The Style of Official DocumentsSubstyles Function FeaturesExamples

.The language of business documents,

.The language of legal documents,

.That of diplomacy,

.That of military documents.

1.The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking:between state and citizens; a society and its members.1. The most striking,though not the most essential feature ,is a special system of clich,terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized.2. The use of abbreviations ,conventional symbols an contractions.(this ia a common feature to all these varieties)3. Another feature is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning.

4. Words with emotive meaning are also not to be found in this style.

5. A general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence.. I beg to inform you;. I beg to move;. Dear Sir;. your obedient servants;.yours faithfully

.M.P.(Member of Parliament) ;. Gvt(government).

Publicistic Style Substyle Function Features Examples

1.The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion(to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretationgiven by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one)

1.Publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose,on the one hand ,and that of emotive prose,on the other .

2.Its coherent and logical syntactical structure ,with an expanded system of connectives and its careful paragraphings ,makes it similar to scientific prose.

3.Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning ,the use of imagery and otherstylistic devices as in emotive prose.4.Is also characterized by brevity of expression.

1.Oratorical style1.Brain-washing function,for here the most powerful instrument of persuasion is brought into play: the human voice.1. Direct addres to the audience;2. The use of colloquial words;3. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day. in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings ,funerals and jubilees , in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law.

5.The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication.

6.Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, anthitesis, suspense, climax ,rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative.7.Special obligatory forms to open up and end an oration.

8. At the end of his speech the speaker usually thanks the audience for their attention by saying.9. Expressions of direct addres can be repeated in the course of the speech and may be expressed differently

Ladies and gentlemen,honourable members..

. It is high time

.My Lords;Mr. President;Your Worship; Ladies and Gentlmen.

.Thank you,Thank you very much.

.Dear friends, my friends

2.The Essay. The Essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical , social ,aesthetic or literary subjects.

. An Essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter.

1. The most characteristic language features of the essay,however ,remain:1) brevity of expression, reaching in good writers a degree of epigrammaticalness;2) the use of the first person singular ,which justifies a personal approach to the problems treated;3) a rather expanded use of connectives ,which facilitate the process of grasping the correlation of ideas;4) the abundant use of emotive words;5) the use of similes and sustained metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process .

2. The essay in our days is often biographical ;persons, facts and events are taken from life.. These essys differ from those of previous centuries-their vocabulary is simpler and so is their logical structureand argumentation.

3.The Article1. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices.

2. Words of emotive meaning ,are few ,if any,in popular scientific articles.

3.Their exposition is more consistent and the system of connectives more expanded than in a satirical article.

4. The language of political magazinearticle differ little from that of newspaper articles.

5. Such elements of publicistyc style as rare and bookish words ,neologisms traditional word combinations and parenthesis are more frequent here than in newspaper articles

The Belles-Lettres Style Substyle Function Features Examples

1.The language of poetry.2.Emotive prose(the language of fiction)3.The language of the drama

.The common function or also called aesthetic-cognitive. This is a double function which aims at the cognitive process ,which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure

.The purpose of the belles-lettress style is to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.This is the cognitive function of the belles lettress styleThe linguistic features of the belles lettress are:1.Genuine ,not trite ,imagery ,achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2.The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning,or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3.A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the authors personal evaluating of things or phenomena.4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax ,a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy .

5.The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays)or a lesser one in emotive prose)or a slight degree ,if any(in poems).

1.Language of Poetry.verse

a)compositional Patterns of Rhythmical Arrangement Metre and Line

b)Lexical and Syntactical Features of VerseIts first differentiating property is its orderly form,which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances.

.Rhythm and rhyme are immediately distinguishable properties of the poetic substyle..The various compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are generally studied under the terms versification or prosody.

.The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm ,making up classical verse ,are based on:1.alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables,2.equilinearity,that is,an equal number of syllables in the lines,3.a natural pause at the end of the line ,the line being a more or less complete semantic unit ,4.identity of stanza pattern,5.established patterns of rhyming.

.There are all kind of deviations from these rules ,some of them are going so far that classical poetry ceases to be strictly classical and becomes what is called free verse..English verse ,like all verse,emanated from song.Verse assumes an independent existence only whwn it tears itself away from song..English versification is called qualitative. In classic English verse ,quantity is taken into consideration only when it is a matter of the number of feet in a line. That is why classic English verse is called syllabo-tonic. Two parameters are taken into account in defining the measure:Lthe number of syllables (syllabo) and the distribution of stress(tonic).English metrical patterns:1.Iambic metre, in which the unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one .2.Trochaic metre,where the order is reversed ,a stressed syllable is followed by one unstressed.3.Dactylic metre one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed.4.Amphibrachic metre-one stressed syllable is framed by two unstressed.

5.Anapaestic metre-two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed. These arrangements of qualitatively different syllables are the units of the metre ,the repetition of which makes verse.One unit is called a foot. If the line consists of only one foot it is called a monometer; two feet is a detemeter; three trimeter; four-tetrameter ;five-pentameter; six-hexameter; seven- septameter; eight-octameter..English verse is predominantly iambic.1.The first modification when the stress is lifted from a syllable on which the language will not allow stress is called a pyrrhic foot.2.The second modification of the rhythmical pattern is the intrusion of a trochee into an iambic metre or of an iambus into a trochaic one ,and is called-rhythmic inversion.3.The third modification is the insertion of a foot of two stressed syllables,called a spondee.The spondee as a rhythmic modifier,is always used to give added emphasis.4.The fourth modifier has to do with the number of syllables in the line.A line with a missing syllable is called hypometric line. A line with an extra syllable is called hypermetric. .The fifth departure from the norms of classic verse is enjambment ,or the run-on line.This term is used to denote the transfer of a part of a syntagm from one line to the following one. The essence of enjambment is the violation of the concordance between the rhythmical and the syntactical unity in a line of verse.Enjambment throws a part of the syntagm over the second line,thus causing the pause to grow smaller and the juncture closer.The Stanza is the largest unit in verse.It is composed of a number of lines havinga definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout the poem. Specialists divide the development of stanza into two periods: the first is the periods: 1)The period of ChaucersCanterbury Tales.2)Marlowe,Chapman and other Elisabethan poets.

1)The heroic couplet a stanza that consists two iambic pentameters with the rhyming pattern aa.

2.The Spencerian stanza,named after Edmund Spencer,the 16th century poet who first used this type of stanza in his Fairy Queene.It consists of nine lines ,the first eight of which are iambic pentameters and the ninth is one foot longer.The rhyming scheme is ababbcbcc.3. The stanza ottava rima .It is composed of eight iambic pentameters,the rhyming scheme being abababcc.This type of stanza was borrowed from Italian poetry ,16 th century.4.Ballad stanza- an alternation of iambic tetrameters with iambic dimeters and the rhyming scheme is abcb.5.One of the most popular stanzas,which bears the name of stanza only conventionally ,is the sonnet. The Engl.sonnet is composed of fourteen iambic pentameters :ababcdcdefefgg. The Engl.sonnet was borrowed from Italian poetry.

.Lexical and syntactical peculiarities ,will present the substyle as a stylistic entity..Thsese properties and features of poetry:- they are rich in associative power;- they are frequent in occurrence;- they become part and parcel of the substyle because they are the media through which the idea and feeling are conveyed to the reader.That is why they may be called internal features. .The image ,as a purely linguistic notion ,is something that must be decoded by the reader.. Images form a linguistic point of view are mostly built on metaphors ,metonymy and simile. Images may be divided into three categories: two concrete(visual,aural), and one abstract(relational).. Visual images are the easiestof perception in as much as they are readily caught by what is called the mental eye.Visual images are shaped through concrete pictures of objects ,the impression of which is present in our mind.Onomatopoeia will build an aural image in our mind ,it will make us hear the actual sounds of nature or things.. A relational image is one that shows the relation between objects through another kind of relation ,and the two kind of relations will secure a more exact realization of the inner connections between things or phenomena.

. Another feature of the poetical substyle is its volume of emotional colouring .The emotional element is characteristic of the belles-lettres style in general.The degree of emotivness in works of belles-lettress depends on the idiosyncrasy of the writer..The rhythmic and phonetic arrangement, which is the most characteristic feature of the substyle ,remains its essence..The colloquial elements still remain essentially unimportant and,were quite alien to the style..Poetic language remains and will always remain a specific mode of communication differing from prose.The poetic words and phrases ,peculiar syntactical arrangement ,orderly phonetic and rhythmical patterns have long been the signals of poetic language..The liberalization of poetic language reflects the general struggle for a freer development of the literary language ,in contrast to the rigorous restrictions imposed on it by the language law givers of the 18th century.

1.Oh let me true in love but truly write.2.Would you ask me whence these stories

3.Cannon to right of themCannon to left of them4.O,where are you going to all you Big steamers.

5.Do you ask what the birds say?The Sparrow,the dove

1.Fair is proud Seville ;ler her country boast2.Her strength ,her wealth,her site of ancient days;(Byrons Child Harolds Pilgrimage)

.Then flashed the living lightning from her eyes And screams of horror rent the affrighted skies.Byrons Childe Harold

.Byron :Beppo andDon Juan

.The Shaksperean sonnets

and then my state ,Like to the Lark at break of day arisingFrom sullen earth(Shakspeare).How the water comes down at Ladore.

Men of England ,Heirs of Glory,Heroes of unwritten story. (Shelley)

2.Emotive Prose

1.The imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry;2.the idiosyncrasy of the author is not so clearly discernible;3.what most of all distinguishes emotive prose form the potic style is the combination of the literary variant of the language ,both in words and syntax ,with the colloquial variant. It would perhaps be more exact to define this as a combination of the spoken and written varieties of the language ,in as much as there are always two forms of communication present monologue(the writers speech)and dialogue(the speech of the characters).4.Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles as well. But all these styles under the influence of emotive prose undergo a kind of transformation. Emotive prose as a separate form of imaginative literature ,that is fiction ,came into being rather late in the history of the Enhlish literary language. It is well known that in early Anglo-Saxon literature there was no emtive prose.. The first emotive prose which appeared was translations from Latin of stories from the Bible and the Lives of Saints.. Emotive prose actually began to assume a life of its own in the second half 15th century(romances and chronicles describing the life and adventures of semi-legendary kings and knights ).

.With the coming of the16th century,numerous translations from Latin to Greek played a great role in helping to work out stylistic norms for the emotive prose of that period .The 17th century saw a considerable development in emotive prose and in prose as a whole. It was an epoch of great political and religious strife ,and much that was written had a publicistic aim.

.The main peculiarities of the style of emotive prose of the puritan trend stand out clearly:-Simplicity in choice of words and in syntax is the predominant feature of the language of this type of emotive prose.-The speech of the characters is mainly shaped in the form of indirect discourse.-When direct speech appears ,it is arranged as in a play,that is,the speaker is indicated by giving his full name or its contracted form at the beginning of a line. .There was also a third trend in emotive prose which began to develop in the 17th century. This trend is responsible for the introduction into writing of common words and phrases known as colloquialisms. Thomas Sprat raised his voice against luxury and redundance of speech. .The influence of John Dryden on both emotive prose and publicistic prose ,which began to develop rapidly in the 18th century,was felt throughout the century. Dryden has been called the father of literary criticism. The features of Drydens prose are: clarity,simplicity of sentence structure , lack of ornament,fluency and rhythm. .Eighteenth century. The motto of this trend may be expressed by the phrase call a spade a spade. By this phrase the adherents of the realistic trend in literature ,and in emotive prose in particular ,expressed the idea that all things should be called by their right names, that the writers should use plain,blunt words. Men of-letters as Defoe,Swift and Fielding who created fascinating novels ,most of which are still reckoned among the masterpieces of English literature. . The aim of this new school of writers was to make the language clear ,precise and well-balanced,and moderate.They developed a manner of writing which by its strength ,simplicity ,and directness,was admirably adapted to ordinary every-day needs.. Another stylistic feature of emotive prose of the 18th century is a peculiar manner of conveying the impression that the event narrated actually occurred, that the narrative possessed authenticity.The narrative itself is generally impassionate ,devoid of any emotional elements ,with strict observance of syntactical rules govering the structure of the sentence.

.Laurence Sterne with his Tristram Shandy contributed greatly to this process. Sterne thought that the main task of emotive prose was: to depict the inner world of man,his ever changing mood. With Sterne ,emotive prose began to use a number of stylistic devices which practically determined many of its characteristic features.

Nineteenth centuryemotive prose can already be regarded as a substyle of belles-lettres,complete in its most fundamental properties as they are described at the beginning of this chapter..A new feature begin to establish itself as a property of emotive prose alone,what may be called multiplicity of style.

Malorys Morte DArthur,printed by Caxton 1471(romance)

John Lyly Euphues ,the Anatomy of Wit

John Bunyan The Pilgrims Progress

Daniel Defoe Robinson Crusoe(novel)Joseph Addison and Richard Steele The Tatler,The Spectator(essays)

3.Language of the Drama. The language of play is entirely dialogue .. But the language of the characters is in no way the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language ,although the playwright seek to reproduce actual conversation as far as the norms of the written language will allow.. The language of play is always stylized,it strives to retain the modus of literary English.. The stylization of colloquial language is one of the features of plays whicg at different stages in the history of English

drama has manifested itselfin different ways ,revealing on the one hand the general trends of the literary language ,and on the other hand the personal indiosyncrasies of the writer.. In the 16th century the stylization of colloquial language was scarcely mentained due to several facts : plays were written in haste for the companies of actors eagerly waiting for them ,and they werw written for a wide audience ,mostly the common people.. The 16th century plays are mostly written in iambic pentameter ,rhymed and unrhymed .The plays of this period therefore were justly called dramatic poetry.. The breaking of the regularity and strictness of the rhythmical design became one of the characteristic features of the language of dramatic poetry.. A popular form of entertainment at the courts of Elisabeth and the Stuarts was the masque. These performances were short sketches with allusions to Greek and Latin mythology ,allegoric in nature ,frequently accompanied by song and music and performed by the nobility. These masques are believed to be the earliest forms of what is now known as spoken drama. . But the drama of the seventeenth century still holds fast to poetic diction and up to the decline of the theatre which was caused by the Puritan Government Act of 1642,a spoken drama as we know it today had not seen the stage.. The revival of drama began only in the second half of the 18th century .But the ultimate shaping of the play as an independent form of literary work with its own laws of functioning ,with its own characteristic language features was actually completed only at the end of the 19th century.

Newspaper Style Substyle Function Features Examples

.The primary function of newspaper style is to impart information,only printed matter serving this purpose comes under newspaper style.

.The newspaper also seeks to influence influence public opinion on political and other matter.

.English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical ,phraseological and grammatical means,serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.. English newspaper writing dates from the 17th century.At the close of 16th century short pamphlets began to appear.

.The first of any regular series of English newspaper was:.With the introduction of a strict licensing system many sheets were su pressed,and the Gouvernment,in its turn,set a paper of its own-The London Gazette, published on February 5,1666..The first English daily newspaper- the Daily Courant,brought out on March 11,1702. The early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of information. Commentary as a regular feature found its a way into the newspaper later.

.At the middle of 18th century the British newspaper was very much like what as it is today,carrying on its pages news,both foreign and domestic ,advertisements,announcement and articles containing comments.. English literary language language is characterized- by a definite communicative aim and its own definite system of language means..The printed matter can be classed as:1).brief news itemsand communiqus,2).press reports ,3).articlespurely informational in character,4).advertisments and announcements..The most concise form of newspaper is the headline.. Elements of appraisal may be observed in the very selection and way of presentation of news ,in the use of specific vocabulary: .The principal vehicle of interpretation and appraisal is the newspaper article.. It is necessary to note that such articles are an intermediate phenomenon characterized by a combination of styles- the newspaper style and the publicistic style .They may considered hybrids.

The basic newspaper feature:

Newe newes,containing a short rehearsal of Stukelys and MoricesRebbelion(1579).Weekly News(May 23,1622)

.allege and claim

1.brief news items.The main function is to inform the reader..It states only facts without giving comments.Newspaper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by:a)Special political and economic terms,

b)Non-term political vocabulary,c)Newspaper clichsClichees more than anything else reflect the traditional manner of expression in newspaper writing.d)Abbreviations.Among themabbreviated terms-names of organization,public and state bodies,political associations,industrial and other companies ,various offices.e) Neologisms.These are very common in newspaper vocabulary. The vocabulary of brief news items is generally devoid of any emotional colouring..The size of brief news items varies from one sentence to several paragraphes.And generally ,the shorter the news item,the more complex its syntactical structure.Specific word order.Newspaper tradition,coupled with the rigid rules of sentence structure in English,has greatly affected the word order of brief news items.

Socialisms,constitution,president,by-election.public,people,progressive..vital-issue,pressing problem,danger of war,well-informed sources.

.UNO(United NationsOrganization)TUC(Trades Union Congress),NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organisation).

.sputnik,a splash-down,frontlash

2.The headline.The main function of the headline is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follow is about..The headline is the title given to a news item or a news paper article.Sometimes headlines contain elements of appraisal. In most of the English and American newspaper sensational headlines are quite common..The vocabulary groups considered in the analysis of brief news items are commonly found in headlines.But unlike news,headlines also contain emotionally coloured words and phrases as the italicized words: Other stylistic devices are not infrequent in headlines ,for eg,the pun;-alliteration

. the basic language peculiarities of headlines ,however ,lie in their structure.Syntactically headlines are very short sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns:a)Full declarative sentences:

b)Interogative sentences,c)Nominative sentences,d)Elliptical sentences: a) with an auxiliary omitted,b) with the subject omitted,

e) Seantences with articles omitted,

f)Phrases with verbals:a)infinitive,

g)Questions in the form of statements,h) Complex sentences,

i)Headlines including direct speech:a)introduced by a full sentence,

.UNWILLING FLUNKEYS(Daily Herald)

.(And what about Watt-The Observer)

.(eg.Miller in Maniac Mood-The Observer)

They Threw Bombs on Gipsy Sites(Morning Star)..Do you love war?(Daily World).Gloomy Sunday(The Guardian).Initial report not expected until June(The Guardian).. stole luxury cars by photos(Daily Worker)..Frogman finds girl in river (Daily Worker)

.To get US aid(Morning Star)

.The worse the better(Daily World).Senate Panel Hears Board of Military Experts Who Favoured Losing Bidder(The New York Times).

.Prince Richard says:I was not in trouble(The Guardian).

3.Advertisments and AnnoncemetnsThe function is to inform the reader.There are two basic types of advertisements and announcements in the modern English newspaper: a)classified, and b)non-classified.. In classified advertisements and announcements various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections,each bearing an appropriate name.In the Times, for eg.

.For the separate (non-classified)advertisements and announcements,the variety of language form and subject matter is great.The readers attention is attracted by every possible means :typographical,graphical and stylistic,both lexical and syntactical. Here there is no call for brevity,as the advertiser may buy as much space as he chooses.

.Births ,Marriages,Deaths..

4. The EditorialThe function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. .Editorials, are an intermediate phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publicistic style. .Editorials appealnot only to the readers mind but to his feelings as well.. The use of emotionally-coloured language elements, both lexical and structural.

. The language of editorial articles is characterized by a combination of different strata of vocabulary ,which enhances the emotional effect..Editorials abound in trite stylistic means,especially metaphors and epithets:

.Practically any stylistic device may be found in editorial writing..The emotional force of expression in the editorial is often enhanced by the use of various syntactical stylistic devices.Some editorials abound in parallel construction ,various types of repetition,rhetorical questions and other syntactical stylistic means..Original forms of expression and fresh genuine stylisyic means are comparatively rare in the newspaper articles ,editorials included.

.The long suffering British housewife needs a bottomless purse to cope with this scale of inflation(Daily Mirror).

.international climate,a price explosion,a price spiral.

Scientific Prose Style Substyle Function Features Examples

The aim of the functional style of scientific prose ,is to prove a hypothesis,to create new concepts,to disclose the internal laws of existence ,development,relations between different phenomena.

The language means used,therefore ,tend to be objective,precise,unemotional ,devoid of any individuality..The most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence.. A second and no less important feature,is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. No other field of human activity is so profilic in coining new words as science is. .Words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning .Hardly a single word will be found here ,in contrast to the belles-lettres style ,is used in more then one meaning . Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning.Even the possibility of ambiguity s avoided. A new term in scientific prose is generally followed by an explanation.. Likewise neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained by a parenthesis ,or an attributive phrase,either in the context or in a foot-note. . In modern scientific prose an interesting phenomenon can be observed-the exchange of terms between various branches of science. .A third characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentence-patterns.They are of three types: postulatory ,argumentative and formulative.. A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose ,and one that strikes the eye of the reader,is the use of quotations and references. The references also have a definite compositional pattern,namely ,the name of the writer reffered to,the title of the work quoted the publishing house, the place and year it was published ,and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to.

.A fifth feature of scientific style ,which makes it distinguishable from other styles ,is the frequent use of foot-notes .. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style.This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions.

. Impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with the verbs suppose,assume,presume,conclude,infer.. The passive constructions frequently used in the scientific prose of the exact science are not indispensable in the Humanities .

However emotivness is not entirely or categorically excluded from scientific prose.There may be hypotheses ,pronouncements and conclusion which,being backed up by strong belief ,therefore call for the use of some emotionally coloured words.

.Then acid was taken

.It should be pointed out,It must not be assumed