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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Representations

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is predetermined in order of importance.[5] It is often

depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the first lower level is being associatedwith Physiological needs, while the top levels are termed growth needs associated with

psychological needs. eficiency needs m!st be met first. "nce these are met, see#ing to

satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. $he higher needs in this hierarchy only

come into foc!s when the lower needs in the pyramid are met. "nce an individ!al hasmoved !pwards to the ne%t level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioriti&ed. If

a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individ!al will temporarily reprioriti&e

those needs by foc!sing attention on the !nf!lfilled needs, b!t will not permanentlyregress to the lower level. (or instance, a b!sinessman at the esteem level who is

diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health

)physiological needs*, b!t will contin!e to val!e his wor# performance )esteem needs*and will li#ely ret!rn to wor# d!ring periods of remission.

[edit] Deficiency needs

$he lower fo!r layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called +deficiency needs+ or +

needs+. ith the e%ception of the lowest needs, physiological ones, if the deficiencyneeds are not met, the body gives no indication of it physically, b!t the individ!al feels

an%io!s and tense. $hese deficiency needs are: physiological, safety and sec!rity, love

and belonging, and esteem.

[edit] Physiological needs

(or the most part, physiological needs are obvio!s they are the literal re-!irements for

h!man s!rvival. If these re-!irements are not met )with the partial e%ception of se%*, theh!man body simply cannot contin!e to f!nction.

Physiological needs incl!de:

• reathing

• /omeostasis

• ater • 0leep

• (ood

• 1%cretion

• 0e%

[edit] Safety needs

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ith their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individ!al's safety needs ta#e over and

dominate their behavior. $hese needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable,

orderly world in which in2!stice and inconsistency are !nder control, the familiar fre-!ent and the !nfamiliar rare. In the world of wor#, these safety needs manifest

themselves in s!ch things as a preference for 2ob sec!rity, grievance proced!res for

protecting the individ!al from !nilateral a!thority, savings acco!nts, ins!rance policies,and the li#e.

(or the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the

+(irst orld+. $he obvio!s e%ceptions, of co!rse, are people o!tside the mainstream 3

the poor and the disadvantaged. If fr!stration has not led to apathy and wea#ness, s!ch people still str!ggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. $hey are

primarily concerned with s!rvival: obtaining ade-!ate food, clothing, shelter, and see#ing

2!stice from the dominant societal gro!ps.

0afety and 0ec!rity needs incl!de:

• Personal sec!rity

• (inancial sec!rity

• /ealth and wellbeing

• 0afety net against accidents4illness and the adverse impacts

[edit] Social needs

fter physiological and safety needs are f!lfilled, the third layer of h!man needs is social.

$his psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionallybasedrelationships in general, s!ch as:

• friendship

• intimacy

• having a s!pportive and comm!nicative family

/!mans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a largesocial gro!p, s!ch as cl!bs, office c!lt!re, religio!s gro!ps, professional organi&ations,

sports teams, gangs )+0afety in n!mbers+*, or small social connections )family members,

intimate partners, mentors, close colleag!es, confidants*. $hey need to love and be loved

)se%!ally and nonse%!ally* by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become s!sceptible to loneliness, social an%iety, and 6linical depression. $his need for

belonging can often overcome the physiological and sec!rity needs, depending on thestrength of the peer press!re7 an anore%ic, for e%ample, ignores the need to eat and thesec!rity of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

[edit] Esteem

ll h!mans have a need to be respected, to have selfesteem, selfrespect, and to respectothers. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or

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activities that give the person a sense of contrib!tion, to feel accepted and selfval!ed, be

it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can res!lt in low selfesteem or an

inferiority comple%. People with low selfesteem need respect from others. $hey maysee# fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many

people with low selfesteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply

by receiving fame, respect, and glory e%ternally, b!t m!st first accept themselvesinternally. Psychological imbalances s!ch as depression can also prevent one from

obtaining selfesteem on both levels.

[edit] Aesthetic needs / Self Actualization

$he motivation to reali&e one's own ma%im!m potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its vario!s forms. In

Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for selfact!ali&ation is the final need that

manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.

[edit] Self-transcendence

8ear the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was

above selfact!ali&ation: selftranscendence[9]. +[$ranscenders] may be said to be m!ch

more often aware of the realm of eing )realm and cognition*, to be living at thelevel of eing to have !nitive conscio!sness and ;platea! e%perience< )serene and

contemplative cognitions rather than climactic ones* and to have or to have had

pea# e%perience )mystic, sacral, ecstatic* with ill!minations or insights. nalysis of reality or cognitions which changed their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps

occasionally, perhaps as a !s!al thing.+[=]

Herzerg !oti"ation # Hygiene $heory

%rederic& 'r"ing Herzerg )>?@A @BBB* was a noted psychologist who became one of the most infl!ential names in b!siness management. /e is most famo!s for introd!cing

2ob enrichment and the Motivator/ygiene theory. /is >?9C p!blication +"ne More

$ime, /ow o Do! Motivate 1mployeesE+ had sold >.@ million reprints by >?C= and wasthe most re-!ested article from the /arvard !siness Feview.[>] /er&berg attended 6ity

6ollege of 8ew Dor# , b!t left part way thro!gh his st!dies to enlist in the army. s a

patrol sergeant, he was a firsthand witness of the acha! concentration camp. /e

believed that this e%perience, as well as the tal#s he had with other Germans living in the

area was what triggered his interest in motivation. /er&berg grad!ated from 6ity 6ollegein >?H9 and moved to the niversity of Pittsb!rgh to !nderta#e postgrad!ate st!dies in

science and p!blic health. /e earned his Ph in psychology with a dissertation entitled+Prognostic variables for electroshoc# therapy+. /e started his research on the wor#place

while teaching as a professor of psychology at 6ase estern Feserve niversity in

6leveland and later moved to the niversity of tah where he held the position of professor of management in the college of b!siness.[@]

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[edit] $(o factor theory

Main article: Two factor theory

/er&berg proposed the Motivation/ygiene $heory, also #nown as the Two factor theory

)>?5?* of 2ob satisfaction. ccording to his theory, people are infl!enced by two factors:

!oti"ator %actors

• chievement

• Fecognition

• or# Itself

• Fesponsibility

• Promotion

• Growth

Hygiene %actors

• Pay and enefits

• 6ompany Policy and dministration

• Felationships with cowor#ers

• Physical 1nvironment

• 0!pervision

• 0tat!s

• Job 0ec!rity

• 0alary

>. People are made dissatisfied by a bad environment, b!t they are seldom made

satisfied by a good environment.@. $he prevention of dissatisfaction is 2!st as important as enco!ragement of

motivator satisfaction.

A. /ygiene factors operate independently of motivation factors. n individ!al can behighly motivated in his wor# and be dissatisfied with his wor# environment.

H. ll hygiene factors are e-!ally important, altho!gh their fre-!ency of occ!rrence

differs considerably.5. /ygiene improvements have shortterm effects. ny improvements res!lt in a

shortterm removal of, or prevention of, dissatisfaction.

9. /ygiene needs are cyclical in nat!re and come bac# to a starting point. $his leadsto the +hat have yo! done for me latelyE+ syndrome.

=. /ygiene needs have an escalating &ero point and no final answer.[A

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McClelland’s Theory of Needs

McClelland proposes that each of us have three fundamental needs that exist in different

balances. These affect both how we are motivated and how we attempt to motivateothers.

n-ach: Need for achievement:

Seeks achievement, attainment of goals and advancement. Strong need for feedback,

sense of accomplishment and progress

n-affil: Need for affiliation:

Need for friendships, interaction and to be liked.

n-pow: Need for power

Authorit motivated needs to influence and make an impact. Strong need to lead and to

increase personal status and prestige.

!t seems that some people have a ver strong need to achieve, whilst the ma"orit of

people are not motivated in this wa. McClelland was so interested b this that he

focussed his research on the need to achieve.

!n a famous experiment, people were asked to throw rings over a peg #like at a fair$. The

distance that one should throw from was not specified, and as a result most people threw

their rings from random distances. %owever, people with a high need for achievement

chose their location carefull so that the stood a realistic chance of getting the ring onthe peg, but that it was not too eas. The set an achievable goal that would stretch

them.

This seems to be the nub of the whole thing & achievement motivated people set goalswhere the feel that the can influence the outcome and ensure that those goals are

balanced between challenge and realism.

An achievement motivated person sees the achievement of a goal as the reward' it ismore satisfing than praise or monetar reward. Mone is seen as good onl in that it is

seen as a measure of their achievement. This idea of feedback is essential to the

achievement motivated person( the feedback needs to be informative to enable them to

use it to improve their achievement. !n addition there is an element of competition & it is

important for the individual to be able to compare their achievement against others.

The ke differentiator between this group and others is that achievement motivatedpeople fre)uentl spend time thinking how things could be improved.

*ather than being the preserve of a privileged few with these characteristic, Mclelland

believed that these characteristics could be taught and developed training programmes.

+ave is someone who has a high need for achievement and ! must admit that it does

explain a lot to me. ! can normall see ver )uickl how to improve a sstem, and

struggle to understand wh others might not want to improve it too. ! also find it difficultto understand wh people do the things that the do more generall. Mabe it is because


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rather than wanting to make everthing as good as it can possibl be the have higher

needs for power or affiliation.

!t seems that ! might not be alone in m difficulties as although n&ach people make goodbusiness leaders and entrepreneurs their management stle can suffer because the

expect everone to be motivated in the same wa as themselves.

%owever, it is the need for power that ! have the most difficult with. !t seems ver

destructive to have a need for power without a strong need to achieve as well. Surel

having a strong motivation to increase personal status and prestige will alwas lead to

destructive and competitive tendencies

)room*s E+pectency $heory of !oti"ation

The expectanc theor of motivation is suggested b -ictor -room. nlike Maslow and

%er/berg, -room does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes.

0hereas Maslow and %er/berg look at the relationship between internal needs and the

resulting effort expended to fulfil them, -room separates effort #which arises from

motivation$, performance, and outcomes.

-room, hpothesises that in order for a person to be motivated that effort, performanceand motivation must be linked. %e proposes three variables to account for this, which he

calls -alence, 1xpectanc and !nstrumentalit.

1xpectanc is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if !

work harder then this will be better. This is affected b such things as(

2. %aving the right resources available #e.g. raw materials, time$3. %aving the right skills to do the "ob

4. %aving the necessar support to get the "ob done #e.g. supervisor support, or

correct information on the "ob$

!nstrumentalit is the belief that if ou perform well that a valued outcome will be

received i.e. if ! do a good "ob, there is something in it for me. This is affected b such

things as(


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2. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes 5 e.g.

the rules of the reward 6game7

3. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome4. Transparenc of the process that decides who gets what outcome

-alence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. 8or

example, if ! am mainl motivated b mone, ! might not value offers of additional timeoff.

%aving examined these links, the idea is that the individual then changes their level of

effort according to the value the place on the outcomes the receive from the processand on their perception of the strength of the links between effort and outcome.

So, if ! perceive that an one of these is true(

2. M increased effort will not increase m performance

3. M increased performance will not increase m rewards

4. ! don7t value the rewards on offer

...then -room7s expectanc theor suggests that this individual will not be motivated.

This means that even if an organisation achieves two out of three, that emploees would

still not be motivated, all three are re)uired for positive motivation.

%ere there is also a useful link to the 1)uit theor of motivation( namel that people will

also compare outcomes for themselves with others. 1)uit theor suggests that people

will alter the level of effort the put in to make it fair compared to others according to

their perceptions. So if we got the same raise this ear, but ! think ou put in a lot lesseffort, this theor suggests that ! would scale back the effort ! put in.

Cruciall, 1xpectanc theor works on perceptions 5 so even if an emploer thinks the

have provided everthing appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most

people in that organisation it doesn7t mean that someone won7t perceive that it doesn7twork for them.

At first glance this theor would seem most applicable to a traditional&attitude worksituation where how motivated the emploee is depends on whether the want the

reward on offer for doing a good "ob and whether the believe more effort will lead to

that reward.

%owever, it could e)uall appl to an situation where someone does something because

the expect a certain outcome. 8or example, ! reccle paper because ! think it9s

important to conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues #valence$' !think that the more effort ! put into reccling the more paper ! will reccle #expectanc$'

and ! think that the more paper ! reccle then less resources will be used

#instrumentalit$

Thus, this theor of motivation is not about self&interest in rewards but about the

associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution the feel the

can make towards those outcomes.

:ther theories, in m opinion, do not allow for the same degree of individualit between

people. This model takes into account individual perceptions and thus personal histories,


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allowing a richness of response not obvious in Maslow or McClelland, who assume that

people are essentiall all the same.

1xpectanc theor could also be overlaid over another theor #e.g. Maslow$. Maslowcould be used to describe which outcomes people are motivated b and -room to

describe whether the will act based upon their experience and expectations.

, % S&inner*s Reinforcement $heory

. (. 0#innerKs entire system is based on operant conditioning. $he organism is in the

process of ;operating< on the environment, which in ordinary terms means it is bo!ncing

aro!nd its world, doing what it does. !ring this ;operating,< the organism enco!nters aspecial #ind of stim!l!s, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. $his

special stim!l!s has the effect of increasing the operant that is, the behavior occ!rring

2!st before the reinforcer. $his is operant conditioning: ;the behavior is followed by aconse-!ence, and the nat!re of the conse-!ence modifies the organisms tendency to

repeat the behavior in the f!t!re.<

Imagine a rat in a cage. $his is a special cage )called, in fact, a ;0#inner bo%


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middle of a st!dy. 8ow, these were the days before ;P!rina rat chow< and the li#e, so

0#inner had to ma#e his own rat pellets, a slow and tedio!s tas#. 0o he decided to red!ce

the n!mber of reinforcements he gave his rats for whatever behavior he was trying tocondition, and, lo and behold, the rats #ept !p their operant behaviors, and at a stable rate,

no less. $his is how 0#inner discovered schedules of reinforcementL

.ontinuous reinforcement is the original scenario: 1very time that the rat does the

behavior )s!ch as pedalp!shing*, he gets a rat goodie.

$he fi+ed ratio schedule was the first one 0#inner discovered: If the rat presses the

pedal three times, say, he gets a goodie. "r five times. "r twenty times. "r ;%< times.

$here is a fi%ed ratio between behaviors and reinforcers: A to >, 5 to >, @B to >, etc. $hisis a little li#e ;piece rate< in the clothing man!fact!ring ind!stry: Do! get paid so m!ch

for so many shirts.

$he fi+ed inter"al schedule !ses a timing device of some sort. If the rat presses the bar

at least once d!ring a partic!lar stretch of time )say @B seconds*, then he gets a goodie. If he fails to do so, he doesnKt get a goodie. !t even if he hits that bar a h!ndred times

d!ring that @B seconds, he still only gets one goodieL "ne strange thing that happens is

that the rats tend to ;pace< themselves: $hey slow down the rate of their behavior right

after the reinforcer, and speed !p when the time for it gets close.

0#inner also loo#ed at "ariale schedules. ariable ratio means yo! change the ;%< each

time first it ta#es A presses to get a goodie, then >B, then >, then = and so on. ariable

interval means yo! #eep changing the time period first @B seconds, then 5, then A5,then >B and so on.

In both cases, it #eeps the rats on their rat toes. ith the variable interval sched!le, theyno longer ;pace< themselves, beca!se they can no longer establish a ;rhythm< between

behavior and reward. Most importantly, these sched!les are very resistant to e%tinction.It ma#es sense, if yo! thin# abo!t it. If yo! havenKt gotten a reinforcer for a while, well,

it co!ld 2!st be that yo! are at a partic!larly ;bad< ratio or intervalL J!st one more bar

press, maybe thisKll be the oneL

$his, according to 0#inner, is the mechanism of gambling. Do! may not win very often, b!t yo! never #now whether and when yo!Kll win again. It co!ld be the very ne%t time,

and if yo! donKt roll them dice, or play that hand, or bet on that n!mber this once, yo!Kll

miss on the score of the cent!ryL

Shaping

-!estion 0#inner had to deal with was how we get to more comple% sorts of behaviors./e responded with the idea of shaping, or ;the method of s!ccessive appro%imations.<

asically, it involves first reinforcing a behavior only vag!ely similar to the one desired.

"nce that is established, yo! loo# o!t for variations that come a little closer to what yo!want, and so on, !ntil yo! have the animal performing a behavior that wo!ld never show


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!p in ordinary life. 0#inner and his st!dents have been -!ite s!ccessf!l in teaching

simple animals to do some -!ite e%traordinary things. My favorite is teaching pigeons to

bowlL

I !sed shaping on one of my da!ghters once. 0he was abo!t three or fo!r years old, and

was afraid to go down a partic!lar slide. 0o I pic#ed her !p, p!t her at the end of theslide, as#ed if she was o#ay and if she co!ld 2!mp down. 0he did, of co!rse, and I

showered her with praise. I then pic#ed her !p and p!t her a foot or so !p the slide, as#edher if she was o#ay, and as#ed her to slide down and 2!mp off. 0o far so good. I repeated

this again and again, each time moving her a little !p the slide, and bac#ing off if she got

nervo!s. 1vent!ally, I co!ld p!t her at the top of the slide and she co!ld slide all the waydown and 2!mp off. nfort!nately, she still co!ldnKt climb !p the ladder, so I was a very

b!sy father for a while.

$his is the same method that is !sed in the therapy called systematic desensitization,

invented by another behaviorist named oseph 0olpe. person with a phobia say of

spiders wo!ld be as#ed to come !p with ten scenarios involving spiders and panic of one degree or another. $he first scenario wo!ld be a very mild one say seeing a small

spider at a great distance o!tdoors. $he second wo!ld be a little more scary, and so on,!ntil the tenth scenario wo!ld involve something totally terrifying say a tarant!la

climbing on yo!r face while yo!Kre driving yo!r car at a h!ndred miles an ho!rL $he

therapist will then teach yo! how to rela% yo!r m!scles which is incompatible withan%iety. fter yo! practice that for a few days, yo! come bac# and yo! and the therapist

go thro!gh yo!r scenarios, one step at a time, ma#ing s!re yo! stay rela%ed, bac#ing off

if necessary, !ntil yo! can finally imagine the tarant!la while remaining perfectly

tensionfree.

$his is a techni-!e -!ite near and dear to me beca!se I did in fact have a spider phobia,and did in fact get rid of it with systematic desensiti&ation. It wor#ed so well that, after

one session )beyond the original scenariowriting and m!scletraining session* I co!ld goo!t an pic# !p a daddylonglegs. 6ool.

eyond these fairly simple e%amples, shaping also acco!nts for the most comple% of

behaviors. Do! donKt, for e%ample, become a brain s!rgeon by st!mbling into an

operating theater, c!tting open someone's head, s!ccessf!lly removing a t!mor, and beingrewarded with prestige and a hefty paychec#, along the lines of the rat in the 0#inner

bo%. Instead, yo! are gently shaped by yo!r environment to en2oy certain things, do well

in school, ta#e a certain bio class, see a doctor movie perhaps, have a good hospital visit,

enter med school, be enco!raged to drift towards brain s!rgery as a speciality, and so on.$his co!ld be something yo!r parents were caref!lly doing to yo!, as if yo! were a rat in

a cage. !t m!ch more li#ely, this is something that was more or less !nintentional.

A"ersi"e stimuli

n a"ersi"e stimulus is the opposite of a reinforcing stim!l!s, something we might find!npleasant or painf!l.


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A behavior followed by an aversive stimulus results in a decreased probability of the

behavior occurring in the future.

$his both defines an aversive stim!l!s and describes the form of conditioning #nown as

punishment. If yo! shoc# a rat for doing %, itKll do a lot less of %. If yo! span# Johnny

for throwing his toys he will throw his toys less and less )maybe*.

"n the other hand, if yo! remove an already active aversive stim!l!s after a rat or Johnny

performs a certain behavior, yo! are doing negati"e reinforcement. If yo! t!rn off theelectricity when the rat stands on his hind legs, heKll do a lot more standing. If yo! stop

yo!r perpet!ally nagging when I finally ta#e o!t the garbage, IKll be more li#ely to ta#e

o!t the garbage )perhaps*. Do! co!ld say it ;feels so good< when the aversive stim!l!sstops, that this serves as a reinforcerL

Behavior followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an increased

probability of that behavior occurring in the future.

8otice how diffic!lt it can be to disting!ish some forms of negative reinforcement from

positive reinforcement: If I starve yo!, is the food I give yo! when yo! do what I want a positive i.e. a reinforcerE "r is it the removal of a negative i.e. the aversive stim!l!s

of h!ngerE

0#inner )contrary to some stereotypes that have arisen abo!t behaviorists* doesnKt

;approve< of the !se of aversive stim!li not beca!se of ethics, b!t beca!se they donKtwor# wellL 8otice that I said earlier that Johnny will maybe stop throwing his toys, and

that I perhaps will ta#e o!t the garbageE $hatKs beca!se whatever was reinforcing the bad

behaviors hasnKt been removed, as it wo!ldKve been in the case of e%tinction. $his

hidden reinforcer has 2!st been ;covered !p< with a conflicting aversive stim!l!s. 0o,s!re, sometimes the child )or me* will behave b!t it still feels good to throw those

toys. ll Johnny needs to do is wait till yo!Kre o!t of the room, or find a way to blame iton his brother, or in some way escape the conse-!ences, and heKs bac# to his old ways.

In fact, beca!se Johnny now only gets to en2oy his reinforcer occasionally, heKs gone into

a variable sched!le of reinforcement, and heKll be even more resistant to e%tinction than

everL

,eha"ior modification

,eha"ior modification often referred to as -mod is the therapy techni-!e based on

0#innerKs wor#. It is very straightforward: 1%ting!ish an !ndesirable behavior )byremoving the reinforcer* and replace it with a desirable behavior by reinforcement. It has been !sed on all sorts of psychological problems addictions, ne!roses, shyness, a!tism,

even schi&ophrenia and wor#s partic!larly well with children. $here are e%amples of

bac#ward psychotics who havenKt comm!nicated with others for years who have beenconditioned to behave themselves in fairly normal ways, s!ch as eating with a #nife and

for#, ta#ing care of their own hygiene needs, dressing themselves, and so on.


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$here is an offshoot of bmod called the to&en economy. $his is !sed primarily in

instit!tions s!ch as psychiatric hospitals, 2!venile halls, and prisons. 6ertain r!les are

made e%plicit in the instit!tion, and behaving yo!rself appropriately is rewarded withto#ens po#er chips, tic#ets, f!nny money, recorded notes, etc. 6ertain poor behavior is

also often followed by a withdrawal of these to#ens. $he to#ens can be traded in for

desirable things s!ch as candy, cigarettes, games, movies, time o!t of the instit!tion, andso on. $his has been fo!nd to be very effective in maintaining order in these often

diffic!lt instit!tions.

$here is a drawbac# to to#en economy: hen an ;inmate< of one of these instit!tions

leaves, they ret!rn to an environment that reinforces the #inds of behaviors that got theminto the instit!tion in the first place. $he psychoticKs family may be thoro!ghly

dysf!nctional. $he 2!venile offender may go right bac# to ;the Nhood.< 8o one is giving

them to#ens for eating politely. $he only reinforcements may be attention for ;actingo!t,< or some gang glory for robbing a 0even1leven. In other words, the environment

doesnKt travel wellL

0alden ''

0#inner started his career as an 1nglish ma2or, writing poems and short stories. /e has,

of co!rse, written a large n!mber of papers and boo#s on behaviorism. !t he will probably be most remembered by the general r!n of readers for his boo# Walden II ,

wherein he describes a !topiali#e comm!ne r!n on his operant principles.

People, especially the religio!s right, came down hard on his boo#. $hey said that hisideas ta#e away o!r freedom and dignity as h!man beings. /e responded to the sea of

criticism with another boo# )one of his best* called Beyond Freedom and Dignity. /e

as#ed: hat do we mean when we say we want to be freeE s!ally we mean we donKtwant to be in a society that p!nishes !s for doing what we want to do. "#ay aversivestim!li donKt wor# well anyway, so o!t with themL Instead, weKll only !se reinforcers to

;control< society. nd if we pic# the right reinforcers, we will feel free, beca!se we will

be doing what we feel we wantL

Oi#ewise for dignity. hen we say ;she died with dignity,< what do we meanE e meanshe #ept !p her ;good< behaviors witho!t any apparent !lterior motives. In fact, she #ept

her dignity beca!se her reinforcement history has led her to see behaving in that

+dignified+ manner as more reinforcing than ma#ing a scene.

$he bad do bad beca!se the bad is rewarded. $he good do good beca!se the good isrewarded. $here is no tr!e freedom or dignity. Fight now, o!r reinforcers for good and

bad behavior are chaotic and o!t of o!r control itKs a matter of having good or bad l!c#

with yo!r ;choice< of parents, teachers, peers, and other infl!ences. OetKs instead ta#econtrol, as a society, and design o!r c!lt!re in s!ch a way that good gets rewarded and

bad gets e%ting!ishedL ith the right eha"ioral technology, we can design culture.


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oth freedom and dignity are e%amples of what 0#inner calls mentalistic constructs

!nobservable and so !seless for a scientific psychology. "ther e%amples incl!de defense

mechanisms, the !nconscio!s, archetypes, fictional finalisms, coping strategies, selfact!ali&ation, conscio!sness, even things li#e h!nger and thirst. $he most important

e%ample is what he refers to as the homunculus Oatin for ;the little man< that

s!pposedly resides inside !s and is !sed to e%plain o!r behavior, ideas li#e so!l, mind,ego, will, self, and, of co!rse, personality.

Instead, 0#inner recommends that psychologists concentrate on observables, that is, the

environment and o!r behavior in it.

kolb learning styles

David Kolb's learning styles model andexperiential learning theory (ELT)

Having developed the model over many years prior, David Kolbpublished his learning styles model in 1984. The model gave rise torelated terms such as Kolb's eperiential learning theory !"#T$, andKolb's learning styles inventory !#%&$. &n his publications notably his1984 boo( '"periential #earning) "perience *s The %ource + #earning *nd Development' Kolb ac(no-ledges the early -or( oneperiential learning by others in the 19's, including /ogers, 0ung,and iaget. &n turn, Kolb's learning styles model and eperientiallearning theory are today ac(no-ledged by academics, teachers,managers and trainers as truly seminal -or(s2 undamental concepts

to-ards our understanding and eplaining human learning behaviour,and to-ards helping others to learn. %ee also 3ardner's ultiple&ntelligences and 5*K learnings styles models, -hich assist inunderstanding and using Kolb's learning styles concepts.

&n addition to personal business interests !Kolb is ounder andchairman o "perience 6ased #earning %ystems$, David Kolb is still !atthe time & -rite this, 7$ roessor o +rganiational Development at:ase ;estern /eserve


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Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles !orpreerences$, -hich are based on a fourstage learning cycle.!-hich might also be interpreted as a 'training cycle'$. &n this respectKolb's model is particularly elegant, since it o>ers both a -ay tounderstand individual people's di!erent learning styles, and also

an eplanation o a cycle of experiential learning that applies tous all.

Kolb includes this 'cycle o learning' as a central principle hiseperiential learning theory, typically epressed as fourstage cycleof learning, in -hich 'immediate or concrete experiences' providea basis or 'observations and re"ections'. These 'observations andre?ections' are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts'producing ne- implications or action -hich can be 'actively tested'in turn creating ne- eperiences.

Kolb says that ideally !and by inerence not al-ays$ this processrepresents a learning cycle or spiral -here the learner 'touches all thebases', ie., a cycle o eperiencing, re?ecting, thin(ing, and acting.&mmediate or concrete eperiences lead to observations andre?ections. These re?ections are then assimilated !absorbed andtranslated$ into abstract concepts -ith implications or action, -hichthe person can actively test and eperiment -ith, -hich in turn enablethe creation o ne- eperiences.

Kolb's model thereore -or(s on t-o levels a fourstage cycle)

1. #oncrete Experience (#E) $% &e"ective bservation (&)@. bstract #onceptualiation (#) 4. ctive Experimentation (E)

and a fourtype de*nition of learning styles, !each representingthe combination o t-o preerred styles, rather li(e a t-obyt-o matrio the ourstage cycle styles, as illustrated belo-$, or -hich Kolb usedthe terms)

>. Diverging (#E+&)

@. ssimilating (#+&) A. #onverging (#+E) H. ccommodating (#E+E)

diagrams of kolb's learning styles


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Here is a ne- improved !ay 7A$ ree diagram illustrating Kolb'slearning cycle and learning types !%;ord$. !*lso as a pd .$

Kolb diagrams also in colour !li(e the image belo-$) Kolb learningstyles colour diagram %;ord, and Kolb colour diagram DB.

(Kolb diagrams updated ,ay $--.)

%ee also the personality styles and models section or help -ithunderstanding ho- Kolb's theory correlates -ith other personalitymodels and psychometrics !personality testing$.

http://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolblearningstylesdiagram.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolblearningstylesdiagram.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freepdfmaterials/kolblearningstylesdiagram.pdfhttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freepdfmaterials/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.pdfhttp://www.businessballs.com/personalitystylesmodels.htmhttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolblearningstylesdiagram.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolblearningstylesdiagram.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freepdfmaterials/kolblearningstylesdiagram.pdfhttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.dochttp://www.businessballs.com/freepdfmaterials/kolb_learning_styles_diagram_colour.pdfhttp://www.businessballs.com/personalitystylesmodels.htm


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learning styles

(This interpretation /as amended and revised ,arch $--.)

Kolb eplains that di>erent people naturally preer a certain single

di>erent learning style. 5arious actors in?uence a person's preerredstyle) notably in his eperiential learning theory model !"#T$ Kolbde=ned three stages o a person's development, and suggests that ourpropensity to reconcile and successully integrate the our di>erentlearning styles improves as -e mature through our developmentstages. The development stages that Kolb identi=ed are)

1. *cCuisition birth to adolescence development o basic abilitiesand 'cognitive structures'

7. %pecialiation schooling, early -or( and personal eperienceso adulthood the development o a particular 'specialied

learning style' shaped by 'social, educational, and organiationalsocialiation'

@. &ntegration midcareer through to later lie epression o nondominant learning style in -or( and personal lie.

;hatever in?uences the choice o style, the learning style preerenceitsel is actually the product o t-o pairs o variables, or t-o separate'choices' that -e ma(e, -hich Kolb presented as lines o ais, each-ith 'con?icting' modes at either end)

#oncrete Experience #E !eeling$ 0bstract#onceptualiation # !thin(ing$

ctive Experimentation E !doing$0 &e"ectivebservation & !-atching$

* typical presentation o Kolb's t-o continuums is that the east-estais is called the rocessing :ontinuum !ho- -e approach a tas($, andthe northsouth ais is called the erception :ontinuum !our emotionalresponse, or ho- -e thin( or eel about it$.

These learning styles are the combination o t-o lines o ais!continuums$ each ormed bet-een -hat Kolb calls 'dialecticallyrelated modes' o 'grasping eperience' !doing or -atching$, and'transorming eperience' !eeling or thin(ing$)


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The -ord 'dialectically' is not -idely understood, and yet carries anessential meaning, namely 'con?icting' !its ancient 3ree( root means'debate' and & than( %tern or helping clariy this precise meaning$.

Kolb meant by this that -e cannot do both at the same time, and to anetent our urge to -ant to do both creates con?ict, -hich -e resolvethrough choice -hen conronted -ith a ne- learning situation. ;einternally decide -hether -e -ish to do or /atch, and at the sametime -e decide -hether to think or feel.

The result o these t-o decisions produces !and helps to ormthroughout our lives$ the preerred learning style, hence the t-obyt-o matri belo-. ;e choose a -ay o 'grasping the eperience', -hichde=nes our approach to it, and -e choose a -ay to 'transorm theeperience' into something meaningul and usable, -hich de=nes our

emotional response to the eperience. +ur learning style is a producto these t-o choice decisions)

1. ho- to approach a tas( ie., 'grasping experience' preerringto !a$ /atch or !b$ do , and

7. our emotional response to the eperience ie., 'transformingexperience' preerring to !a$ think or !b$ feel.


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&n other -ords -e choose our approach to the task or experience!'grasping the experience'$ by opting or 1!a$ or 1!b$)

• 1!a$ though -atching others involved in the eperience andre?ecting on -hat happens !'re"ective observation' '/atching'$ or

• 1!b$ through 'umping straight in' and ust doing it !'activeexperimentation' 'doing'$

*nd at the same time -e choose ho- to emotionally transformthe experience into something meaningul and useul by opting or7!a$ or 7!b$)

• 7!a$ through gaining ne- inormation by thin(ing, analying, orplanning !'abstract conceptualiation' 'thinking'$ or

• 7!b$ through eperiencing the 'concrete, tangible, elt Cualitieso the -orld' !'concrete experience' 'feeling'$

The combination o these t-o choices produces a preerred learningstyle. %ee the matri belo-.

kolb's learning styles matrix vie/

&t's oten easier to see the construction o Kolb's learning styles interms o a t-obyt-o matri. The diagram also highlights Kolb'sterminology or the our learning styles2 diverging, assimilating, andconverging, accommodating)

doing 1Acti"e E+perimentation

- AE2

(atching 1Reflecti"e

3ser"ation - R32

feeling 1.oncrete

E+perience - .E2

accommodating

1.E/AE2

di"erging

1.E/R32

thin&ing 1Astract

.onceptualization -con"erging 1A./AE2 assimilating


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A.2 1A./R32

Thus, or eample, a person -ith a dominant learning style o 'doing'rather than '-atching' the task , and 'feeling' rather than 'thin(ing'about the experience, -ill have a learning style -hich combines andrepresents those processes, namely an 'ccommodating' learningstyle, in Kolb's terminology.

kolb learning styles de*nitions and

descriptionsKno-ing a person's !and your o-n$ learning style enables learning tobe orientated according to the preerred method. That said, everyoneresponds to and needs the stimulus o all types o learning styles toone etent or another it's a matter o using emphasis that =ts best-ith the given situation and a person's learning style preerences.

Here are brie descriptions o the our Kolb learning styles)

• Diverging (feeling and /atching #E+&) These people are

able to loo( at things rom di>erent perspectives. They aresensitive. They preer to -atch rather than do, tending to gatherinormation and use imagination to solve problems. They arebest at vie-ing concrete situations several di>erent vie-points.Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people perormbetter in situations that reCuire ideasgeneration, or eample,brainstorming. eople -ith a Diverging learning style have broadcultural interests and li(e to gather inormation. They areinterested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, andtend to be strong in the arts. eople -ith the Diverging stylepreer to -or( in groups, to listen -ith an open mind and to

receive personal eedbac(.• ssimilating (/atching and thinking #+&) The

*ssimilating learning preerence is or a concise, logicalapproach. &deas and concepts are more important than people. These people reCuire good clear eplanation rather than practicalopportunity. They ecel at understanding -ideranginginormation and organising it a clear logical ormat. eople -ithan *ssimilating learning style are less ocused on people and


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%imply, people -ho have a clear learning style preerence, or-hatever reason, -ill tend to learn more e>ectively i learning isorientated according to their preerence.

Bor instance people -ho preer the '*ssimilating' learning style -ill

not be comortable being thro-n in at the deep end -ithout notes andinstructions.

eople -ho li(e preer to use an '*ccommodating' learning style areli(ely to become rustrated i they are orced to read lots o instructionsand rules, and are unable to get hands on eperience as soon aspossible.

relationships bet/een kolb and otherbehavioural+personality theories

*s -ith many behavioural and personality models, interestingcorrelations eist bet-een Kolb's theory and other concepts.

Bor eample, Kolb says that his eperiential learning theory, andthereore the learning styles model -ithin it, builds on :arl 0ung'sassertion that learning styles result rom people's preerred -ays o adapting in the -orld.

*mong many other correlations bet-een de=nitions, Kolb points outthat 0ung's '"traversionF&ntroversion' dialectical dimension !-hicheatures and is measured in the yers6riggs Type &ndicator G6T&$correlates -ith the '*ctiveF/e?ective' !doingF-atching$ dialectic !east-est continuum$ o Kolb's model.

*lso, the 6T& 'BeelingFThin(ing' dimension correlates -ith the Kolbmodel :oncrete "perienceF*bstract :onceptualiation dimension!northsouth continuum$.

honey and mumford's variation on thekolb system

5arious resources !including this one in the past$ reer to the terms'activist', 're?ector', 'theorist', and 'pragmatist' !respectively


22/81

representing the our (ey stages or learning steps$ in see(ing toeplain Kolb's model. &n act, 'activist', 're?ector', 'theorist', and'pragmatist' are rom a learning styles model developed by Honey andumord, -hich although based on Kolb's -or(, is di>erent. *rguablythereore the terms 'activist', 're?ector', 'theorist', and 'pragmatist'

e>ectively 'belong' to the Honey and umord theory.

eter Honey and *lan umord developed their learning styles systemas a variation on the Kolb model -hile -or(ing on a proect or the:hloride corporation in the 19I's. Honey and umord say o theirsystem)

J+ur description o the stages in the learning cycle originated rom the-or( o David Kolb. Kolb uses di>erent -ords to describe the stages o the learning cycle and our learning styles...J

*nd, J...The similarities bet-een his model and ours are greater thanthe di>erences..J !Honey umord$

&n summary here are brie descriptions o the our H (eystagesFstyles, -hich incidentally are directly mutually correspondingand overlaid, as distinct rom the Kolb model in -hich the learningstyles are a product o combinations o the learning cycle stages. Thetypical presentation o these H styles and stages -ould berespectively at north, east, south and -est on a circle or ourstagecyclical ?o- diagram.

1. '1aving an Experience' !stage 1$, and ctivists !style 1$) 'hereand no-', gregarious, see( challenge and immediate eperience,openminded, bored -ith implementation.

7. '&evie/ing the Experience' !stage 7$ and &e"ectors !style7$) 'stand bac(', gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reachingconclusions, listen beore spea(ing, thoughtul.

@. '#oncluding from the Experience' !stage @$ and Theorists!style @$) thin( things through in logical steps, assimilatedisparate acts into coherent theories, rationally obective, reectsubectivity and ?ippancy.

4. '2lanning the next steps' !stage 4$ and 2ragmatists !style 4$)

see( and try out ne- ideas, practical, do-ntoearth, enoyproblem solving and decisionma(ing Cuic(ly, bored -ith longdiscussions.

There is arguably a strong similarity bet-een the Honey and umordstylesFstages and the corresponding Kolb learning styles)

• *ctivist L *ccommodating


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• /e?ector L Diverging• Theorist L *ssimilating• ragmatist L :onverging

3HAR' 0'4D30

ohari (indo( is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph O!ft and /arryIngham in >?55 in the nited 0tates, !sed to help people better !nderstand their

interpersonal comm!nication and relationships. It is !sed primarily in selfhelp gro!ps

and corporate settings as a he!ristic e%ercise.

hen performing the e%ercise, the s!b2ect is given a list of 55 ad2ectives and pic#s fiveor si% that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the s!b2ect are then given the

same list, and each pic# five or si% ad2ectives that describe the s!b2ect. $hese ad2ectives

are then mapped onto a grid.

6harles /andy calls this concept the Johari /o!se with fo!r rooms. Foom > is the part of o!rselves that we see and others see. Foom @ is the aspect that others see b!t we are not

aware of. Foom A is the most mysterio!s room in that the !nconscio!s or s!bconscio!s

bit of !s is seen by neither o!rselves nor others. Foom H is o!r private space, which we#now b!t #eep from others.

5uadrants

d2ectives are selected by both the participant and his or her peers and are placed into the

Arena -!adrant. $his -!adrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and

their peers are aware.

d2ectives selected only by the participant, b!t not by any of their peers, are placed into

the %a6ade -!adrant, representing information abo!t the participant of which their peers

are !naware. It is then !p to the participant whether or not to disclose this information.

d2ectives that are not selected by the participant b!t only by their peers are placed intothe ,lind Spot -!adrant. $hese represent information of which the participant is not

aware, b!t others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individ!al

abo!t these +lind spots+.

d2ectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the7n&no(n -!adrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives which were not

recogni&ed by anyone participating. $his may be beca!se they do not apply, or beca!se

there is collective ignorance of the e%istence of said trait.

Johari ad2ectives: Johari indow consists of the following 55 ad2ectives !sed as

possible descriptions of the participant. In alphabetical order they are:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Luft&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Ingham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Ingham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Luft&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Ingham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Ingham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic


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• able

• accepting

• adaptable

• bold

• brave

• calm• caring

• cheerf!l

• clever

• comple%

• confident

• dependable

• dignified

• energetic

• e%troverted

• friendly

• giving• happy

• helpf!l

• idealistic

• independent

• ingenio!s

• intelligent

• introverted

• #ind

• #nowledgeable

• logical

• loving• mat!re

• modest

• nervo!s

• observant

• organi&ed

• patient

• powerf!l

• pro!d

• -!iet

• reflective

• rela%ed• religio!s

• responsive

• searching

• selfassertive

• selfconscio!s

• sensible

• sentimental

• shy

• silly

• spontaneo!s

• sympathetic• tense

• tr!stworthy

• warm

• wise

• witty

[edit] 4ohari "ariant

Nohari window is the inversion of the Johari window, and is a collection of negative personality traits instead of positive.

• iolent

• insec!re

• hostile

• needy

• ignorant

• blas

• embarrassed

• insensitive

• dispassionate

• inattentive

• intolerant

• aloof

• irresponsible

• selfish

• !nimaginative

• irrational

• imperceptive

• lo!d

•

selfsatisfied• over dramatic

• !nreliable

• infle%ible

• gl!m

• v!lgar

• !nhappy

• inane

• distant

• chaotic

• vac!o!s

• passive

• d!ll

• timid

• !nhelpf!l

• brash

• childish

• impatient

• panic#y

• sm!g

• predictable

• foolish

• cowardly

• simple

• withdrawn

• cynical

• boastf!l

• wea#

• !nethical

• rash

• callo!s

• h!morless

Johari Window

Qnown to 0elf 8ot Qnown to 0elf

Qnown to "thers

8ot Qnown to "thers

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$he Johari indow, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph O!ft and /arry

Ingham, is one of the most !sef!l models describing the process of h!man interaction.

fo!r paned +window,+ as ill!strated above, divides personal awareness into fo!r differenttypes, as represented by its fo!r -!adrants: open, hidden, blind, and !n#nown. $he lines

dividing the fo!r panes are li#e window shades, which can move as an interaction

progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Oet's describe mine:

>. $he +open+ -!adrant represents things that both I #now abo!t myself, and that yo!

#now abo!t me. (or e%ample, I #now my name, and so do yo!, and if yo! have e%plored

some of my website, yo! #now some of my interests. $he #nowledge that the window

represents, can incl!de not only fact!al information, b!t my feelings, motives, behaviors,wants, needs and desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. hen I first

meet a new person, the si&e of the opening of this first -!adrant is not very large, since

there has been little time to e%change information. s the process of getting to #now one

another contin!es, the window shades move down or to the right, placing moreinformation into the open window, as described below.

@. $he +blind+ -!adrant represents things that yo! #now abo!t me, b!t that I am !naware

of. 0o, for e%ample, we co!ld be eating at a resta!rant, and I may have !n#nowingly

gotten some food on my face. $his information is in my blind -!adrant beca!se yo! cansee it, b!t I cannot. If yo! now tell me that I have something on my face, then the window

shade moves to the right, enlarging the open -!adrant's area. 8ow, I may also have

blindspots with respect to many other m!ch more comple% things. (or e%ample, perhaps

in o!r ongoing conversation, yo! may notice that eye contact seems to be lac#ing. Do!may not say anything, since yo! may not want to embarrass me, or yo! may draw yo!r

own inferences that perhaps I am being insincere. $hen the problem is, how can I get this

information o!t in the open, since it may be affecting the level of tr!st that is developing between !sE /ow can I learn more abo!t myselfE nfort!nately, there is no readily

available answer. I may notice a slight hesitation on yo!r part, and perhaps this may lead

to a -!estion. !t who #nows if I will pic# this !p, or if yo!r answer will be on the mar#.

A. $he +hidden+ -!adrant represents things that I #now abo!t myself, that yo! do not

#now. 0o for e%ample, I have not told yo!, nor mentioned anywhere on my website, what

one of my favorite ice cream flavors is. $his information is in my +hidden+ -!adrant. ssoon as I tell yo! that I love +en and Jerry's 6herry Garcia+ flavored ice cream, I am

effectively p!lling the window shade down, moving the information in my hidden

-!adrant and enlarging the open -!adrant's area. gain, there are vast amo!nts of information, virt!ally my whole life's story, that has yet to be revealed to yo!. s we get

to #now and tr!st each other, I will then feel more comfortable disclosing more intimate

details abo!t myself. $his process is called: +0elfdisclos!re.+

H. $he +!n#nown+ -!adrant represents things that neither I #now abo!t myself, nor yo!

#now abo!t me. (or e%ample, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt

to !nderstand its significance, a new awareness may emerge, #nown to neither of !s

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before the conversation too# place. eing placed in new sit!ations often reveal new

information not previo!sly #nown to self or others. (or e%ample, I learned of the Johari

window at a wor#shop cond!cted by a Japanese merican psychiatrist in the early>?CB's. !ring this wor#shop, he created a safe atmosphere of care and tr!st between the

vario!s participants. s!ally, I am terrified of spea#ing in p!blic, b!t I was s!rprised to

learn that in s!ch an atmosphere, the tas# need not be so da!nting. Prior to this event, Ihad viewed myself and others had also viewed me as being e%tremely shy. )$he above

now reminds me of a f!nny 2o#e, which I cannot refrain from telling yo!. It is said that

the n!mber one fear that people have is spea#ing in p!blic. $heir n!mber two fear isdying. nd the n!mber three fear that people have, is dying while spea#ing in p!blic.*

$h!s, a novel sit!ation can trigger new awareness and personal growth. $he process of

moving previo!sly !n#nown information into the open -!adrant, th!s enlarging its area,

has been li#ened to Maslow's concept of selfact!ali&ation. $he process can also beviewed as a game, where the open -!adrant is synonymo!s with the winwin sit!ation.

M!ch, m!ch more has been written on the Johari window model of h!man interaction.

$he process of enlarging the open -!adrant is called selfdisclos!re, a give and ta#e process between me and the people I interact with. $ypically, as I share something abo!t

myself )moving information from my hidden -!adrant into the open* and if the other party is interested in getting to #now me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing

information in their hidden -!adrant. $h!s, an interaction between two parties can be

modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. (or e%ample, yo! may respond tomy disclos!re that I li#e +6herry Garcia+ by letting me #now what yo!r favorite ice

cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being b!ilt, #inds of information in yo!r

hidden -!adrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so be caref!l on how m!ch yo! eatL

e believe disclos!re to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets after reading

(re!d. /owever, nita Qelly recently wrote that selfdisclos!re of personal secrets has its

dangers. e are often better off not telling secrets regarding o!r se%!al behavior, mentalhealth problems or largescale fail!res. +If yo! give people information abo!t yo!rself,

yo! give them power over yo!,+ she says. Monica Oewins#y's disclos!re to Oinda $ripp

and the ens!ing scandal that enveloped President 6linton is a case in point. eforewarned that most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties. People also

mis2!dge how others respond to secrets. 0ometimes yo! get negative feedbac#. (or

e%ample, a women who reveals that she was raped may be seen in the f!t!re as a victim,

or by men as damaged goods. 8ow, if yo! m!st tell yo!r secret to someone, chose that person very caref!lly. 6hose someone whose response will give yo! some insight into

yo!r problem. nfort!nately, s!ch a person is often hard to find. 0o if yo! cannot find

anyone appropriate, consider this: that #eeping secrets is healthy and tastef!l, beca!se itis a way of managing yo!r identity, and indicates yo! are sec!re and have selfcontrol.

!t it ta#es energy, beca!se yo! have to be on constant g!ard not to accidentally reveal

something that is potentially damaging.

s ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively invite others to

comment on one's blind spots. teacher may see# feedbac# from st!dents on the -!ality

of a partic!lar lect!re, with the desire of improving the presentation. ctive listening

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s#ills are helpf!l in this endeavor. "n the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the

parts of o!rselves that we feel v!lnerable. Femember, the blind -!adrant contains

behavior, feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, b!t which others can see.(eelings of inade-!acy, incompetence, impotence, !nworthiness, re2ection, g!ilt,

dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, needs to control and manip!late, are all diffic!lt

to face, and yet can be seen by others. $o forcibly reveal what another wishes not to see,is +psychological rape,+ and can be tra!matic. (ort!nately, nat!re has provided !s with a

variety of defense mechanisms to cope with s!ch events, s!ch as denial, ignoring,

rationali&ing, etc.

$he Johari window, essentially being a model for comm!nication, can also reveal

diffic!lties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to comm!nicate via the open

-!adrants. "n the simplest level, diffic!lties may arise d!e to a lac# of clarity in theinteraction, s!ch as poor grammar or choice of words, !norgani&ed tho!ghts, fa!lty logic

etc. $his ind!ces the receiver to critici&e yo!, the sender, by revealing something that was

in yo!r blind -!adrant. $hen, if the feedbac# wor#s, yo! correct it immediately, or

perhaps on a more long term approach ta#e a co!rse in reading and writing. "n a deeper level, yo! may be in a gro!p meeting, and while yo! secretly sympathi&e with the

minority viewpoint, yo! voted with the ma2ority. /owever, blind to yo!, yo! act!allymay be comm!nicating this information via body lang!age, in conflict with yo!r verbal

message. "n an even deeper level, yo! in an interaction with others, may always p!t on a

smiling, happy face, hiding all negative feelings. y withholding negative feelings, yo!may be signaling to yo!r friends to withhold also, and #eep their distance. $h!s, yo!r

comm!nication style may seem bland or distant.

nd let's not forget the parable of the blind men and the elephant. "!r society isconstr!cted so that many of !s get very speciali&ed, #nowing only a small academic field

very well, while being virt!ally ignorant of all others. $his speciali&ation is blinding

many of !s to what is happening in the world today. ccording to F. !c#minister (!ller,this system of ed!cation was done on p!rpose, to channel the most intelligent people into

specialties, enabling them to be more easily controlled. 8oam 6homs#y has made similar

comments with regards to the man!fact!ring enterprise, and how dam 0mith's writingshave been p!rposely misrepresented. 0ee my webpage "n 1d!cation.

In the constr!ction of this website, I am p!tting more of my #nowledge into the open

-!adrant. I am conscio!sly !sing the Johari model to improve my awareness of the world.If yo! see one of my blind spots, please feel free to contact me, and let me #nowL

%'R3 ,Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation

(rom i#ipedia, the free encyclopedia

J!mp to: navigation, search

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%undamental 'nterpersonal Relations 3rientation )%'R3* is a theory of interpersonal

relations, introd!ced by illiam 0ch!t& in >?5C.

.ontents

[hide]• > escription

• @ (!rther evelopment

• A 6orrelations with M$I

• H Feferences

[edit] Description

ccording to the theory, three dimensions of interpersonal relations are necessary and

s!fficient to e%plain most h!man interaction. $he dimensions are called 'nclusion,.ontrol and Affection. $hese categories meas!re how m!ch interaction a person wantsin the areas of sociali&ing, leadership and responsibilities, and more intimate personal

relations. (IF" was created, based on this theory, a meas!rement instr!ment with

scales that assess the behavioral aspects of the three dimensions. 0cores are graded from

B? in scales of e+pressed and (anted behavior, which define how m!ch a persone%presses to others, and how m!ch he wants from others. 0ch!t& believed that (IF"

scores in themselves were not terminal, and can and do change, and did not enco!rage

typology7 however, the fo!r temperaments were event!ally mapped to the (IF" scales,which led to the creation of a theory of (ive $emperaments.

0ch!t& himself disc!ssed the impact of e%treme behavior in the areas of incl!sion,control, and affection as indicated by scores on the (IF". (or each area of

interpersonal need the following three types of behavior wo!ld be evident: )>* deficient,)@* e%cessive, and )A* ideal. eficient was defined as indicating that an individ!al was not

trying to directly satisfy the need. 1%cessive was defined as indicating that an individ!al

was constantly trying to satisfy the need. Ideal referred to satisfaction of the need. (romthis, he identified the following types:

Incl!sion types.

>. the !ndersocial )low 1I, low I*

@. the oversocial )high 1I, high I*A. the social )moderate 1I, moderate I*

6ontrol types

>. the abdicrat )low 16, high 6*

@. the a!tocrat )high 16, low 6*

A. the democrat )moderate 16, moderate 6*

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Schutzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Schutzhttp://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Description%23Descriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Further_Development%23Further_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Correlations_with_MBTI%23Correlations_with_MBTIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIRO-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_temperamentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Temperamentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Temperamentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Schutzhttp://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Description%23Descriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Further_Development%23Further_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#Correlations_with_MBTI%23Correlations_with_MBTIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fundamental_Interpersonal_Relations_Orientation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIRO-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_temperamentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Temperaments


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ffection types

>. the !nderpersonal )low 1, low *

@. the overpersonal )high 1, high *A. the personal )moderate 1 moderate *

In >?==, a clinical psychologist who wor#ed with (IF", r. Oeo Fyan, prod!ced maps

of the scores for each area, called +locator charts+, and assigned names for all of the score

ranges in his Clinical Interpretation of I!"#B:

Score 'nclusion .ontrol Affection$emperament y

APS 1all 8 areas2

9o( e and

($he Ooner $he Febel $he Pessimist Melancholy

moderate

e: lo( (

+8ow Do! 0ee /im, 8ow Do! on't+

$endencies

0elf6onfident+Image of Intimacy+

$endency

Phlegmatic

Melancholy 4Phlegmatic

6holeric

High e:

lo( (

8ow Do! 0ee /im,

8ow Do! on't

Mission

Impossible

Image4)Mas#* of

Intimacy6holeric

high e:

moderate

(

$he 6onversationalist

+MissionImpossible+ with

8arcissistic

$endencies

Oiving p $o

1%pectations

0ang!inePhlegmatic 4

6holeric

Phlegmatic

high e and

(

People Gatherer )formerly, +here are

the PeopleE+*

ependentIndependent

conflict

$he "ptimist 0ang!ine

moderate

e: high (/idden Inhibitions

Oet's $a#e area#

6a!tio!s Oover In isg!ise

Phlegmatic

0!pine 4Phlegmatic

0ang!ine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map


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lo( e:

high (Inhibited Individ!al

"penly

ependent

Person7 )wR9:Ooyal

Oie!tenant*

6a!tio!s Oover 0!pine

lo( e:

moderate

(

6a!tio!s 1%pectation $he 6hec#er 6aref!lModeration

0!pine

Phlegmatic 4Melancholy

Phlegmatic

moderate

e and (0ocial (le%ibility $he Matcher

arm

Individ!al4$he

Golden Mean

Phlegmatic

/owever, to contin!e not to enco!rage typology, the names )which were for clinicalinterpretation primarily* are generally not !sed, and (IF" test res!lts !s!ally total the

1, , I, 6 and scores individ!ally. In the derivative +five temperament+ system, the

different scores are gro!ped into their corresponding temperaments, and consideredinborn types. "ne #ey difference is in the +high wanted+ scores in the area of 6ontrol.

distinction is made between men and women, with men being +dependent+, and women,

rather than really being dependent, only being +tolerant+ of control by others. $his isattrib!ted to +the stereotypical role of women in estern 6!lt!re+, where they were often

dependent, and have simply learned to tolerate control from others. $his again, reflects(IF"'s belief that these scores reflect learned behavior. In five temperament theory, nos!ch distinction between the se%es is recogni&ed, and high wanted scores in 6ontrol are

seen as an inborn dependency need in both se%es.

[edit] %urther De"elopment

!ring the >?=Bs, 0ch!t& revised and e%panded (IF" theory and developed additionalinstr!ments )0ch!t& >??H, >??@* for meas!ring the new aspects of the theory, incl!ding

1lement : ehavior )an improved version of (IF"*7 1lement (: (eelings7 1lement 0:

0elf7 1lement : or# Felations7 1lement 6: 6lose Felations7 1lement P: Parental

Felationships7 and 1lement ": "rgani&ational 6limate. 0ince >?CH, these instr!mentshave been #nown collectively as 1lements of wareness. Element , differs in e%panding

the definitions of Incl!sion, 6ontrol, and ffection )renamed ;3penness;*, into an

additional si% scores to meas!re how m!ch a person wants to incl!de, control, and beclose to others, and how m!ch other people incl!de, control, and li#e to be close to the

testee. $he original (IF" was sold to 6ons!lting Psychologists Press, Inc. )6PP, which

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I want to incl!de people -88> .B? ?> .BC

People incl!de me - ? .B@ .>>

I want people to incl!de me -=> .B? .B= .B>

I control people -8B> .>H -?8> .B@

I want to control people .>AS .BH .BC .B5

People control me .>> .BB ?C> .B>

I want people to control me .B9 .B9 .>@ .BA

I am open with people -?8> ?> > .B=

I want to be open with people -B> > => .B@

People are open with me -8> .>@

I want people to be open with me -?> => > .B=

%'R3-, and !,$' .orrelations

S p T .B5

SS p T .B>SSS p T .BB>

8egative correlations associated with 1, 0, $ and J.

Positive correlations associated with I, 8, ( and P.

Element , and !,$' .orrelations

SIndicates statistical significance


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Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation- Behavior (FIRO-B)

About the Instrument

The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) is a highly valid andreliable tool that assesses how an individual’s personal needs affet that person’s behavior towards other individuals! This highly valid and reliable self-report instrument offers insight intoan individual’s ompatibility with other people" as well as providing insight into that person’s ownindividual harateristis!

The FIRO-B measures a person’s needs for#

• $%pressed Behavior ($) & what a person prefers to do" and how muh that person wants

to initiate ation • 'anted Behavior (') & how muh a person wants others to initiate ation" and how muh

that person wants to be the reipient

The instrument also measures a person’s needs for#

• Inlusion (I) & reognition" belonging" and partiipation

• ontrol () & influene" leading" and responsibility

• ffetion () & loseness" warmth" and sensitivity

Benefits of the FIRO-B

The FIRO-B is an ideal tool to use for interpersonal behavior measurement and assessment"inluding#

• management and supervisor development

• leadership development (used with *BTI as part of the +eadership Report)

• identifying leadership preferred operating styles

• employee development

• team building and e%plaining team roles

• improving team effetiveness

• advaning areer development


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ransactional analysis(rom i#ipedia, the free encyclopedia

J!mp to: navigation, search

iagram of concepts in transactional analysis, based on cover of 1ric erne's >?9H boo#

Games People Play.

$ransactional analysis, commonly #nown as $A to its adherents, is an integrativeapproach to the theory of psychology and psychotherapy. Integrative beca!se it has

elements of psychoanalytic, /!manist and 6ognitive approaches. It was developed by

6anadianborn 0 psychiatrist 1ric erne d!ring the late >?5Bs.

.ontents

[show]

[edit] History

$ is not only post(re!dian b!t according to its fo!nder's wishes conscio!sly e%tra

(re!dian. $hat is to say that while it has its roots in psychoanalysis since erne was a psychoanalytictrained psychiatrist it was designed as a dissenting branch of

psychoanalysis in that it p!t its emphasis on transactional, rather than +psycho+, analysis.

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ith its foc!s on transactions, $ shifted its attention from internal psychological

dynamics to the dynamics contained in people's interactions. Father than believing that

increasing awareness of the contents of !nconscio!sly held ideas was the therape!tic path, $ concentrated on the content of people's interactions with each other. 6hanging

these interactions was $'s path to solving emotional problems.

In addition erne believed in ma#ing a commitment to +c!ring+ his patients rather than

2!st !nderstanding them. $o that end he introd!ced one of the most important aspects of $: the contract an agreement entered into by both client and therapist to p!rs!e

specific changes that the client desires.

Fevising (re!d's concept of the h!man psyche as composed of the id, ego, and s!perego,erne post!lated in addition three +ego states+ 3 the Parent, d!lt, and 6hild states 3

which were largely shaped thro!gh childhood e%periences. $hese three are all part of

(re!d's ego7 none represented the id or the s!perego.

nhealthy childhood e%periences co!ld damage the d!lt or Parent ego states, whichwo!ld bring discomfort to an individ!al and4or others in a variety of forms, incl!ding

many types of mental illness...

erne considered how individ!als interact with one another, and how the ego states

affected each set of transactions. nprod!ctive or co!nterprod!ctive transactions wereconsidered to be signs of ego state problems. nalysing these transactions, according to

the person's individ!al developmental history, wo!ld enable the person to +get better+.

erne tho!ght that virt!ally everyone has something problematic abo!t their ego statesand that negative behavio!r wo!ld not be addressed by +treating+ only the problematic

individ!al.

erne identified a typology of common co!nterprod!ctive social interactions, identifying

these as +games+.

erne presented his theories in two pop!lar boo#s on transactional analysis: $ames %eople %lay )>?9H* and &hat 'o (ou )ay After (ou )ay *ello+ )>?=5*. s a res!lt of this

pop!larity, $ came to be disdained in many [citation needed ] mainstream mental health circles

as an e%ample of + pop psychology+. I,m "- (ou,re "- )>?9?*, written by erne'slongtime friend $homas nthony /arris, is probably the most pop!lar $ boo#. Many

$ therapists regard I,m "- (ou,re "- as an oversimplification or worse.[citation needed ]

$ was also dismissed by the conventional psychoanalytic comm!nity

[citation needed ]

beca!seof its radical depart!res from (re!dian theory. /owever, by the >?=Bs, beca!se of its nontechnical and nonthreatening 2argon and model of the h!man psyche, many of its terms

and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individ!al approaches to

psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for gro!ps of patients, or marital4family co!nselees, where interpersonal )rather than intrapersonal* dist!rbances

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