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7/29/2019 Stringham, D. a. (2010). Improvisation and Composition in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum (Doctoral
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Improvisation and Composition
in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum
by
David Andrew Stringham
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Supervised by
Professor Richard F. Grunow
Department of
Music EducationEastman School of Music
University of Rochester
Rochester, New York
2010
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ii
Dedication
To my son, Vaughan Boyd Stringham:
Although my parenting experience is limited, seeing you inside the womb,
hearing your heartbeat for the first time, watching you enter the world, and beginning
to help raise you have been some of the most exciting and rewarding experiences of
my life.
I hope this study, and my future research, will help your generation become
more musical than mine. Most important, I hope you will always know that I love
you, and your mom, unconditionally.
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Curriculum Vitae
David Andrew Stringham was born in Amherst, New York on September 17,
1981. He attended the Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester from
1999 to 2003, completing a Bachelor of Music in Music Education with Highest
Distinction. Mr. Stringham continued his studies at Eastman, receiving a Master of
Music in Music Education in 2007.
While completing the Master of Music, Mr. Stringham taught instrumental
music at Williamsville North High School in Williamsville, New York. He returned
to Eastman in Fall 2007 to begin doctoral studies in Music Education.
While in residence as a doctoral student, he served as a Graduate Teaching
Assistant for a variety of undergraduate and graduate courses, and he taught
instrumental music at Greece Apollo Middle School in Greece, New York. Mr.
Stringham is a composition evaluator for the New York State School Music
Association, and he presents his research at local, state, and national conferences. In
Fall 2010, Mr. Stringham joined the faculty in the School of Music at James Madison
University in Harrisonburg, VA, where he supervises student teachers and teaches
courses in instrumental methods, woodwind techniques, and music technology.
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Acknowledgments
This document would not have come to fruition without advice and assistance
from many persons. I am grateful to my committee members: Richard Grunow,
Christopher Azzara, and Robert Cole. They helped me grow as a musician, teacher,
researcher, and writer, and spent hours reading, editing, and discussing content in
these pages. The following faculty members in the Music Education Department at
Eastman have challenged and encouraged me throughout my studies: Susan
Conkling, John Fetter, Donna Brink Fox, and Ann Marie Stanley. I extend a special
note of thanks to Elizabeth Bock, Department Secretary. I also wish to acknowledge
the late William Fals-Stewart, who assisted in the early stages of formulating this
study. I am fortunate to have encountered outstanding faculty throughout the
University of Rochester. I hope to be as inspirational and helpful to my students as
these individuals have been to me.
I have interacted with many intelligent, curious, and kind colleagues during
my doctoral work. I am particularly grateful to Gregory Harduk and David Hart for
judging student performances. In addition to serving as a judge, Alden H. Snell II
moderated the focus group. Maria Mastroianni transcribed the focus group session. I
also express thanks to Stephen Shewan, Jo Lynn DeGolia, Wayne Moose, and
Maureen Reilly at Williamsville East High School, and to Linda Cimusz and Anna
Cieri at Williamsville Central School District Offices. Without their cooperation and
that of their students, this study would not have been possible.
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While professors, colleagues, and friends have been invaluable resources, I
would not have been prepared to take advantage of them without my family. My
parents, Rodney and Debra Stringham; my brothers, Stephen and Timothy Stringham;
my late grandfather, Edward Hensel, Sr.; my grandmother, Lola Hagen; and my aunt,
Patricia Rogers all gave time, love, patience, and financial support to facilitate my
early development as a musician and a person. Rita Rider, my "third grandmother,"
and my aunt, Carol Stringham, have provided encouragement throughout my studies.
My uncle, Edward Hensel, Jr., is an excellent role model and source of perspective
from another discipline in higher education. My father-in-law and mother-in-law,
Paul and Elizabeth Mroz, have also helped me throughout this degree in more ways
than I can count.
Most of all, I am thankful for my wife, Monica. You have supported me in
every way possible during my doctoral studies. You have selflessly made many
sacrifices to help me realize my goal of earning this degree. I hope that I will always
show you that far beyond any piece of paper or title, you are the most valuable
treasure I have in this life.
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Abstract
Common practice instrumental music pedagogy prioritizes performance from
music notation. Certainly a worthy pursuit, such an exclusive objective often neglects
other essential musical behaviors, such as singing, improvising, and composing.
Local, state, and national music education policymakers, as well as authorities in the
profession, agree that these behaviors are important. Nevertheless, singing,
improvising, and composing are rarely included in instrumental music curricula.
With the intent of improving music teaching and learning in secondary
instrumental music, the purpose of this mixed methods study was to describe music
achievement and personal perspectives of high school students who learned to
improvise and compose using a sequential music curriculum in a non-auditioned wind
and percussion ensemble. In this study, curriculum emphasized development of
individual musicianship and emerging behaviors for improvisation and composition
(i.e., singing, movement, and playing by ear to learn melodies, bass lines, tonal
patterns, rhythm patterns, and voice leading).
Quantitative measures revealed relationships between music aptitude and
music achievement. Three judges rated student performances. Overall, mean scores
were highest for singing, followed by mean scores for playing and writing music.
Stabilized music aptitude scores were predictive of performance achievement,
improvisation achievement, and composite music achievement; these aptitude scores
were a relatively weak predictor of composition achievement. Several statistically
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significant correlations emerged among musical tasks. Analysis of variance revealed
significant effects for gender and instrument group.
Student perspectives on improvisation and composition were examined in a
focus group comprising eight students who participated in the research. Students in
this focus group found the sequential nature of this curriculum helpful, and reported
success in learning to improvise and compose. Students generally agreed that
learning musical elements by ear was beneficial. Several participants indicated that
the processes of improvising and composing are related.
Recorded class meetings and fieldnotes were examined to describe teaching
and learning of improvisation and composition in this setting. Based on this
examination, it was evident that musicianship, understanding of music teaching and
learning, interaction, making connections, and a positive learning environment are
important when learning to improvise and compose. Singing, moving, performing,
improvising, composing, and analyzing were ongoing elements of the curriculum.
Quantitative and qualitative data presented in this study provide preliminary
evidence to suggest that teaching improvisation and composition in a non-auditioned
secondary wind and percussion ensemble is a practical, meaningful, and musical
objective.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Curriculum Vitae iii
Acknowledgments iv
Abstract vi
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xiii
Chapter One Purpose of the Study 1
Chapter Two Related Literature 11
Chapter Three Method of Study 32
Chapter Four Quantitative Results 49
Chapter Five Qualitative Results 70
Chapter Six Summary and Conclusions 96
References 116
Appendix A Advanced Measures of Music 137Audiation Answer Sheet
Appendix B Developing Musicianship through 138Improvisation Unit for Amazing Grace
Appendix C Judges' Instructions and Rating Scales 155
Appendix D Student Improvisations and Compositions 210
Appendix E Moderator's Guide 219
Appendix F Focus Group Transcript 220
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Appendix G Student Survey 257
Appendix H Documentation of EPRP Number 258
Appendix I Letter of Cooperation 259
Appendix J RSRB Exemption Letter 260
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Comparison of Sample and National 38
Split Halves Reliability forAMMA
Table 3.2 Interjudge Reliability for Musical Tasks 39
Table 3.3 Interjudge Reliability for Summary Variables 40
Table 3.4 Judges Mean Ratings for Musical Tasks 41
Table 4.1 Comparison of Sample and National 50Scores forAMMA
Table 4.2 Means and Standard Deviations of 51
Musical Tasks
Table 4.3 Means and Standard Deviations of 52Summary Variables
Table 4.4 Summary of Linear Regression for the 53
Relationship Between Music Aptitudeand Performance Achievement
Table 4.5 Summary of Linear Regression for the 53Relationship Between Music Aptitude
and Improvisation Achievement
Table 4.6 Summary of Linear Regression for the 54
Relationship Between Music Aptitude
and Composition Achievement
Table 4.7 Summary of Linear Regression for the 54
Relationship Between Music Aptitude
and Composite Music Achievement
Table 4.8 Correlation Coefficients for Relationships 55
Between Vocal and Instrumental Tasks
Table 4.9 Correlation Coefficient for the Relationship 55
Between Overall Vocal Performance andOverall Instrumental Performance
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Table 4.10 Correlation Coefficients for Relationships Among 56
Vocal Improvisation, Instrumental Improvisation,and Composition
Table 4.11 Correlation Coefficient for the Relationship 56Between Improvisation and Composition
Table 4.12 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 57
Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,Composition Achievement, and Composite
Achievement by Gender
Table 4.13 One-Way Analysis of Variance for Effect of 58
Gender on Performance Achievement,
Improvisation Achievement, Composition
Achievement, and Composite Music Achievement
Table 4.14 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 59Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,
Composition Achievement, and Composite
Achievement by Grade Level
Table 4.15 One-Way Analysis of Variance for Effect of 60
Grade Level on Performance Achievement,
Improvisation Achievement, CompositionAchievement, and Composite Music Achievement
Table 4.16 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 60Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,
Composition Achievement, and Composite
Achievement by Experience Playing a
Harmonic Instrument
Table 4.17 One-Way Analysis of Variance for Effect of 61
Experience Playing a Harmonic Instrument onPerformance Achievement, Improvisation
Achievement, Composition Achievement, and
Composite Music Achievement
Table 4.18 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 62
Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,Composition Achievement, and Composite
Achievement by Instrument Group
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Table 4.19 One-Way Analysis of Variance for Effect of 63
Instrument Group on Performance Achievement,Improvisation Achievement, Composition
Achievement, and Composite Music Achievement
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List of Figures
Figure 5.1 The tonal pattern TI FA SO. 85
Figure 5.2 Students sang the pattern TI RE FA 85
with the syllables TI FA SO.
Figure 5.3 Tonic Dominant Tonic voice leading 85in E-flat Major.
Figure 5.4 Opening melody ofEnglish Folk Song 87Suite, Movement III.
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CHAPTER ONEPurpose of the Study
Introduction
Common practice instrumental music pedagogy prioritizes performance from
music notation. Certainly a worthy pursuit, such an exclusive objective often neglects
other meaningful musical behaviors. For example, according to theNational
Standards for Music Education (Music Educators National Conference, 1994),
students should:
1. Sing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music;
2. Perform on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music;
3. Improvise melodies, variations, and accompaniments;
4. Compose and arrange music within specified guidelines;
5. Read and notate music;
6. Listen to, analyze, and describe music;
7. Evaluate music and music performances;
8. Understand relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines
outside the arts; and
9. Understand music in relation to history and culture.
State policy makers call for similar objectives to be part of a comprehensive
music education. In New York State, for example, students should develop skills (a)
creating, performing, and participating in the arts; (b) knowing and using arts
materials and resources; (c) responding to and analyzing works of art; and (d)
understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of the arts (New York State
Department of Education, 2010).
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Associating music notation with appropriate motor skills, and performing with
characteristic tone qualitywhat Shewan (2009) describes as tonguing and
blowing remain the prevalent criteria for performance achievement on a music
instrument. At the same time, students are instructed to attend to rhythm, intonation,
tempo, and style to prepare music for a concert. Such directions have little meaning,
however, unless the student truly comprehends music being performed. Gordon
(2007) refers to this ability to comprehend music as audiation. Audiation is to music
what thought is to language.
Note reading and executive skills are often taught in the absence of singing,
moving, improvising, and composing. Context is lacking to promote development of
musical vocabulary, audiation skill, and comprehension. Unfortunately, the
aforementioned instruction is typical in many wind and percussion settings. Students
who perform from notation in such environments often "become button-pushers to
whom notation indicates only what fingers to put down rather than what sounds are
desired" (Schleuter, 1997, p. 48).
Many music educators agree that music is best learned through a process
analogous to that by which we learn language (Gordon, 2007; Grunow, 2005;
Reynolds, Long, & Valerio, 2007). The four vocabularies, language systems, or
components of listening, speaking, reading, and writing seem to be important for
developing comprehensive language skills (Healy, 1990; Shanahan, 2006; Smith,
1997). Gordon (2007) posits five analogous vocabularies for music: listening,
performing, audiating, reading, and writing. These vocabularies include behaviors
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associated with improvisation and composition, vital aspects of the music learning
process that are fundamental when learning to play a music instrument with
understanding. Azzara (2008) recommends the following skills for persons learning
to improvise: (a) learning by ear a variety of melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, and
expressive elements, (b) singing and moving, (c) learning to group musical elements
meaningfully, (d) interacting, (e) making comparisons, and (f) anticipating and
predicting musical events. Shewan (2002) also advocates learning repertoire by ear
and participating in aural analysis to develop readiness for composition.
Leaders in the profession (Azzara, 1993, 2008; Elliott, 1995; Gordon, 2007;
Grunow, 2005; McPherson, 1993, 1996; Reimer, 2003, 2009) agree that
improvisation and composition are integral components of a comprehensive music
education. Researchers and educators have suggested that improvisation and
composition are important to (a) teach and learn music, (b) develop musicianship, (c)
become musically literate, and (d) assess music achievement (Azzara, 1993, 2002;
Bitz, 1998; Gordon, 2007; Grunow, 2005; Liperote, 2006; McPherson, 1996; Music
Educators National Conference, 1994; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005;
Webster, 2003; Wiggins, 2003).
Improvisation and composition also have historical precedent as means of
musical expression in the classical tradition. Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart, for
example, were skilled improvisers, composers, and performers (Azzara, 2002; Levin,
1975, 2009). Hummel recommended free improvisation in general and in every
respectable form to all those for whom [music] is not merely a matter of
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entertainment and practical ability, but rather principally one of inspiration and
meaning in their art (Goertzen, 1996, p. 305).
Still, researchers suggest that creative activity is not prevalent in school music
settings (Brittin, 2005; Louk, 2002; Orman, 2002; Strand, 2006). Survey research
reveals that teachers consider improvisation and composition less important in
comparison with other curricular elements (Byo, 1997; Kirkland, 1996; Louk, 2002)
and more difficult to teach (Bell, 2003). In spite of calls for teachers to develop these
skills (National Association of Schools of Music, 2008), many teacher preparation
programs inadequately prepare music educators to improvise and compose, or to
teach improvisation and composition (Abrahams, 2000; Adderly, 1996; Louk, 2002).
Today, improvisation is common among popular musicians, folk musicians, jazz
musicians, and organists. Composition is not central to most musicians education.
Instrumental music teachers often use theoretical approaches when teaching
students to improvise and compose. For example, beginning jazz improvisers are
encouraged to select notes from particular scales (e.g., Baker, 1995; Haerle, 1975;
Levine, 1995; Nelson, 1966). Composition activities in beginning instrumental
method books involve rearranging a set of notes or selecting a note to fill in blanks in
musical phrases (e.g., Lautzenheiser, Lavender, Higgins, Rhodes, Menghini, &
Bierschenk, 2000; Pearson, 1993; D. Sheldon, Balmages, Loest, R. Sheldon, &
Collier, 2010). These activities often lack the context of singing, movement, and
improvisation, and are not grounded in musical thought. Grunow (2005) questions
the current penchant for pentatonic and blues-scale improvisation designed
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specifically to ensure that student mistakes are minimal. Though generally well
intentioned, such failsafe approaches do not allow students to fully express their
musical thoughts, since mistakes are not possible (p. 188).
The primary measure of reading achievement in language is not sounding out
written words correctly, or in the words of Healy, barking at print (1990, p. 26).
Instead, reading comprehension is demonstrated when an individual can give
meaning to written language, and express understanding by thinking, speaking, and
writing about what they have read (Fountas & Pinnell, 2008; Healy, 1990). Healy
warns against language instruction that overemphasize[s] letters and numerals and
underemphasize[s] the language and thinking skills necessary to make them
meaningful (1990, p. 223).
Just as language comprehension can be assessed through speaking and
writing, so too can music comprehension be assessed through improvising and
composing (Azzara, 2008; Grunow, 2005; Hickey, 2003; Kratus, 1994b; Reynolds, et
al., 2007; Wiggins, 2003). These behaviors reveal students' "understanding of how
music works (Kratus, 1994b, p. 130), what they comprehend musically (Grunow,
2005, p. 188), and their musical thinking and understanding (Wiggins, 2003, p.
141).
Need for the Study
Researchers have examined improvisation and composition achievement of
wind and percussion students (Azzara, 1993; McPherson, 1993, 1996; McPherson,
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Bailey, & Sinclair, 1997; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005). Through this
study, I hope to contribute to this emerging body of knowledge.
Setting
The setting for this study was a suburban high school northeast of Buffalo,
New York, the largest suburban school district in Western New York. Six elementary
schools, four middle schools, and three high schools provide services to 10,513
students in kindergarten through grade twelve. Music staff includes 47 music
teachers and a full-time Instructional Specialist for Fine and Performing Arts
(Williamsville Central School District, 2010). Students have opportunities to enroll in
multiple choirs, orchestras, bands, and jazz ensembles, in addition to courses in
improvisation and music theory.
The music department in this high school is recognized nationally as a model
program. Students and teachers are unique, making the setting ideal for this study.
Both wind and percussion teachers have more than 20 years of experience in public
school music education, and they have requisite musicianship skills to teach the
proposed curriculum. In the existing curriculum, students learn a musical vocabulary
(i.e., melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns) by ear and by reading
on a consistent basis. Teachers prioritize development of audiation skills in
combination with technical facility. Every student composes an original work each
year. Improvisation classes and jazz ensembles provide opportunities for students to
improvise beyond rehearsals and lessons. Participants in this study were 66 students
in Concert Band, a non-auditioned ensemble for students in grades nine through
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twelve. In addition to forty-minute rehearsals each day, students received a forty-
minute small group lesson each week.
Improvisation and composition are meaningful elements of a comprehensive
music education, but rarely part of students instrumental music curricula. It is
unusual to find a high school instrumental program where composition,
improvisation, and development of individual musicianship are prioritized along with
ensemble performance. Findings that describe student improvisation and composition
achievement could provide further insight for music teaching and learning, thus
improving methods and techniques for instrumental music instruction. In this study, I
describe (a) high school students improvisation and composition achievement, (b)
student perspectives when learning to improvise and compose, and (c) relationships
among various musical behaviors.
To improve instrumental music instruction, it appears that (a) the music
education profession would benefit from a better understanding of how improvisation
and composition can contribute to a students comprehensive music education, and
(b) both pre-service and in-service teachers should develop improvisation and
composition skills, and teach these musical behaviors to their students. Through this
study, I hope to contribute to understanding high school students improvisation and
composition by describing student achievement and experiences in the context of a
non-auditioned high school concert band.
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Research Purpose and Questions
Purpose
With the intent of improving music teaching and learning in secondary
instrumental music, the purpose of this mixed methods study was to describe music
achievement and personal perspectives of high school students following eight weeks
of learning to improvise and compose using a sequential music curriculum in a non-
auditioned wind and percussion ensemble. It is rare to find an instrumental music
program in which improvisation and composition are central parts of the curriculum.
Perhaps more uncommon are instrumental music teachers who agree on criterion
measures for determining student achievement. To my knowledge, no published
norms exist for improvisation or composition achievement at the secondary level. In
this study, I offer a point of departure for future research.
I chose a mixed methods approach to investigate both quantitative trends from
a large group of students and qualitative data from a student focus group and field
observation. Quantitative measures revealed relationships between music aptitude
and music achievement (i.e., singing, instrumental performance, improvising, and
composing). Student perspectives on improvisation and composition were examined
in a focus group of eight students who participated in the research. I recorded class
meetings and took extensive fieldnotes to document teaching and learning of
improvisation and composition in this particular setting.
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Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
(a) What are performance, composition, and improvisation achievement levels
of high school instrumental music students following eight weeks of instruction using
a sequential music curriculum?
(b) What are the relationships between music aptitude and (1) performance
achievement, (2) improvisation achievement, (3) composition achievement, and (4)
composite music achievement?
(c) How do students describe singing, playing by ear, improvising, and
composing experiences as part of their instrumental music instruction?
(d) In this particular setting, how is improvisation and composition instruction
delivered in the context of ensemble rehearsals?
(e) How does qualitative data from focus group sessions and observations,
together with quantitative aptitude and achievement data, help explain improvisation
and composition experiences of high school instrumental music students?
Definition of Terms
Audiation: The ability to assimilate and comprehend in our minds music that may or
may not be physically present. Audiation is to music what thought is to language
(Gordon, 2007).
Music achievement: A student's accomplishment in music. Music achievement was
assessed in terms of improvisation, composition, and performance, using rating scales
with tonal, rhythm, expressive, improvisation, and composition dimensions.
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Improvisation achievement was assessed through singing and playing improvisations
based on skills included inDeveloping Musicianship through Improvisation (DMTI;
Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b). Composition achievement was also
assessed through compositions based on skills included inDMTI. Performance
achievement was assessed through singing, playing, and notating the melody and bass
line to Amazing Grace.
Music aptitude: A students potential to achieve in music. Music aptitude can be
measured using a variety of instruments designed for different age groups (e.g.,
Gordon, 1965, 1979, 1982, 1988, 1995). In this study, stabilized music aptitude was
measured with theAdvanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a;
see Appendix A).
Rating scale: Rating scales in this study employed continuous and additive
dimensions. In continuous dimensions (tonal and rhythm), each successive criterion
assumes achievement at the previous level(s); rating criteria are interdependent. In
additive dimensions (expressive, improvisation, composition), criteria are
independent, and do not assume achievement at the previous level(s). Rating scales
used in this study are in Appendix C.
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CHAPTER TWORelated Literature
In the following review of literature, I describe and summarize research
related to variables considered in this study. The review includes seven parts: (a)
music aptitude, (b) singing and vocalization in instrumental music, (c) improvisation
in instrumental music, (d) composition in instrumental music, (e) relationships
between gender and music achievement, (f) relationships between instrument group
and music achievement, and (g) relationships between improvisation and
composition.
Music Aptitude
Lorenz, Wundt, and Stumpf studied psychology of tone and music (Boring,
1929), serving to inspire development of many music aptitude tests (e.g., Bentley,
1966; Drake, 1954; Gaston, 1957; Kwalwasser, 1953; Kwalwasser & Dykema, 1930;
Lowery, 1926; Lundin, 1949; Madison, 1942; Ortman, n.d.; Schoen, 1925; Wing,
1958). Music aptitude tests measure a students potential to achieve in music (see
Definition of Terms, pp. 910). Most notable of the early tests is Seashore's
Measures of Musical Talent, published first in 1919 and updated in 1960 by Seashore,
Lewis, and Saetveit.
These researchers had considerable influence on Gordon, the foremost
researcher of music aptitude in recent decades. Developed during an eight-year
period, theMusical Aptitude Profile (MAP; Gordon, 1965, 1988, 1995) was Gordons
first aptitude test. MAP comprises seven subtests, with norms for students in grades
four through twelve. Numerous research studies, conducted by Gordon and others
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established the objective validity ofMAP (Gordon, 1967a, 1967b, 1970; Lee, 1967;
Levendusky, 1979).
Today, Gordon remains the primary researcher and developer of music
aptitude tests. The following tests are designed to measure developmental music
aptitude of persons ages three to nine or ten:Audie (Gordon, 1989b), for three- and
four-year-old children; Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA; Gordon,
1979), for students in kindergarten through third grade; andIntermediate Measures of
Music Audiation (IMMA; Gordon,1982), for students in first through sixth grades.
Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a), for students in
seventh grade through college and the aforementionedMAP (1965, 1988, 1995)
measure stabilized music aptitude of persons nine years of age and older. PMMA,
IMMA, andAMMA are also available for computer administration (Alvey, 2006,
2007; Forsythe, 1984). Gordon's aptitude tests have served as measures in a variety
of research studies cited elsewhere in this document (e.g., Azzara, 1993; Bloedel,
1996; Coveyduck, 1998; Davis, 1981; Dunlap, 1989; Liperote, 2004; MacKnight,
1975; Schleuter, 1978; Snell, 2006; Stolzfus, 2005; Webster, 1979; Zdzinski, 1992).
In recent years, several researchers have investigated music aptitude.
Schleuter (1974, 1977; S. Schleuter & L. Schleuter, 1978) developed an abbreviated
version ofMAP for use with college students. Vispoel and colleagues developed
computerized-adaptive tests (CATs) and self-adapted tests (SATs) to measure music
aptitude (Vispoel, 1992, 1993; Vispoel & Coffman, 1994; Vispoel, Wang, & Bleiler,
1997).
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According to Karma (1985, 1994), music aptitude should expand beyond
sound to include movement and poetry as essentially musical (1994, p. 29)
segments of a music teachers work. Holahan and Saunders led a research agenda
studying cognitive processing of tonal patterns (Holahan and Saunders, 1997;
Holahan, Saunders, & Goldberg, 2000; Saunders & Holahan, 1993). This research
has furthered the discussion; however, it has not, as yet, brought about substantial
change in music aptitude measurement.
Research on music aptitude reveals a rich history of test development and
refinement, which has facilitated creation of several reliable and valid measures of
music aptitude. WhileMAP (1965, 1988, 1995) is Gordon's most reliable and valid
music aptitude test, the lengthy time required to administer the test3 separate class
periodsoften discourages music teachers from using the test. AMMA, which can be
administered in approximately 20 minutes, may be a more usable test. While
previous researchers have examinedAMMAs reliability and validity for college
students (Gordon, 1989c, 1990, 1991), reliability for high school students (Gordon,
1989a), and reliability for middle school students (Gordon, 2004), no researchers
have examinedAMMA's validity for high school students.
Singing and Vocalization in Instrumental Music
Vocalizing Songs and Tonal Patterns with Solfge
MacKnight (1975) found that fourth-grade instrumental music students who
learned new pitches by singing with movable-DO solfge, and new rhythms by
chanting with function-based syllables, scored significantly higher in sightreading
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achievement and aural-visual discrimination than those who learned to associate tonal
notation with fingerings on their music instrument and rhythm notation with counting.
According to Grutzmacher (1987), fifth- and sixth-grade students who learned tonal
patterns by ear and with notation, in a context of harmonization and vocalization,
scored significantly higher on melodic sightreading achievement and aural
recognition of major and minor modes.
In a study with third-grade recorder students, McDonald (1987) determined
that singing songs and associated patterns by rote, on a neutral syllable and then with
solfge, prior to performing them from notation, led to significantly higher levels of
recorder performance achievement. Lee (1996) found that vocalizing tonal patterns
and solfge significantly improved articulation and phrasing achievement of fifth-
grade instrumentalists.
Other Vocalization Activities
Bloedel (1996) studied the effect of singing rote songs and resting tones on
music achievement of fifth-grade instrumental music students. Those who sang rote
songs and resting tones as part of their instrumental music instruction scored
significantly higher on a measure of musical expression. Structured scale singing
activities significantly improved performance achievement of fifth- and sixth-grade
band students in a study by Davis (1981). According to McGarry (1967), vocalizing
pitch letter names before playing has no significant effect on instrumental
performance achievement of junior high band students. Elliott (1974) reports that
beginning instrumental students who vocalized exercises on the syllable "la" prior to
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performance experienced a significant increase in sense of pitch when compared to
those who performed without vocalizing. In a study with sixth-grade instrumental
students, Coveyduck (1998) found that singing a song "using number or words if it
were a song with text" (p. 58) for three minutes during each lesson had no significant
effect on intonation. Similarly, Smith (1984) found that vocalizing on a neutral
syllable prior to performance had no significant effect on pitch deviation of college
wind players.
In a study of fifth-grade instrumental students, Dunlap (1989) found that
vocalizing melodies prior to instrumental performance had no significant effect on
aural skills, instrumental performance, and reading skills. Schlacks (1981) studied
effects of vocal and instrumental interval training on instrumental pitch accuracy.
Three experimental groups received (a) instrumental interval training, (b) vocal
interval training, or (c) vocal and instrumental interval training. Control group
subjects received no interval training. No significant difference in instrumental pitch
accuracy emerged among these groups. Bennett (1994) studied the effect of
humming on intonation accuracy of 95 high school students. Subjects who
participated in a four-session humming treatment, in which they hummed isolated
pitches from varying registers, showed no significant difference in intonation
accuracy from those who did not receive treatment.
It appears that singing and vocalization activities vary in effectiveness,
depending on the context in which they occur. Singing in a harmonic context (e.g.,
with movable-DO solfge, scale degree numbers, or resting tones) has a significant
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effect on students (a) sightreading achievement (Grutzmacher, 1987; MacKnight,
1975), (b) aural-visual discrimination (MacKnight, 1975), (c) performance
achievement (McDonald, 1987), (d) musical expression (Bloedel, 1996), and (e)
articulation and phrasing (Lee, 1996).
In contrast, singing and vocalization techniques devoid of harmonic context
seem to have no significant effect on students (a) performance achievement (Dunlap,
1989; McGarry, 1967), (b) intonation (Bennett, 1994; Coveyduck, 1998; Schlacks,
1981; Smith, 1984), or (c) aural and music reading skills (Dunlap, 1989).
Improvisation in Instrumental Music
Silverman (1963) studied the feasibility of Ensemble Improvisation (p. 1) in
the secondary instrumental music ensemble. Using a curriculum designed by Foss
and Duffalo, a group of college students and a group of high school students were
taught techniques to create group improvisations. Participants learned to improvise
melody, harmony, and counterpoint, and elements that Foss called Solo (pp. 1920)
and Follow-solo (pp. 1819). Several improvisations were recorded, transcribed,
and analyzed by the class. A panel of evaluators, consisting of university professors
and public school music teachers, assessed the recordings based on the following
criteria: (a) creativity, (b) heuristic function, (c) skills, (d) style, and (e) relationship
to large group performance. While the five criteria were met satisfactorily, the panel
suggested concurrent study of history and theory, and use of a wider variety of styles
and tonalities to enhance this improvisation experience. Silverman concluded that
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Ensemble Improvisation was beneficial to students musical skills, desire to learn
about music, and behavior in other musical groups.
Using Foss and Duffalos curriculum, Wilson (1971) also studied the effect of
improvisation on secondary instrumental music students achievement. In
comparison with a control group, students who engaged in improvisation showed
greater improvement in melodic and rhythmic aural skills, as well as sight-reading.
In a study of middle school students, Wig (1980) examined relationships
between ability to improvise, academic achievement, performance ability, and
instruction in music composition strategies. A researcher-designed measure was
given as a pre-test prior to a seven-week treatment, in which students learned music
composition strategies to manipulate pitch, intensity, and duration. Following the
treatment, the same researcher-designed measure was given as a post-test. Wig
reported significant gains in ability to improvise for sixth-graders, eighth-graders, and
the combined sample. According to Wig (1980, p. 1), "neither performing ability nor
academic achievement are factors related to ability to improvise music."
Azzara (1993) studied effects of music aptitude and an improvisation
curriculum on music achievement of fifth-grade instrumental students. Sixty-six
students from two schools were randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups. MAP was administered to all subjects as a measure of stabilized music
aptitude. Experimental group subjects received improvisation lessons as part of their
instrumental music instruction. Lessons included the following: "(a) learning selected
repertoire of songs by ear; (b) developing a vocabulary of tonal syllables and rhythm
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syllables; (c) improvising with their voices and with their instruments tonic,
dominant, and subdominant tonal patterns within the context of major tonality; and
(d) improvising with their voices and with their instruments macrobeat, microbeat,
division, elongation, and rest rhythm patterns within the context of duple meter (p.
335). Students also improvised tunes with similar tonal and rhythm content.
Subjects music achievement was assessed by four judges for tonal, rhythm, and
expressive performance of three etudes composed by the researcher.
Results revealed no significant differences in compositeMAP scores between
treatment groups or between students from different school settings. Experimental
group students, who received an improvisation curriculum as part of their instruction,
had significantly higher composite etude performance scores than those in the control
group (Azzara, 1993, p. 338).
In a study of 101 trumpet and clarinet students, ages 1218, McPherson
(1996) reported significant relationships between ability to improvise and ability to
sightread, play by ear, play from memory, and perform rehearsed music.
Improvisation skill correlated with the following self-reported experiences: (a) early
exposure to music, (b) playing from memory, (c) playing by ear, (d) improvising, (e)
composing, (f) singing, and (g) mentally rehearsing. McPherson also found these
correlations to be stronger among older students, suggesting that relationships among
these behaviors may intensify with age. Subsequent analysis revealed that ability to
improvise is influenced most by ability to play by ear (McPherson, Bailey, & Sinclair,
1997).
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Using a curriculum based on instructional materials developed by Azzara and
Grunow (2006, 2010a, 2010b), Snell (2006) studied junior high instrumental music
students improvisation achievement. Forty-five seventh- and eighth-grade students
were administeredMAP at the beginning of the study. Following instruction in a
series of eight small-group lessons, each student performed two tunes by ear and an
improvisation based on the melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, and expressive elements of
each tune. Six participants were interviewed at the study's conclusion. Student
achievement was generally higher on tunes performed by ear than on improvisations
for those tunes. Snell found acceptable levels of criterion-related validity between
MAP and student performances. Rating scales in Snells study also yielded
acceptable interjudge reliability. Students indicated that they enjoyed learning new
tunes and learning to improvise. While few students were enthusiastic about singing
as part of the study, five of the six considered it beneficial to improvisation. Snell
states that including improvisation in a middle school instrumental music curriculum
has potential to improve instrumental music pedagogy.
Bingham (2007) developed and tested an improvisation enrichment module
for use in beginning instrumental music ensembles. Seventy-two sixth-grade students
from two middle schools studied the curriculum in their band classes; data from 34
subjects were used in the study. Bingham's module included five tunes common to
beginning instrumental literature and one jazz standard. Each tune was presented in a
unit that included learning the melody, chord roots, melodic variations, arpeggios,
and "sweet tones (thirds, fifths, sevenths, and ninths)" (p. 61). Styles included bossa
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nova, folk-rock, calypso, jazz waltz, jazz swing, and soft rock. Using ten-point
Likert-type scales, judges rated student pre- and post-tests of playing melodies, and
post-tests of playing arpeggios and improvisations. Students experienced significant
gains in melodic performance while developing skill in performing arpeggios and
improvisations. Participating teachers opined that this material was useful, enjoyable,
and motivating to both teachers and students.
Researchers agree that improvisation instruction is beneficial to students'
musical development (Azzara, 1993; Bingham, 2007; Silverman, 1963; Snell, 2006;
Wilson, 1971). Improvisation instruction, delivered in an audiation-based context,
seems to improve music achievement of elementary instrumental students (Azzara,
1993). Snell (2006) offers evidence that similar instruction may benefit junior high
students. According to Bingham (2007), teaching improvisation in the context of
instrumental rehearsals is a practical undertaking. Wig (1980) reports that neither
academic achievement nor performing ability is related to improvisation achievement.
McPhersons research (1993, 1996) reinforces suggestions that improvisation is
related to playing by ear, playing from memory, and reading from notation.
McPherson, Bailey, and Sinclair (1997) report that improvisation ability is most
influenced by ability to play by ear.
Composition in Instrumental Music
Shewan (2002) describes a high school wind and percussion program in which
every student is required to compose an original piece each year. The study is based
on the premise that language develops by progressing through stages of listening,
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speaking, reading, and writing. Music development should occur in a similar manner:
If students were engaged in active listening, followed by improvisation, they would
ultimately read with more comprehension, and composition would be the obvious
next step in the development of a comprehensive musician (p. 1).
Shewan promotes several emerging behaviors for creativity in ensemble
rehearsals. Before students rehearse a composition or arrangement, they listen to
melodies and bass lines, played and sung by the teacher. Next, they learn to sing and
perform them by ear on instruments. Students also engage in aural analysis in
rehearsals (e.g., studying form, motivic development, and orchestration). Shewan
describes these techniques using examples from standard wind literature.
Student composition begins with teacher-guided group composition. Shewan
describes a fourteen-rehearsal sequence in which students composed a composition
performed on their year-end concert. Students compose chamber works in lesson
groups and progress to composing for jazz combo, jazz ensemble, wind ensemble, or
orchestra. Shewan provides many examples of student work in each of these genres,
while describing common problems and possible solutions.
In a study of 64 fourth-grade students, Stoltzfus (2005) examined effects of
audiation-based composition instruction on music achievement. Subjects in a
treatment group received audiation-based composition instruction as part of their
weekly lessons, while students in the control group engaged in supplemental music
reading activities in place of composition instruction. Curricula for both groups were
the same in all other aspects.
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Students in the treatment group scored significantly higher than those in the
control group in (a) composite singing and playing achievement, (b) singing
performance for each etude, (c) playing performance for one of three etudes, and (d)
playing performance for each etude for the tonal dimension. Selected students were
interviewed at the conclusion of the study. Interviews revealed that students in the
treatment group approached music reading as related to pattern recognition and
comprehension. Stoltzfus concludes that this study provides evidence to suggest that
audiation-based composition may promote music achievement (p. 103).
Riley (2006), in a study of middle school instrumental students, examined
effects of composition in middle school band on achievement, performance, and
attitude of students. Thirty-eight subjects were randomly assigned to an experimental
group (N=20) whose curriculum included composition, performance and listening, or
a control group (N=18) whose curriculum included performance and listening. Using
a pretest-posttest design, Riley found that students in both groups experienced
statistically significant gains in music achievement and performance; however,
differences between groups were not statistically significant. Since Riley does not
provide raw scores, it is difficult to ascertain the practical significance of these
differences. Experimental group students responded more positively to a researcher-
designed attitude survey than students in the control group. Riley suggests that since
groups did not differ significantly in achievement and performance gains, excluding
composition from a middle school instrumental music curriculum may not be
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beneficial to students. Including composition also seems to improve students
attitudes toward instrumental music instruction.
Composition appears to be influenced strongly by a composers listening and
performing vocabularies (Bolden, 2009; Bunting, 1987; Carlin, 1997; Kennedy, 1999,
2002; Stauffer, 2002). Webster (1979) found a modest but statistically significant
correlation between composition and music achievement among high school students.
According to Shewan (2002), a high level of aural skills and experience improvising
predicts compositional ability. Students who excel in instrumental performance also
tend to compose at a higher level (Berkley, 2001; Shewan, 2002).
Researchers suggest that, like improvisation instruction, learning to compose
is beneficial to a student's musical development (Shewan, 2002; Stoltzfus, 2005;
Webster, 1979). Stoltzfus (2005) provides evidence that audiation-based composition
instruction improves music achievement of elementary instrumental music students.
Shewan (2002) reports that high school students experience success as composers
taught with an audiation-based curriculum. Among junior high students, Riley (2006)
reports no significant effect of composition instruction on music achievement;
however, it should be noted that many composition activities in Rileys study take a
theoretical approach, which may not involve audiation.
Relationships between Gender and Music Achievement
Gender and performance. In a study of 104 elementary instrumental
music students, Schleuter (1978) found that music achievement was not significantly
affected by gender differences. Zdzinski (1992) reports that among 113 middle
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school wind and brass students, there were no significant differences in performance
achievement based on gender. Male students, however, scored significantly higher
than female students on a measure of cognitive music achievement. According to
McPherson (1994), in a study of 101 middle- and high-school trumpet and clarinet
students, gender had little influence on types of errors made in sightreading. In
Barry's research (1992), gender did not have a significant effect on melodic accuracy,
rhythmic accuracy, or musicality of seventh- through tenth-grade brass and
woodwind students. Gender did, however, play a role in significant interactions in
the study, leading Barry to suggest further research to better explain relationships
between gender and music achievement.
Gender and improvisation. Webster (1979) found a significant correlation
between improvisation achievement and male gender among high school students.
Hassler and Feil (1986) report that among ten- to fifteen-year-old male subjects,
improvisation on a melody correlated with scores on Wings Standardized Tests of
Musical Intelligence (1958). In the same study, extemporaneous improvisation
correlated significantly with (a) scores on a standardized test of musical intelligence,
(b) visualization ability, and (c) verbal ability. McPherson found that female subjects
scored better on the researcher-designedTest of Ability to Improvise (1993), while
male students engaged in improvisation more frequently; however, gender was not a
predictor of improvisation ability. Wehr-Flowers (2006) reports that female students
are significantly less confident, have more anxiety, and report less self-efficacy in
approaching jazz improvisation. Other researchers report no significant relationship
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between gender and improvisation ability among junior-high and high school students
(Bash, 1983; Gorder, 1980; Hores, 1977), or college students (Madura, 1996). The
varied findings summarized here suggest need for further research.
Gender and composition. Hassler and Feil (1986) studied relationships
between creative ability and a number of variables. When comparing students of
male and female gender, they found no significant differences in relationships among
composition ability and other variables. Beyond instrumental music, several studies
report different strategies employed by male and female students, but do not report
differences in achievement (e.g., Bolden, 2009; Folkestad, Lindstrm, & Hargreaves,
1997).
Taken together, research findings related to gender and (a) performance, (b)
improvisation, and (c) composition neither confirm nor disconfirm clear relationships.
Relationships vary among populations, and with other personal variables. Clearly,
further research is required to better understand relationships between gender and
music achievement.
Relationships between Instrument Group and Music Achievement
Achievement comparisons by instrument group. In a study of college
freshmen, Stecklein and Aliferis (1957) report significant differences by instrument
group in a test of music achievement, measured by aural-visual discrimination skill.
According to Elliott (1974), beginning brass players exhibited higher levels of music
achievement than woodwind players, though the difference was not statistically
significant. MacKnight (1975), in a study of 90 fourth-grade instrumental music
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students, found no significant main effect of instrument group on music achievement.
McPherson (1993) reports that middle-school-aged clarinetists scored significantly
higher than trumpeters on a researcher-designedTest of Ability to Improvise. In later
research, McPherson (1994) reports that among 101 middle- and high-school trumpet
and clarinet students, instrument group had little effect on types of errors made while
sightreading. Among college undergraduates, May (2003) found no significant
differences in level of improvisation achievement based on instrument group.
Piano instruction and music achievement. Elliott (1974) reports that
beginning band students who received private piano instruction significantly
outperformed students without piano background, particularly in a subtest that
required participants to make connections between musical sounds and notation.
According to May and Elliott (1980), years of piano instruction may make a
significant contribution to development of aural skills in junior high school music
students. Schlacks (1981) reports that there was not a significant difference in pitch
accuracy for students with piano background. According to McPherson (1993),
learning another instrument, particularly piano, seems to influence improvisation skill
of high school trumpet and clarinet students. In a study of college undergraduates,
May (2003) reports that no significant differences in improvisation scores were
revealed based on piano experience.
Based on this literature, music achievement may vary with instrument group
(Elliott, 1974; MacKnight, 1975; McPherson, 1993, 1994; Stecklein & Aliferis, 1957)
and piano background (Elliott, 1974; May & Elliott, 1980; McPherson, 1993;
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Schlacks, 1981). Taken together, however, these studies do not reveal consistent
relationships between music achievement and (a) instrument group and (b) piano
background. Further research is needed to better understand these relationships.
Relationships between Improvisation and Composition
Four viewpoints surface in research literature regarding the relationship
between music improvisation and composition. Improvisation and composition can
be considered: (a) synonymous with one another in an integrated process, (b) as
separate, but related processes distinguished by time, (c) with improvisation as part of
the compositional process, or (d) as coexisting to varying degrees on a continuum.
In early research examining childrens musical creativity, composition and
improvisation were viewed as synonymous (Davies, 1986, 1992; Doig, 1941, 1942a,
1942b; Moorhead & Pond, 1941, 1942, 1944; Swanwick & Tillman, 1986). In these
studies, some student works were improvisational in nature, while others were
developed in a process akin to composition.
Several researchers regard composition and improvisation as temporally
distinct but related processes (Paynter, 2000; Reimer, 2003; Sarath, 1996; Sloboda,
1985; Webster, 2003). According to this view, improvisation occurs spontaneously
and in the moment. Composition, by comparison, allows opportunity for reflection,
experimentation, and revision before ideas are finalized.
Other researchers have described improvising as a precursor or part of the
exploratory stage of composition (Berkley, 2001; Bolden, 2009; Kennedy, 1999,
2002; Kratus, 1989, 1994a; Younker & Smith, 1996). The purposes for
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improvisation, and the extent to which students improvised, differed with age and
experience. Generally speaking, younger and less experienced composers seem to
compose using a process very similar to the act of improvisation (Kratus, 1989, p.
17), while older and more experienced persons use less time for exploration or
improvisation while composing.
The relationship between improvisation and composition is also viewed by
some on a continuum (Benson, 2003; Kaschub & Smith, 2009; Lehmann, Sloboda, &
Woody, 2007). Benson suggests that while improvisation is a part of both
composition and performance, it takes different forms in the two activities. Lehmann,
Sloboda, and Woody (2007) acknowledge the temporal difference between the
behaviors, but state, the distinction between improvisation and composition is not as
clear as one would think (p. 129), particularly when considering composers of the
past and present who also improvised. Kaschub and Smith (2009) suggest a
continuum of musical creativity that make[s] use of the principles of music and the
compositional capacities to varying degrees (p. 79).
Each of the first three views presented aboveimprovisation as inseparable
from composition, improvisation and composition as temporally distinct processes,
and improvisation as a part of the composition processfit some musical situations,
but are incompatible with others. It seems, then, that interactions between
improvisation and composition are best understood as differing not as much by type
as by degree. The continuum view encompasses not only situations in which one is
clearly improvising or composing, but also those in which the distinction seems to
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blur. Since such a view is so inclusive, is it worthwhile to determine different ways
in which improvisation and composition might intersect? Or is there, as Kaschub and
Smith (2009) suggest, no useful purpose served by deciding where improvisation
ends and composition begins (p. 79)?
Attempting to understand ways in which composition and improvisation
intersect at various points on a continuum may be valuable, in light of research
conducted by Burnard (1999, 2000a, 2000b). Twelve-year-old children experienced
the two behaviors as distinct forms distinguished by bodily intention, interrelated
forms, co-existing functionally in context, or as indistinguishable forms which are
inseparable in context and intention (1999, p. 171; 2000b, pp. 1415). Further,
Burnard reports that children did not experience improvising and composing along
one single continuum but rather along several concurrent multi-dimensional
continuums (2000a, p. 242).
Summary
This review of related literature summarized findings related to seven topics:
(a) music aptitude, (b) singing and vocalization in instrumental music, (c)
improvisation in instrumental music, (d) composition in instrumental music, (e)
relationships between gender and music achievement, (f) relationships between
instrument group and music achievement, and (g) relationships between
improvisation and composition. The present study was designed to fill gaps and
extend knowledge in several areas. Contributions that this study offered to the music
education profession are outlined below.
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It is clear that music aptitude testing has a rich history of instrument
development and refinement. This study furthers understanding of theAdvanced
Measures of Music Audiation (Gordon, 1989a), by examining reliability for high
school students and also objective validity for high school students, not yet examined
in previous research.
Since researchers suggest that singing and vocalization in instrumental music
are most effective in harmonic contexts, I studied students who sing in tonal, rhythm,
and stylistic contexts as part of improvisation and composition instruction.
Curriculum used in this study included function-based solfge and rhythm syllables.
Research findings suggest that (a) audiation-based instruction in improvisation
and composition is beneficial to music achievement (Azzara, 1993; Stoltzfus, 2005),
(b) improvisation is related to playing by ear, playing from memory, and reading
from notation (McPherson, 1993, 1996; McPherson, Bailey, & Sinclair, 1997), and
(c) students experience success when learning to improvise and compose using an
audiation-based approach (Azzara, 1993; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus,
2005). In the current study, I investigated improvisation and composition
achievement of high school students taught with a curriculum that provides
opportunities for students to play by ear, play from memory, read from notation,
improvise, compose, and develop audiation skill.
Gender, instrument group, and piano background may have an effect on music
achievement. In this study, I examined performance achievement, improvisation
achievement, composition achievement, and composite music achievement by gender
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and instrument group. To extend findings related to piano background, I also
examined differences in performance, improvisation, composition, and composite
music achievement among students with background playing a harmonic instrument.
Subjects in this study reported experience playing piano, guitar, and harmonium.
Burnards findings related to relationships between improvisation and
composition (1999, 2000a, 2000b) suggest that 12-year-old students have diverse
experiences of, and ascribe varied meanings to, improvisation and composition. This
research supports a continuum view of the relationship between these generative
processes, but also raises questions for future research. For example: (a) Do ways in
which children experience improvisation and composition change with age, and if so,
how? and (b) Do older students beginning to improvise and compose experience these
relationships in a manner similar to that of younger students? This study attempted to
fill this gap by gathering qualitative interview data, as well as observations of
teaching and learning, to understand ways in which high school instrumental students
experience and ascribe meaning to improvisation and composition.
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CHAPTER THREEMethod of Study
Research Setting and Subjects
The setting for this study was a suburban high school northeast of Buffalo,
New York, the largest suburban school district in Western New York. Six elementary
schools, four middle schools, and three high schools provide services to 10,513
students in kindergarten through grade twelve. Music staff includes 47 music
teachers and a full-time Instructional Specialist for Fine and Performing Arts
(Williamsville Central School District, 2010). Students have opportunities to enroll in
multiple choirs, orchestras, bands, and jazz ensembles, in addition to courses in
improvisation and music theory. The music department in this high school is
recognized nationally as a model program.
Participants in this study were 66 students in a non-auditioned concert band,
in grades 912. They met for 40 minutes each day, and each student received a 40-
minute group lesson every six school days.
Two music educators teach this concert band. One teaches the full ensemble
daily, and also teaches 15 of those students in rotating group lessons. This teacher
holds a bachelors degree in music education, a masters degree in horn performance,
and a doctorate in music education with an emphasis in composition. The second
teacher, who holds a bachelors degree in music education and a masters degree in
flute performance, is responsible for teaching group lessons to the remaining 53
students.
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Teaching techniques common in rehearsals and lessons include singing,
movement, playing by ear, aural analysis, improvisation, and performance from
notation (Shewan, 2002). Instruction emphasizes development of audiation skill
along with instrumental performance. All students in this program are required to
submit a composition each year. Compositions are performed at school concerts and
the annual Buffalo/Williamsville Poetry, Music, and Dance Celebration.
Compositions are also submitted to New York States composition evaluation
program. Student compositions from this school are often accepted for the New York
State Young Composers Honors Concert.
Research Design
Using a concurrent embedded mixed methods design (Creswell, 2008, 2009;
Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003), I
examined and described curriculum and instructional procedures, students aptitude
and achievement, and students attitudes toward and perceptions of improvisation and
composition instruction in a non-auditioned wind and percussion ensemble at the
secondary level. The design did not include control for all variables, randomization
of individual students into groups, or manipulation of independent variables.
In a concurrent embedded mixed methods design, one data set provides a
supportive, secondary role in a study based primarily on the other data type
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007, p. 67). In this study, I used quantitative data to
answer research questions (a) and (b), and embedded qualitative data to answer
research questions (c) and (d). I answered research question (e) by considering
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quantitative and qualitative findings together, analyzing both data sets concurrently
after treatment ended. To illustrate this design, Creswell and Plano Clark (2007)
suggest the following notation: QUAN(qual).
In Chapter Four, consistent with the design of this study, I present quantitative
results to answer two research questions: (a) What are performance, composition, and
improvisation achievement levels of high school instrumental music students
following eight weeks of instruction using a sequential music curriculum? and (b)
What are the relationships between music aptitude and (1) performance achievement,
(2) improvisation achievement, (3) composition achievement, and (4) composite
music achievement? I present qualitative results in Chapter Five to answer two
research questions: (c) How do students describe singing, playing by ear,
improvising, and composing experiences as part of their instrumental music
instruction? and (d) In this particular setting, how is improvisation and composition
instruction delivered in the context of ensemble rehearsals? In Chapter Six, I
consider quantitative and qualitative results to answer research question (e): How
does qualitative data from focus group sessions and observations, together with
quantitative aptitude and achievement data, help explain improvisation and
composition experiences of high school instrumental music students?
Research Subjects Review Board
Per requirements of the University of Rochester, I submitted protocol for this
study to the Committee on Investigations Involving Human Subjects. Protocol
included documentation of my EPRP number (see Appendix H) and a letter of
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cooperation from the participating school district (see Appendix I). An exemption
letter from the Research Subjects Review Board is included in Appendix J. To obtain
consent, I met with members of the Concert Band, read aloud the student assent form,
and answered questions from students about the study and their participation. Sixty-
eight prospective subjects received two copies of an assent form, and parent(s) or
guardian(s) of each prospective subject received two copies of a permission form.
Prospective subjects and their parent(s) or guardian(s) were invited to retain a copy of
each form for their records. Sixty-six of the 68 students in Concert Band returned
signed assent and permission forms. Only those subjects were allowed to participate
in recordings and focus group interviews. I retained original copies of each form and
stored them in my locked office.
Pilot Study
I conducted a pilot study in February 2010 to examine interjudge reliability
coefficients, means, and standard deviations associated with use of rating scales
designed for the study. Rating scales were piloted using data from 15 students in a
non-auditioned concert band at a suburban Western New York high school with
similar curricular objectives. Three judges rated vocal and instrumental
performances, vocal and instrumental improvisations, and notated compositions.
Interjudge reliability coefficients ranged from .736 to .744, suggesting that these
rating scales were appropriate for this study. Based on this pilot study, criteria in
some rating scale dimensions were modified. Use of similar rating scales in previous
research (e.g., Azzara, 1993; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005) and publications (Azzara,
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2008; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b), as well as discussions with
dissertation committee members, affirmed that these rating scales had appropriate
content and construct validity.
Procedures
Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a; see
Appendix A), a measure of stabilized music aptitude, was administered at the
beginning of the study. For the next eight weeks, subjects improvised and composed
music, based on the model inDeveloping Musicianship through Improvisation
(DMTI; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b). Students learned to improvise and
compose music based on Amazing Grace while preparing a published arrangement
of Amazing Grace (Ticheli, 1994). Students began by singing and playing the
melody and bass line. Next, tonal patterns and rhythm patterns were introduced, first
with neutral syllables, then with function-based solfge and rhythm syllables.
Students then improvised spontaneous musical phrases, before learning Seven Skills
for Improvisation: (a) improvise rhythms using the bass line of harmonic
progressions, (b) learn voice leading for harmonic progressions, (c) learn harmonic
rhythm, (d) improvise rhythm patterns according to voice leading principles and
harmonic progressions, (e) improvise tonal patterns to harmonic progressions, (f)
improvise tonal and rhythm patterns to harmonic progressions, and (g) improvise
melodies by decorating and embellishing material from previous skills (Azzara &
Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b).
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In this adaptation ofDMTI, students also notated the melody and bass line,
and composed music corresponding to the aforementioned skills. These activities
were reviewed periodically throughout the eight-week period. Instrumental teachers
guided the curriculum during the entire treatment period, teaching students to (a) sing,
play, and improvise melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns, (b)
notate melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns, and (c) compose
melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns.
Data Sources, Collection, and Analysis
Data Sources
Music aptitude.Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon,
1989a) was administered in a 20-minute period at the beginning of the study. The test
author reports thatAMMA is a reliable instrument for measuring stabilized music
aptitude (Gordon, 1989c, 1990, 1991). As Gordon suggests, only composite music
aptitude scores were used in data analysis (1997, p. 85). Tonal, rhythm, and
composite split-halves reliability coefficients for this administration appear in Table
3.1. In this study, split-halves reliability coefficients for the composite test exceeded
the generally accepted standard of .70. All coefficients were lower than those
obtained in the national sample. This difference is likely due to (a) the considerably
larger number of students and (b) heterogeneity of scores in the national sample.
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Table 3.1.Comparison of Sample and National Split Halves Reliability for AMMA_________________________________________________________________
Reliability
*Sample **NationalTonal 0.61 0.81
Rhythm 0.55 0.82
Composite 0.78 0.84
_________________________________________________________________*Sample N = 66
** National N = 872Note. Sample reliability corrected for length using Spearman-Brown ProphecyFormula.
Music achievement. At the end of the study, each participant performed
fifteen tasks: (a) Melody Sing, (b) Melody Play, (c) Melody Write, (d) Bass
Line Sing, (e) Bass Line Play, (f) Bass Line Write (g) Skill 1 Sing, (h) Skill 1
Play, (i) Skill 1 Write (j) Skill 5 Sing, (k) Skill 5 Play, (l) Skill 5 Write, (m)
Skill 7 Sing, (n) Skill 7 Play, and (o) Skill 7 Write. Judges rated tasks related to
the melody and bass line using three-dimension rating scales (tonal, rhythm, and
expressive), and tasks fromDMTI(Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b) using
four-dimension rating scales (harmonic, rhythm, expressive, and
improvisation/composition).
To facilitate analysis, I aggregated judges' scores for rating scale dimensions,
which created one score for each subject, on each of 15 musical tasks. In addition, I
created six summary variables for each subject: (a) Performance Achievement, (b)
Improvisation Achievement, (c) Composition Achievement, (d) Composite Music
Achievement, (e) Vocal Performance, and (f)Instrumental Performance. Prior to
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aggregating judges' scores, I established interjudge reliability using the process
described below, to ensure that combining judges' ratings was appropriate.
Establishing interjudge reliability. I examined interjudge reliability for
each dimension of each rating scale, to ensure that judges were consistently reliable.
Interjudge reliability coefficients for each musical task ranged from .70 to .97;
interjudge reliability coefficients for summary variables created for analysis ranged
from .91 to .97. All of these coefficients met or exceeded the generally accepted
standard of .70. Interjudge reliability coefficients for each musical task used in
creating summary variables appear in Table 3.2. Interjudge reliability coefficients for
six summary variables created for this analysis appear in Table 3.3.
Table 3.2.Interjudge Reliability for Musical Tasks_____________________________________________________________________
Variable Judge 1Judge 2 Judge 2Judge 3 Judge 1Judge 3
_____________________________________________________________________Melody Sing .92 .92 .91
Melody Play .88 .91 .87Melody Write .97 .93 .96Bass Line Sing .89 .93 .88
Bass Line Play .79 .82 .81
Bass Line Write .95 .94 .95
Skill 1 Sing .85 .87 .82Skill 1 Play .88 .86 .87
Skill 1 Write .90 .91 .92
Skill 5 Sing .84 .86 .81Skill 5 Play .82 .74 .76
Skill 5 Write .94 .92 .92
Skill 7 Sing .81 .70 .79Skill 7 Play .76 .73 .80
Skill 7 Write .90 .90 .93
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Table 3.3.Interjudge Reliability for Summary Variables_____________________________________________________________________
Variable Judge 1Judge 2 Judge 2Judge 3 Judge 1Judge 3
_____________________________________________________________________Perf. Ach. .96 .97 .96
Improv. Ach. .93 .91 .92
Comp. Ach. .95 .95 .96
Composite Ach. .97 .97 .96Vocal Performance .95 .95 .92
Inst. Performance .92 .91 .91
_____________________________________________________________________
Prior to combining judges' scores, I also conducted paired-sample T-tests to
compare judges' mean ratings on each dimension of each scale. Judges mean ratings
for each of the 15 tasks appear in Table 3.4. While differences in judges' mean
ratings were statistically significant, they were of little practical significance overall.
Given that interjudge reliability was acceptable, and judges' mean ratings were
similar, it was deemed appropriate to create scores for each musical task, as well as
for the summary variables.
Performance achievement. Students sang, performed on their instruments,
and notated the melody and bass line for Amazing Grace. A recorded rhythm
section accompanied student performances (DMTI; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a,
2010b). Performance Achievement is based on the mean of judges' ratings on the
following musical tasks: Melody Sing, Melody Play, Melody Write, Bass Line
Sing, Bass Line Play, and Bass Line Write.
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Table 3.4.Judges Mean Ratings for Musical Tasks_____________________________________________________________________
Variable Judge 1 Judge 2 Judge 3
_______________________