CHAPTER - VI

STUDIES ON WATER QUALITY OF CHITRAPUZHA RIVER

1.0 INTRODUCTION .

Global concern for the quality of river water in addition to quantity

has been on the increase, in recent years. The river water quality has been

greatly influenced by the discharge of domestic, industrial waste waters

besides agricultural runoff. Introduction of different wastewaters into the

river in large quantities not only alters the environment but also influence

the aquatic communities.

Rivers are the life line for a very large population of the world. In

India many rivers are venerated and are considered holy and these are life

providers to teeming millions of Indians, yet unfortunately they have not

been looked after properly and have been used and abused badly which

resulting in reduced flow and increased pollution load.

The availability of water, the most precious of natural resources, is

unevenly spread all over the world, While some countries like Canada,

Scotland and Norway have more than their requirements, other countries like

Africa, Middle East and Asia are desperately short of fresh water. The

precious little fresh water available today is being indiscriminately used and

too many pollutants are being discharged into the water bodies. According to

an estimate, as much as 18,745,247 Kgs of organic load per day is thrown

into water bodies all over the world and India's share is 1,4 1 1,403 kglday

which is about 7.7% of world's level. On the domestic sanitation front, the

scenario is really bleak. As sewerage facilities are available to only 30%

urban (the government estimate is about 48%) and 3% rural population. Bulk

of waste water flows into the water bodies either with partial or no treatment.

At international level the situation is no better, either particularly in

the developing countries. There is a strong fear that many wars of next

century will be related to water as predicted by Ismail Sergeldin (1995),

Vice President of World Bank. Due to the adverse effect of lack of

sanitation and water pollution, it is reported that 25 million children below

the age of 5 years die every year due to poor sanitation and 80% of

population are effected by the sanitation related diseases in the world

specially in developing countries (Gurnani, 1999).

In India, almost the entire country is criss-crossed by the rivers

which run to a total length of over 45,000 Kms. The country has 12 major,

46 medium and 55 minor river basins. Half a century ago, most of the

Indian rivers met the pristine status, amply meeting the water needs of the

basin population and adequately supported the diverse and rich faunal and

floral composition. But over the decades, with the populi&on exploitation

of nature's riverine resources both quantitatively and qualitatively, almost

all rivers have been grossly polluted in one stretch or the other affecting

both the hydrology and ecology badly. Many of the major rivers also go dry

during summer bearing no available flow for dilution of waste water

discharged into them. Some of the stretches of rivers are literally working

as sewers, canying waste water most of the times. The cities located

upstream reaches, draw water for domestic and other needs and throw waste

water for the use of the down stream towns1 cities who face the

consequences of polluted rivers.

Rivers in Kerala State face the problem of pollution caused by

municipal wastes which include liquid, solid, industrial effluents and

agricultural runoffs. Studies have identified, inter alia the following serious

Impacts of pollution

+ Pollution of surface water with organic load, causing anaerobic

conditions and foul smell, bacteriological contaminants and trace metal

contamination.

+ Pollution of ground water with lead, nitrites, nitrates, trace metals and

bacteriological contaminants.

+ Pollution of soil and agricultural land making it unfit for agricultural

use.

+ Adverse impacts on river ecology, aquaculture and other biological life.

+ Raise in the bed level of rivers leading to change in the course of the

rivers.

The rapid growth of population and urbanization coupled with

inadequate sanitation facilities has been the major source of pollution of

surface waters in India. It.must be mentioned here that out of total 3245

towns and cities of India, only less than two percent have partial or full

waste treatment facilities. Wastewater generation from 212 class I cities of

India (over 1,00,000 population) is assessed as 12,145 Million liters per day

(MLD) and out of this only 2485 MLD i.e. about 20% receives treatment

and in some cases only partially. Presently, very little effort has been made

at recycling the waste water except for agriculture. The treated water is

mostly used for industry. The treated, partially treated and untreated waste

water from these industries And way into the receiving water bodies such as

rivers.

Urban storm water drainage and solid waste management form part

of an integrated water resource management approach and have a direct

impact on the quality of river waters. Indian cities and towns generate about

60,000 tones of city garbage each day. Much of the uncollected solid waste

i.e. about 4040% in cities and towns end up in the drains and sewerage

system which ultimately get discharged into rivers. Besides, this causes

sewer and drainage blockages which require frequent cleaning to prevent

flooding at the time of monsoon rains. The "low status" accorded to both

solid waste management and storm drainage as a public health intervention,

ensures that they receive little engineering, planning or budgetary attention.

Inadequate solid waste handling also results in the clogging of sewers and

drainage canals producing stagnant conditions which in turn affect the

environment and human health. The potential impact of drainage and solid

waste management and pollution caused however, needs to be assessed

scientifically.

2.0 WATER QUALITY OF CHITRAPUZHA RIVER

Chitrapuha river, one of the tributaries of Periyar river, flows

through Amabalamedu, Kochi area, on the southern coast of Indian sub-

continent. The river receives a variety of effluents from fertilizer, refinery

and other industries. Apart from Fertilizers And Chemicals Travancore

(FACT) other major industries around Ambalamedu Kochi area are

Hindustan Organics Chemicals Limited (HOCL) and Kochi Refinery

Limited (KRL). The effluents contain ammonia, ammonium sulphate,

phosphate, calcium sulphate, nitrate and heavy metals. The total effluent

discharge into Chitrapuzha river is about 33,600 m3 per day.

2.1 Study Area

A network of sampling stations were fvred along the Chitrapuzha

river at a distance of 8 km as shown in Fig.33. Water samples were

collected from thirteen (1-13) sampling stations of the river and subjected to

various physicochemical analysis. Three well water samples (14-16) near

the affected land were also collected and analysed. Flora and fauna of the

area with reference to plankton, nekton and benthos from these stations

were also studied. Sampling and analysis was done as per APHA (1998).

, * * ,a-

ERNAKUUY DISTWCT

Fig. 33 Water sampling locations around Chitrapuzha river

2.2 Methodology

The study was based on primary data collection, which involved the

integrated water quality analysis of Chitrapuzha river with special reference

to the impact of the effluents discharged by FACT, Kochi. Seasonal water

sampling was carried out for sixteen water samples collected along

Chitrapuzha river during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post -monsoon with

speclal reference to the effluents discharged. The water quality of

Chitrapuzha river was performed by various physico-chemical and

biological analysis of river samples collected from various sampling points.

The significance of various water quality parameters is determined and their

methodology is discussed in the chapter 111. Apart from that other

parameters are discussed in the following sections.

2.3 Method of Analysis

2.3.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

Sodium adsorption ratio indicates the relative proportion of sodium

ions to calcium and magnesium ions in wastewater. This is an important

parameter to assess the sodium hazard, which is likely to occur on land

treatment sites. SAR value is often employed in assessing the suitability of

imgation waters. SAR is also considered to evaluate the quality of

irrigation water and- it is assumed that SAR value for wastewater will not

exceed 10 under normal circumstances, and wastewater with SAR higher

than 10 may not be suitable for land disposal.

SAR is calculated using the relation

SAR = Na + (ca2+ + M ~ * + ) 12) -%

The concentrations of various cations are expressed in milli

equivalents per liter.

2.3.2 Salinity

Salinity was determined by using the instrument YSI meter (Model

85). The YSI Model 85 handheld oxygen, conductivity, salinity and

temperature system is a rugged, micro- processor based, digital meter. The

system simultaneously displays temperature along with salinity in ppt.

2.3.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD indicates the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the

carbonaceous matter. The COD was determined using the instrument

MERCK SQ 1 18 Photometer.

2.3.4 Heavy metal

The ELICO make SL 173 Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer

was used to analyse the heavy metals like copper, cadmium, Iron, lead etc.

3.0 RESUTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of analysis of water samples are presented in Tables 30-

35. The inferenties from the physico-chemical analyses of water samples are

as follows:

Seasonal variation of pH along Chitrapuzha river is presented

through Fig.34. pH values of the samples collected around FACT area,

varied from 5.90 to 9.85.during all the three seasons. Water samples in

general were found to be alkaline in nature. The highest pH value was

noted at sampling point 1.This is probably due to the ammonia present in

the effluent. Dhanapakiam et a1 (1999) noticed pH values above 9.0 in the

river Cauvery and attributed this increase of pH to the alkaline nature of

effluents coming from textile mills.

3.2 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity depends on the concentration of dissolved

and dissociated substances. It is expressed in micro Siemens per

centimeter. Conductivity values can be correlated with the salinity and total

dissolved solids. Water samples collected from effluent points had high

electrical conductivity especially near the gypsum pond. Electrical

conductivity was high at all effluent points and at many of the river water

sampling stations.

3.3 Total dissolved solids

The seasonal variation of total solids along Chithrapuzha river is

represented in Fig.35. During pre-monsoon the sample number 1 was found

to posses high levels of TDS.

3.4 Chloride

The presence of chloride in water is because of the dissolution of

salt deposits, discharge of effluents, sewage discharge, irrigation drainage

and sea water intrusion. The tolerance limit of chloride for industrial

effluents discharged into land for irrigation is 200 mgll. The seasonal

variation of chloride along Chitrapuzha river is represented in Fig. 36. The

trend of chloride was found to be increasing towards Irumbanarn area

especially during pre-monsoon seasons. Chloride concentration was below

the minimum level in all the water samples collected in the areas far from

the factory.

3.5 Fluoride

Excess fluoride in water can cause dental fluorosis and skeletal

fluorosis. Fluorides in high quantity are toxic to human. Chronic fluoride

poisoning of live stock were reported in areas where water contained 10 to

15 mg/l fluoride (WHO, 1984). Fluoride concentration exceeding 1.5 mg/l

is toxic to fish. The tolerance limit specified by BIS (1991) for industrial

effluents discharged into inland surface water is 2.0 mg/l. The maximum

specific tolerance limit for fluoride in effluents of fertilizer industry is 15

mg/l. The minimal national standards (MINAS) for fertilizer industry

recornmen& a maximum limit of 10 mg/l for fluoride in the treated

effluents. The maximum concentration of 25 mgll was noted in the water

samples collected near the gypsum pond. But during the post-monsoon

period, fluoride concentrations were within the permissible limit of 10 mgll

in all the samples.

3.6 Phosphate

Treated effluents containing phosphate are not generally considered

to be injurious to aquatic life. But its presence in excess may result in

eutrophication leading to growth of algae. This will result in water which is

unsuitable for many other purposes. The MINAS for phosphate is 5 mgll.

The concentration of phosphate was found to be below this level in all the

water samples and for all seasons.

3.7 Sulphate

The seasonal variation of sulphate concentrations at various

sampling stations is indicated in Fig.37. Sulphate usually bccurs in natural

waters. Many sulphate compounds are readily soluble in water. Ingestion of

water containing high concentration of sulphates can have a laxative effect,

which is enhanced when sulphate is consumed in combination with

magnesium. Sulphate causes a problem of scaling in industrial water

supplies. In the present study, a high concentration of sulphate was

observed in the samples collected near the gypsum pond. During monsoon

the concentration bf sulphate was found to be as high as 1800 mgll in the

sample collected fiom gypsom pond (sample no. 2). The high value may be

due to the leaching of gypsom.

3.8 Nitrate-Nitrogen

The presence of excess nitrates can cause various harmful effects.

Excess nitrates may cause limitation to mucous lining of the gastro

intestinal tracks, bladder and may also cause infant methaemoglobinemia.

Nitrate-nitrogen concentration was found to exceed the limit in the water

samples collected near the factory. A concentration as high as 520 mg/l was

observed in a water sample collected from the effluent point 2during post-

monsoon. The ground water samples were also found to have a high nitrate

concentration. The seasonal variation of Nitrate - N is represented in

Fig.38.

3.9 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is an index of the total organic content of water or oxygen

demanding substances in water. 250 mgll is the maximum tolerance limit

prescribed by BIS for industrial effluents discharged into inland surface

waters. The seasonal variation of COD is given in Fig.39. COD was found

to be beyond the permissible limit at sampling stations 4 and 7,9,11 and 13

during pre-monsoon and at 3 and 12 during post-monsoon period and at

station 8 during monsoon sampling.

3.10 Heavy Metals

Analysis of water samples indicated the presence of heavy metals

such as copper, cadmium, lead and Iron. Of these only lead was found to be

present in a higher limit than prescribed by BIS for industrial effluents

discharged into inland surface waters. The permissible limit and effect of

these metals outside the desirable limit prescribed by Bureau of Indian

Standards (BIS, 1991) is given in Table: 36. Lead content was higher than

1 mgil in all the well water samples also.

Table: 36 Heavy Metals and their effects outside the desirable limit

3.11 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

1 SI.No

1

2

3

4

5

6

SAR Values can be classified as follows: (Richards, 1945)

Safe :SAR< 10

Moderately safe : SAR : 10-18

Moderately unsafe : SAR : 28-36

Unsafe : SAR > 26

Heavy metal

Copper

Chromium

Lead

Zinc

Cadmium

Iron

The Sod ik Absorption Ratio (SAR), which indicates the alkalinity

hazard of imgation water was determined. In most of the samples SAR

Desirable limit, mg/l

0.05

0.05

5.0

0.05

0.01

0.30

Effects outside the desirable limit I

Astringent taste, discolouration and corrosion of pipes, fitting and utensils

Carcinogenic above this limit

Water becomes toxic leading to multiple symptoms and effects.

Can cause astringent taste and an opalescence in water

Beyond this, the water becomes toxic

Beyond this limit taste1 appearance are affected

values were below 10 which indicates that water is safe for irrigation.

However, water samples collected from Irumbanam area (sampling station

13) had a high SAR value of 21, which according to the classification,

indicates that water is unsafe for irrigation (Rump and Krist 1982).

3.12 Salinity

The seasonal variation of salinity along Chitrapuzha river is given

in Fig: 40. The salinity was found to be increasing towards irumbanam area,

which can be attributed to closeness of the estuary.

4.0 CORRELATION AMONG DIFFERENT WATER QUALITY

PARAMETERS

A correlation matrix among different parameters and heavy metals

was prepared in order to understand the relationship of various parameters

(Table 37 and 38). A positive correlation was observed among the

parameters like EC, chloride and salinity. A significant correlation was

noted between SAR and salinity. However no significant correlation was

observed among heavy metals.

-.i- Pramonsoon

Post-monsoon

Sampling Points Fig.34 Seosonal variation of pH along Chitrapuzha river

A post-monsoon

\ -m-m'=

A "'I A A A

f . - f 0 - 0 I--. . \ m-,-m-m /= .i-I-

A 'L,,/-- A "'I A A A

*-a. A f. f . - f 0 - 0 B - J .

4 , . , . 1 . , . , . , . , . , . , . , 0 2 4 8 8 10 12 14 18 18

sampling Poi- Fi.35 +monrl variation of TDS along Chhpuzh. river

- monsoon

4 , . , . , . , . r . l . , . , . , . I 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Sampling potnts Fig.36 Seasonal variation of chloride along Chirapuzha river

- , . , . , . I . I . I . I . , . I . 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 I S 18

Sampling Points Fig.37 .Seasonal variation of sulphate along chitrapuzha river

- +- Monsoon

a ! , . , . , . , . , . , , , . , . , . , 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Sampling Points Fig.38 Seasonal vanation of Nitrate-N along Chitrapuzha river

4 , . , . , . , . , . , . 1 . , . , . 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Sampling Poinis Fig.39 Seasonal variation of COD along Chitmpuzha river

-m- Pre-monsoon Monsoon

A Post-monsoon

Sampling Points Fig.40 Seasonal variation of salinity along Chiipuzha river

Table 37 Correlation matrix among d~fferent water quality parameters

Table 38 Correlat~on matrix among d~fferent metals

5.0 FLORA AND FAUNA

Species composition, density and distribution of flora and fauna

varies accordance with the hydrographic conditions of water and

environmental status of the area. Stress conditions particularly due to

salinity intrusion, discharge of pollutants etc result in distinct variations in

the biotic components which in turn indicates the productivity status of land

and water.

5.1 Sampling network

From the network of stations fixed along the Chitrapuzha river at a

distance of 8 krn starting from the point effluent discharge site I upto Bharat

Petrolium Corporation Limited (BPCL) area down stream sampling was

carried out for the analysis of flora and fauna including plankton, benthos

and nekton. Residual analysis for heavy metals in the tissues of the plant,

Eichhornea sp and animals; Arius batrachus (fish) penaeusjndcus (prawn)

was carried out.

5.2 Results and discussion

5.2.1 Plankton

Plankton refers to those aquatic fonns having little or no resistance

to the currents arid living free floating or suspended in open or pelagic

waters. The planktonic plants are referred to as phyto plankton such as

microscopic algae and the animals as zooplankton. Sometimes it is useful

to divide plankton on the basis of size regardless of the types. Plankton of

size 1-lOmm is referred to as macro plankton and those of size <60 p as

microplankton. Plankton particularly phytoplankton, have long been used

as indicators of water quality. Some species nourish in highly eutrophic

waters while others are sensitive to organic and inorganic chemical wastes.

As with phytoplankton the species assemblage of zooplankton in a given

area is useful in assessing water quality.

In the present study samples for macro and micro plankton were

collected from fixed stations. A net size of lmm mesh was used to separate

macro plankton. Further, microscopic examination for identification and

enumeration was carried out. The micro plankton samples filtered through

< 60p mesh, were centrifuged at 1000 RF'M for 20 minutes. The centrikged

samples were microscopically observed for identification of the micro

planktonic species.

5.2.2 Macro plankton

The macro plankton in the samples collected include macro phyton

(Larger plants) and macro zooplankton (animals). The macro phyton of the

area comprised of major groups like (Eichhornia sp. (water hyacinth),

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Amaranthacea), and wild grass (grarninae).

These macroplankton reported are tolerant varieties capable of accumulate-

ing toxicants in high levels. These species were distributed throughout the

area extending from effluent discharge site lupto BPCL area.

5.2.3 Zooplankton

Density of macro zooplankton was low and scarcely distributed in

the study area. Zooplankton included fresh water species like Oithona sp.

Daphnia sp. Isoperilla sp and Rhabditis sp.

5.2.4 Microplankton

In the present study area, with regard to microplankton the,

phytoplankton community was dominant indicating the enrichment of

nutrients. Euryhaline species capable of existing in high saline conditions

were not present in this area. Microplankton included a spectrum of fresh

water and brackish water species. The density of fresh water species

exceeded that of the brackish water species. A decreasing trend in

abundance of microplankton was observed towards the effluent discharge

sties 1-3. Phytoplankton species, viz. Chlorella sp. Oscillattoria sp. and

Nitzhia sp. that occur in polluted waters were common and dominant in this

area.

5.2.5 Benthos

Benthos are group of animals and plants inhabiting the bottom of

water bodies, attached to sediments, stones and other submerged objects. A

body of water of-good quality usually supports a diverse benthic fauna but

pollution may restrict the number of organisms besides favouring pollution

tolerant organisms. Associated with physical and chemical condition of

water pollution by toxic substances may eliminate almost all macro benthic

specles. Benthic samples were collected from the study are using Van veen

grab and macro benthos were separated by sieving through 0.5 mm sieve.

Benthic species microscopically identified and enumerated. Sampling sites

were totally devoid of benthic fauna upto effluent discharge sites 1 to 3 .

Polychaete. Sp., and Gastropods were distributed in very low density

towards BPCL area.

5.2.6 Nekton

Nektonic species include large varieties of organisms like fishes.

The nekton samples were collected from the various stations using cast net.

lnformation on the abundance and species composition of the nektonic

species is useful for assessing the quality of a waterbody.

In the study area diverse nektonic species were not found. In the effluent

discharge points 1 to 3 also nektonic population was not reported.

Moreover Arius batrachus (Caflih.) Tilapia sp. Haplochilus sp. and

Peneaus indicus were distributed in very low densities near Irumbanam

bridge and BPCL area.

6.0 BIOACCUMULATION OF HEAVY METALS

Residual heavy metals in plants and animal tissues occur through

bioconcentration or bioaccumulation. Accumulation of these xenobiotics or

toxicologically active substances occurs via, membranes or epithelia of an

aquatic organism. Bioaccumulation is the mechanism by which living

matter concentrates an element throughout its active metabolic life as a

result the concentration of the element in tissues reaches, to levels in excess

of the surroundings.

The animal and plant tissues of fish, Arius batrachus, hawn,

Penaeus indicus, water hyacinth, etc were subjected to residual analysis for

heavy metals. Plant and animal tissues were dried, processed, acid digested

and metal levels were determined using atomic absorption

spectrophotometer. The concentrations of lead and nickel in animal and

plant tissues were high (Table.39). Lead concentration was as high as 68.0

mgkg, 76.0 mgkg in fish and prawn tissues respectively. In plant tissue of

Eichhornia sp, from BPCL area and Irumbanam bridge, lead concentrations

were 216.0 mgkg and 239.0 mglkg. The nickel content in plant tissue was

reported to be 239.0 m a g .

Table: 39 Heavy metal concentrations in animal and plant tissues , Name of Sunplms C a n ~ n a r o ~ of mml, mplkp

SPCCIU point I W I N . ) z ~ I Cu I Mn I Cd ] Fe / NI I M 8

BDL- Below detectable level The values represent the mean monthly averages and those in paranthesis represent the standard deviation to the respective data

7. CONCLUSIONS

*:* The water quality studies indicated that river samples are generally

alkaline in nature.

f The concentrations of fluoride, sulphate and calcium were also found

to be high.

9 There is a heavy occurrence of nutrients and heavy metals in the

Chitrapuzha river.

*:* Concentration of calcium and sulphates was found to be high

especially in the samples collected near the gypsum pond

Q A high concentration of Nickel and Lead was observed in selected

plant and animal tissues. The high concentration observed in the

tissue may be the result of bioaccumulation of elements from the

effluents, discharged from various factories into Chitrapuzha river.

*:* A significant correlation was noted between SAR and salinity.

However no significant correlation was observed among heavy metals.