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Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010) 174181

Contents lists available atScienceDirect

Accident Analysis and Prevention

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / a a p

Work stress and driving anger in Japan

Sarven S. McLinton, Maureen F. Dollard

Work & Stress Research Group, Centre for Applied Psychological Research, School of Psychology, University of South Australia, North Terrace, Adelaide 5001, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 2 April 2009

Received in revised form 20 July 2009

Accepted 25 July 2009

Keywords:

Work stress

Road anger

Road accidents

Cultural influences

a b s t r a c t

We investigated the relationship between work stress arising from effort-reward imbalance at work

(ERI) and driving anger in a community sample of workers in Nagoya, a mid-sized city in Japan. We

hypothesised that ERI would exert a positive effect on driving anger via its influence on trait anger. The

study also pioneered the use of the Driving Anger Scale (DAS) in a non-western country and exploredcultural differences in the experience of anger on the road.

A random sample of 215 (N= 138, 64% females;N= 77, 36% males) full-time Japanese workers was

obtained through random selection of oneparticipant per household in three randomly selected suburbs

(response rate 71% of each eligible participant approached). Participants completed a confidential self-

report questionnaire.

Japanesemotorists reportedsignificantlyhigher levelsof ERI than all comparative westernsamples, and

lower total drivinganger andanger on allDAS subscalescompared withAmericanand Australian samples.

British and Japanese drivers did not differ significantly on total driving anger. The findings indicate that

Japanese may possess a different acceptance and expression of anger on the road.

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses supported our hypothesis. Stress experienced in the work-

placeoriginatingfrom a perceiveddisparity in extrinsic effortsand rewardswas associated withincreased

enduring feelings of anger in employees, and through this anger an elevated level of aggressive feelings

on the road. Stress from ERI may spill over into other domains, and changes at work are necessary to

alleviate the impact on the individual, organisation and economy.

Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Japan is well known for its significant road problems, ranging

from severetraffic congestion to an alarming numberof traffic acci-

dents. In 2008 alone over eight million violations were recorded

against the road traffic law with nearly a million road casualties

(Traffic Bureau, National Police Agency, 2008). Despite a recent

slight downturn in the number of road accidents, deaths and casu-

alties, Japan still sees an average of 2099 accidents and 2590

casualties daily, costing as much as 2% of the countrys annual

gross domestic product (Peden et al., 2004).Japan is also known

for high stress work environments. In this study we explored the

link between work stress and anger behind the wheel, a factor thathasbeen shown toincreasethe risk of road accidents(Deffenbacher

et al., 2002, 2003a,b).

Since themid1990s,the media hasdrawn attentionto theprob-

lem of anger on the road, and research in Britain, Australia, New

Zealand, Canada and the USA indicates that the occurrence of road

aggression ison therise (Burnsand Katovich,2003; Fumento,1998;

Lawton and Nutter, 2002; Smart and Mann, 2002). Indeed 87%

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 8 83022775; fax: +61 8 83022956.

E-mail address: [email protected](M.F. Dollard).

of young drivers in the UK and around 90% in Canada have wit-

nessed, experienced or been a victim of abuse on the road, a factor

attributed to the recent increase in accidents and dangerous driv-

ing (Asbridge et al., 2003; Oliver, 2003).Whilst the focus of media

attentionis drawn to themost extreme examplesof hostilityon the

road such as physical assault or assault with a vehicle, for each inci-

dence of explicit violence there are many other situations where

drivers harbour excess levels of anger (Hoggan and Dollard, 2007).

This un-manifested anger may still lead to dangerous outcomes for

the driver, passengers and others on the road. Drivers with high

levelsof anger arein a highlyaroused state, which in turn increases

propensity forerrors in judgement(Derryberry,1988). Studies have

highlighted the relationship between angry ruminations and theexpression of aggressive driving, leading individuals to take need-

less risks,drive dangerously and consequently display an increased

probability of being involvedin a road accident (Deffenbacher et al.,

2002,2003a,b). Whilst thenature of theangrydrivingphenomenon

has been studied in numerous western countries, surprisingly few

studies have investigated driving anger in an Asian context.

Japan is also noted for its harsh work environments (Shima and

Satoh, 2006). Japanese researchers have demonstrated a strong

relationship between work stress and health complaints, includ-

ing headaches, nausea, muscle pains and more serious outcomes

such as cardiovascular and coronary artery disease (Li et al., 2006;

0001-4575/$ see front matter. Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.aap.2009.07.016
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00014575http://www.elsevier.com/locate/aapmailto:[email protected]://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.07.016http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.07.016mailto:[email protected]://www.elsevier.com/locate/aaphttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00014575

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S.S. McLinton, M.F. Dollard / Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010) 174181 175

Table 1

Descriptives for continuous and catagorical variables.

Variable N % M SD Range Alpha

Life satisfaction 215 100 4.54 1.59 17

ERI 215 100 1.12 .33 .442.77

Effort 215 100 16.63 3.40 824 .70

Reward 215 100 22.98 3.47 1331 .70

Trait anger 215 100 11.90 2.50 519 .64

Driving anger 215 100 69.19 19.94 10116 .90

Age 215 100 37.18 12.25 1873Months in job 215 100 105.39 97.36 1600

Gender

Male 77 35.8

Female 138 64.2

Job category

Managerial/administrative 9 4.2

Professional/semi-professional 36 16.7

Tradesperson 4 1.9

Clerical/sales/service 156 72.5

Labourer 10 4.7

Shimaand Satoh,2006). Rising incidencesof death fromacuteheart

failure afterprolonged highbloodpressure, arteriosclerosis or cere-

bral haemorrhage hasalerted peopleto theexistence of Karoshior

death by overwork. Karoshi claims an estimated 10,000 lives eachyear (Deeken, 1995; Meek, 2004).

A significant body of research into work stress has focused on

the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model (Siegrist, 1996).Accord-

ing to the model employees undertake psychological and physical

labour to further the company goals. In exchange they expect to

be reciprocated by the organisation financially and psychologi-

cally through support and respect from colleagues, job security

and the opportunity for advancement. An imbalance in this recip-

rocal effort to reward relationship is a violation of the workers

expectations and results in negative consequences such as frustra-

tion,bitternessand demoralization (Kuper et al., 2002); depression

and emotional exhaustion (Pikhart et al., 2004; Sanderson and

Andrews, 2006); cardiovascular disease, muscular pains or ten-

sion, and deterioration in general health and well-being (Peter etal., 2006; Theorell, 1999).Research on work stress in the context

of ERI is almost non-existent in Japan, and although the major-

ity of work stress studies conducted in Japan have focussed on its

physiological outcomes, none have yet investigated its effect on

anger.

Two previous studies have explored anger as an outcome of ERI

at work. Research by Smith and colleagues was the first to explore

this area,finding evidencethat indicatesERImay berelated toanger

(Smith et al., 2005).In particular they found that ERI was associ-

ated with an individuals level of state anger, which in turn playeda

mediating role in the relationship between ERI and cardiovascular

disease. SubsequentlyHoggan and Dollard (2007) confirmed a rela-

tionship between ERI and anger on the road and observed that it

was meditated by the effects of trait anger thus linking work stressto itseventual manifestation as anger behindthe wheel.Trait anger

was chosendue topreviousresearch indicating that high stressjobs

can be related to stable and enduring characteristics such as trait

anxiety (Dollard and Winefield, 1998; Mikkelsen et al., 1999).This

makes sense as stress at work is often a chronic ongoing condition

that does not vary on a daily basis, so it is logical to investigate

its relationship with more stable and enduring outcomes that are

captured in trait measures that assess how the person generally

feels.

In this research we aimed to test the veracity ofHoggan and

Dollards (2007) Australian findings in an eastern culture. As yet no

studies have explored thenature of driving anger in Japan or itslink

with work stressdespitethe fact that Japanis widelyacknowledged

for its workplace problems, high levels of stress and negative out-

comes (Meek, 2004; Nakaoet al., 2005). In light of this wepredicted

that;

H1. Japanese participants will score significantly higher on ERIwhen compared with the Australian sample. Previous studies in

western samples; UK, France, Germany, Sweden, Belgium and Aus-

tralia have found the mean ERI tovarybetween .54 and 1.08 (Godin

and Kittel, 2004; Goldberg et al., 2001; Hoggan and Dollard, 2007;

Johnston et al., 2006; Siegrist et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2005).

Although a previous Japanese study by Tsutsumiet al.(2001) found

an ERI ratio of only .65, their sampleof 105 male dental technicians

was not particularly representative of Japanese workers. Only one

other study employing the ERI instrument has been conducted in

an Asian country, with a Chinese sample of hospital-based physi-

cians exhibiting a mean ERI of only.63 (Jian et al., 2006). Again, this

shows that ERIhas only been testedin Asian countrieswithinoccu-

pational samples, which may not be as diverse and generalisable as

a random community-based sample.Empirical differences in driving anger have been observed

between a number of westerncountries,includingBritain,America,

Australia, NewZealand, Finland and the Netherlands (Deffenbacher

et al., 1994; Hoggan and Dollard, 2007; Lajunen et al., 1998; Parker

et al., 2002; Sullman, 2006). Given that higher levels of work stress

were predicted to exist in the Japanese sample and that these were

expected to be related to driving anger, we anticipated that levels

of driving anger would be higher in Japan than in western samples.

Accordingly we predicted that;

H2. Japanese participants will show (a) significantly higher levels

of driving anger compared to western samples and (b) signifi-

cantlyhigher levelsof traitangercompared to an Australian sample

(Hoggan and Dollard, 2007).

Finally we expected that the process through which ERI would

affect driving anger would be mediated by trait anger.

H3. Effort-reward imbalance will exert an indirect effect on driv-

ing anger through the mediating influence of trait anger.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

The population targeted were adults from the age of 18 who

possessed a full drivers licence, were currently engaged in paid full

time employment, and were living within the metropolitan area

of Nagoya (Aichi Prefecture, Japan). Participants were obtained by

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176 S.S. McLinton, M.F. Dollard / Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010) 174181

identifying households at random within three randomly selected

metropolitan suburbs of Nagoya city, spanning a range of socio-

economic status. Of the 302 individuals initially approached, 249

agreed to complete the questionnaire. The researcher collected the

questionnaire 3 weeks later, or participants returned them by mail

within 6 weeks. A total of 215 questionnaires were completed and

returned, resulting in a response rate of 86.0% (71% of those poten-

tial participants initially approached). The age range of the sample

spanned 1873 years (M= 37years, SD = 12years). There were more

female respondents, with a total of 138 females (64.0%) and 77

males (36.0%) in the sample. Descriptive statistics are outlined

below, inTable 1.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Effort-reward imbalance

We usedSiegrists (1996)ERI scale, translated into Japanese

using a back translation method. The questionnaire was then

reviewedby three independent nativeJapanesespeakersandfinally

pilot tested ona fourth nativespeaker toensure theinstructionsand

items were easily understood. The response scale was modified to

reflect a more objective response format, shown previously to have

good reliability and validity (Hoggan and Dollard, 2007).Respon-

dents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed ordisagreed with the statements on a four point Likert scale, rang-

ing from strongly disagree (scored as onepoint) to strongly agree

(four points). Extrinsic effort was measured by six items relating to

the employees perceived demands in the workplace, for example,

I have constant time pressure due to a heavy workload ( = .70).Job rewards were measured using 11 items, such as I receive the

respect I deserve from my colleagues ( =.70).

To calculate ERI, the degree of perceived disparity between an

individuals efforts at work and rewards, we divided the average

extrinsic effort score by the average reward score. A score higher

than 1 indicates that workers perceived efforts outweigh their job

rewards, indicating strain.

2.2.2. Driving angerThis was assessed using the 33-item Driving Anger Scale (DAS)

developed byDeffenbacher et al. (1994),translated as described

above. Two items translated to duplicates of other items, and

thus became obsolete and were removed to avoid repetition. The

removed items came from the illegal driving and the discourtesy

subscales. To compare thetotalDAS score to that of other countries,

a dummy score was generated for both removed items by taking

the average score from the subscale in which that item originally

resided. Analyses were then run a second time without the inclu-

sion of dummy scores totestthe effect of the reduction of variance.

Results were found to be the same.

The DAS is comprised of six subscales concerning different

aspects of driving; discourtesy, where the actions of other drivers

areconsidered impolitebut notillegal ( = .78); illegal driving, con-cerning the breach of road traffic laws ( = .83); hostile gestures,where another driver indicates disapproval or is aggressive toward

the driver ( = .67); slow driving, when traffic is impeded by the

actions of another driver or pedestrian ( = .66); traffic obstruc-tions, where the traffic flow is hampered by a factor outside the

drivers control, including road works, traffic congestion and the

presence of larger vehicles ( = .72); and police presence, where

police are involved on the road ( = .84). Items describe possibleanger-eliciting situations such as Someone is driving right up on

your back bumper (Item 5). The response required related to the

intensity of anger that the participant would experience in that sit-

uationon a five-point scale. Thelevel of anger was ratedfrom none

at all (scored as zero points) to very much (four points). All items

were summed to form the total DAS score ( = .90).

To facilitate cultural comparison of the scale between the

Japanese sample and the western samples in terms of driving

anger, confirmatory factor analysiswasused to establishthe under-

lying factor structure originally proposed byDeffenbacher et al.

(1994),and hence the validity of the Japanese translation. A six

factor model corresponding to the aforementioned six subscales

provided the best fit, 2 (284)= 658.2,p < .001, compared with a

one factor model, 2 (299) = 1184.7,p < .001. A chi-square differencetest showed that the difference was statistically significant, 2(15)= 526.5,p < .001.

2.2.3. Trait anger

Trait anger was selected as a measure of general and enduring

feelings of anger that may be related to chronic poor work condi-

tions measured through ERI. A concise 5-item scale was employed

to measure participants levels of trait anger, based on the State-

Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI;Spielberger, 1996),using

the highest loading factor items fromHoggan and Dollard (2007).

The Japanese version of the instrument was used, as translated by

Suzuki and Haruki (1994).Responses ranged from strongly dis-

agree(scored asone point)to stronglyagree (fourpoints) ( =.64).

2.2.4. Demographic informationDemographic details were obtained from participants, includ-

ing gender, age, the number of months spent at their current

job in a full time capacity, and occupational category (manage-

rial/administrative, professional/semi-professional, tradesperson,

clerical/sales/service, or labourer).

2.2.5. Life satisfaction

This item was employed to control for variance in anger from

general life sources. A single item measure of life satisfaction was

used, Taking everything into consideration, I am satisfied with my

job. Participants responded on a seven-point scale, ranging from

verystrongly disagree(scored as onepoint) to verystrongly agree

(seven points). Evidence suggests that the global measure of satis-

faction is a good proxy for more expanded scales (Scarpello andCampbell, 1983).

2.3. Procedure

Full ethics approval was obtained. The study commenced with

the random selection of three metropolitan suburbs within Nagoya

city in Aichi prefecture, Japan. Areas were designated low, mid-

dle or high socio-economic status according to the latest Japanese

census (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2006)

and the suburbs therein were allocated numbers. Within each eco-

nomic grouping suburbs were selected through random number

generation to produce a stratified sample. Within each suburb a

selection of streets were randomly designated and a number of

households on each street were targeted using random numbergeneration. Within each household where multiple potential can-

didates resided, only one was selected for participation at random

using a die. Distribution and collection of surveys was carried out

regularly between 6 pm and 9 pm on Monday and Friday evenings,

and Sunday afternoons between 12 noon and 6 pm, for a period

of 3 weeks. In each case the researcher introduced himself and

briefed the potential participant on the aims of the study, and

assured confidentiality and anonymity of responses. If the request

to complete the questionnaire was accepted, an introductory let-

ter was provided, explaining the study in detail. Participants were

given a questionnaire along with an envelope in which to seal the

completed questionnaire to either place outside their residence for

collection at a prearranged date, or to mail back to the researcher

using a reply paid option. Participation was not remunerated.

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Table 2

Means for subscales and total DAS score for American, Australian, British, and Japanese drivers, and comparison of samples.

American Australian British Japanese t-Test t-Test t-Test

Sample (N= 1526) Sample (N= 130) Sample (N= 270) Sample (N= 215) (Jp-US) (Jp-Aust) (Jp-UK)

Discourtesy 3.9 3.4 2.7 2.5 19.8*** 9.3*** 2.6**

Traffic obstructions 3.3 2.5 2.0 2.1 16.9*** 3.9*** 1.2

Hostile gestures 3.2 3.0 2.3 2.6 8.3*** 3.6*** 3.7***

Slow driving 3.2 2.7 2.0 1.7 20.9*** 9.9*** 3.5***

Police presence 3.0 1.9 1.4 1.7 17.7*** 1.7* 3.4***

Illegal driving 2.7 2.9 2.3 2.2 6.9***

5.9***

1.1*

Total DAS score 109.0 92.2 71.3 69.2 26.2*** 10.2*** 1.2

* p

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Table 3

Pearson intercorrelations of variables.

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Age

2. Gender .02

3. Length of Service .73** .14*

4. Life satisfaction .01 .12 .01

5. ERI .13 .01 .06 .26**

6. Trait anger .01 .06 .08 .27** .26**

7. Driving anger .08

.02 .03

.18**

.21**

.33**

Gender: 1= male, 2= female.* p

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In terms of the occurrence of driving anger, overall, Japanese

motorists reported that being the target of hostile gestures was

the most anger-evoking event, closely followed by discourtesy on

the road. Previous studies have all found the discourteous actions

of other drivers to be the most anger-eliciting situations in west-

ern samples with the overt hostility of other motorists falling in

the middle of the range (Deffenbacher et al., 1994; Hoggan and

Dollard, 2007; Lajunen et al., 1998). The indirect nature of Japanese

communication could mean that the culture is less conditioned

to overt hostility and thus is more sensitive to hostile motorists

(Masataka, 2002; Miyazaki et al., 2003). Interestingly, the Japanese

sample reported the least anger in the presence of slow drivers,

perhaps an acceptance of Japans well-known traffic congestion

problem.

The situation that generated the most anger was another driver

parking in the space that the participant was waiting for. Inciden-

tally, Hoggan andDollard(2007)and Lajunenet al. (1998)alsofound

this to be the issue that elicited the greatest amount of anger in

Australian and British drivers.

Compared with Americans and Australians (Deffenbacher et al.,

1994; Hoggan and Dollard, 2007), Japanese reported less anger

across all subscales and in the total driving anger score. How-

ever, the average score for each subscale exceeded 1.5 points,

whichLajunen et al. (1998)state is still an appreciable amountof anger. This indicates that although Japanese people may report

lower levels of driving anger it remains a problem that could

cloud judgement and encourage risk-taking behaviour on the

road.

In our representative community sample of Japanese workers,

we found a very high risk of psychological strain (70%) as evident

fromeffort-reward imbalance, comparedwithwestern community

samples,and significantly higherthan ina representative Australian

community sample. Furthermore, both Australian and Japanese

samples exhibited a significant relationship between work stress

from ERI and trait anger. This finding accords with the notion

that prolonged exposure to factors at work can shape an individ-

uals long term stable personality traits. For exampleDollard and

Winefield (1998)found that high strain jobs were associated withincreased levels of trait anxiety over time.

Therelationship between trait anger anddrivinganger also sup-

ports the intuitive notion that stable characteristics play a role in

how individuals deal with daily life. In our study it suggests that

individualswith a high proclivity tobe angered andwho experience

more intense anger are also likely to experience elevated levels of

anger behind the wheel. This is corroborated by a number of exist-

ingstudies that have found a relationshipbetween trait anddriving

anger (Deffenbacher et al., 2000, 2002, 2003a,b, 2004; Hoggan and

Dollard, 2007).

There are a number of strengths of the present study that

are worth reporting. A major limitation of past studies of driv-

ing anger is the use of homogenous samples of convenience like

university students. We acquired a representative heterogeneoussample through random selection of a stratified community sam-

ple to overcome limitations in generalisability. Additionally our

high response rate, 71% of those initially approached actually par-

ticipated, suggests that the sample is representative of the target

population. Nevertheless it could be argued that the results are

generalisable only to mid range Japanese cities like Nagoya and

may not apply to rural areas or cities with much higher population

density.

The present study also makes a new contribution to knowledge,

as this is the first time the DAS instrument has been employed in a

non-western sample and in a language other than English. Further-

more its pioneering administration in Japan demonstrated that the

instrumentis valid, holdsa factor structuresimilarto other cultures,

and was reliable ( = .90).

5. Limitations and future research

A possible shortcoming of this study is that although the selec-

tion criteria entailed possession of a full licence, the actual length

of driving experience may have varied by participant. Some partic-

ipants therefore may have been unfamiliar with a number of the

driving situations. Although not measured in previous DAS studies,

future research should gauge length of driving experience. Another

limitation is the reliance on self-report measures. This method

was selected over others due to ease of administration, and the

less intrusive nature. However, as with other Asian countries, in

Japan face or reputation is an important concept along with the

desire to appear polite and humble. Thus participants may have

had a tendency toward social desirability bias. In order to coun-

teract the effect, the participants anonymity was reassured by the

researcher, and surveyscouldbe completedin private.Nevertheless

one must keep this cultural tendency in mind whilst interpreting

cross-cultural comparisons.

As for the ERI scale, it is worthwhile noting that the omission

of Item 14 (My current occupational position adequately reflects

myeducationand training) from thescale increased thereliability.

This may be linked to the structure of Japans workforce senior-

ity system, wherein regardless of education a new employee is

always given the lowest position in the company and is expectedto earn more prestigious positions and management roles accord-

ing to age and duration of service (The Tokyo Declaration, 1999;

Tsutsumi et al., 2001).Thus in Japanese culture, it is unlikely that

the concept of reward would be linked to education history, and

perhaps the structure of the subscale should be reconsidered for a

Japanese sample.

Another limitation is the reliance on external data for compari-

son. Future studies employing cross-cultural analysis may be more

reliable if they were all conducted by the same researchers, using

the same sampling method. The study was also cross-sectional in

design, and without a longitudinal design, causation cannot be

implied and there may be other explanations for the significant

direct effects that were found. Nevertheless, the existence of a

relationship linking these highly important issues was supported,replicating findings in another cultural context and opening the

avenue for further study.

The present study is the first investigation of the DAS in a

non-western country.Further researchis warrantedto testthe psy-

chometrics of the DAS the instrument in other Asian countries, and

to test the key mediation hypothesis proposed here. A longitudinal

design would also enable a better investigation of the causal links

in the relationship between ERI, trait and driving anger. Additional

research is also required to investigate whether the elevated levels

of trait anger that are related toERI stress from work may spill over

into other domains (e.g. domestic violence).

6. Implications of the present study

Work stress effects spill over to other life domains, including

anger on the road, and the relationship has been demonstrated

in both western and eastern cultures. Tackling driving anger could

begin by addressing work stress and its associated anger as stress

itself was a substantive problem, afflicting 70% of the Japanese

workers.

It has been widely accepted that work stress poses detrimen-

tal effects on the individual, organisation and the economy. Our

study has identified ERI to be a major problem in a Japanese sam-

ple. If this stress is seen to originate from a disparity in efforts and

rewards, then either of these may be targeted to bring relief in the

workplace. SinceJapaneseculture promoteshard work to avoid los-

ing face, its workplaces are characterised by high productivity, job

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loyalty and low absenteeism. In the presence of problems like poor

salaryor lack of support, theJapanesemindset is to simply endure,

which may explain why workplaces in Japan possess many charac-

teristics conducive of a satisfied and productive workforce in spite

of its problems. Whilst they appear to be intrinsically motivated to

perform well, thecritical issue may be thelack of extrinsicrewards.

Previous studies have made Japanese workplaces well aware of

the pervasive work stress problem and its costly outcomes, and

the present study provides an avenue through which to actively

reduce work stress. The perceived effort-reward imbalance may be

mitigated by reducing demands and promoting a more supportive

work environment and providing greater opportunities for career

advancement based on the individuals contribution to the work-

place, rather than seniority.

Thefindings of thepresent study suggest more serious attention

be invested in reducing the influences behind the sensationalised

overt aggression and instead address their covert originsthe feel-

ing of anger and aggressive ruminations. By targeting the less

observable but more prevalent and equally dangerous problem of

driving anger, there is good potential to reduce casualties on the

road and to save lives.

7. Conclusions

The Japanese sample reported a surprisingly large disparity in

their perceived efforts and rewards at work, showing over 70% of

individuals to be at risk of strain. Despitereporting similar levels of

trait anger as Australians, Japanese motorists appeared to harbour

less anger on the road, suggesting the existence of cultural differ-

encesin attitudestoward anger in otherdomains. The present study

has supported the existence of a link between the stress resulting

from animbalancein perceivedeffortsandrewards atwork,and the

development anger in other areas of life. In essence, the mediator

model highlights the spill over of stress in theworkplace into other

apparently unrelated domains like demeanour on the road. What

was once thought tobe a problem of theworkplace hasbeen shown

to have a more pervasive influence in everyday life, underlining the

importance of reducing work stress.

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