-threatening allergiesand this number continues to grow creating an epidemic, of sorts, inCanada. Leading the list of the mostsevere, and even fatal, allergic reactionsare peanuts1. The growing allergy trendhas created the added responsibility forprincipals and school administrators to create policies in an attempt to safeguard their students and staff.

As a result, many schools have created“safe foods” lists for lunches andsnacks to help families comply with thepolicy. While this is a proactive andwell-intended measure, schools andfood-allergic consumers are encouragedto use such lists as a guideline only, asmany manufacturers are amendingtheir products and procedures to offersafer choices.

Once the policy is in place, it needs thesupport of lunch-packing parents who

will prepare meals and snacks that areappropriate for the environment – be itat school, the arena or elsewhere.According to a survey conducted forthe Quaker Chewy® brand2, parents areunsure about their label reading abilityand express some frustration creatinglunch-box friendly snacks.

• The large majority (87%) ofCanadians surveyed acknowledgedthe importance of reading foodingredient labels; yet almost half(43%) admitted to not always reading food labels carefully toensure compliance with their child’sschool policy

• Almost half of Canadians withschool-aged children (45%) reportedexperiencing frustration trying tofind lunch items that are allowedwithin the guidelines of their child’sschool anaphylaxis policy

• When asked about their ability to

recognize more uncommon namesrelating to the key food allergens inCanada, confidence levels droppedsignificantly with only one-third(30%) of respondents expressingany level of confidence

• 59 per cent of Canadians wish therewas a ‘Magic Lunch Fairy’ so theywould never have to make lunchagain

Manufacturers answer the callfor more peanut-free choicesSeveral food manufacturers have startedto introduce new product lines that arefree of specific food allergens, such aspeanuts, to help parents of food-allergicchildren, and non-allergic childrenalike, to comply with various anaphy-laxis policies in their communities.

After completing a major initiative totransform the company’s Peterboroughmanufacturing plant into a peanut free

facility, Pepsi-QTG Canada reformulatedand re-launched a sub-line of QuakerChewy granola bars that do not containpeanuts or tree nuts, and clearly labeled“Made in a Peanut-free Facility”. Thesebars are currently available acrossCanada in seven different flavours.

“Our research indicates that parentswant snack options for their childrenthat they can send to school with peaceof mind,” said Doris Bitz, vice presidentof marketing, Pepsi-QTG. “At the sametime, we encourage all consumers to continue to carefully read all food labels.”

Making lunches and snackseasier for parents

With the school year approaching thehalf-way mark and the holidays behindus, the lunch-packing grind may benefitfrom a mini-makeover. Whether cateringto picky eaters or preparing lunchesthat comply with school anaphylaxispolicies, parents are looking for ways tomake meal and snack planning a littlebit easier.

“Making school lunches should bequick and kid-friendly,” says HeatherTrim, food specialist. “We want ourkids to eat what we pack for them.Using simple to prepare but tasty foodscuts down on prep time and ensureskids will eat them. Buying productslabeled peanut-free respects childrenwith food allergies and school policies.”

A few tips to make lunches and snacksfun and alleviate lunch-time letdown:

• Empower kids by giving them somechoice – apple or banana, sandwichor wrap

• Bring your kids along when groceryshopping

• Offer snack and lunch options thatare kid friendly, yet nutritious such as:– Sandwiches cut into fun shapes – Dips like hummus or salsa for

veggies– Grab-and-go prepackaged foods

like Quaker Chewy peanut-freegranola bars, which are made ina peanut-free facility

– Wraps that are easy to hold andfun to assemble

• Assemble or prepare lunches thenight before to avoid the morningrush and take advantage of productsthat are ready to go, like– Pre-washed lettuce – Pre-cut carrots or apples

• Make extra helpings for dinner sokids can take them as leftovers forlunch such as:– Stir-fried veggies in a thermos– A slice of home-made veggie pizza– Homemade soup

• Ask your kids what their friendshave for lunch and if there are newfood items they may want to try

1 Anaphylaxis Canada, www.anaphylaxis.org2 The poll was conducted in March 2006 and is based on arandomly selected sample of 1,104 Canadians ages 18 andolder. The results reported are considered accurate withina tolerance range of ±3%, nineteen times out of twenty.

Additional information on severe allergicreactions can be found at www.anaphylaxis.org andfor more on Quaker Chewypeanut-free granola bars,visit www.quakerchewy.ca.

Three Guidelinesto help safeguard

schoolsThree simple guidelines that parents can follow to help keep at-risk individuals in the school andcommunity safe from unnecessaryharm:

1. Read all food packaging at leastthree times: once when purchasingthe item; a second time whenputting the item away; and athird time just prior to servingthe item.

2. Take steps to improve yourunderstanding of labeling regulations and their limitations.It should never be assumed thatall formats or sub-lines of abrand are peanut or nut-free.Manufacturers like Pepsi-QTGCanada, the owner of theQuaker Chewy® brand are puttingtheir bold, peanut-free symbolon each individual granola barto avoid confusion.

3. Products with a “may contain”warning could be problematic forindividuals with life-threateningfood allergies. If there is a precautionary warning, it is possible that the product containstraces of the identified allergen.

Sending kids to school with apeanut-free lunch that is kid andlunchbox friendly will help toensure everyone, including at-riskindividuals, are protected.

Quaker_ChewyAdvertorial_r5 12/17/07 1:37 PM Page 1


Allergy Alert: Understandingfood labeling can save livesAn estimated 600,000 Canadians1 areafflicted with life-threatening allergiesand this number continues to grow creating an epidemic, of sorts, inCanada. Leading the list of the mostsevere, and even fatal, allergic reactionsare peanuts1. The growing allergy trendhas created the added responsibility forprincipals and school administrators to create policies in an attempt to safeguard their students and staff.

As a result, many schools have created“safe foods” lists for lunches andsnacks to help families comply with thepolicy. While this is a proactive andwell-intended measure, schools andfood-allergic consumers are encouragedto use such lists as a guideline only, asmany manufacturers are amendingtheir products and procedures to offersafer choices.

Once the policy is in place, it needs thesupport of lunch-packing parents who

will prepare meals and snacks that areappropriate for the environment – be itat school, the arena or elsewhere.According to a survey conducted forthe Quaker Chewy® brand2, parents areunsure about their label reading abilityand express some frustration creatinglunch-box friendly snacks.

• The large majority (87%) ofCanadians surveyed acknowledgedthe importance of reading foodingredient labels; yet almost half(43%) admitted to not always reading food labels carefully toensure compliance with their child’sschool policy

• Almost half of Canadians withschool-aged children (45%) reportedexperiencing frustration trying tofind lunch items that are allowedwithin the guidelines of their child’sschool anaphylaxis policy

• When asked about their ability to

recognize more uncommon namesrelating to the key food allergens inCanada, confidence levels droppedsignificantly with only one-third(30%) of respondents expressingany level of confidence

• 59 per cent of Canadians wish therewas a ‘Magic Lunch Fairy’ so theywould never have to make lunchagain

Manufacturers answer the callfor more peanut-free choicesSeveral food manufacturers have startedto introduce new product lines that arefree of specific food allergens, such aspeanuts, to help parents of food-allergicchildren, and non-allergic childrenalike, to comply with various anaphy-laxis policies in their communities.

After completing a major initiative totransform the company’s Peterboroughmanufacturing plant into a peanut free

facility, Pepsi-QTG Canada reformulatedand re-launched a sub-line of QuakerChewy granola bars that do not containpeanuts or tree nuts, and clearly labeled“Made in a Peanut-free Facility”. Thesebars are currently available acrossCanada in seven different flavours.

“Our research indicates that parentswant snack options for their childrenthat they can send to school with peaceof mind,” said Doris Bitz, vice presidentof marketing, Pepsi-QTG. “At the sametime, we encourage all consumers to continue to carefully read all food labels.”

Making lunches and snackseasier for parents

With the school year approaching thehalf-way mark and the holidays behindus, the lunch-packing grind may benefitfrom a mini-makeover. Whether cateringto picky eaters or preparing lunchesthat comply with school anaphylaxispolicies, parents are looking for ways tomake meal and snack planning a littlebit easier.

“Making school lunches should bequick and kid-friendly,” says HeatherTrim, food specialist. “We want ourkids to eat what we pack for them.Using simple to prepare but tasty foodscuts down on prep time and ensureskids will eat them. Buying productslabeled peanut-free respects childrenwith food allergies and school policies.”

A few tips to make lunches and snacksfun and alleviate lunch-time letdown:

• Empower kids by giving them somechoice – apple or banana, sandwichor wrap

• Bring your kids along when groceryshopping

• Offer snack and lunch options thatare kid friendly, yet nutritious such as:– Sandwiches cut into fun shapes – Dips like hummus or salsa for

veggies– Grab-and-go prepackaged foods

like Quaker Chewy peanut-freegranola bars, which are made ina peanut-free facility

– Wraps that are easy to hold andfun to assemble

• Assemble or prepare lunches thenight before to avoid the morningrush and take advantage of productsthat are ready to go, like– Pre-washed lettuce – Pre-cut carrots or apples

• Make extra helpings for dinner sokids can take them as leftovers forlunch such as:– Stir-fried veggies in a thermos– A slice of home-made veggie pizza– Homemade soup

• Ask your kids what their friendshave for lunch and if there are newfood items they may want to try

1 Anaphylaxis Canada, www.anaphylaxis.org2 The poll was conducted in March 2006 and is based on arandomly selected sample of 1,104 Canadians ages 18 andolder. The results reported are considered accurate withina tolerance range of ±3%, nineteen times out of twenty.

Additional information on severe allergicreactions can be found at www.anaphylaxis.org andfor more on Quaker Chewypeanut-free granola bars,visit www.quakerchewy.ca.

Three Guidelinesto help safeguard

schoolsThree simple guidelines that parents can follow to help keep at-risk individuals in the school andcommunity safe from unnecessaryharm:

1. Read all food packaging at leastthree times: once when purchasingthe item; a second time whenputting the item away; and athird time just prior to servingthe item.

2. Take steps to improve yourunderstanding of labeling regulations and their limitations.It should never be assumed thatall formats or sub-lines of abrand are peanut or nut-free.Manufacturers like Pepsi-QTGCanada, the owner of theQuaker Chewy® brand are puttingtheir bold, peanut-free symbolon each individual granola barto avoid confusion.

3. Products with a “may contain”warning could be problematic forindividuals with life-threateningfood allergies. If there is a precautionary warning, it is possible that the product containstraces of the identified allergen.

Sending kids to school with apeanut-free lunch that is kid andlunchbox friendly will help toensure everyone, including at-riskindividuals, are protected.

Quaker_ChewyAdvertorial_r5 12/17/07 1:37 PM Page 1

The CAP Journal 25

Permission to reprint this article was re ceived by the Ontario Principals' Council. The original article appeared in T he OPC Regist er, Vol. 6 No. 2.

TThhee CCaarroouusseell ooff LLeeaaddeerrsshhiipp SSuucccceessssiioonn

Sustainable school improvement must include responsible succession planning

By Andy Hargreaves, Shawn Moore and Dean Fink

The Emperor Caligula murdered half his children. England’s aging Queen will not cede the throne to her eldest child. Saturn ate his own son. What do all these people have in common? They refuse to face the facts of leadership succession.

No leader lasts forever. Few things are more tragic than leaders clinging grimly to power when their glory days are behind them. The best time for leaders to leave is when they are at the top of their game and it is best for everyone when capable successors have been prepared to follow them.

One of the most significant events in the life of a school is a change in its leadership. Yet, in too many schools, leadership succession is not always a successful process. Failure to properly plan for leadership succession is sometimes a result of manipulativeness or self-centredness but more often, it is oversight, neglect or the pressures of crisis management that are to blame.

In part, we mismanage succession because our most basic assumptions about leadership are flawed. People tend to equate leadership with administratively senior individuals. Heroic leaders who turn failing schools around stand out most strongly in the public imagination. Transformational leaders rather than transformational leadership receive the greatest attention in leadership

research (Gronn, 1996). However, the important idea of distributed leadership is starting to draw more attention to how leadership also spreads across organizations, without diminishing the importance of the principal’s role within this overall distribution (Crowther, 2002, Spillane and Halverson, 2001). Yet leadership also exerts itself over time as well as across space.

Principals’ impact on their schools is often greatly influenced by people they have never met – those who have died, moved on to other institutions or who have not yet even arrived. Whether they are aware of it or not, principals stand on the shoulders of those who went before them and they lay the foundation for those who will follow. Sustainable improvement that matters and lasts depends on understanding and managing this process of leading over time (Hargreaves, 2003).

Reformers and change experts rarely grasp the long-term aspects of leadership. Quick fix changes to turn around failing schools often exhaust the teachers and/or the principal and the improvement efforts may not be sustainable over time. The principal’s success in a "turnaround school" may lead to his or her own rapid promotion, then regression among teachers who feel abandoned by their leader or relieved when the pressure is off.

Sustainable improvement, and the contribution of principals to it, must be measured over many years and several principalships, not just one or two. What legacy do principals leave on their departure? What capacities have they created among students, community and staff that will live beyond them? How can and should others build on what has been achieved? These questions of leadership over time are the central questions of leadership succession.

Our investigation of leadership succession drew on data from a Spencer Foundation funded study (Hargreaves, 2003 and 2004). The database included over 250 interviews with teachers and administrators from eight US and Canadian high schools who worked in these schools in the 1970s, ’80s and ’90s. We found that one of the five most significant changes affecting the life of a school and the sustainability of its improvement efforts over these three decades is leadership succession. Our results show that successful succession depends on sound succession planning, limiting the frequency of succession events and preserving the idea of leadership in the face of movements towards more and more management. Let’s look at each of these in turn.


SUCCESSION PLANNING

A central issue in leadership succession is whether a transition inleadership establishes continuity orprovok es discontinuity with past directions – and to what extent this is deliberately planned. Plannedcontinuity occurs when the assignment of a new principal to a school reflects a well thought outsuccession plan that is meant to sustain and build further on the general directions and goals ofhis/her predecessor. Sustained school improvement over long periods and across multiple leaders depends oncarefully planned continuity.

The most successful instances of planned continuity in our research were found in three innovative schools from our sample. H ere, insiders were groomed to follow their leader’s footsteps as they tried toembed achievements more firmlywithin the culture of the school. Howe ver, grooming successors does not mean cloning oneself but developing leadership that can move the school into its next phase ofgrowth.

Leadership succession is more often planned to create discontinuity tomove a school in strik ingly differentdirections. A new principal who isassigned to turn around a failingschool, give a jolt to a cruisingschool (Stoll and Fink , 1996), orimplement a "top-down" reformagenda, fits this category. Several leadership succession events among our sample schools were ones of planned discontinuity.

We found that planned discontinuity was effective in shak ing up schools but not at mak ing changes stick . Thissuccession strategy can yield rapid results but its leadership needs timeto consolidate the new culture and heal the wounds that its disruptioninevitably creates. Because of their quick and visible success, some principals we studied were moved out of their schools too early, sometimes after less than three years, to tak e up promotions in the districtoffice or transfers to other schools.

The result was a constant cycling of change throughout schools in the system with little lastingimprovement.

On this carousel of principal succession, successful leaders are often lifted prematurely out of thesadd le of the school they are improving, in order to mount a rescue act in a school facing a crisis or a challenge elsewhere. Little thought seems to be given to the appointment of their successors.

Our evidence suggests that panic appointments and rotational practices are usually based on fantasies and fallacies regarding leadership and improvement. Principal rotation andrepeated successions don’t push schools along an upward curve ofcontinuing improvement but around a perpetual carousel. It is time to facethe fact that regularized rotation may not be the best way to ensuresuccessful succession.

ACCELERATING SUCCESSION

A second factor affecting theoutcome of succession is the rate orfrequency of cumulative successions. Demographically-driven retirement,the difficulty of retaining leaders in urban schools and the increasinglypopular practice of moving principalsaround more frequently to plug the leak s in underperforming schools mean that principal turnover isaccelerating dramatically. While one of our schools had six principals inits first 68 years, it had another five in scarcely a fifth of that time (14 years). From 1970, a second schoolhad just four principals in 28 years, then three in quick succession in the next five. Another school had fourprincipals in its first 14 years after opening in 1970, then just as many inthe past five.

This revolving-door principalship breeds staff cynicism, which subverts long-term, sustainable improvement(Macmillan, 1996). One principal observed, "it’s only been one plusyear but teachers are coming to mealready and asking how long I amgoing to be here." The quest for

future leadership must be definedless by how to remove principalsfrom or rotate them between schools,and more by how to retain them inschools longer when they are doingwell.

THE CHANGING NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

Growing cynicism among teachersabout principals and principalships isnot only due to the increasing frequency of leadership change, butalso changes in the nature of leadership. A department head at one school who had work ed under five different principals spok e for manywhen he said that the school’s principals in the ’70s and ’80s "weretotally committed to the overall program of the school. When they went into the hiring process they knew exactly what they wanted and what they needed. Their number one focus was the school. As time wenton, and principals changed, the principal was less interested in the school and more interested in his/herown personal growth. You could tell,as some of these other principalscame in, they spent more time outside the school than they did inside the school. [Often a new principal’s]number one focus wasn’t on the school. It was on the next step: to be a superintendent."

A long-serving teacher remarked how current principals "are forcedinto an administrative role and are becoming more detached from what we do in the classroom … Principals generally come in and they have grand visions and plans and … theyseem to always have an ulteriormotive … Maybe they want to go to another school or be a superintendent."

Over the three decades covered by the data, leadership has changed a lot. Until the mid to late 1970s, leaders were remembered as larger-than-life characters who k new people in the school, were closely identifiedwith it, made their mark and stayedaround for many years to see thingsthrough.

The CAP Journal 27


By the mid to late 1990s, teacherswere seeing their leaders more as anonymous managers with lessvisibility in and attachment to the school. They seemed to be morewedded to the system or their own careers and, because of accelerating rotation and succession, rarelyremained long enough to ensure their initiatives would last. The threat tosustainable improvement posed bypoorly managed leadershipsuccession raises fundamental questions about the nature ofeducational leadership today.

Our research suggests that the recent standards/standardization agenda has contributed to an emerging model ofleadership that is reactive, compliant and managerial. This discourages and deters potential leaders frombecoming principals who might becapable of inspiring learningcommunities that promote deeper andhigher learning for all students (Hargreaves, 2003). Depleted pools of outstanding leaders restrict the resources and options at times ofsuccession. Better leaders, rather thanembattled managers, belong in and are attracted to systems that let leaders lead. Sustainability ofimprovement and leadership, therefore, requires less rather thanmore micromanagement and standardization in educationalreform.

CONCLUSIONS

There are a number of ways toimprove leadership succession in education.

Succession needs to be planned much more thoughtfully, ethically and transparently. It needs to be anintegral part of every school improvement and district-wide improvement plan. Deeper and wider pools of leadership talent have to be created so that succession puzzles are easier to solve.

Distributing leadership more effectively makes the success of successors less dependent on the talents or frailties of particular individuals.

From the first day of their appointment, leaders themselves need to give as much thought to the leadership capacity they will build and legacies they will leave as to the changes they will bring about. Incorporating content on successionissues into all leadership training anddevelopment programs will helpthem do this.

The alarming rise in rates of succession should be reversedimmediately, and principals should be kept in schools for longer thanfive years when their efforts atimprovement are working well.

For any or all of this to make a difference, we must pull back fromthe precipice to which top-down, overly-standardized reform has brought us; motivational leaders havebeen reduced to a managerial subservient of a standardized systemthat moves them with mountingdesperation around the carousel of principal succession. Sustainable leadership depends on successful

succession. This struggle for successful succession calls for more than improved succession planning. It is an integral part of leadership itself.

REFERENCE S:• Gronn, P. "From transactions to transformations: A new world order in the study of leadership," Educational Management & Administration, 1996. 24(1): p. 7-30. • Crowther, F., et al. Developing teacher leaders: How teacher leadershipenhances school success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2002 • Spillane, J.P. and R. Halverson. "Investigating school leadership practice: A distributed perspective," Educational Researcher, 2001. 30(3): p. 23-28. • Hargreaves, A. and D. Fink. "Sustaining leadership," Phi Delta Kappan, 2003. 84(9): p. 693-700. • Hargreaves, A., et al. Succeeding leaders? A study of secondary principal rotation and succession: Final Report tothe Ontario Principals Council. Toronto: OPC, 2003. • Hargreaves, A., "Educational change over time," Educational Administration Quarterly, at press. • Stoll, L. and D. Fink. Changing our schools: Linking school effectiveness and school improvement. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1996. • Macmillan, R. The relationship betweenschool culture and principals' practice during succession. University of Toronto: Toronto, 1996. • Hargreaves, A. Teaching in the knowledge society. New York: Teachers College Press, 2003.

Andy Hargreaves is with Boston College. Shawn Moore and Dean Fink are with the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. E-mail: [email protected]

The CAP Journal 29

Calling All Authors!

The Canadian Association of Principals would like to hear from you. Do you have a story to share or advice

for other principals and vice-principals?

Visit www.cdnprincipals.org or send an email to [email protected] for more information on having your article

published in an upcoming issue of the CAP Journal.

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SEVEC’s Community Involvement Program (SCIP) is entering a third year. For two years, through their schools, students from across the country have been planning andimplementing projects aimed at having an impact in their community. From painting a community mural in the Maritimes, to refurbishing an animal shelter in Quebec, building a skatepark in the Prairies to rejuvenating a threatened marshland park in British Columbia, youth across the country are doing great work.

For principals and teachers running the program, SCIP is flexible, comprehensive, structured and comes with the support of a national charity well-known in the field of education. In Manitoba, Quebec and BC, SCIP ran as part ofthe timetable as a for-credit option, in others such as Newfoundland, Alberta and Ontario, it was organized as anextra-curricular activity. In all cases their projects were carried out as part of a SEVEC exchange. While the SEVEC reciprocal homestay exchange program is for groups ofyoung Canadians between the ages of 12 and 17, the SCIPprogram is recommended for students aged 15 to 17. In thisage range they are well suited to have a positive youth-led impact on their community and another community inCanada.

For Principal George Singfield of D’arcy McGee High School in Gatineau, Quebec: “SCIP fits perfectly in 3 of the 5 broad based areas of learning; environmental awareness,citizenship/community life and health/well-being.Additionally it supports a variety of cross-curriculumcompetencies including cooperates with others, achieves potential, communicates appropriately etc. SCIP makes me proud as a principal and gives further evidence to what kidsare capable of.”

Reg Klassen, principal of W.C. Miller Collegiate inManitoba says; “For us, SCIP links well to curriculum in the areas of student and school initiated courses that deal with leadership, community involvement and volunteerism. There are also links to Grade 10 Geography and Grade 11 History.Additionally, SCIP educates our kids on what it is to live in a multicultural democracy.”

Students From W.C. Miller Collegiate in Altona, Manitoba, working side-by side with their exchange group from D’arcyMcGee High school in Gatineau, Quebec built a skatepark inAltona and took 5 tons of garbage out of an urban forest leaving1000 trees in its place in Gatineau.

In Kelowna BC, Michael Guzzi, Director of ProgramDevelopment of Vedanta Academy shares: “We designed a 4 credit grade 10/11 course to go around the SCIPexperience called Community Service 11 and it involved work, learning and hours on both ends of the exchange. All students in our grades 9-11 worked on the project. Resultsincluded a better understanding of the world including the environment, their country and their human connections.


The SCIP project spawned some new directions forinstruction at Vedanta, resulting in the continuation of theCommunity Service curriculum as well as two new seniorEnvironmental Sciences courses.”

SEVEC programming supports learning by doing – whetherit is through the SEVEC Community Involvement Programand an exchange or another of SEVEC’s youth programs, students are engaged, inspired and are supported in growing into the leaders of tomorrow. According to the researchcompleted on SCIP by Dr. Juanita Ross Epp of LakeheadUniversity: “Students said that they had made friends, learned about their community, made a difference in their community, had fun and developed new skills. The parents commented on the growth that they saw in their children’s leadership abilities, teamwork and hospitality. One parent credited the program with helping to turn her son around and refocusing him on positive choices.”

Simply put the SCIP program was developed to supportteachers in providing their students the opportunity to develop and demonstrate their potential. It provides the waysand means to go beyond the classroom and to really get involved in community – to figure out what your students want to see changed in their community and actually make ithappen. Katie, a Quebec exchange participant made a significant connection to her community: “The amount ofpeople that have helped us was amazing. When it came timeto thank them, we did not even know what to say. It was so important to us to say thank you, that way when other youngpeople go to them and ask for support for a communityproject, they will help them too. The help they gave is worth so much more than money.”

Leslie, a Manitoba participant shares her thoughts onparticipating in SCIP; “Make sure you and your students have fun while planning and completing your project. This isa once in a lifetime opportunity and you want to make the most of it because it’s something you are going to rememberfor the rest of your life.”

Students planning their SEVEC Community Involvement Projectlearn and practice a variety of new skills including media and public relations.

The SCIP program is dynamic, designed to be picked up byprincipals in the format and combination that proves themost efficient and responsive to their school’s needs. TheSCIP resource manual is multi-faceted. It includes support guides in the areas of: planning and carrying out acommunity project, media and public relations, administration of a project/exchange and fundraising. The information shared and supported in these areas are transferable. With the inclusion of sample lesson plans, meeting agendas activities and timetables, the programresponds to curriculum needs and can be easily used to meet school-initiated needs in the areas of youth engagement, leadership, civics, volunteering and community engagement.

Through a generous donation made by Great-West Life, London Life and Canada Life, SEVEC is pleased to make the SCIP resource manual available to anyone looking forsupport in facilitating youth in planning and carrying out a project in their community. SCIP groups may be associatedwith a community organization or be a class of students. The experiences and advice of the groups doing SCIP are collected and incorporated into future editions representing youth voice and peer mentorship. Rob Smith, a teacher fromW.C. Miller Collegiate in Manitoba is running SCIP for the third year. Both his advice and the advice of two years of his students are part of the SCIP resource manual. He values the contribution they have made and continue to make to the program: “As a participant in the SCIP program, we hope tobring youth together and build long lasting relationships. They will experience another culture and community andcontribute to that community by working with new people. As hosts, we will accommodate students from another partof Canada and allow them to experience our culture and have an impact in our community. ”

SCIP is a partnership model, students, teachers, schools and communities work together.

A win-win program, SCIP offers to support the efforts ofeducators, community leaders, NGOs, Political leaders and the corporate world in preparing youth to be the leaders of tomorrow, with skills and experience to nurture Canada as a healthy and self-sustaining country. It is a partnership model. Individuals work with other individuals. Youth workwith other youth and adults. Schools and youth groups work with other schools and organizations. Schools andcommunity leaders work together providing a positive and

The CAP Journal 33

interactive means for students to understand how decisions are made in their community. Researcher Juanita Epp concluded; “Parents, teachers and students commented on the positive opportunity to work together inter-generationally. The experiential learning opportunities changed the orientation of the school credit from adult knowledge transference to place the emphasis on mutual learning opportunities.”

Still wondering if SCIP is right for your school? Principal Singfield comments on how easily SCIP fits in with his goals for competency-based learning; “If you did not alreadyknow better you would think that SCIP was already part of

our curriculum it fits so well. SCIP allows students not just to be competent but to act competently.”

We would be pleased to send you a copy of the SCIP resource manual and/or research report as well as talk with you about how SCIP would fit into your school.

Cathleen Cogan BirdDirector of DevelopmentSociety for Educational Visits and Exchanges in Canada (613)727-3832, ext [email protected]

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© 2007 NAS(Media: delete copyright notice)

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Email us at [email protected]

Visit www.cdnprincipals.org

The 26th National CAP 2008 Conference Planning Committeeinvites you to chart your course from May 14th-16th, 2008 in St. John’s, NL

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The CAP Journal 35

On the lighter side.......

We expand your network.

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Name Surname School Board City ProvinceGeorge Aiken Kensington Interm ediate-Senior High School Western School Board Kensington PE

Jim Aitken Macdonald High School Les ter B. Pearson School Board Ste. Anne de Bellevue QC

Victoria Barlow Edgemont School Calgary Board of Education Calgary AB Patrice Berrel Whitehorse Elementary School Education Department Yukon Whitehorse YT David Betts Sooke School District 62 Sooke School District 62 Victoria BC

Tony Ceelen St. Andrew Catholic School Halton Catholic District School Board Oakville ON

Ivana Colatriano Willingdon School English Montreal School Board Montreal QC Heather Conlin Halton District School Board Halton District School Board Burlington ON Caroline Conn-Smith Aldershot School Halton District School Board Burlington ON

Terry Craig Lakeview Elementary School North West School Division Meadow Lake SK Gordon Crook Technical-Vocational High School Winnipeg School Division Winnipeg MB

Dina Dalia St. John's College Brant Haldimand Norfolk Catholic District School Board Brantford ON

Sandra Emke-Kish Grenfell High Community School Prairie Valley School Division Grenfell SK Scott Enns F.J. Rutland Public School District School Board of Niagara Niagara Falls ON Joan Green Radisson Park School Calgary Board of Education Calgary AB

Susan Gustafson Stony Mountain School Interlake School Division Stony Mountain MB Myra Hood Rideau Park School Calgary Board of Education Calgary AB

Aliomid Jahangir Lord Roberts Junior Public School Toronto District School Board Toronto ON

Darlene Kennedy Catholic Central High School Windsor-Essex Catholic District School Board Windsor ON

James Lynch Mobile Central High School Eastern School District Mobile NL

Gail Lyon Adult High School Ottawa Carleton District School Board Ottawa ON

Carol MacWilliams KLO Middle School Central Okanagan School District 23 Kelowna BC

Tarjeet Mann Braefoot Elementary School Greater Victoria School District 61 Victoria BC

Allison McNeil Trenton Middle School Chignecto-Central Regional School Board Trenton NS

Gerald Mercer Vanier Elementary School Eastern School District St. John's NL Greg Moffitt Garden Creek Elementary School School District 18 Fredericton NB Leslie Moody Queen Victoria Public School Toronto District School Board Toronto ON

Robert Morrallee Ridgemount Elementary School Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board Hamilton ON

Mohammed Odeen Deninu School South Slave Divisional Education Council Fort Resolution NT

Curtis Schreiber Rutland Middle School Central Okanagan School District 23 Kelowna BC

David Tomlin Ecole John English Junior Middle School Toronto Dist rict School Board Toronto ON

Dan Trainor St. James Catholic Elementary School Niagara Catholic District School Board St. Catharines ON

Terry Young Inuksuk High School Qikiqtani School Operations Iqaluit NU

TThhee CCaannaaddiiaann AAssssoocciiaattiioonn ooff PPrriinncciippaallss wwiisshheess ttoo ccoonnggrraattuullaattee CCaannaaddaa’’ss OOuuttssttaannddiinngg PPrriinncciippaallss ffoorr 22000088!!

The CAP Journal 37

Canadian educators have a significantnew study to guide them to betterpreparing students to pursue highereducation. It not only looks at barriersto post-secondary education, it providesfresh insights into how they create a webof difficulty through their interaction.

The February 2007 report by StatisticsCanada’s Marc Frenette breaks newground in identifying the reasons whycertain students do or do not pursuehigher education.

Earlier research concludes that studentsfrom low-income families or fromfamilies whose parents did not study atcollege or university are least likely topursue studies beyond high school.

Frenette undertakes to quantify therelative influence of a variety of factorson university enrolment, leading to a keyfinding that has generated muchdiscussion: “Differences in long-termfactors such as standardized test scoresin reading obtained at age 15, schoolmarks reported at age 15, parentalinfluences and high-school qualityaccount for 84% of the gap” inuniversity attendance between youthfrom the top and bottom incomequartiles. “In contrast, only 12% of thegap is related to financial constraints.”1

In other words, academic factors andparental support appear to have astronger impact than money on whylower income students are less likelythan their higher income counterparts togo to university.

However, to infer from this that financialconstraints do not matter would be anerror. For example, Frenette argues thatlack of funds explains 12% of thedifference in university enrolmentbetween low- and high-income students,all other things being equal. This is notthe same as saying that financial factorssomehow only explain 12% of thedecision to enrol in the first place, or thatonly 12% of those choosing not to go touniversity do so for financial reasons. Infact, Frenette finds that regardless offamily income — and controlling forother factors — the presence of financialconstraints reduces an individual’slikelihood of enrolling in university by30 percentage points.

This is the seventh in a series of articles prepared by or on behalf of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation for theCCAAPP JJoouurrnnaall.. This series is part of an ongoing partnership between CAP and the Foundation aimed at providing principals andvice-principals across the country with information about the Foundation’s Millennium Research Program and, in particular,the Foundation’s work around overcoming barriers to post-secondary studies beginning at the high school level.

The following article was written by two members of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation’s research team.It looks not only at various barriers to pursuing higher education, but also the potent way in which they interact.

The Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation is a private, independent organization created by an act of Parliament in 1998.The Foundation works to improve access to post-secondary education for Canadians from all backgrounds, it encourages ahigh level of achievement and engagement in Canadian society, and it brings people and organizations together to understandbarriers and improve access to post-secondary education.

For more information on the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation and the Millennium Research Program, visit theFoundation’s Web site at wwwwww..mmiilllleennnniiuummsscchhoollaarrsshhiippss..ccaa

What Happens in theClassroom is ImportantBY JOSEPH BERGER AND ANNE MOTTE

1 Frenette’s paper, Why Are Youth from Lower-income Families Less Likely to Attend University? Evidence from Academic Abilities, Parental Influences,and Financial Constraints, is available online at http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/11F0019MIE/11F0019MIE2007295.htm.

He also concludes that reading scores,grades, parental expectations and highschool quality are all directly orindirectly correlated with familyfinances. Money then clearly affectsaccess to post-secondary education — butsometimes in ways that have beenoverlooked in the past.

Frenette’s analysis is also conductedagainst the background of the existingcosts of a post-secondary education andthe availability of student financialassistance. It would be wrong to con-clude, therefore, that because financialconstraints are less important than otherfactors in explaining the enrolment gap,that tuition could be left to rise orstudent financial assistance scaled backwithout consequence. The consequencepresumably would be that financialfactors would begin to account for agreater share of the enrolment gapbetween income groups.

Viewed in proper context, therefore,Frenette’s study speaks to educatorsabout the importance of such deter-minants as academic ability and parentalinfluence in addition to financialconstraints in shaping the educationalpathways eventually followed by youngadults. Meeting these challenges meansthat there must be more investment insupport of children and learning at ayoung age, as well as support providedto students in the transition from highschool to college or university. This willmake it possible to address an interacting

web of barriers — academic, financial,informational and motivational innature — that prevent many youth frombeginning or completing a post-secondary education.

Surveys of individuals during highschool, in preparation for PSE and afterhigh school graduation have identifiedthree main barriers: academics, whichinclude performance, preparation andpost-secondary requirements; finances,which include access to funds needed forschooling and related expenditures suchas books and living costs, and, in abroader sense, debt aversion; andinformational and motivational factors.The latter encompasses career planning,awareness of post-secondary choices,financial support measures, and anappreciation of the perceived costs andbenefits of higher education.

Money does matter. PSE costs have risensharply with increases in universitytuition running well above the inflationrate. College programs are moreexpensive than ever. Students, who mustspend hundreds of dollars annually onbooks and supplies, are often alsovictims of expensive housing markets.More and more work not only in thesummer, but also during the school yearto make ends meet. In 2003–04, two-thirds of full-time students relied on atleast three sources of income (typically amix of employment, student aid,parental assistance and savings) to paytheir bills.

WHEN BARRIERS INTERACT

Lack of motivation can be as important as poorinformation (although the two are certainlyconnected) in keeping youth out of post-secondaryeducation. Almost 40% of high school graduateswho do not pursue higher education say it is becausethey lack interest or a career focus. And over halfwho drop out of college or university do so becausethey are not interested in their studies or becausethey have little career direction.

A high school student who lacks the motivation topursue post-secondary education might neglect hisschoolwork, creating a seeming academic barrier inand of itself, which nevertheless is rooted in a lackof motivation. Another might refrain from dreamingof studying at a college or university because herparents lack the means to pay for her education. Inthe latter case, lack of motivation has financial roots.

It is increasingly clear that these barriers overlap;they seldom manifest themselves in isolation.Upper-year high school students who reported onekind of barrier to post-secondary education werevery likely to report another. For instance, of thosewho said that poor school marks were a barrier, 68%reported facing a financial barrier and 66% reporteda lack of interest or career focus.

An individual lacking university-entrance gradesprobably also lacks funds to pay for highereducation. Students who have not given muchthought to career planning are less likely to bemotivated for post-secondary education. Byextension, they are less likely to be prepared for itsacademic demands. Moreover, low-income youth,the children of parents with limited or no post-secondary education themselves, and Aboriginalteenagers are more likely to report these barriersthan are other individuals. These groups of studentsare under-represented in post-secondary educationprecisely because they must overcome not just onetype of barrier to access, but many.

Barriers to Access and Persistence

33%31%

13%

19%

8%11%

22%

14%

29%27%

9%12%

10%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Finances Career indecision Lack of interest Program notwhat expected

Employment Academicchallenges

Personal/family

Never attendedDiscontinued

The CAP Journal 39

being. If policy moves in this direction,Canada’s educators will be the ones tomake the difference.

Along with the grade school-through-high school support and encouragementdescribed here, there must be a financialsupport system for students. Suchsupport is an essential part ofencouraging attendance among anincreasing number of youth from low-income backgrounds. Tailoring a betterfinancial aid system is part of theeducational policy making equation.

Joseph Berger and Anne Motte arepolicy and research officers at theCanada Millennium ScholarshipFoundation and co-authors of the thirdedition of “The Price of Knowledge.”The views expressed in this article arethose of the authors and do notnecessarily reflect the positions orpolicies of the Canada MillenniumScholarship Foundation.

Among high school graduates who donot go on to post-secondary studies, one-third cites finances as a barrier, the mostfrequent response. Specific financialbarriers include debt aversion, nothaving enough money to attend, theprogram’s cost, the cost of leaving homeand the desire to work right away(respondents could give multipleanswers).

But while money is important in and ofitself, there are also the strong linksbetween socio-economic status andacademic ability. Individuals who growup in well-to-do environments thatreflect parental educational attainmentand sustained educational developmentoutside the classroom are more likely topursue PSE, especially at university.Thus, while part of the root of theproblem may lie in socio-economicfactors, an effective policy solution forstudents struggling academically must gobeyond simply providing financial support.

This is why the path to graduation froma post-secondary institution does notbegin with enrolment, but much earlierand needs careful preparation. Barriersto PSE are rooted in an individual’s lifecircumstances that encompass familyand socio-economic status, manifestingthemselves well before age 18. Efforts tomitigate these circumstances require timeto succeed.

Governments and educators shouldenvisage a “life-course” approach topost-secondary education policy thatbegins in elementary school andcontinues right up to the start of PSE.This would allow young Canadians,during their schooling, to count onprograms that will help them achievetheir educational goals. Learningsupports early on, assistance to parentsand families, adequate career andeducational counselling and, finallystudent financial aid, are vital toCanada’s economic and social well-

The Price of Knowledge is available on the Foundation’s Web site at

http://www.millenniumscholarships.ca/en/research/Price.asp

His ability is not in question. Nor his drive. But the financial challenges of a post-secondary education could have easily extinguished Holida’s potential to benefit our country as an information technology specialist. He’s one of the more than 500,000 students helped through the programs and research of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. Each year we offer over 128,000 needand merit-based grants for post-secondary study. We’re also paying special attention

to lower-income families and Aboriginal peoples, opening doors for many who may not have considered post-secondary education as an option. Once inside, students can learn to see themselves and their role in society in a new way. And, like Holida, can help fulfill Canada’s great potential by fulfilling their own. To find out more about our programs, or if you know of someone who might benefit from them, visit our website.

www.millenniumscholarships.ca

IT’S A SIMPLE, STRAIGHTFORWARD ARRANGEMENT:FIRST, CANADA HELPS TRANSFORM HOLIDA TEK. THEN, HOLIDA TEK HELPS TRANSFORM CANADA.

HOLIDA TEK Information Technology Management Student


His ability is not in question. Nor his drive. But the financial challenges of a post-secondary education could have easily extinguished Holida’s potential to benefit our country as an information technology specialist. He’s one of the more than 500,000 students helped through the programs and research of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. Each year we offer over 128,000 needand merit-based grants for post-secondary study. We’re also paying special attention

to lower-income families and Aboriginal peoples, opening doors for many who may not have considered post-secondary education as an option. Once inside, students can learn to see themselves and their role in society in a new way. And, like Holida, can help fulfill Canada’s great potential by fulfilling their own. To find out more about our programs, or if you know of someone who might benefit from them, visit our website.

www.millenniumscholarships.ca

IT’S A SIMPLE, STRAIGHTFORWARD ARRANGEMENT:FIRST, CANADA HELPS TRANSFORM HOLIDA TEK. THEN, HOLIDA TEK HELPS TRANSFORM CANADA.

HOLIDA TEK Information Technology Management Student

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