Degree Project

Level: master’s degree

Structural and Functional Analysis of Lexical Bundles in Music Research Articles A Corpus-Based Approach

Author: Elena Novella Savelyeva

Supervisor: Annelie Ädel

Examiner: Jonathan White

Subject/main field of study: Applied English Linguistics

Course code: EN3077

Credits: 15 credits

Date of examination: 2021-06-02

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Abstract

Applied linguistics has lately been seen in studies of formulaicity of language operating

through recurrent word combinations. The present study deals with one type of word

combinations, namely lexical bundles (LBs), which are defined as a sequence of three or more

words that frequently co-occur in a particular register (Biber et al., 1999). The present study is

a corpus-based analysis of four-word lexical bundles extracted from Music research articles

(RAs). The Corpus of Music Research Articles (CMRA) of one million words was created in

order to perform structural classification of the retrieved lexical bundles and an analysis of

their functions. The CMRA includes 110 articles collected from international music journals

from various music subdisciplines. In order to find which lexical bundles were characteristic

of music research specifically, the findings were compared to previous research based on

other academic disciplines. The list of 218 lexical bundles was compared to the one of three

different subject areas (Jalilifar et al., 2016) with the purpose of identification of discipline-

specific LBs (n=102) which included 20 topic-specific bundles; and general lexical bundles

(n=116) which included 56 core bundles shared among Music and three subject areas (Art and

Humanities, Sciences and Social sciences). Structurally and functionally, the analysis of the

extracted lexical bundles demonstrated that native English expert writers predominantly used

preposition-based phrases (50%), with respect to structure; and research-oriented bundles

(74%), with respect to function. The findings have pedagogical applications and could be used

in courses in English for Specific Purposes. Keywords: formulaic language, lexical bundles, research articles, music, musicology, Corpus

linguistics

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5

2 Theoretical Background ........................................................................................................ 10

2.1 Formulaicity in Language .......................................................................................... 10

2.2 Lexical Bundles ......................................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Structures and functions of lexical bundles ............................................................. 17

2.1.2 Lexical bundles across academic disciplines or subject areas ................................ 19

3 Methodology and Material .................................................................................................... 27

3.1 Journal Selection ....................................................................................................... 28

3.2 Corpus Creation ........................................................................................................ 31

3.3 Material Identification of Lexical Bundles ................................................................ 35

3.3.1 Identification of lexical bundles (RQ1) ................................................................... 37

3.3.1.1 Analytical steps, exclusion criteria and grouping ............................................ 38

3.3.2 Determining the coverage of general bundles over the discipline-specific in the

domain of music (RQ2) .................................................................................................... 42

3.3.3 Structural forms and functions of the lexical bundles (RQ 3 and 4) ....................... 44

4 Results ................................................................................................................................... 47

4.1 Lexical Bundle Identification .................................................................................... 47

4.2 Structural Forms ........................................................................................................ 48

4.3 Functional Types ....................................................................................................... 53

4.3.1 Research-oriented bundles ...................................................................................... 55

4.3.2 Text-oriented bundles .............................................................................................. 59

4.3.3. Participant-oriented bundles ................................................................................... 63

5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 65

References ................................................................................................................................ 69

Appendix 1. The Full List of Lexical Bundles in the CMRA .................................................. 74

Appendix 2. The List of Overlaps in the CMRA ..................................................................... 81

Appendix 3. The list of the RAs used for the CMRA .............................................................. 83

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List of Tables

Table 1. Formulaic sequences of different levels of invariability ............................................ 11 Table 2. The structural and functional distribution of lexical bundles across disciplines ....... 23 Table 3. The distribution of journals and articles selected for the corpus................................ 29

Table 4. An example of the initial letter variation within the retrieved sequences .................. 40 Table 5. Two-words contracted combinations identified in the corpus ................................... 40 Table 6. A random sample of the matches count ..................................................................... 43 Table 7. Functional classification of lexical bundles by Salazar (2014) .................................. 44 Table 8. The structural forms of the lexical bundles in the Music research articles ................ 48

Table 9. Structural category “complete noun phrase” .............................................................. 50

Table 10. Noun-based category occurrences and frequencies compared ................................. 50 Table 11. Preposition-based category occurrences and frequencies compared ....................... 51

Table 12. Verb-based category occurrences and frequencies compared.................................. 52 Table 13. The functions of the lexical bundles in the Music research articles......................... 53 Table 14. The structural distribution of descriptive signals ..................................................... 56

Table 15. The quantification function of music LBs ............................................................... 59 Table 16. The participle-oriented bundles of music LBs ......................................................... 63

List of Figures

Figure 1. SketchEngine results of the note writing .................................................................. 33 Figure 2. Sketch Engine concordance lines of the note writing ............................................... 33

Figure 3. The initial text in the article by Raz (2014) .............................................................. 33

Figure 4. Sketch Engine results of graphs decodification ........................................................ 34 Figure 5. Sketch Engine concordance lines of the graphs decodification ................................ 34 Figure 6. The initial text of the article by Hooper (2019) ........................................................ 34 Figure 7. Frequency normalisation formula ............................................................................. 37

Figure 8. The demonstration of acknowledgement functions in the corpus ............................ 64

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1 Introduction

The motivations for this study originate in part from the author‟s own experience in teaching

English at a Musical higher educational institution (Rostov State Rakhmaninov Conservatoire

–RSC–, Russia). My personal and professional interest in the way the native English-speaking

musicologists use the language, especially its phraseological component, resulted in

investigations of onomatopoeia in music terminology (such as growl denoting a specific

sound of brass instruments or shuffle denoting a piano-playing technique, for instance) and

phraseological units in everyday language containing music vocabulary (such as, the tune the

old cow died of, or at sb’s whistle). These works were published in 2009 and 2013 in the

journal South-Russian Musical Anthology affiliated with the RSC. While performing the

above mentioned research, it became clear that the discipline of Music and Musicology had

not been investigated much before (or even not at all) from the perspective of language use.

Music, along with Theatre and Dance, is included into the Performing Arts subgroup; which,

in its turn, forms part of the Arts cycle, a subcategory of the Humanities subject area

(Britannica, 2021). The Humanities conventionally include the study of all languages and

literatures, the Arts, History and Philosophy. The study of music involves a host of different

areas (e.g., jazz studies, orchestra studies, ethnomusicology, musicology and music theory,

among others), many of which might be significantly different from any other while also

potentially informing each other. Musicology, for its part, is currently understood as “an all-

embracing term for the study of music that respects the whole musical field” (Beard & Gloag,

2016, p. xii). Colloquially, Humanities are called Soft sciences and are opposed to Hard,

technical, sciences.

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Both Soft and Hard sciences have been studied from the perspective of formulaicity. To date,

it has been shown that the teaching of language formulaicity has a lot of important use in the

ESP classroom and that “phraseological competence is an important part of nativelike, fluent,

and idiomatic language use” (Paquot & Granger, 2012, p. 130). It has also become evident

that phraseology plays an important role in foreign language learning and teaching since

“phraseology binds words, grammar, semantics, and social usage” together (Ellis, 2008, p. 5).

The general academic division of Arts and Humanities as a whole has been investigated from

the perspective of formulaicity: lexical bundles were analysed in studies by Kwary et al.

(2017), Durrant (2017), Jalililafar et al. (2016), among others. These works have investigated

the syntactic structures and functions of lexical bundles of various lengths across multiple

subject areas and academic disciplines, and will be further presented in overviewed in Section

2. Also, previous studies have identified shared and discipline-specific lexis. However, the

Performing Arts in general and Music more specifically are still under-investigated areas. For

this reason, the choice of the present material was made in order to make the picture of the

subject area of Arts and Humanities more complete.

These two issues signaled that there were some key components that could be useful for both

non-native professional musicologists writing in English and teachers of English for Specific

Purposes. All this stimulated the idea of the present work: to investigate the use of formulaic

language by native English-speaking experts in Music research articles (RAs).

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The choice of the genre for this study was also prompted by the professional interest of the

author. The act of communication among scientists and scholars is realised in the written form

mainly by means of research articles. A research article is considered to be one of the main

tools of the academic discourse community for internal communication; it is used to

communicate information of common interest between members of research communities

more efficiently (Cortes de los Rios & Cruz Martinez, 2000, p. 40) and is “meant to serve the

goals of specific discourse communities” (Bhatia, 1997, p. 181). As stated by Dudley-Evans

(1994), a genre is a means of achieving a communicative goal that has evolved in response to

particular rhetorical needs, and that will change in response to those needs. It involves certain

syntactic structures generally used in this genre and employs particular lexico-grammatical

resources.

Every discourse community uses multiple ways of communication, a combination of which

helps to develop various genres (Swales, 1990). A discourse community might be identified as

a group of people who share a set of discourses and interests between its members (Swales,

1988). It has its mechanisms for members‟ communication. In short, a discourse community

uses a genre, among other aspects, as a tool for the successful communication of its members.

The most representative features of the research article as a genre have been said to be the

specific generic structure, scientific vindication, communicative politeness, and indirect

language. These traits are described in more detail in the work by Cortes de los Rios and Cruz

Martinez (2000). Indeed, writing research articles appears to be a complex activity with many

visible and invisible layers, and preparing to write a research article involves an

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understanding of discourse functioning at a high level (Abdi et al., 2010). In other words, the

genre of the research article is a specific tool with its own complex procedures and features

that is used by the academic discourse community for its communicative interests.

With these personal and professional motivations in mind, this work is an attempt to examine

the lexical bundles used by native English-speakers in Music research articles, from the

perspective of structural forms and functions. The study will address these issues through the

research questions (RQs) listed below:

1. What four-word lexical bundles are found in the corpus?

2. How do the findings compare to those of previous studies based on the other

disciplines (Jalilifar et al., 2016)? More specifically, what LBs are specific for the

discipline of music?

3. What structural forms do the LBs have?

4. What functions do the LBs serve?

In terms of methodology, the present study uses a corpus-based approach, since corpus

linguistic techniques are considered to be “an extremely powerful tool for the analysis of

natural language” (Schmitt, 2010, p. 89) for exploring the above mentioned phraseological

material. In order to answer the RQs, a corpus of one million words has been created and 218

four-word lexical bundles have been retrieved from the corpus to be analysed from the

perspective of syntactic structures (based on the classification of Biber et al., 1999) and

discourse functions (based on the classification of Salazar, 2014, which is a modified version

of Hyland, 2008b).

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This dissertation is organized in the following manner: Section 2 provides an overview of

previous studies relevant to the present work. Section 3 describes the methods and procedures

used in the research. Section 4 presents the results of these studies. Finally, Section 5,

Conclusions, will discuss the key findings, and will also propose some pedagogical

applications of the material. The full list of lexical bundles is provided in Appendix 1,

Appendix 2 provides a list of overlaps in lexical bundles and Appendix 3 contains the list of

the research articles used for the Corpus.

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2 Theoretical Background

This section will overview the previous research on the formulaicity of language and lexical

bundle analysis published by multiple scholars over recent years. It will reflect the concept of

formulaicity in language and its realisations. It will introduce the main concepts of this

linguistic area and will deal with lexical bundles in detail. It will present the results of works

on lexical bundles in academic writing from different perspectives.

2.1 Formulaicity in Language

Thirty years ago Sinclair (1991) discussed the idea of the open-choice principle and the idiom

principle in language. The open-choice principle implies the traditional idea that practically

each position in a phrase or a sentence offers a choice. In the case of the idiom principle, a

language user has available a large number of semi-preconstructed phrases that constitute

single choices, “once a register choice is made […] all the slot-by-slot choices are massively

reduced” (Sinclair, 1991, p. 110). Preconstructed multi-word combinations, on the contrary,

lead to the idiom principle in the language and are connected to formulaicity in language.

Nowadays, many researchers stress that “language is largely formulaic in nature, and that

phraseological competence is an important part of native-like, fluent, and idiomatic language

use” (Paquot & Granger, 2012, p. 130). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the English

language is formulaic and highly patterned in nature, and in everyday language use, it seems

that most spoken and written language use is more formulaic than based on novelty (Jensen,

2017). In other words, formulaicity can be said to be a key feature of the English language.

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According to some previous investigations in this area, multiple terms have been used to

describe formulaicity in language. It has been noted (Elturki, 2015, p. 12) that the English

language can be characterised by different types of language formulas such as collocations

(make a decision), idioms (to be fed up with), proverbs (Don’t cry over spilled milk), phrasal

verbs (call something off), and speech formulas (Excuse me). Other examples of terms that

describe language formulaicity and that have been extensively used in the studies of the past

two decades include the following: lexical bundles (Biber et al., 1999), chunks (Hyland,

2008a), multi-word combinations and academic formulas (Simpson-Vlach & Ellis, 2010),

formulaic sequences (Wray, 2002; Ädel & Erman, 2012) and n-grams (Cermakova &

Chlumska, 2017; Durrant, 2017). All of these terms have been used in the literature to refer to

“continuous word sequences retrieved by taking a corpus-driven approach with specified

frequency and distribution criteria” (Chen & Baker, 2010, p. 30). In order to avoid such

terminological ambiguity, this work has adopted the definition used by Wray (2002),

according to which a formulaic sequences (FSs) are “continuous or discontinuous” and appear

to be “prefabricated and stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather

than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar” (Wray, 2002, p. 9).

Furthermore, Biber et al. (1999, pp. 988-989) provide an extensive description of formulaic

sequences of different levels of invariability. Table 1 reflect the main concepts of language

formulaicity:

Table 1. Formulaic sequences of different levels of invariability

Idioms These are supposed to be relatively invariable with meaning that

cannot be predicted from the meaning of its parts, they have to be

learned as a whole.

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Lexico-grammatical

association (think +

that expression)

These are co-occurrence patterns with which the words can have

strong associations.

Collocations These are associations between lexical words that co-occur more

frequently than expected by chance; the individual words in a

collocation retain their own meaning. In case of collocations,

linguistics deals with two very different concepts (Palmerian and

Firthian) which “have caused considerable confusion”, according to

Lindquist and Levin (2018). The term by Palmer refers to collocation

as “a succession of two or more words that must be learnt as an

integral whole and not pieced together from its component part”

(Palmer, 1933, title page), among the examples of collocations are

“to have a hard time of it” or “to hear something [anything, nothing,

etc.] of [about] N3” (Lindquist & Levin, 2018, pp. 72–73). This type

is closer to linguistic structures and has a wider use in the linguistic

literature.

Otherwise, the Firthian way puts greater emphasis on how the

meaning of individual words is influenced by other words that a

given word frequently occurs together with. Following the Firthian

tradition, many scholars assume a statistical definition of collocation.

According to this view, collocations are statistically significant co-

occurrences of two or more words regardless of the meaning of these

word combinations. Moreover, another important term is collocates,

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which refers to words “which occur in the vicinity of the keyword but

which do not necessarily stand in a direct grammatical relationship

with it” (Lindquist & Levin, 2018, pp. 73). This type of collocation

has been called “window collocations” due to the span of the window

of varying size; commonly research tends to take into consideration

four or five words to the left and to the right of the node word. It

seems reasonable to conclude that this definition of collocation is

very close to lexical bundles.

n-grams These are sequences of continuous N words (e.g. 2-gram, 3-grams,

etc.), regardless of their frequency, and could both include less and

highly frequent co-occurrences. In some studies, however, the terms

lexical bundle and n-gram have been used to differentiate the level of

their frequencies in the corpus: when studying four-word formulaic

sequences, Durrant (2017) used the term 4-gram to refer to all four-

word combinations, regardless of frequency and the term lexical

bundle “would be reserved to refer to high-frequency 4-grams”

(Durrant, 2017, p. 170). This use of the term could also be found in

the work of other authors (Cermakova & Chlumska, 2017).

Lexical bundles These are recurring sequences of three or more words frequently

occurring in a collection of texts and most commonly co-occuring in

a register (Biber et al., 1999, p. 990). They are recurrent expressions

that, regardless of their idiomaticity and their structural status, go

together in natural discourse. Also, “they typically do not coincide

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with traditional grammatical units, but instead represent clause or

phrase fragments” (Ädel & Erman, 2012, p. 82). Lexical bundles tend

not to match up with traditional linguistic units and usually bridge

two or more phrases or clauses (typical examples include: if you look

at; that’s one of the; it’s important to; (Durrant, 2017, p. 166). They

are different from idiomatic expressions and assume important

discourse functions in the language (Biber & Barbieri, 2007).

Based on the above, it seems reasonable to formulate the properties of formulaic sequences as

follows: they can be identified automatically; they play definable functional roles; and they

are highly sensitive to differences between text types (Durrant, 2017, p. 166). The last

property turns to be very useful for the identification of variation across disciplines. In written

academic genres, in general, it has been shown that formulaic sequences display a higher

frequency than in non-academic genres (Biber et al., 1999; Hyland, 2008; Simpson-Vlach &

Ellis, 2010; Wood, 2015). The types of formulaic sequences depend on context and genre.

Hyland has emphasised that “[t]he extensive use of such pre-fabricated sequences as it has

been noted that in academic written genres helps (…) to signal the text register to readers and

reduce processing time by using familiar patterns to link elements of new information”

(Hyland, 2008b, p. 5).

Due to the fact that the discourse community possesses “an inbuilt dynamic towards an

increasingly shared and specialized terminology” (Swales, 1988, p. 212), there has been a key

debate concerning to what extent it could be true to say that there exists a common core

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vocabulary across a range of academic texts and disciplines (Flowerdew, 2015). As

demonstrated in some previous research, lexical bundles have been shown to be discipline-

bound (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2008b), with each discipline or academic community having its

own unique recurrent word-combinations. However, the alternative theory of common-core

lexical bundles across academic disciplines has argued that disciplines tend to share formulaic

formulas and this means that it is possible to identify core bundles across academic disciplines

or, even more, subject areas. This idea was formulated by Simpson-Vlach and Ellis (2010)

and has been supported by Paquot (2010) and Jalilifar et al. (2016) among others. The present

work will follow this theory of core bundles by looking at the bundles shared by different

academic disciplines listed in Jalilifar et al. (2016). At the same time, it will also identify

discipline specific, topic-specific and general lexical bundles in Music RAs. The purpose of

the present work is to look at the domain of music from the perspective of lexical bundle

analysis by means of a corpus of Music research articles.

2.2 Lexical Bundles

Previous research has studied LBs from different perspectives, focusing on how they are used

by different groups of users, such as learners at different proficiency levels compared to

native speakers, or how they are represented in academic writing across disciplines. Some of

the most important investigations and influential theories on corpus-based lexical bundle

analysis include various works on the most common variables.

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The extent to which LBs vary across registers or genres has been discussed in the works by

e.g. Biber and Barbieri (2007), Biber, (2009), Biber et al. (1999) and (2004), Biber (2006),

Hyland (2008a, 2008b), Simpson-Vlach and Ellis (2010) and others.

The extent to which LBs vary depending on the L1-L2 status of the speakers, e.g. native-

speaker perspective versus language-learner perspective, has been investigated, among others,

by Ädel and Erman (2012), Chen and Baker (2010), Du (2013), Esfandiari and Barbary

(2017), Karabacak and Qin (2013), Nekrasova (2009), Pan et al. (2016), Paquot and Granger

(2012), Paquot (2017), Perez-Llantada (2014), Römer (2009), Staples et al. (2013) and others.

Researchers have also compared the use of bundles by academic writers with different first

languages and different levels of writing expertise. Key studies in this category have been

carried out by Cortes (2004), Gil and Caro, (2019), Ozturk and Kose (2016), Pan and Liu

(2019), Qin (2014) and others.

The extent to which LBs vary across academic disciplines or subject areas has been addressed

in the works by Durrant ( 2017), Kwary et al. (2017), and Salazar et al. (2013), and others.

More specifically, the structural and/or functional features of LBs across disciplines have

been investigated by Esfandiari and Barbary (2017), Jalali et al. (2015), Jalilifar and

Ghoreishi (2018), Lee and Lee (2018), Pan et al. (2016), Qin, (2014), Verdaguer et al. (2013)

and others.

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Since the present work deals with the disciplinary features of Music RAs, their structures and

functions, it is relevant to pay special attention to works previously published in this area.

2.1.1 Structures and functions of lexical bundles

EAP research published in recent years has focused on determining the functional patterns

and syntactic structures of lexical bundles of different academic genres and disciplines.

Syntactic structures of lexical bundles have been classified by Biber and others (Biber et al.,

1999) based on three main categories: noun-based, preposition-based, and verb-based

bundles. Each category is then further subdivided into smaller subcategories.

From a functional perspective, Biber et al. (2004) distinguished between three main

categories: stance bundles, discourse organizers and referential bundles. Stance bundles are

supposed to express attitudes (it is possible to, it is necessary to) or assessments of certainty

(the fact that the). The stance expression shares epistemic stance and modality stance

functions. Discourse organizers serve to reflect relationships between prior and coming

discourse (as well as the). Within this category, there are topic introduction bundles (in this

chapter we) and topic elaboration bundles (on the other hand) that are used to organize and

structure texts. Referential bundles help make direct reference to physical or abstract entities

(one of the most), or to the textual context itself (in the form of). The category of referential

bundles can be also characterized by the function of attribute specification: under this

subcategory, there can be found place markers (in the United States), time markers (at the

same time), framing bundles (the extent to which), quantifying bundles (the rest of the), text

deixis (shown in figure N) and multi-functional references (at the end of).

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The classification by Hyland (2008b, p. 13) proposes a modified version of Biber et al.‟s

(2004) categories, with labels that are especially relevant to the domain of academic writing.

Hyland‟s classification included the following distribution (see Hyland, 2008b, pp. 13–14):

research-oriented (location (at the beginning of), procedure (the use of the),

quantification (a wide range of), description (the structure of the), topic (the currency

board system));

text-oriented (transition signals (on the other hand), resultative signals (as a result

of), structuring signals (in the present study), framing signals (with the respect to the));

participant-oriented (stance features (are likely to be), engagement features (it

should be noted that)).

The work by Qin (2014) developed the classification of Biber et al. (2004) and changed the

order of the functions: referential, text-organisers, stance and other bundles. The work also

reorganised the first category of referential bundles which would include place markers (in the

present study), time markers (at the same time), descriptive bundles (the aim of the) and

quantifying bundles (there are a number of). Four new sub-types were added to the category

of text-organisers: brevity (and so forth), exemplification (for example, the), explanation (that

is to say), and locator (as noted earlier). Under the category of stance bundles, there were two

specific sub-types: epistemic-impersonal/probable-possible (it is likely that) and other stance

bundles (it was found that the). The fourth category, the other bundles, referred to subject-

specific bundles (in a foreign language setting). However, these were not defined by the

author, so it was not quite clear what was included in this subcategory. The classification of

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Qin (2014) could be called a blend between the classification of Biber et al. (2004) and

Hyland (2008b) since the taxonomy is similar to both of these in one way or another.

The classification by Salazar (2014) is based on the one by Hyland (2008b), but introduced

some additional subcategories such as grouping (in the research-oriented category) and

acknowledgments (in the participant-oriented category). In fact, the extended functional

taxonomy of target bundles was presented by the same author, in collaboration with others

(Salazar et al., 2013, p. 45) but in a different work. In the elaborated version, the research-

oriented section included 8 subcategories, the text-organisers contained 20 subcategories and

the reader-oriented section consisted of 10 subcategories. This kind of extended taxonomy

was supposed to assist researchers to achieve a more precise functional identification in case

any classification issues occurred.

The present study employed the functional classification by Salazar (2014). The main reason

for opting for it is the intent to make this research more comparable with the results of

different studies Jalilifar et al. (2016) and Jalilifar and Ghoreishi (2018) who used this

classification.

2.1.2 Lexical bundles across academic disciplines or subject areas

As mentioned above, there exist a large amount of studies that focus on cross-disciplinary

lexical bundle analyses: Durrant (2017), Johnston (2017), Kwary et al. (2017), Qin (2014),

Salazar et al. (2013), Staples et al. (2013) can be named, among others. This section is an

overview of the work on lexical bundle analysis across academic disciplines. Due to the fact

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that the present study looks into the use of four-word lexical bundles, their structures and

functions, the results regarding four-word sequences seemed especially relevant and important

since the investigations described below also employed the same structural (Biber et al., 2004)

and functional (Hyland, 2008b) classification as the present study has adopted. This section

will provide the results obtained from research on Computer science, Psychology, Health

science and Telecommunications and also comment on other cross-disciplinary studies in

different subject areas.

Medicine is one of the disciplines that have been studied from the perspective of lexical

bundle analysis. The study by Jalali et al. (2015) performed the structural and functional

analysis of lexical bundles in medical research articles. A corpus of just under 2.5 million

words was extracted from 790 research articles across 33 medical disciplines. The identified

lexical bundles were classified structurally based on Biber et al.‟s (1999) structural taxonomy

and functionally based on Hyland‟s (2008b) functional taxonomy. The focus was on 102

different four-word lexical bundles occurring minimally 20 times per million words.

According to the results, the largest structural category of lexical bundles were prepositional

phrases (44.5%). The verb-based phrase group ranked second (26.87%). Noun phrases

amounted to roughly twenty per cent (20.42%) of the data. In terms of functional distribution,

37% of the bundles belonged to research-oriented group and were used to describe time,

place, size and magnitude, the study itself, and research procedures in academic texts. It was

also found that medical research articles were characterized by a heavy use of text-oriented

clusters (42.5%), especially framing signals. Participant-oriented bundles had the lowest

frequency (21%).

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The discipline of Telecommunications was studied by Pan et al. (2016) and explored the

writing of L1-Chinese experts writing in English compared with L1-English experts. The

research moderated the structural classification by Biber et al. (1999) and Hyland (2008b).

They mixed the labels of both classification in the way that Biber‟s „referential functions‟

group was referred to as „research-oriented‟ and Biber‟s „discourse-organisers‟ functions

became „text-oriented‟. However, the authors found Hyland‟s label of „participant-oriented‟

bundles problematic when applied to academic writing, and for that reason adopted instead

the label „stance-oriented‟ bundles for the third category. The results showed some structural

differences between LBs used by L2 and L1 writers: L1 writers employed mostly phrasal

bundles consisting of noun phrase and prepositional phrase fragments, while L2 writers used

mainly clausal bundles consisting of verb phrases and clause fragments. Another key finding

was that both groups used similar proportions of functional distributions of types and tokens,

in that namely the text-oriented types turned out to be the largest category in both the

Telecommunication English Corpus and the Telecommunication Chinese Corpus.

The discipline of Psychology research articles was discussed by Esfandiari and Barbari

(2017). The work contrastively examined the four-, five-, and six-word lexical bundles in a

corpus of over 4 million words. The corpus was divided into two sub-corpora: the English

corpus (EC) and the Persian corpus (PC). The study successively performed a structural

analysis of four-word bundles and their functions in EC and PC, then following onto the

structural and functional analysis of five-word bundles and consequently, to the structural and

functional analysis of six-word bundles. Since the present study focuses on disciplinary

22

lexical bundle analysis and not on the analysis of native/non-native lexical bundles use, this

section will comment on the results obtained from the English corpus only. Moreover, the

results on four-word bundles will be discussed here. Firstly, the results demonstrated that

English writers significantly used lexical bundles that incorporate verb phrase fragments

(42%), lexical bundles that incorporate noun phrases accounted for 27% and prepositional

phrase fragments yielded 28% (Esfandiari & Barbary, 2017, p. 35). Functionally, English

writers mostly used text-oriented four-word bundles (42.5%) which were followed by

research-oriented (31.5%) and participant-oriented (26%).

Lexical bundles in Computer science research articles were studied by Lee and Lee (2018).

For that particular investigation, a Computer Science Corpus (CSC) had been compiled,

which included roughly 1.3 million words. The focus was on four-word lexical bundles that

occurred minimally 20 times per million words. The results demonstrated that, with regard to

the structural types, noun phrases (NPs) and prepositional phrases (PPs) occurred more

frequently than verb phrases (VPs). The analysis also revealed that the most pronounced

functional aspect of lexical bundles were discourse organizers, namely the ones with topic

introduction functions (in this article we, in this section we). The LBs referring to size,

amount, number, or quantity (the size of the, the total number of, is the number of) dominated

among referential lexical bundles. Unfortunately, no data pertaining to the functional

distribution of the lexical bundles were provided in the article.

The table below presents a comparison of the above mentioned results of four-word lexical

bundles used by English native writers in RAs across academic disciplines. It should be noted

23

that not all the authors conveyed the information explicitly in their work and in such a case

the percentage had to be double-checked manually in order to be reflected in the table below.

The highest number in each category is highlighted in grey in order to make the comparison

more visible.

Table 2. The structural and functional distribution of lexical bundles across disciplines

Discipline Structural types Functions

NPs PPs VPs Others Research-

oriented/

Referential

Text-

oriented/

Discourse

organisers

Participant

oriented/

Stance

Computer science

(Lee & Lee, 2018)

72 % 28 % - - - -

Psychology

(Esfandiari & Barbary,

2017)

27 % 28 % 42 % 3 % 31.5 % 42.5 % 26 %

Telecommunication

(Pan et al., 2016)

36.4 % 32.6 % 25.5 % 5.5 % 43.3 % 48.5 % 8.2 %

Medicine

(Jalali et al., 2015)

20.42 % 44.5 % 26. 87% 8.18 % 36.5 % 42.5 % 21 %

As shown in the table, functionally, text-oriented bundles predominate in every discipline;

while structurally, the results are not that homogeneous, demonstrating the leading role of

VPs in Telecommunications, PPs in Medicine and VPs in Psychology. In the case of

Computer sciences, the exact proposition of VPs and PPs was unclear, though amounted to

72 % in total.

Another interesting observation was formulated in the work by Johnston (2017), who

compared the use of four-word LBs among professional writers and language learners in two

disciplines: Applied linguistics and Literature. The functional realisation of the professional

use of the bundles is worth noting: professional writers in Applied linguistics and Literature

had a similar distribution of functional bundles. Professionals in Literature used text-oriented

24

bundles with the greatest frequency, accounting for about half of all bundles used. In Applied

linguistics, professionals used both research- and text-oriented bundles with similar

frequencies, accounting for around 45% each of total functional bundles. Both groups used

participant-oriented bundles the least, less than 10% of all bundles in each group.

Some authors have also studied the structural distribution of LBs in a collection of RAs from

a range of different disciplines, i.e. lexical bundle analyses in multiple subject areas. Three

general subject areas of Science, Social sciences and Art and Humanities were analysed by

Jalilifar et al. (2016) and Jalilifar and Ghoreishi (2018). The Arts and Humanities cycle

consisted of Arts, Literature, Applied linguistics, Philosophy and Religion. Each sub-corpus

amounted to 2 million words. By aiming to identify the common three-, four-, and five-word

bundles across three subject areas, the work supported the common-core bundles theory

previously expressed by Simpson-Vlach and Ellis (2010). Furthermore, when the core bundles

were identified, the study analysed core bundles for their discourse functions (adopting

Salazar‟s 2014 taxonomy). Functional analysis revealed the predominance of text-oriented

core bundles (58.5%), followed by research-oriented bundles (32.5%); and finally,

participant-oriented bundles were the least frequently used (9%).

In a different study, four subject areas - Health sciences, Life sciences, Physical sciences, and

Social sciences - were investigated by Kwary, Ratri and Artha (Kwary et al., 2017). This

study found both similarities and differences in the use of the 62 LBs in RAs across four

subject areas. The results demonstrated that Physical sciences used the most frequent number

of lexical bundles (n=43), followed by Social sciences (n=27) and Life sciences (n=12), while

25

Health sciences used the least amount (n=3). It was also pointed out that no lexical bundles

were found to be used in all four disciplines, which implied that there were differences in the

use of lexical bundles across different disciplines; in other words, no core bundles were

identified as shared throughout the four subject areas, which appeared to be an important

point and a key issue of the study. Due to the above-mentioned finding, the further technique

of pairing up the disciplines took place. This move was applied in order to see which

disciplines shared the greatest number of lexical bundles. The results were as follows: pair-up

of Life sciences with Physical sciences yielded eight shared bundles, then Life sciences and

Social sciences demonstrated six shared bundles and finally, the pair-up of Physical sciences

and Social sciences resulted in fourteen shared bundles. This method demonstrated that

Physical sciences and Social sciences shared the largest number of LBs; however, there were

no LBs shared between Health sciences and Physical sciences, nor between Health sciences

and Social sciences. Finally, after having identified the use of 62 lexical bundles across the

four subject areas, the distribution of the structures (Biber et al., 1999) and functions (Biber et

al., 2003) of LBs across the different academic disciplines was performed. The results showed

that referential expressions (40 LBs) outnumbered discourse organizers (12 LBs) and stance

expressions (10 LBs). Further analysis showed that stance expressions, particularly epistemic

stance which functions to hedge claims, were more frequently found in Social sciences than in

the other academic disciplines.

Summing up, previous studies have demonstrated that in many disciplines, the most common

structural types are NPs and PPs types, while the mostly used functional types are text-

oriented or discourse organisers with the exception of Medical RAs where the predominant

26

type was research-oriented functions. Generally, it can be said that a corpus-based study tends

to provide an unusually strong comparability of the material since lexical bundles are

automatically extracted from the corpus. Furthermore, in order the comparison could be

performed, it is important to respect the main criteria as corpus size, structural classification

used and register should be respected. However, there is always the risk of subjective or

misleading functional classification of the lexical bundles since qualitative analysis is

performed manually.

27

3 Methodology and Material

Corpus linguistics has provided the linguistic community with a lot of statistically significant

results. Corpora are playing an increasingly important role both in linguistic research and

language teaching. This work has employed the following procedures: corpus creation,

retrieval of lexical bundles, identification of general and discipline specific LBs, and,

subsequently, the structural and functional analysis of the retrieved LBs

The present study used a mixed-method design as “mixed methods became the dominant

paradigm and are typically seen to provide researchers with the best of both words” of

qualitative and quantitative analyses (Angouri, 2018, in Litosseliti, 2018, p. 35).

The quantitative analysis used in this work employed statistical, mathematical and

computational techniques by counting the frequencies, overlaps and other results on formulaic

sequences that occurred in the corpus.

Likewise, the process of the structural and functional classification required qualitative

analysis. In order to obtain more accurate data, the concordance lines were consulted in

context in order to “establish exactly which one of the functional categories lexical bundles

belong to” (Jalilifar et al., 2016, p. 186). In other words, the qualitative analysis meant

checking concordance lines in order to see the phrase in context.

28

3.1 Journal Selection

The selection of material for the corpus focused on Music research articles written by native

expert writers from three English-speaking countries where English is a native language or

L1. In case of this study, publications from the UK, the USA and Australia were chosen.

There were two main criteria that determined the article selection. First of all, the source

should be on-line and accessible, meaning that the journal articles can be freely accessed and

downloaded. Secondly, the article should be written by a native English speaker originating

from an inner-circle English speaking country (Kachru, 1985, pp. 12ff). This research

followed the tradition of Pan et al. (2016) with the methods proposed by Wood (2001) that

“operationally defined „L1-English‟ writers to be any author affiliated with an institution in a

country where English is spoken as the first language who also has a first and last name that

can be considered native to English-speaking countries” (Pan et al., 2016, p. 63). In this case,

qualitative analysis was applied, namely that the authors were selected by their affiliation to

higher educational institution in the UK, the USA, or Australia. In case of doubt, the writers‟

origins and their names were double-checked in open on-line sources.

Finally, a list of 110 research articles was composed. It covered twelve years, with works

from 2008 to 2020. The number of articles retrieved from each journal varied between eight

and twenty and can be seen in the table below (Table 3). The English language variations

(BrE, AmE, AusE) were not significant for this study and were not taken into consideration

for the lexical bundle analysis.

29

Table 3. The distribution of journals and articles selected for the corpus

Country

(sub-

corpus)

Journal Number of

articles

Journal description

Subdiscipline

UK

Total:38

IASPM Journal 20 articles IASPM Journal is the peer-

reviewed open-access e-journal

of the International Association

for the Study of Popular Music,

IASPM. It aims to publish

research and analysis in the field

of popular music studies.

Popular music

Music

Performance

research (the

UK)

13 articles Music Performance Research is

an open access journal. Its aims

to spread theoretical and

empirical research on the

performance of music. Specific

topics have been dealt with

include the role of music

performance in personal

development, identity,

communication and interaction;

the training and health of skilled

musicians; theories and models

of music performance; and the

foundations of musical expertise.

Performance of

music

Dancecult

(Dancecult:

Journal of

Electronic

Dance Music

Culture)

5 articles Dancecult is a peer-reviewed,

open-access e-journal for the

study of electronic dance music

culture (EDMC). The journal

includes research exploring the

sites, technologies, sounds and

cultures of electronic music in

historical and contemporary

perspectives.

Electronic

dance music

The USA

Total:36

Current

Musicology

Columbia (the

USA)

13 articles Current Musicology is a leading

journal for scholarly research on

music. It contains articles and

book reviews in the fields of

historical musicology,

ethnomusicology, music theory,

and philosophy of music are

published here. The journal was

founded in 1965 by graduate

students at Columbia University

as a semi-annual review.

History and

theory of music

Gamut (the USA) 13 articles Gamut is the peer-reviewed Music theory

30

online journal of the Music

Theory Society of the Mid-

Atlantic. It focuses on any aspect

of music theory and its related

disciplines.

and other

related

disciplines

Journal of jazz

studies (the

USA)

10 articles The Journal of Jazz Studies

(JJS), formerly the print journal

Annual Review of Jazz Studies, is

an open-access online journal,

which is peer reviewed and

published by the Institute of Jazz

Studies at Rutgers, The State

University of New Jersey. It

deals with jazz studies on a

different level: from technical

analyses to oral history to

bibliography to cultural

interpretation.

Jazz

Australia

Total:36

Context: A

Journal of Music

Research

(Australia), the

university of

Melbourne

20 articles

Context is a peer-reviewed

international music journal that

publishes original research

concerning all aspects of music

and music-related fields. In

addition to articles, Context

presents reviews of recent

publications interviews with

composers and practitioners, and

reports on ongoing research

projects. It is produced within the

Melbourne Conservatorium

of Music at the University of

Melbourne.

All aspects of

music

Dancecult 8 articles Mentioned above

Journal of Music

Research online

8 articles Is a peer-reviewed journal

published by the Elder

Conservatorium, Faculty of Arts

at The University of Adelaide. It

publishes English language

scholarly research articles in

areas including composition,

early music, ethnomusicology,

gender studies in music,

interdisciplinary studies in music,

music education, music

technologies, musicology, music

theory and analysis, opera,

performance practice, popular

music, ludomusicology.

All aspects of

music

31

As can be seen from Table 3, music journals tend to be attached to a specific university and

institution. This is much less common in other fields. Linguistics, for example, has a range of

truly international journals tied to publishers rather than specific university affiliations. Also,

Music as an academic discipline seems to be more interdisciplinary “as the boundaries

between different types of music are partially erased” (Beard & Gloag, 2016, p. xv). For the

present study, the music specialisations (or subdisciplines) were not taken into consideration

when selecting journals. However, it could be an interesting area for future research.

As can be seen from the table, the journals from each country, UK, the USA and Australia,

were represented by 38, 36 and 36 articles, respectively, producing the total number of 110.

The complete list of articles used for the Corpus are included in Appendix 3.

3.2 Corpus Creation

The most common way of retrieving formulaic sequences has recently been the use of a

corpus-handling tool, that is, a program that presents all the instances of a linguistic item in

their immediate context. In this study, SketchEngine (SE) has been used as the main software.

It generally allows the creation of a new corpus by uploading different kinds of documents,

such as .txt, .doc and .pdf formats. It also serves to extract collocations in a range of

grammatical patterns and then to organize “retrieved collocates according to the grammatical

relation to the headword (lemmas)” (Bhalla & Klimcikova, 2019, p. 267). It has a classic

“KWIC” display where each occurrence is shown on a single line, with the search item in the

middle and the context on each side.

32

Unlike traditional concordance software like AntConc and WordSmith, SketchEngine accepts

non-modified PDF files and in such a way no preliminary refining or clearing from non-text

materials as page numbers, references, figures and tables is needed. This feature turned out to

be an advantage timewise.

In case of this study, the direct uploading of the proper articles in PDF format resulted in

some specific symbols which appeared in the concordance lines, i.e. the note writing and the

graphs were interpreted by the software as odd symbols or sequences.

As can be seen from the figures below, the note symbols have been interpreted by the

software in a special way and produced significant statistical results of more than 1,000

entries (see Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3). The same thing happened with the decodification of

the graphs: it resulted in capital letter sequences (see Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6)

33

Figure 1. SketchEngine results of the note writing

Figure 2. Sketch Engine concordance lines of the note writing

Figure 3. The initial text in the article by Raz (2014)

34

Figure 4. Sketch Engine results of graphs decodification

Figure 5. Sketch Engine concordance lines of the graphs decodification

Figure 6. The initial text of the article by Hooper (2019)

35

As it can be seen from the visuals above, the note sequences and the graphs were recognised

by the software in a special way which was reflected in the corpus concordance lines and gave

a number of interesting results. For nomenclature reasons, the above mentioned outliers (in

statistics, an outlier is a data point that differs significantly from other observations) and

sequences would be referred to as noise sequences throughout this work and will be treated in

a special way in the present work they are not linguistic/verbal, so do not represent co-

occurring words and might cause significant issues in a statistical analysis. Patterns involving

the use of notes in Music RAs may still be of interest, but not for this specific study.

Summing up, in spite of some issued with the decodification, the SketchEngine tool turned out

to be very useful for the data collection and it made it possible to create the Corpus of Music

Research Articles (CMRA), amounting to almost one million words (n=998,468)

3.3 Material Identification of Lexical Bundles

This study focuses on four-word sequences, with a raw frequency of more than 10

occurrences per million words and occurring in a minimum of three texts. The analysis

consists of three parts. The first concerns frequency, the second focuses on the structural type,

and the third concerns function.

The choice of the number of words in the N-grams was motivated by tradition. Firstly, the

present study followed the practice of previous research (Ädel & Erman 2012; Kwary et al.,

2017; Pan et al., 2016), which has dealt with four-word sequences. Secondly, this work

focused on 4-grams as they seemed to be more suitable “for manual categorization and

36

concordance checks” (Chen & Baker, 2010, p. 32), and “they are far more common than 5-

word strings and offer a clearer range of structures and functions than 3-word bundles”

(Hyland, 2008b, p. 8). Thirdly, despite the fact that the study of Simpson-Vlach and Ellis

(2010) demonstrated the importance of three-word sequences, it appeared reasonable not to

focus on 3-grams due to the following reason: after a brief look at the three-word strings in

the corpus, it turned out that this cut-off criterion resulted in a lot of overlaps. Also, as

demonstrated by Ädel and Erman (2012), many three-word bundles are often included in

four-word bundles. Consequently, it seemed reasonable to postpone the analysis of three- and

five-word sequences also given the limited scope of the present study.

Bundles also need to occur across a range of texts. This range is necessary because if a lexical

bundle occurs across many texts, it is more likely to be a formulaic sequence than simply an

idiosyncrasy of the author (Biber, 2009). The frequency cut-off criterion of the present work

was also aligned with previous research and was set to a minimum of 10 times per million

words: Biber et al. (1999) identified that the most common lexical bundles occurred at least

10 times per million words. For the present study, the dispersion criterion focused on the

bundles that occurred over a range of three texts since the corpus is relatively small in size.

With respect to the corpus size, which is very close to a million of words, it was not deemed

necessary to apply normalization. However, normalisation will be considered due to the

further comparison of the results of this study with those of Jalilifar et al. (2016). In such a

way, normalization “is a way to adjust raw frequency counts from texts of different lengths so

that they can be compared accurately” (Biber et al., 1998, p. 263). Normalized frequency is

37

calculated by dividing the number of occurrences of formulaic sequences by the total number

of words in a particular corpus (Elturki, 2015, p. 37). In any case, if normalization had been

applied, it would not have affected the results significantly. For instance, the frequency per

corpus would be counted as follows:

Figure 7. Frequency normalisation formula

(10 / 998,468) x 1,000,000 = 10.01 words per corpus

As shown in the formula above, the difference between the relative frequency of 10.01 words

per million and absolute frequency of 10 words per corpus is not considerable: 0.01 word.

In other words, the present study focused on the four-word sequences with the 10-occurence

frequency and three-text dispersion, which gave the opportunity to make the analysis more

manageable. It resulted in 565 items before filtering.

3.3.1 Identification of lexical bundles (RQ1)

In order to answer the first research question (What four-word lexical bundles are found in the

corpus?) it was deemed necessary to filter the material, i.e. to remove irrelevant or

unnecessary results for this precise work. The resulting LBs were under extensive quantitative

and qualitative analyses, because “in order to be able to decide what to count” it is necessary

define the material qualitatively (Lindquist & Levin, 2018b, p. 25).

38

3.3.1.1 Analytical steps, exclusion criteria and grouping

In order to define the exact numbers of four-word bundles in the corpus and then analyse

structures and functions of the lexical bundles, a number of including and excluding filters

was applied.

Filter 1. Dispersion

The first cut-off criterion was dispersion. The SketchEngine software has the option to show

in how many texts the sequence appears. All the bundles appeared in less than three texts

were eliminated from the study. In such a case, some of the outliers, or so-called noise

sequences, mentioned above, were eliminated due to the low text-dispersion. However, five

sequences of the same similar nature, namely the notation symbols, appeared in three or more

texts, and consequently were not eliminated automatically. However, as has been mentioned

before, the present study does not take into consideration such symbols and in such a way

disregarded similar entries for the results.

Apart from the noise sequences, the bundles which had to be disregarded due to the low

dispersion turned out to be names of composers and other musicians (rhythm in Bartók's

Contrasts Example, on Bergson's Concept of the Virtual, Robert Cherry and Jennifer Griffith,

in Graham St John, Keith Salley and Daniel T. Shanahan, interview with Bayley, and others.)

and names of pieces of music (Brahms F-minor Clarinet Sonata, Miles Davis Nonet

Manuscripts, the Birth of the Cool).

39

Filter 2. Content-based bundles

The second filter was to eliminate content bundles (Ädel & Erman, 2012). Both studies by

Ädel and Erman (2012) and Salazar (2014) disregarded content-based and topic-specific

bundles due to the aims of their research: the authors were interested in bundles that were

used more generally (or not) and wanted to compare the discipline-specific material to other

types of material in previous research. In the case of this study, it seems reasonable to

eliminate the bundles containing any type of names. A total of 85 removed items included:

The names of the journals (Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture, Journal of

Music Theory, Journal of Popular Music Studies, Online Journal of the Music Theory,

etc.)

The names of the publishers (University of Minnesota Press, University of Rochester

Press, University of Chicago Press, University of Illinois Press, University of

California Press. )

The names of the institutions of higher education (University of California, University

of New York, University of Texas, Conservatorium of Music, Northern College of

Music, Royal Northern College of Music etc. ).

The titles of the proper articles and the reference articles mentioned in the reference

list or the footnotes of the articles. They could be identified by the capital letter within

the bundle.

Filter 3: Capitalization

The third filter aimed to combine LBs listed twice (or more) due to capitalisation and was

applied to merge the bundles with the initial capital letter which appeared at the beginning of

40

the sentence and then the same sequence with the small letter as in Table 4. Seven examples

of capital/small letters were identified and merged into one.

Table 4. An example of the initial letter variation within the retrieved sequences

sequence frequency

At the same 23

at the same 70

Filter 4: Contractions

In the case of contractions, they were not included in the full list of the sequence results. This

study followed Biber‟s tradition of treating contracted forms as a single and not as two

separated words (Biber et al., 1999, p. 990). In such a case, the two-word contracted

combinations were not considered a type of a lexical bundle composed of three lexical units.

In other words, the sequence don't want to was not included in the results and did not equal

the sequence do not want to. However, it seems relevant to keep track of these phrases as it

may help shed light on the peculiarity of the genre of Music RAs: the following four

contractions were identified in Music research articles despite the fact that those are neither

common nor recommended for use in academic writing (Swales, 1994, p. 18).

Table 5. Two-words contracted combinations identified in the corpus

sequence frequency

don‟t want to 14

I don‟t want 13

I don‟t know 17

I don‟t think 15

41

Some examples may illustrate this peculiar trait of the discipline. These contracted phrases

were used for two main purposes: to refer to someone‟s words (in most cases) and as a

narration from the 1st person singular (in some articles).

A) To refer to someone‟s words in case of interview or quote:

(1) As Finnissy explains: I don't think that it's part of a mechanism to recognise

key centres (doc#25)

(2) or Champion's observation to Redhead (2000: 18): I don't know who said it

now but someone had said 'surely people (doc#64)

(3) I don't want to lose their attention (interview with Bayley, 26 September 2)

(doc#25)

(4) DJs either side of them in the line-up will be playing: If I don't know what a DJ

before me or after me plays, I find out (doc#11)

B) I-pronoun perspective in the narration

(5) had not written about taphephobia, but I don't think he did. (doc#91)

Filter 5: Overlapping bundles

Biber et al. (1999) observed that a number of common lexical bundles can be extended to

longer sequences, resulting in overlapping. According to Chen and Baker (2010),

“overlapping word sequences could inflate the results of quantitative analysis”. They

distinguished between a complete overlap, two four-word bundles which are actually derived

from a single five-word combination, and complete subsumption “referring to a case where

two or more four-word bundles overlap and the occurrences of one of the bundles subsume

those of the other overlapping bundle(s)” (Chen & Baker, 2010, p. 33).

42

In case of overlaps and difficult qualification cases, previous experience was taken into

consideration in this study. The methodology by Salazar (2014, p. 46) proposed eliminating

these cases “to avoid unnecessary repetition and make the list as brief and concise as

possible”. The work of Ädel and Erman (2012) dealt with overlapping bundles by merging

overlapping examples and marking the extensions of a four-word bundle by a plus sign in the

results table. The study of Jalilifar et al.(2016), completely disregarded this criterion.

The present study identified the cases of overlapping lexical bundles, which are listed in

Appendix 2.

3.3.2 Determining the coverage of general bundles over the discipline-specific in the

domain of music (RQ2)

After incorporating all the filters, the following step was to determine the coverage of general

bundles over the discipline-specific one. The full list of music LBs was compared to the ones

by Jalilifar et al. (2016). The author, kindly provided the material of their work, the full set of

results tables. In their work, the researchers created three corpora of two million words each

in three major disciplinary areas: Arts and Humanities, Sciences and Social sciences and.

Also, they identified 566 shared lexical bundles across three disciplinary areas 1 .

In the case of this research, the results of Arts and Humanities of the above mentioned work

were taken into consideration and four-word bundles were compared to our results extracted

from CMRA. This strategy helped to identify general and discipline-specific lexical bundles

1 566 were identified in the table of results, however, in the article the authors mention 661 (Jalilifar &

Ghoreishi, 2018, p. 181)

43

across academic disciplines. The exact match between each one of the bundles in the CMRA

results with any of the ones in the lists of four-word sequences on the Jalilifar et al. (2016)

spread sheet highlighted the general and discipline-specific LBs. Further, an example of the

identification procedure is given: column A identifies the bundle, column B identifies the

number of hits in the Music Corpus, Column C represents the frequency of Arts and

Humanities hits, and Column D is the number of core bundles within three disciplinary areas

(see Table 6).

Table 6. A random sample of the matches count

Lexical bundle

Music Corpus

frequency

(per 1,000,000 words)

Arts and Humanities

frequency

(per 2,000,000 words)

Core bundles across three

disciplinary area corpora

(per 2,000,000 words)

A B C D

at the same time 87 250 607

on the other hand 53 236 761

can be seen in 23 25 86

of the A section 14 0 0

As can be seen from Table 6, the bundles at the same time, on the other hand and can be seen

appeared in all three columns. This meant that these sequences were used both in Music RAs

and in Arts and Humanities RAs collected by Jalilifar et al. (2016). Also, these expressions

occurred in the core bundles across three disciplinary areas and can be considered core

bundles. Those formulaic sequences that occurred only in the Music Corpus column were

considered discipline-specific. When it comes to topic-specific bundles, a manual search was

applied since the understanding of domain-specific vocabulary requires a certain degree of

44

knowledge of the field (Salazar, 2014). By means of detailed qualitative analysis, some topic-

specific bundles were identified, which essentially included music terms or music-related

sequences. Unlike the research by Salazar (2014) which excluded this type of bundle from the

research, we included topic specific bundles into the list of results. First of all, these create a

more complete picture of the formulaic language used by expert writers in the discipline of

music. Secondly, topic-specific bundles have a high degree of pedagogical implication and

could be used as the learning material in teaching ESP.

3.3.3 Structural forms and functions of the lexical bundles (RQ 3 and 4)

After having retrieved the lexical bundles used across the Music RAs, it was interesting to

look into the distribution of the structural forms of the lexical bundles. In order to identify the

structural forms of the lexical bundles, the taxonomy offered in the work by Biber et al.

(1999) was used. This method was also applied by Pan et al. (2016), Kwary et al. (2017) and

Qin (2014), among others.

As mentioned in the methodology section, the taxonomy used for the functional analysis of

lexical bundles was based on a modified version of Hyland‟s (2008b) classification used by

Salazar (2014) and included three major categorizations: research-oriented bundles, text-

oriented bundles and participant-oriented bundles with various sub-categories for each.

Table 7. Functional classification of lexical bundles by Salazar (2014)

Research-oriented

Location Indicate place and

direction

at the site, the tip of

Procedure Indicate events,

actions and methods

the onset of

45

Quantification Indicate measures,

quantities,

proportions and

changes

total volume of

Description Indicate quality,

degree and existence

the appearance of

Grouping Indicate groups,

categories, parts and

order

a wide range of

Text-oriented

Additive Establish additive

links between

elements

in addition to

Comparative Compare and

contrast different

elements

as compared with

Inferential Signal inferences and

conclusions drawn

from data

the results suggest

that

Causative Mark cause and

effect relations

between elements

as a result of

Structuring Organize stretches of

discourse or direct

the reader elsewhere

in text

as described

previously

Framing Situate arguments by

specifying limiting

conditions

in the case of, with

respect to the, in the

presence of

Citation Cite sources and

supporting data

it has been proposed

that

Generalization Signal generally

accepted facts or

statements

little is known about

Objective Introduce the writer‟s

aims

we asked whether

46

Participant-oriented

Stance Convey the writer‟s

attitudes and

evaluations

is likely to

Engagement Address readers

directly

it should be noted

that

Acknowledgments Recognize people or

institutions that have

participated in or

contributed to the

study

would like to

All the bundles were under extensive qualitative and quantitative analysis: the manual

examination of concordance lines was applied in order to check the functions in their full

textual context.

47

4 Results

This section presents the main results based on the four research questions. First, the general

findings on the number of bundles will be presented. In addition, the distribution among

general, discipline-specific and core bundles in the domain of music will be presented.

Finally, the structural and functional distribution of the music lexical bundles will be

discussed.

4.1 Lexical Bundle Identification

The qualitative and quantitative analysis resulted in:

1. 218 lexical bundles in total.

2. 116 of these were shared with the Art and Humanities bundles in Jalilifar et al. (2016)

and were qualified as general lexical bundles.

3. 56 out of 116 general LBs were considered to be core bundles and were shared among

the CMRA and three subject areas (Arts and Humanities, Sciences and Social

Sciences). They are marked in bold in the complete list of LBs given in Appendix 1.

4. 102 turned out to be discipline-specific, as they appeared only in the CMRA. As

previously determined in the Methodology and Material section (Section 3),

discipline-specific bundles are considered to be those which appeared in the CMRA

only and were not shared with the Arts and Humanities corpus. The discipline-specific

bundles are marked in italics in the complete list of LBs (Appendix 1).

5. 20 out of 102 discipline-specific were considered to be topic-specific bundles. They

were music-related sequences like: the first movement of (29 hits), of popular music

studies (26 hits), of the recording studio (18 hits), in the first movement (17 hits), of

48

the first movement (17 hits), a piece of music (16 hits), in the music of (15 hits), the

music of the (15 hits), in the upper voice (14 hits), of the A section (14 hits), in popular

music studies (13 hits), in the music industry (13 hits), in the recording studio (12

hits), of the dance floor (12 hits), from the first movement (12 hits), within popular

music studies (11 hits), electronic dance music culture (11 hits), of the music and (10

hits), structure of the piece (10 hits), the A and B (10 hits).

In terms of overlaps, 13 cases were identified. The full list of overlaps is provided in

Appendix 2.

4.2 Structural Forms

The structural forms used in this study are based on the classification of Biber et al. (1999),

who divided the forms into three main categories: noun-based, preposition-based, and verb-

based bundles. The tabulation of the structural forms is presented in Table 8.

Table 8. The structural forms of the lexical bundles in the Music research articles

Structural forms № of

types

% of

types

№ of

tokens

% of

tokens

Examples

Noun-based noun-phrase with

of-phrase fragment

(1.1)

61 28% 1,153 28% the work of the,

the role of the,

the start of the

noun phrase with

other post-modifier

fragment (1.2)

8 3.7%

203 5% the same way as,

such a way that

complete noun

phrases (1.3)

6 2.7% 119 3% electronic dance

music culture,

the A and B

Total 75 34.4% 1,475 36%

Prepositional-

based

prepositional-based

with embedded -of

72 33% 1,555 38% as a kind of,

49

phrase fragment

(2.1)

in front of the,

at the beginning

of

other prepositional

phrase segments

(2.2)

31 14.2% 500 12% in the same way,

with respect to

the

Total 103 47.2% 2,033 50%

Verb-based

be+noun phrase/

adjective phrase

(3.1)

5 1.8% 80 2% was one of the,

is part of the,

is an example of

passive verb

(3.2)

13 5.9 % 187 4.5% can be heard in,

as shown in

Figure

verb/adjective+that

(3.3)

3 1.4% 39 1% it is clear that,

it is likely that,

should be noted

that

verb/adjective+to

(3.4)

7 3.2% 93 2.2% I would like to,

I use the term

verb phrase with

active verb

(3.5)

9 4.1% 103 2.5% it is possible to,

it is important to

Total: 37 16.9% 502 12.2%

others

(4)

3 1.4% 100 2.4% as well as a2,

as well as the,

at least in part

Total 218 100% 4,110 100%

2 This followed the structural distribution made by Pan et al. (2016, p. 64) who qualified “as well as the” as

Others

50

The noun-based category came second; its 75 hits formed 36% of the total number of the

bundles. The major part is represented by the “noun-phrase with of-phrase fragment”

subcategory (marked as 1.1 in the table of results) giving 61 hits (28%). In terms of overall

frequency, it has resulted in 28.1%. The “noun phrase with other post-modifier fragment”

subcategory (marked as 1.2 in the table of results) has given 8 hits only (3.7%) forming 4.9%

of the total. Six remaining bundles (2.7%) were grouped into the independent subcategory of

“complete noun phrases” (marked as 1.3 in the table of results) due to their nominative nature.

This subcategory has represented 2.9% of all the frequencies. Table 9 provides the examples

of this category with their frequencies while Table 10 gives the overview of the first structural

category, the noun-based phrases.

Table 9. Structural category “complete noun phrase”

Table 10. Noun-based category occurrences and frequencies compared

number

Category: Noun-based Number of types

(%) out of total

218 LBs

Number of tokens

(%) out of total

4110

1.1 noun-phrase with of-phrase

fragment

28% 28%

1.2 noun phrase with other post-

modifier fragment

3.7% 5%

5 other expressions 2.7% 3%

№ Examples Frequency

1 interview with the author 31

2 email to the author 30

3 the A and B 10

4 electronic dance music culture 11

5 the early twentieth century 20

6 the late nineteenth century 17

51

According to the results in Table 10, the category of noun-based phrases is quite balanced in

terms of the number of bundles and their frequencies. The main difference might be seen in

the 1.2 subcategory: it resulted in 5% in types and 3.7% in tokens. This fact may signal that

this category employed a less varied number of expressions more frequently.

The prepositional-based category resulted in 103 bundles (47.2% of types and 50% of tokens)

and formed the most numerous group. The “prepositional-based with embedded -of phrase

fragment” (n=72) (marked as 2.1 in the table of results) achieved the highest rank with 1,533

tokens. This subcategory represented 33% of all the types while “other prepositional phrase

segments” (marked as 2.2 in the table of results) yielded 31 types (12% of all the tokens). As

shown in Table 11, in the case of comparing the frequencies, the 2.1 subcategory turned out to

be more frequently used but employed fewer constructions, while the 2.2 subcategory

demonstrated the opposite: more constructions were used less frequently.

Table 11. Preposition-based category occurrences and frequencies compared

number Category: Preposition-based Number of types (%)

out of total 218 LBs

Number of tokens

(%) out of total 4110

2.1 prepositional-based with embedded -of

phrase fragment 33% 38%

2.2 other prepositional phrase segments 14.2% 12%

The verb-based category has turned out to be the most varied in structures but least

represented in frequencies. 37 verb-based bundles corresponded to 16.9% of the total number

of types. The most numerous group happened to be the passive verb subcategory (marked as

3.2 in the table of results) with 13 bundles (5.9% of total bundles) and it was followed by the

verb phrase with active verb subcategory (marked as 3.5 in the table of results) with nine

52

examples (4.1% of total bundles). The frequency percentage of the above-mentioned

structures can be seen Table 12: passive constructions occurred 187 times per corpus, which is

4.5% of the total while active constructions occurred 103 times resulting in 2.5% of all the

frequencies. The verb-based subcategory “other expressions” was not encountered in the

corpus.

Table 12. Verb-based category occurrences and frequencies compared

number Category: Verb-based Number of types (%)

out of total 218 LBs

Number of tokens

(%) out of total 4110

3.1 be + noun phrase/adjective phrase 2.3% 2%

3.2 passive verb 5.9% 4.5%

3.3. verb/adjective+that 1.4% 1%

3.4 verb/adjective+to

3.2% 2.2%

3.5 verb phrase with active verb

4.1% 2.5%

As shown in Table 12, in spite the varied number of the structures within this category, the

overall frequency is lower in percentage.

The others subcategory resulted in three constructions only (as well as a, as well as the, at

least in part). Another interesting observation in relation to this category is that its total

frequency (100 tokens) turned out to have the same percentage (2.4%) as the 3.5 subcategory

(active verbs) with nine bundles. This finding supports the results by Jalilifar et al. (2016) that

identified that the three-word bundle as well as was the top-used among three-words

sequences with 932 occurrences per Arts and Humanities Corpus, while the sequence as well

as the was the third (with 186 hits per corpus), and together with as well as a (n=38) were

53

considered to be core bundles shared across three subject areas. This gives support to the

important role and a wide use of the above-mentioned constructions in professional academic

writing.

As can be seen from the results, the most common structures of lexical bundles are

prepositional phrases (50% of the total tokens) followed by noun phrases (36% of the total

tokens) and verb phrases (12.2% of the total tokens). The results supported some previous

findings across academic disciplines. For instance, research in Applied Linguistics (Qin,

2014) also found that noun phrases and prepositional phrases dominated and accounted for

slightly more than 50% of LBs. This was similar to the findings in Biber et al. (1999), where

66% of the four-word lexical bundles in academic writing were noun phrases or prepositional

phrases. In the case of Music RAs, the verb-based forms are in minority, which implies the

specific features of the genre: it has a more nomination (descriptive) character of discourse.

4.3 Functional Types

The functional distribution is shown in the table below.

Table 13. The functions of the lexical bundles in the Music research articles

Functions Sub-categories № of

types

% of

types

№ of

tokens

% of

tokens

examples

Research-

oriented, used to

structure

research

activities

time and place 45 20.6

%

1,072 26% the beginning of the,

for the first time,

the end of the,

in the upper voice,

in the world of

procedure

(+manner)

26 11.9

%

443 10.7 % the development of

the, in the analysis of,

as a means to,

through the use of

quantification 5 2.3 % 122 3% is one of the, as one of

the, is part of the

54

description 70 32.1

%

1,145 28% the history of the, the

context of a, the form

of a, the role of the,

an example of a

grouping 14 6.4 % 265 6.4% as part of the, of a

number of, a wide

variety of

Total: 160 73.4% 3,047 74.1%

Text-oriented,

help writers

organize the

text and

develop their

argument

additive 6 2.7% 143

3.4% in addition to the,

in the case of

comparative 3 1.4% 87

2.1% on the other hand

on the one hand

inferential 1 0.45% 11

0.26% that there is no

causative 0 0 0 0 [due] to the fact that

structuring 17 7.8% 255

6.2% can be seen as, be

understood as a, in

order to make, as

shown in Figure

framing 9 4.1% 287

7% in terms of its,

in the context of,

in the case of

citation 4 1.8% 56

1.4% the work of the,

in the work of,

referred to as the

generalization 0 0 0 0

objective 2 0.92% 16

0.4% I would like to,

I use the term

Total: 42 19.2% 855

20.8%

Participant

oriented, that

involve

writers and

readers in the

developing

text

stance 12 5.5% 162

3.9% it is clear that, it is

likely that, as a kind

of, it is important to

engagement 3 1.4% 35

0.85% is important to note,

It should be noted

acknowledgmen

ts

1 0.46% 11

0.26% would like to thank

Total: 16 7.3% 208

5%

Total: 218 100% 4,110 100%

55

More detailed analyses of every functional subcategory are provided below.

4.3.1 Research-oriented bundles

Research-oriented functions “help writers to structure their activities” (Salazar, 2014, p. 167)

and are used to report accounts of the research activities and the world they took place in.

From the perspective of the present study, this category was filled with the bundles that

actually referred to the initial setting of the investigation or the source: they described the

events of the musicians‟ life, referred to pieces of music, or included evidence from the

previous research like questionnaires and responses. This group (n=160 and 3,150 tokens)

turned out to be quite balanced in percentage of types and tokens: 73.4% of types and 74.1%

of tokens.

Following the taxonomy by Salazar (2014), this category was divided into five subcategories:

time and place, procedure, quantification, description and grouping. The order in which these

categories are presented in this work was determined by their frequency order.

The descriptive signals turned out to be the most numerous group (n=70, 1,145 tokens). The

texts contained a large number of narrations, descriptions or references to the musical

literature or life and creativity of musicians. In such a case, this group included all the bundles

that referred to any kind of description of the research setting. It was the most varied group in

structural sense as well. The structural forms were distributed as follows:

56

Table 14. The structural distribution of descriptive signals

Structural type № of types Examples

1.1 noun-phrase with

of-phrase

fragment

33 the onset of the,

the form of a,

second half of the

1.2 noun phrase with

other post-

modifier fragment

3 the extent to which

the relationship between the

1.3 complete noun

phrases

4 interview with the author,

email to the author,

the A and B (strains)

2.1 prepositional-

based with

embedded -of

phrase fragment

21 as a means of

of popular music studies

in the wake of

2.2 other

prepositional

phrase segments

7 in popular music studies

as opposed to the

3.5 verb phrase with

active verb

2 that there is a

which the performer is

It may seem at first glance that some of the bundles should be categorised differently.

However, after a qualitative scrutiny of the concordance lines, their descriptive function was

more evident:

(6) My own involvement in popular music studies has been largely in the field of

popular music and gender and (doc#30)

(7) the latter chord eventually becomes major as a result of the middle ground

semitonal ascent to D♯ in the bass at 7:1 (doc#0)

(8) Example 1, taken from the first movement of Socrate, is typical of Satie's

setting. (doc#71)

(9) and technical perfection at the expense of her emotional welfare (doc#85)

57

The time and place group (n=45, 1,072 tokens) ranked second in number of types but first in

number of tokens. Some typical keywords appeared to be century, beginning, end, middle,

late, early, first, time, top, bottom, front, level, in+, at+. Some most frequent phrases were the

end of the (n=130), at the end of (n=95) and at the same time (n=87). The group included a

number of topic-specific bundles, some illustrations of which can be seen below:

(10) last harmonic sonority in m. 42, an A major chord with C♯ in the upper

voice (doc#15)

(11) also colors a recapitulatory tonic as a non-tonic chord in the first

movement of his Piano Sonata in B♭, D. 960 (doc#0)

The sequence first half of the (n=15) formed part of both general and topic-specific

sequences: first half of the film; first half of the fourteenth century; first half of the nineteenth

century; first half of the phrase; first half of the opening movement; first half of the piece;

first half of the second sequence; first half of the bar; first half of the equal division. The same

was true to say about at the top of (n=11) and (to, from, at, near) the bottom of the (n=11)

sequences, for instance the following examples could be compared:

(12) however the word 'dark' imposes a melodic descent to the bottom of the

stave (Fig. 11) (doc#14)

(13) At the bottom of the page are the missing bars, and an indication of

where (doc#31)

(14) Kowalski also laments the lack of a little café at the top of Mount Eden,

as might have been found in France, (doc#9)

(15) which arrive at the top of his third chorus, clearly paraphrase the

melodic passage (doc#61)

58

In short, the results demonstrated that this group was mainly composed of prepositional

phrases and ranked second after descriptive signals, unlike in the results by Jalilifar et al.

(2016) and Salazar (2014) where the location formulaic sequences appeared in smaller numbers.

It deemed to express the idea that the functional signals of time and place are important in

Music RAs.

The procedure signals (n=26, 433 tokens) are supposed to indicate events, actions and

methods. In case of this study, the sequences with a clear manner function were also included

into this category. Its clear procedural function can be illustrated by the following examples:

(16) This understanding of gesture can be heard in the manipulation of low

frequency oscillators (doc#89)

(17) …mistake made by Strayhorn in the second trumpet part; this can be

heard in the recording if one listens carefully (doc#31)

The grouping subcategory resulted in 14 types (265 tokens). The keywords that helped

identify this function appeared to be number, variety, part, majority, range and great deal.

This group identification turned out to be quite straightforward and did not cause any

ambiguities.

The quantification signals serve to indicate measures. Hyland proposed the constructions as a

wide range of and one of the most to have a quantification functions (2008b, p. 13) while

Salazar (2014, p. 167) qualified the construction a wide range of as a grouping signal. The

present work chose to distinguish these phrases into two different functional categories:

59

grouping and quantification. The latter included five types and 122 tokens. The quantification

signals were as follows:

Table 15. The quantification function of music LBs

structure example tokens

1.1 one of the most 45

2.1 as one of the 30

3.1 is one of the 25

3.1 was one of the 12

3.1 is part of the 10

In short, the category of research-oriented bundles was the most frequent, slightly above 70 %

of both types and tokens of the MCRA. This finding contradicts all the previous results since

in other disciplines text-oriented functions were the biggest group, and research-oriented was

the second. This is finding should be double-checked and examined further.

4.3.2 Text-oriented bundles

Text-oriented functions focus on the text organization and its meaning. It has nine

subcategories, which have been mentioned before, in the Methodology and Material section

of the present study (Section 3). The subcategories have the following frequencies in the

corpus: framing (7%), structuring (6.2%), additive (3.4%), comparative (2.1%), citation

(1.4%), objective (0.4%) and inferential (0.26%) signals. Causative and generalization signals

were not identified in the corpus.

The first and biggest group of the text-oriented category included framing signals which

situate arguments by specifying limiting conditions. It accounted for 287 tokens spread

60

through nine types of bundles. This functional category was the most represented in terms of

tokens in the Music Corpus, similar to the results by Jalilifar and Ghoreishi (2018) who found

that one of the most frequently used functional categories across general and discipline-

specific formulaic sequences was framing.

(18) Given that the metric values are normally shorter in the piano with

respect to the cello part, there are fewer note onsets in the latter, and, as a

consequence, not in every occasion that the piano strikes a new note there is a

note onset in the cello as well. (doc#80)

(19) Exceptions can certainly be found, but they are outside the scope of this

paper (doc#42)

The next frequent signals in the text-oriented category were structuring formulaic sequences.

Structural signals accounted to 17 types spread over 255 tokens. These formulaic sequences

organize the text by providing signals that guide readers through the text (Salazar, 2014).

(20) Further examples can be found in the editorial listings above. (doc#31)

(21) For our present canonic purposes, however, it is more relevant to focus

on the spelling of the chord (doc#56)

(22) For a discussion of the cultural reception of Gesualdo's unusual

contrapuntal style, see Catherine Deutsch's (2013) article (doc#15)

(23) What makes Heppner's breathing all the more interesting for the

purposes of this essay is that his inhalations are strong, quick, and almost

inaudible, even while they clearly are large, athletic breaths (doc#23)

61

Additive signals are used to establish additive (24) or contrastive (25) relations between

elements. This subgroup is represented by six types and 143 tokens, ranking third after

framing and structuring signals. The most frequent and typical additive bundles are as well as

the (n=58), in relation to the (n=36), as well as the (n=32).

(24) In addition to the requisite nights out clubbing, this research involved

qualitative interviews (doc#11)

(25) This is despite the fact that it supports C not Bn, which might suggest F

as its root rather than En (doc#36)

Comparing signals compare and contrast of different elements, as for example, on the other

hand (26), and exclude elements, as in this is not the (27). This subcategory contains three

types only (87 tokens): on the other hand (n=53), on one hand (n=24) and this is not the

(n=10).

(26) A jazz listener, on the other hand, would be quite surprised if Charlie

Parker inserted measure into a chorus (doc#42)

(27) The name, 'melodic death metal', might suggest that the melodic aspects

of the music are more significant than the harmonic aspects, but this is not the

case (doc#65)

Citation signals, which are used to cite research resources and supporting data, accounted for

56 tokens and were distributed over four types: in the work of (n=22), paper presented at the

(n=12), the work of the (n=12), and referred to as the (n=10).

The next text-oriented functions is objective, which introduce the writer‟s aims. The total

entry of the sequence I would like to amounted to 15 hits. However, the analysis of the

62

concordance lines revealed that it served a double function and served as a part of an

acknowledgement phrase I would like to thank (n=11) that will be discussed further in relation

to participant-oriented functions. However, the objective function of the sequence was

identified in six entries and could be illustrated by the following examples:

(28) there is a real vibrancy in popular music performance that I would like

to convey in my own music (doc#27)

(29) The way in which sampling became synonymous with hip-hop and

quotation at the expense of other definitions of the term has led to a number of

problems that I would like to outline and address in this article (doc #109)

Another example of objective signals appeared to be the phrase I use the term (n=10). This

bundle, together with the some similar constructions with an embedded I pronoun found in the

corpus (I would like to, I don't think, I don't know) might signal a unique feature of the genre

of Music RAs: “I can help presenters underline their responsibility in the research”

(Fernández Polo, 2018, p. 15) and highlighting their leading position in the research.

(30) For the purposes of this paper I use the term rather than, for example,

‟computer game‟ or ‟digital game‟ (doc #27)

(31) I use the term super-clubber to denote an individual who contextually

belongs to super-club culture (doc #44)

The remaining text-oriented functions, inferential, were realized through one LB that there is

no with 11 entries. It signalled evidence, or more accurately, a lack of evidence (32).

(32) Compounding the ambiguities of this piece is the fact that there is no

evidence that it is by Mozart at all (doc#62)

Causative and generalization functions, as stated above, were not identified in the corpus.

63

4.3.3. Participant-oriented bundles

Participant-oriented bundles focus on the writer or reader of the text. The taxonomy by

Salazar (2014) proposes three subcategories: stance, engagement, acknowledgements. As in

many other studies (Johnston, 2017), these functions turned out to be the smallest group. In

the present study, it included 16 types and 208 tokens.

The stance subgroup was the most numerous (12 types, 162 tokens), followed by the

engagement signals with three types and 35 tokens. Finally, the acknowledgements subgroup

was represented by one expression with eleven entries in the corpus. Table 16 presents the

percentage of all the groups as well as the LBs.

Table 16. The participle-oriented bundles of music LBs

Function

№ of

types

% of

types

№ of

tokens

% of

tokens

Examples

Stance

12

5.5% 162 3.9% appears to be a

does not appear to,

an important part of,

an integral part of,

of the most important,

as a kind of

it is clear that

it is likely that

it is difficult to

it is important to

it is possible to

at least in part

Engagement

3

1.4% 35 0.85% It is important to note,

Should be noted that,

It should be noted

Acknowledgements

1

0.4% 11 0.25% would like to thank

Total: 16 7.35% 208 5%

64

Another interesting observation was concerning the phrase would like to thank that had eleven

entries and appeared in elevan different texts is that this sequence formed part of the

acknowledgement tradition within Music RAs (illustrated in Figure 8 below)

Figure 8. The demonstration of acknowledgement functions in the corpus

The results show that research-oriented LBs are most frequent (74.1%), followed by text-

organizers (20.8%) and participant organizers with 7% only. This suggests the idea that Music

and Musicology discipline by nature is probably closer to the soft sciences (History,

Literature, and Philosophy) since the bundles have a lot of description-oriented and time and

place research-oriented functions.

65

5 Conclusions

This study has investigated four-word lexical bundles extracted from Music research articles

(RAs). In order to perform this kind of work the Corpus of Music Research Articles (CMRA)

of one million words was created. It included 110 research articles collected from

international music journals of various music subdisciplines; all the articles were written by

native English experts in the field of music.

The present research project was intended to realise four major research questions. The first

research question was to investigate overall frequency of four-word lexical bundles in the

CMRA. The second research question was to identify discipline-specific and general lexical

bundles in the corpus by comparing the results with the ones by Jalilifar et al. (2016). The last

two were to describe the syntactic structures and discourse functions of the extracted four-

word LBs. In this way, the third research question involved identifying the structural

characteristics of the bundles, based on a widely used syntactic classification from Biber et al.

(1999), while the fourth research question involved analysing the overall functions of the

bundles, classifying them into research-oriented, text-oriented or participant-oriented, with

further subcategorizations, based on Salazar (2014).

The following main findings can be summarized as follows: firstly, with respect to the first

research question, 218 LBs were identified; secondly, by comparing the results with the ones

in major subject areas as Arts and Humanities, Sciences and Social Sciences, it was found that

56 out of 218 bundles were core bundles (shared among three different subject areas) and 116

were considered to be general LBs shared with Arts and Humanities only. 102 lexical bundles

66

were considered to be discipline-specific, i.e. unique for CMRA and not shared with any of

the above-mentioned disciplines. 20 out of discipline-specific were considered topic-specific,

containing a specialised music terminology or music-related vocabulary (e.g., the first

movement, in the upper voice, of the A section, structure of the piece).

Thirdly, the quantitative analysis demonstrated that structurally there were predominantly

prepositional phrases (47.8% of the total) and noun phrases (34.4% of the total) in the corpus,

while verb phrases yielded around 12%. If these results are to be compared to some previous

findings across academic disciplines (see Table 2) it can be seen that Music RAs used the

biggest number of prepositional phrases, even surpassing Medicine with its 44.5% (Jalali et

al., 2015). Music RAs employed almost the same number of noun phrases as the

Telecommunication discipline (36.4%) (Pan et al., 2016); however, featuring the smallest

percentage of verb phrases (all the other disciplines demonstrated at least over 25% of verb

phrases). This finding is related to the idea formulated by Biber et al. (1999, p. 992) that most

lexical bundles in academic prose are “building blocks for extended noun phrases or

prepositional phrases” while “verbal and clausal structural units” are most typical of

conversation .

Regarding the forth research question, the main feature of MRAs turned out to be discourse

functions of lexical bundles. While the majority of academic disciplines used text-oriented

bundles (see Table 2), the Corpus of Music Research Articles used research-oriented bundles

(with slightly more than 70%). The major functional subcategories turned out to be

descriptive signals, amounting to 28% (the history of the, the role of the, the example of the),

67

and time and place signals, amounting to 26% (the beginning of the, the end of the, in the

world of, for the first time). The category of text-oriented signals amounted to almost 21% of

the total. Participant-oriented bundles were the least frequently used category (5%).

By performing qualitative analysis, it has been possible to find ways in which Music RAs are

unique as a discipline. Music RAs do not avoid the use of contractions or I-perspective

narration. Furthermore, it has multiple references to music pieces (e.g., F-minor Clarinet

Sonata, Miles Davis Nonet Manuscripts), composers and other representatives of the music

industry (e.g., rhythm in Bartok’s Contrasts Example) as part of its specialist terminology.

However, there are some limitations in the present study. The first limitation lies in the

material selection, i.e. three-word bundles were not considered for this research, though they

have been proved to be an important part of academic formulas (Simpson-Vlach & Ellis,

2010). Further, the second limitation concerns the methodology used in the present research.

Qualitative analysis of the discourse functions might be quite subjective and could rely on the

author‟s understanding of the material. In this type of analysis, it would be desirable to have

two researchers qualifying the functions in order to overcome bias by contrasting them.

Lastly, the third limitation is that the results cannot be taken for “absolute truth” but should be

considered as the reflection of the material used in the particular corpus created for this

particular study.

The findings of this work have demonstrated a big potential for pedagogical application.

Together with genre analysis of moves and rhetorical structure of Music research articles, this

68

lexical bundles analysis can help both non-native professionals and novice language users

improve their writing proficiency in English by raising awareness of introducing the most

frequent or typical formulaic sequences into their written discourse. Undergraduate students

of musical higher educational institutions could also benefit from the results of the present

work. Phrase-based lexical drills might employ this knowledge and bring it into teaching

practices. As proposed by Johnston (2017, p. 69), teachers could create a cloze-type activity

where these bundles are removed from the text and students are asked to replace them in the

text or they could then complete a guided fill-in-the-gap activity.

In terms of recommendations for the further research, it would be interesting to compare the

use of formulaic language in different music subdisciplines (e.g., jazz, history of music, opera

singing, etc.). Moreover, it would be worth investigating how different subfields are included

in the discipline of Music and Musicology and the way they relate to each other from the

point of view of formulaicity or idiomaticity. Additionally, another way of developing the

present study could be looking at music terminology used by different discourse communities

or in different genres or registers.

In closing, this study has provided new insights in understanding the discipline-specific

discourse of Music research articles and as a basis for doing further corpus-based research in

written academic discourse and EAP.

69

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Appendix 1. The Full List of Lexical Bundles in the CMRA

116 LBs in normal-face: general lexical bundles shared with the Art

and Humanities

102 LBs in italics-face: discipline-specific LB appeared only in

CMRA

56 LBs in bold-face: core LB shared among CMRA and three other

subject areas

Frequency

the end of the 130

at the end of 95

in the context of 90

at the same time 87

the beginning of the 72

as well as the 58

in the case of 56

the ways in which 54

on the other hand 53

at the University of 50

one of the most 45

the way in which 43

in terms of the 39

of the twentieth century 39

as part of a 38

in the form of 38

at the beginning of 38

the extent to which 37

in relation to the 36

as part of the 36

the rest of the 35

the use of the 34

as a means of 33

as well as a 32

75

interview with the author 31

the start of the 31

the role of the 31

email to the author 30

the context of the 30

as one of the 30

it is important to 30

the first movement of 29

as a result of 29

of popular music studies 26

can be found in 26

is one of the 25

on the one hand 24

as an example of 24

in a way that 23

a wide range of 23

can be seen in 23

in the work of 22

in such a way 22

to be able to 22

in the middle of 22

over the course of 22

at the heart of 22

within the context of 21

the second half of 20

the sound of the 20

the structure of the 20

the fact that the 20

the turn of the 20

the early twentieth century 20

for the first time 20

in the development of 19

the middle of the 19

76

as a way of 18

the course of the 18

the nature of the 18

in the sense that 18

of a number of 18

a great deal of 18

of the recording studio 18

for the sake of 17

of the first movement 17

second half of the 17

the relationship between the 17

on the basis of 17

in a variety of 17

the same way as 17

be found in the 17

in the first movement 17

of the nineteenth century 17

the late nineteenth century 17

a piece of music 16

the first half of 16

as a form of 16

on the part of 16

the level of the 16

that there is a 16

in the same way 16

at the time of 16

an example of a 15

the music of the 15

as opposed to the 15

the part of the 15

from the perspective of 15

a part of the 15

in an attempt to 15

77

a result of the 15

an important part of 15

can be seen as 15

for a discussion of 15

in the music of 15

first half of the 15

despite the fact that 14

of the a section 14

the return of the 14

should be noted that 14

through a process of 14

through the use of 14

to the development of 14

with the assistance of 14

with the exception of 14

to do with the 14

in the history of 14

at the start of 14

in the upper voice 14

in popular music studies 13

the opening of the 13

about the nature of 13

at the expense of 13

in the wake of 13

the form of a 13

to the use of 13

the development of a 13

such a way that 13

it is likely that 13

an integral part of 13

of the most important 13

it is difficult to 13

it is possible to 13

78

as shown in figure 13

be seen in the 13

in order to make 13

the purposes of this 13

can be understood as 13

in the music industry 13

the beginning of a 13

the end of a 13

to the end of 13

at the level of 13

paper presented at the 12

the work of the 12

from the first movement 12

in the face of 12

of the dance floor 12

the idea of the 12

in terms of its 12

with respect to the 12

the majority of the 12

in a number of 12

and the use of 12

way in which the 12

was one of the 12

it is clear that 12

be understood as a 12

be seen as a 12

to the fact that 12

in the recording studio 12

in the first place 12

in the process of 12

at a time when 12

in the world of 12

would like to thank 11

79

in addition to the 11

this is not to 11

in the sense of 11

the centre of the 11

the onset of the 11

the context of a 11

in response to the 11

of the relationship between 11

the form of a 11

electronic dance music culture 11

it should be noted 11

of some of the 11

that there is no 11

as a means to 11

the development of the 11

in the manner of 11

of the ways in 11

is an example of 11

to focus on the 11

at the centre of 11

at the top of 11

beginning of the recapitulation 11

in a position to 11

the bottom of the 11

within popular music studies 11

which the performer is 10

referred to as the 10

this is not the 10

and its relationship to 10

of the music and 10

structure of the piece 10

the a and b 10

the experience of the 10

80

the field of popular 10

the influence of the 10

in the use of 10

an example of the 10

and the role of 10

the history of the 10

the case of the 10

in the absence of 10

with the idea of 10

is important to note 10

the scope of this 10

one of the first 10

a wide variety of 10

the first of the 10

I use the term 10

can be heard in 10

in the analysis of 10

the manner in which 10

is part of the 10

appears to be a 10

at least in part 10

does not appear to 10

as a kind of 10

in the long term 10

in the nineteenth century 10

in the performance of 10

on the dance floor 10

in front of the 10

I would like to 6

81

Appendix 2. The List of Overlaps in the CMRA

Example Initial frequency

1 at the beginning of 45

the beginning of the 75

the beginning of a 13

2 at the end of 102

the end of the 138

the end of a 15

to the end of 13

3 the start of the 31

at the start of 14

4 in the music of 15

the music of the 15

5 second half of the 17

the second half of 20

6 the first half of 16

first half of the 15

7 as an example of 24

an example of a 15

8 be found in the 17

be seen as a 12

be understood as a 12

9 can be found in 26

can be seen as 15

82

can be seen in 23

can be understood as 13

10 to the fact that 12

despite the fact that 14

the fact that the 20

11 in such a way 22

such a way that 13

12 in the work of 22

the work of the 12

13 would like to thank 11

I would like to 15

83

Appendix 3. The list of the RAs used for the CMRA

Document number in

CMRA

Articles [consulted: 2021-05-25]

Doc#0 Chandler, O. (2020). A Diminished-Seventh Bassbrechung: Tonal

Ambiguity and the Prolongation of Function in Edward Elgar‟s String

Quartet, 1st Movement. GAMUT, 9, 3-29. Retrieved from

https://trace.tennessee.edu/gamut/vol9/iss1/2/

Doc#01 Selleck, J. (2017). Back to the Future: The Proud Legacy of

Melbourne‟s Colonial Women Composers. Context, 42, 1-22.

Retrieved from https://contextjournal.music.unimelb.edu.au/no-42-

2017/

Doc#02 Graham, St. J. (2009). Neotrance and the Psychedelic Festival.

Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture, 1(1), 35-64.

Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/270

Doc#03 Evans, C. P. (2020). The Politics of Music: Women‟s Music

Education in the United States in the late 18th

Century. Current

Musicology, 105, 21-41. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.7916/cm.v0i105.5401

Doc#04 Firth, S. (2010). Analysing live music in the UK: Findings One Year

into a Three Year Research Project. Journal of the International

Association for the Study of Popular Music, 1, 1-30. Retrieved from

https://iaspmjournal.net/index.php/IASPM_Journal/article/view/335

Doc#05 Lovell, J. (2011). Out of the Ordinary: Andrew Hill‟s “Verona Rag”.

Journal of Jazz Studies, 7 (1), 47–72. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.14713/jjs.v7i1.4

Doc#06 McKenry, T. (2013). From Overt to Covert: The Changing Role of

Cultural Commentary in Australian Operatic Repertoire 1990-2009.

Journal of Music Research Online, 4, 1-12. Retrieved from

http://www.jmro.org.au/index.php/mca2/article/view/84/32

84

Doc#07 MacCutcheon, D., Greasley, A. E., & Elliott, M. T. (2016).

Investigating the Value of DJ Performance for Contemporary Music

Education and Sensorimotor Synchronisation (SMS) Abilities.

Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture, 8(1), 46–72.

Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/557

Doc#08 Chandler, O. (2020). A Diminished-Seventh Bassbrechung: Tonal

Ambiguity and the Prolongation of Function in Edward Elgar‟s String

Quartet, 1st Movement. GAMUT, 9, 3-29. Retrieved from

https://trace.tennessee.edu/gamut/vol9/iss1/2/

Doc#09 Murphy, K. (2017). A Counterpoint of Critical Voices: Travelling

Musicians in Colonial New Zealand. Context, 42, 23–35. Retrieved

from https://contextjournal.music.unimelb.edu.au/no-42-2017/

Doc#10 Graham, St. J. (2009). Neotrance and the Psychedelic Festival.

Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture, 1(1), 35-64.

Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/270

Doc#11 Montano, E. (2009). DJ Culture in the Commercial Sydney Dance

Music Scene. Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture,

1(1), 81-93. Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/272

Doc#12 Green, E. (2011). “Harlem Air Shaft”: A True Programmatic

Composition? Journal of Jazz Studies, 7(1), 28–46. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.14713/jjs.v7i1.9

Doc#13 Maloy, L. (2010). „Staying Alive in Da Club: The Illegality and

Hyperreality of Mashups. Journal of the International Association for

the Study of Popular Music, 2, 1-20. Retrieved from

https://iaspmjournal.net/index.php/IASPM_Journal/article/view/372

Doc#14 McMahon, P (2017). Darkness and Light: Handel‟s Rhetorical Vocal

Writing in the English Oratorio Samson. Journal of Music Research

Online, 8, 1-27. Retrieved from

http://www.jmro.org.au/index.php/mca2/article/view/198

85

Doc#15 Lively, M. & Bleile M. L. (2020). Gesualdo‟s Moro Lasso and the

Freudian Repetition Compulsion. GAMUT, 9, 1-38. Retrieved from

https://trace.tennessee.edu/gamut/vol9/iss1/4/

Doc#16 Glauert, A. (2013). “Do you know the land?” Unfolding the secrets of

the lyric in performance. Music Performance Research, 6, 68-96.

Retrieved from http://musicperformanceresearch.org/volume-6/

Doc#17 Lawrence, T. (2016). Life and Death on the Pulse Dance Floor:

Transglocal Politics and the Erasure of the Latinx in the History of

Queer Dance. Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music

Culture, 8(1), 1–25. Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/906

Doc#18 Callaghan, A. (2017). Realism and the „Inaudible‟ Score for

Spotlight. Context, 42. 53–66. Retrieved from

https://contextjournal.music.unimelb.edu.au/no-42-2017/

Doc#19 Graham, St. J. (2010). Making a Noise – Making a Difference:

Techno-Punk and Terra-ism. Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance

Music Culture, 1(2), 1-28. Retrieved from

https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/view/285

Doc#20 Morey, J. (2013).Copyright Management and its Effect on the

Sampling Practice of UK Dance Music Producers. Journal of the

International Association for the Study of Popular Music, 3(1), 48-

62. Retrieved from

https://iaspmjournal.net/index.php/IASPM_Journal/article/view/589

Doc#21 Jeffreys, C. (2018). Johannes de Grocheio, the Ars musice and the

Transformation of Chant Theory in the late Thirteenth Century.

Journal of Music Research Online, 9, 1-12. Retrieved from

http://www.jmro.org.au/index.php/mca2/article/view/218

Doc#22 McGowan, J. (2011). Psychoacoustic Foundations of Contextual

Harmonic Stability in Jazz Piano Voicings. Journal of Jazz Studies,

7(2), 156-191. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.14713/jjs.v7i2.13

86

Doc#23 Parr, S. M. (2019).Wagnerian Singing and the Limits of Vocal

Pedagogy. Current Musicology, 105, 56-74. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.7916/cm.v0i105.5403

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Doc#25 Bayley, A. & Heyde, N. (2017). Communicating through notation:

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Doc#26 Armitage, J. (2018). Spaces to Fail in: Negotiating Gender,

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Doc#27 Crowe, J. (2017). Playing Games with Postmodernism: Matthew

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Doc#28 Graham, St. J. (2011). DJ Goa Gil. Kalifornian Exile, Dark Yogi and

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Doc#29 Herbst, J.-P. (2019). Empirical Explorations of Guitar Players

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Doc#31 Sultanof, J. (2011). The Miles Davis Nonet Manuscripts Lost and

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Doc#45 Kirby, S. (2017). Cosmopolitanism and Race in Percy Grainger‟s

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Doc#50 Cherry, R. & Griffith J.(2014). Down to Business: Herman Lubinsky

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Doc#64 Morrison, S.A. (2014). “Surely people who go clubbing don‟t read”:

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Doc#70 Carr-Richardson, A. (2011). A Study of Donald Grantham‟s Fantasy

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in Jazz Worlds: A Case Study of Joe Farrell‟s “Moon Germs.”

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Current Musicology, 97, 21-36. Retrieved from

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Doc#85 Dobson, M.C. (2010). Performing your self? Autonomy and self‐

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Thing”: Negotiating the Critique of Gender Inequality in UK Music

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musical Formats and Chance Mechanisms in Syd Clayton‟s Yehudi.

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