STORYBERRY SERIES - ASTRONOMY · 2016-09-06 · PREFACE. This version is the 2. nd. Edition of STORYBERRY SERIES – ASTRONOMY published 1989. Author: Dr. Valerie Njee Space Exploration

2

STORYBERRY SERIES

ASTRONOMY

ByValerie Fotso

© Kgoo Corporation © Google Inc.

3

STORYBERRY SERIESPublished in 1998© GOOGLE, Inc.Owner & Founder

Publishing Directors: Masoda Lucky, Ramana UpaProject Management: Roger Melon

Design and Illustration: Masoda LuckyVerification: Lynette Palallos, Masoda Lucky

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without written permission from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data On file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 011-7607-6585-31

Cover Art – Original designed and hand-picked limited edition pastel-serigraph by Storyberry designers. Exclusive Storyberry publishers and distributors: Fine Art Ltd., Main floor, 139 Hackthorne Rd, Cashmere, Christchurch, Canterbury, NZ 8022 New Zealand. Phone No. NZ – 64(3)332 0809; Toll Free – 0800 800 278.

The book cover is printed on hard back with a gradient finished and text printed on acid-free papers.

2015 Reprinted and bounded in New Jersey, New Zealand, Cameroon, Australia, United States, Europe Asia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe Publisher would like to thank the following artists who have

contributed to this book:

STORYBERRY Artists GOOGLE ArtistsCartoons by Kgoo Corporation.

4

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

drasta

PREFACE

This version is the 2nd Edition of STORYBERRY SERIES – ASTRONOMY published 1989. Author: Dr. Valerie Njee

Space Exploration Vehicles section has been included in this version of STORYBERRY SERIES – ASTRONOMY due to high interest of similar books' readers.

Updates and inserts were also added in chapter 3., “Compounds found in Venus”.

Thanks to our readers for such a high demand of specific topics and interests.

V.FJune 2015

5

Table of ContentsBACKGROUND..................................................................................................................10

SPACE SHUTTLE MISSIONS..........................................................................................14

SPACE EXPLORATION VEHICLES................................................................................20

PLANETS..............................................................................................................................25

Chapter 1.............................................................................................................................27

SUN..................................................................................................................................27

SUN RAYS AND EFFECTS.........................................................................................29

UNIT PREFIXES CHART.......................................................................................34

STRUCTURE OF THE SUN..................................................................................35

FACTS ABOUT SUN..............................................................................................40

ACTIVITIES...............................................................................................................42

Chapter 2.............................................................................................................................43

MERCURY......................................................................................................................43

CRUST OF MERCURY...........................................................................................45

MISSIONS TO MERCURY...................................................................................48

FACTS ABOUT MERCURY..................................................................................49

ACTIVITIES...............................................................................................................52

Chapter 3.............................................................................................................................53

6

VENUS............................................................................................................................53

UAA Masoda 2 ...................................................................................................57

COMPOUNDS FOUND IN VENUS..................................................................59

....................................................................................................................................59

ATOMIC ELEMENTS PRESENT IN VENUS....................................................60

FACTS ABOUT VENUS.........................................................................................63

ACTIVITIES...............................................................................................................65

Chapter 4.............................................................................................................................67

EARTH.............................................................................................................................67

FORMATION OF THE EARTH............................................................................68

WORLD MAP AND ITS CONTINENTS...........................................................69

FORMATION OF EARLY LIFE IN OCEANS....................................................71

FORMATION OF SHAPES OF CONTINENTS...............................................72

VOLCANOES...........................................................................................................74

FACTS ABOUT EARTH.........................................................................................76

CLIMATE CHANGING..........................................................................................78

MOON............................................................................................................................80

COMPOUNDS IN EARTH’S CRUST.................................................................83

GRAVITATIONAL WAVE SPECTRUM.............................................................86

LUNAR ECLIPSE.....................................................................................................88

7

SOLAR ECLIPSE......................................................................................................90

RAINBOW COLORS and EFFECTS...................................................................97

ENERGY WAVE SPECTRUM...............................................................................99

ACTIVITIES............................................................................................................104

SPACETIME...........................................................................................................107

Chapter 5..........................................................................................................................108

MARS............................................................................................................................108

FACTS ABOUT MARS........................................................................................114

ACTIVITIES............................................................................................................115

Chapter 6..........................................................................................................................117

JUPITER........................................................................................................................117

GALILEAN MOONS............................................................................................121

FACTS ABOUT JUPITER....................................................................................123

ACTIVITIES............................................................................................................124

SATURN.......................................................................................................................125

SATURN RINGS...................................................................................................126

FACTS ABOUT SATURN...................................................................................129

Chapter 8..........................................................................................................................131

URANUS......................................................................................................................131

FACTS ABOUT URANUS..................................................................................135

8

BACKGROUND

ACTIVITIES............................................................................................................136

Chapter 9..........................................................................................................................137

NEPTUNE.....................................................................................................................137

FACTS ABOUT NUPTUNE................................................................................142

ACTIVITIES..................................................................................................................................143

Chapter 10........................................................................................................................144

PLUTO..........................................................................................................................144

SATELLITE SPACE TELESCOPE ............................................................................146

FACTS ABOUT PLUTO.......................................................................................151

ACTIVITIES............................................................................................................152

APPENDIX.........................................................................................................................153

Bibliography.....................................................................................................................157

Index...................................................................................................................................158

9

BACKGROUND

BACKGROUNDIn this book, we’ll feature ASTRONOMY Themes and SKITS Science projects for kids to design and become familiar with these planets and objects.

The Universe is composed of galaxies, planets, oceans, seas, space, sun, moon and Stars. We’ll go in depth on this book describing Planets and illustrating some of the diagrams found in these different planets.

The Solar System comprises of the Sun and all the planets orbiting around the Sun. The planets have varying periods which it takes for them to revolve around the Sun. Their independent revolution around their axes is unique and isolated from one another.

Parents and guardians will enjoy going through this topics with their love ones. Here are of Planets we’ll discuss: -

MERCURYVENUSEARTHMARSJUPITERSATURNURANUSNEPTUNEPLUTO

10

jaxson

Cross-Out

BACKGROUND

The Beginning: In the beginning, there was darkness and after certain period of time, became light as quoted in one of the oldest book mankind has ever come to know is “the Bible”.

The nativity of planets cannot become realize without mentioning some of these biblical passages and phrases commonly used in our everyday activities.

Parents with newborn can also cultivate the habit of reading and emphasizing the revolution of the universe.

Sharing our time and love, going through these pages with our kids will always remind them in the future how caring and thoughtful, we were with them. With this initiation, the expectation from them is to do the same with their children as they become parents and guardians.

SHARING AND LOVING

11

BACKGROUND

Scientific studies have proven that, the Sun and its planets were formed at about the same time. Swirling clouds of gases and dusts collected in space. These clouds grew denser and denser as gravity squeezed the gases and dusts together. Most of the cloud formed the Sun. What were left over became the planets.

A planet is much bigger than a moon. They are both made of asteroids and solid condensed rocks made of composites and molten lava formations from combustion and explosions due to expansion of inner meteoroids contour layers.

The Solar System comprises of the Sun and all the other bodies revolving around the Sun.

These bodies are called planets, moons, asteroids, minor planets, meteoroids and comets.

Each move in particular path or orbit around the Sun.

The Sun’s force of gravity holds all these bodies together in the Solar System because it is the greatest of those of the other planets.

The mass of Sun is 1,988,500 X 1024 Kg compared to that of Earth which is 5.9726 X 1024 Kg and it’s visible to us every day during clear sky and less cloudy conditions.

12

BACKGROUND

Also, the surface gravity for both Sun and Earth are 274.0 m/s2 and 9.78 m/s2 respectively.

All planets orbits around the Sun and their moons orbits around their planets.

The satellites we create orbits, the earth and other planets. The Earth has several stationary satellites use for weather observations and broadcasting purposes, these devices are operated wireless.

To get into orbits around the earth and other planets, space crafts, and other space vehicles design for these purposes needs to be flown very far out of space beyond the atmosphere, where it is partly free from the Earth’s gravity.

13

SPACE SHUTTLE MISSIONS

SPACE SHUTTLE MISSIONS1957 SPUTNIK 1 - The first artificial satellite, was launched into space on October 4 by the Soviet Union. On November 3, SPUTNIK 2 was launched into space, carrying a dog named Laika.

1959 LUNA 1, 2,3 – The first probes, Luna1, Luna 2 and Luna 3, were sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union.

1961 Yuri Gagarin – Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to travel into space. The flight lasted about 90 minutes.

1965 US Astronomers – US Astronomers detected weak signals, like the radio noise, from space. Many people think that these prove the big bang theory.

1965 Mariner 4 – US Space probe Mariner 4 took the first photos of Mars.

1966 Luna 9 – Soviet Space probe Mariner 9 landed on the Moon, returning the first photos from the surface.

1967 Venera 4 – Soviet Venera 4 became the first Sapce probe to reach Venus. One day later, US probe Mariner 5 also reached Venus.

14


1968 Apollo 8 – The USA launched Apollo 8, the first manned space flight around the Moon.

1969 Apollo 11 – On July 20, the US Apollo 11 mission landed the first men on the Moon. They were Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin and Neil Armstrong, who was the first man to walk on the Moon. Another manned mission, Apollo 12, reached the Moon in November 14.

1970 Apollo 13 – US Apollo 13 Moon mission was canceled when an exploration destroyed the main module’s power system.

1971 Apollo 14 – Manned US Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions landed on the Moon’s surface.

1971 Salyut 1 – The Russians launched the first space station, Salyut 1.

1971 Mariner 9 – US Mariner 9 Space probe returned the first close-up images of Mars.

1972 Apollo 16 – Manned US Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 missions landed on the Moon’s surface.

1973 Skylab – The USA launched Skylab, the first close-up pictures of Jupiter.

1974 Mariner 10 – US Mariner 10 space probe returned the first photos of cloud-tops around Venus. It

15


then went on to Mercury, sending back over 10,000 pictures of the planet.

1975 Venera 9, 10 – Soviet Space probes Venera 9 and Venera 10 took the first photos of Venus’s surface.

1976 Viking 1, 2 – US space probes Viking 1 and Viking 2 landed on Mars. They took many photos and studied sample of Martain soil.

1979 Voyager 1 – US space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter, sending back detailed pictures.

1980 Voyager 2 – US space probe Voyager 2 flew past Saturn, sending back detailed pictures.

1981 STS1 – USA launched STS1, the first Space Shuttle flight.

1986 Voyager 2 – US probe Voyager 2 flew past Uranus, sending back detailed images.

1986 Mir – Soviet Space Station Mir was launched.

1986 Challenger – US space shuttle Challenger exploded, killing seven astronauts.

1988 Discovery – US Space Shuttle Discovery launched two UAA probes Masoda 1 and Masoda 2,

16


flew by Pluto and Venus respectively, sending back detailed images and tracing Map navigation.

1989 Voyager 2 – US space probe Voyager 2 flew by Neptune, sending back detailed pictures.

1991 HST - Hubble Space Telescope was launched from the USA. It was found to have a fault which prevented it from sending back clear images.

1993 Astronauts – Spacewalking astronauts repaired the Hubble Space Telescope.

1993 Galileo – US Galileo probe took the first close-up pictures of an asteroid, Gaspra.

1996 NEAR – US NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous) spacecraft was launched to study near-earth asteroids.

1996 Surveyor – US Mars Global Surveyor was launched to study Mars while in orbit around the planet.

1997 Pathfinder – US Mars Pathfinder reached Mars, releasing a small rover vehicle named Sojourner onto the surface. It gathered detailed information about Martain soil, rocks and weather.

1998 ISS – Construction of the International Space Station began.

17


2001 Mir – The Mir space station became the largest man-made object to be brought back to Earth. It broke up on re-entry into the atmosphere, before landing in the Pacific Ocean.

1994 Atlantis

After completing the STS-135 mission, space shuttle Atlantis is rolled over to the Orbiter Processing Facility shortly after landing at NASA's Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility.

Atlantis and the STS-135 crew completed a 13-day mission to the International Space Station and the final flight of the Space Shuttle Program, early Thursday morning, July 21, 1994, in Cape Canaveral, Fla.

18


Overall, Atlantis spent 307 days in space and traveled nearly 126 million miles during its 33 flights. Atlantis, the fourth orbiter built, launched on its first mission on Oct. 3, 1985.Image Credit: NASA/Valerie Fotso Last Updated: May 24, 2002

19

SPACE EXPLORATION VEHICLES


NASA’s engineers recently designed new generation of vehicles for the future space exploration missions. The Space Exploration Vehicles (SEV) concept is pretty flexible depending on the intended destination; the pressurized cabin can be used both for in-space missions and for surface exploration of planetary bodies, including near-Earth asteroids and Mars.

Both concept versions are now being tested at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. The surface exploration version

20


of the SEV is about the size of a pickup truck; it has a cabin mounted on a chassis, with wheels that can pivot 360 degrees and drive about 10 kilometers per hour in any direction. It can house two astronauts for up to 14 days with sleeping and sanitary facilities. The surface SEV needs little or no maintenance, and can travel thousands of miles climbing over rocks and up 40 degree slopes during its ten year life.

The in-space version of the SEV would have the same pressurized cabin on a flying platform and it would allow two astronauts to stay on-site for up to 14 days. The in-space SEV also features manipulator arms and an airlock for handling satellites and other objects of interest.

For both versions of these vehicles astronauts could work in shirtsleeves in the safety of the vehicle’s cabin, and in case of need for exploration missions, they can enter and exit their spacesuits through suitports.More information on nasa.gov

21

http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/technology/space_exploration_vehicle/index.html


Mars Pathfinder (formerly known as the Mars Environmental Survey, or MESUR, Pathfinder) is the second of NASA's low-cost planetary Discovery mission. The mission consists of a stationary lander and a surface rover known as Sojourner.

Mission such as this, has the primary objective of demonstrating the feasibility of low-cost landings on and exploration of the Martian surface. This objectives will be met by testing communication between the rover and lander, and the lander and Earth, and tests of the imaging devices and sensors.

22


The scientific objectives include atmospheric entry science, long-range and close-up surface imaging, with the general objective being that, to characterize the Martian environment for further exploration.

The spacecraft will enter the Martian atmosphere without going into orbit around the planet and land on Mars with the aid of parachutes, rockets and airbags, taking atmospheric measurements on the way down. Prior to landing, the spacecraft will be enclosed by three triangular solar panels (petals), which will unfold onto the ground after touchdown. Mars Pathfinder was launched in 1996 December 4 and landed successfully on Mars on 1997 July 4

Space Shuttle Atlantis riding atop a NASA-modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft taxis in, after landing June 2 at Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi Columbus AFB was the shuttle's final stop for fuel before finishing its journey to Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

23


Unit testing of Optical sensors were performed and data collected which provided some of these magnificent images sent back to Earth from both Rover and 747 Lander.

The time it took this Rover to make a complete orbiting circulation after released by the 747 Shuttle Aircraft Carrier, around Mars was calculated and came out to be less than that of the Boosters Spacecraft Shuttle missions. “This was one of the major purpose of coming up with a design like this to speed up the launching and re-entry into orbital journeys” said by the Chief Navigating Astronauts.

24

PLANETS

PLANETSThese pages are collections of information related to the SOLAR SYSTEMS. Most of the information you will find are coming from research papers, experiments and theoretical summaries. We encourage individuals who are interested in SPACE science, Aerospace and Astrophysics, engineering, Space exploration or Physics to go through these pages and gain more knowledge on planets Exploration.

The arrangement of planets on the diagram below is illustrated in a circular manner, due to space dimension of the figure. As you read through this book, the planets are mentioned in the order of distance from the SUN.

Images of Planets in the Solar SystemImage Credit:UAA – Dr. Valerie NJEE

Founder: UAA Adminstartor

25

PLANETS

GENESIS 1:1-5 1In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 2Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.3And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. 4God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. 5God called the light “day,” and the darkness be called “night.” And there was evening and there was morning – the first day.

From The HOLY BIBLE – New International Version

26

Chapter 1

Chapter 1SUN

SUN is known for its powerful illumination of the whole wide world as the Earth it orbits the Sun, like wise other planets, providing brightness and reflection of the things we see base on the projected angles from the SUN.

What makes the difference between Night and Day? Is the SUN.

Have you are seen a full sunshine just like the one shown below? If you step outside between 11:45 AM and 12:45 PM you should be able to see a full glow of the SUN overhead when there is clear sky and less cloudy condition.

The amount of light photons emitted from this giant ball referred to as the Sun provide sun light throughout multiple planets and the galaxies.

Stars are known for absorbing energy from sun rays, where during night they glitter emitting light consumed during the day. The motion of skidding stars is called shooting stars. The actions of shooting stars are caused

27

SUN

by high retained energy levels within some of these stars.

The SUN is a massive ball of exploding gas. The sun applies a huge pull towards the earth called the gravitational force. Due to the gravitational force, the planets, moons and other objects, orbits the SUN with a certain speed.

The size of the sun is approximately 587228075236.26 cubic miles with a diameter of 864,906 miles (1,392.500 km) and it weighs 333,000 times as much as

28

SUN

the earth. It is made of atoms of hydrogen, helium and self-luminous gases.

SUN RAYS AND EFFECTSThe reaction between these gases may cause nuclear fusion reaction, given out massive amounts of energy.

Light rays from the Sun, is very important and essential in our life cycle. For plant, photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be later released to fuel the plants organisms' activities.

This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis is the Latin name of light + sugar molecules processes.

In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric oxygen levels and supplies all of the organic

29

SUN RAYS AND EFFECTS

compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.

Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction center that contain green chlorophyll pigments.

In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane.

Generally Sun light is needed and necessary in our daily activities and surrounding.

The SUN and inner planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

30


From the image above, the galaxies can be seen in the background as the planets of the inner circle orbits the SUN at variable angular distances from the center of the Sun. It all depends from what angles these detailed images were taken by Space Satellite probes.

Gamma Rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus of the Sun during radioactive reaction. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high due to bonding from elcetromagnetic polar forces. Gamma ray photons may be in-fact be identical to X-Rays since both are electromagnetic rays and are emitted from the Sun's nucleus which is their source of origin, but have different Wavelength.

When Gamma Rays interact with Matter, they become ionized and produce physiological effects which are not obvious (apparent) with exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutation or cancer in tissue. The wave length of Gamma ray is 0.00001 nm (nanometer).

X-Rays are similar to Gamma rays but different in Wavelength which in tend may imply a diffences in calculated frequencies. X-Rays are highly penetrating rays which emitted when high energy electrons strike metal plates or targets.

31


When exposed through film mechanism, within a short peroid of time, the negatives of these films when developed, exposes the traceability of their paths and targets. These rays are used in medical facilities for imagery purposes examples may range from diagnosing internal fractures / undetermine / unexplainably pains.

We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated. These rays are also used for diagnostics of automobiles, internal fussions and transmission radiators during inspections. X-rays can also be produced when electrons are transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements.

X-rays produced in such instances has definite energies just like other line spectral from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels. The wavelength of X- Ray is 0.1 nm.

Here are examples of Microscopicreadings:1 nm = 10-9 = nanometer 1000 nm = 10-6 = micrometer

1000000 nm = 1.0 million = 1 (base unit) 10.0 million nm = 1 dm

100 million nm = 1 cm 1.0 billion nm = 1 m

1.0 trillion nm = 1000 = 1 km

32


Visible Light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these waves as the colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different wavelength. Red has the longest wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength. When all the waves are seen together, they make white light. When white light shines through a prism, the white light is broken apart into the colors of the visible light spectrum. Water vapor in the atmosphere can also break apart wavelengths creating a rainbow.

Infrared light lies between the visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared light has a range of wavelengths, just like visible light with wavelengths ranging from red light to violet. "Near infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible light and "far infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

33

UNIT PREFIXES CHART

UNIT PREFIXES CHARTCommon Units readings in Microscopic Objects and Findings.

Using a spectra chart and a spectrometer or hand (magnifying) lens, the wavelength of vary color sprectrum can be determined from the alignment of this type of chart (See Energy Wavelength diagram in page 100).

34

STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

STRUCTURE OF THE SUNThe sun’s core is 27 times wider than the earth and has a temperature of about 10,000 ºF (5,600 ºC).

The radiative zone surrounds the core.

Heat produced in the core spreads through the inner path waves. The convective zone carries the sun’s energy up to the surface.

Ultraviolet Rays are in present in the convection and chromosphere zones of the Sun. The effects of ultraviolet rays when conducted and absorbed raises temperatures which can be felt on metals, alloys or noticeable temperature fluctuations on humans. The shorter wavelength reach the ionization energy for many molecules which are not dangerous to humans or living organisms.

Depending on how close you are to Ultraviolet rays, you may experience high temperatures or ionizing radiation.

The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well as eating Sun ripen fruits such as bananas, papaya apricots etc. The

35


sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. It is necessary for builders to wear protective eye shields because of the UV content of welding arcs which can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of UV inflammatory which be avoided by wearing sunglasses (tented glasses), protecting glasses; the snow reflects UV while most other substances may absorb it intensively.

Electromagnetic Rays:

Frequency Wavelength Quantum Energy

Ultraviolet 7.5 x 10+14 – 3 x 10+16 Hz

400 – 10 nm 3.1 – 124 eV

X - ray 3 x 1016 Hz 10 nm or < 124 eV

Gamma ray 1.0 x1020 Hz > 1.0 x 10-12 < > 1 MeV

36


The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 solar radius. It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It has a density of 150 g/cm³ (150 times the density of water) at the center, and a temperature of close to 15,700,000 kelvin, or about 15,700,000 degrees Celsius; by contrast, the surface of the Sun is close to 6,000 kelvin.

37


The core is made of hot, dense gas in the plasmatic state, at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar (26.5 quadrillion pascals or 3.84 trillion psi) at the center.

The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius, contains 34% of the Sun's mass, but only 0.8% of the Sun's volume. Inside 0.24 solar radius, the core generates 99% of the fusion power of the Sun.

Conductivity: We tend to absorb heat depending on the color of our bodies. Light shades reflect light energy while dark shades absorb light energy.

Buildings made of clear glass frames would reflect heat faster than that made of shaded or tented glass frames.

38


Light is produced from solar energy which is then radiated from the center core of the sun where temperature reaches 27,000,000 °F (≈15,000,000 °C). This is where nuclear fusion and fission takes place, radiating energy from the core slowly, taking the radiation energy 1 million years to travel from the radiation zone.

The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun, where the temperature is 10,000 °F (≈5,500 °C). This is the portion that emits and it takes 8 minutes for light rays to reach earth.

39

FACTS ABOUT SUN

FACTS ABOUT SUN1. SUN, as we can see from the image above,

provides the planets with light, brightness and sun shine reflecting bright rays over a comparatively large area.

2. Health wise, sun light is beneficiary for our bodies as well as plants, aiding in broken down compounds and nutrients due to reactions caused by absorbing heat energy.

3. Heat factors aid in opening the poses of our bodies which enable our bodies to breath just like plants during photosynthesis.

4. Consumption of water is essential and it also aids to clear out our excretion after vigorous exercise and resting for a period of time before drinking water.

5. From the core of sun, solar energy gets formed, these energy are then travelled from layers of sun light as shown on the diagram above starting with the core, Radiative zone,

40

FACTS ABOUT SUN

Convection zone, Chromosphere, Photosphere and corona respectively.

6. Traces of Gamma rays and X-rays are can be detected in the radiative zone of the Sun. Theoretically, the time it takes for these rays to travel through the corona zone waken the strength of radioactive compounds emitted from these rays, dimminishing their effect on our bodies.

IR – Infra Red raysUV – Ultraviolet rays

41

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. These are the best times to go to the beach and

play with your parents building sand castles if you live close to beach.

2. Use a touch light to project the shape and brightness from a close distance to a static surface or wall in the darkness.

3. Experiment what colors absorbs heat faster than the others and test to come with a trend. Common examples will be to wet materials of different colors and dry them on a hot sunny day. After two hours or so, feel which materials dried up first.

4. Discuss refraction and reflection of light rays and how it affects conductivity.

5. With the presences of sun shine, get to perform

activities outdoors. Hold meetings out door or take a tour and learn while absorbing chemicals from the Sun.

6. Have a picnic or brownbag lunch with friends.

42

Chapter 2

Chapter 2MERCURY

The first planet from the SUN is called MERCURY.

Mercury is the first planet from the SUN, a very small planet, with a diameter of only 3032 miles.

It is the closest planet to the SUN, orbiting it at a distance of about 24 million miles. This closeness means that MERCURY is blasted by the SUN’s rays.

It takes Mercury 88 days to orbit the SUN.

Its’ day temperature can reach 800ºF which is more than 4 times hotter than boiling water. This high temperature is due to the closeness to the SUN.

43

MERCURY

Because the planet has no atmosphere to retain that heat, nighttime temperatures on the surface can drop to -280 degrees Fahrenheit (-170 degrees Celsius).

Mercury is so close to the sun, it is hard to directly observe from Earth except during twilight. Mercury makes an appearance indirectly, however, 13 times each century. Earth observers can watch Mercury pass across the face of the sun, an event called a transit. These rare transits fall within several days around May 8 and November 10.

Scientists used to think that the same side of Mercury always faces the sun, but in 1965 astronomers discovered that the planet rotates three times during every two orbits. Mercury speeds around the sun every 88 days, traveling through space at nearly 31 miles (50 kilometers) per second faster than any other planet.

The length of one Mercury day (sidereal rotation) is equal to 58.646 Earth days.

Rather than an atmosphere, Mercury possesses a thin exosphere made up of atoms blasted off its surface by solar wind and striking micrometeoroids causing Mercury to have little or no atmosphere.

44

CRUST OF MERCURY

CRUST OF MERCURYBecause of the planet’s extreme surface temperature, the atoms quickly escape into space. With the thin exosphere, there has been no wind erosion of the surface and meteorites do not burn up due to friction as they do in other planetary atmospheres.

Mercury’s surface resembles that of Earth’s moon, scarred by many impact craters resulting from collisions with meteoroids and comets.

While there are areas of smooth terrain, there are also lobe-shaped scarps or cliffs, some hundreds of miles long and soaring up to a mile (1.6 kilometers) high, formed by early contraction of the crust.

The Caloris Basin, one of the largest features (crater) of Mercury, is about 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) in diameter. It was the result of an asteroid impact on the planet’s surface early in the solar system’s history.

Over the next half-billion years, Mercury shrank in radius about 0.6 to 1.2 miles (1 to 2 kilometers) as the planet cooled after its formation.

45

CRUST OF MERCURY

The outer crust contracted and grew strong enough to prevent magma from reaching the surface, ending the period of geologic activity.

Mercury is the second smallest planet in the solar system, larger only than previously measured planets, such as Pluto. Mercury is the second densest planet after Earth, with a large iron core having a radius of 1,100 to 1,200 miles (1,800 to 1,900 kilometers), about 75 percent of the planet’s radius.

Mercury’s outer shell, comparable to Earth’s outer shell (called the mantle), is only 300 to 400 miles (500 to 600 kilometers) thick. Mercury’s magnetic field is thought to be a miniature version of Earth’s, but scientists are uncertain of the strength of the field.

Because of the closeness of Mercury to Sun, astronomers and scientists rarely perform voyages to this planet. However up to date images and motions received by NASA – Kennedy Space Station based in Houston, TX, keeps majority of the entire Aerospace and astronauts cast informed of the different conditions taking place during set intervals.

46

CRUST OF MERCURY

The four innermost members of our solar system Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are all solid rocky bodies. For that reason they are called rocky planets or the terrestrial planets. Earth bears evidence of surface erosion processes, such as volcanism or meteorite bombardment, which have played a significant role in shaping the surface we see today.

In 1974 and 1975 Mariner 10 space probe revealed the surface of Mercury with mountainous regions, valleys and plains. The surface was like that of moon.

In 1978 Mariner 10 mission's radar mapping demonstrated a surface that consisted of upland regions with two dominant highland areas. The outermost of the terrestrial planets is Mars.

Mercury is geologically very active. The effects of wind and water erosion are very much in evidence on the planet's surface. Mercury is also considered by astronomers to be still volcanically active.

Only one spacecraft has ever visited Mercury: Mariner 10, which imaged about 45 percent of the surface.

47

MISSIONS TO MERCURY

MISSIONS TO MERCURY In 1991, however astronomers using radars observations prove that Mercury may have water ice at its north and south poles inside deep craters that are noted to be perpetually cold.

48

FACTS ABOUT MERCURY

FACTS ABOUT MERCURY1. Mercury is the second smallest planet in the solar

system, larger only than previously measured planets, such as Pluto.

2. Mercury is the second densest planet after Earth, with a large iron core having a radius of 1,100 to 1,200 miles (1,800 to 1,900 kilometers), about 75 percent of the planet’s radius.

3. Mercury’s outer shell, comparable to Earth’s outer shell (called the mantle), is only 300 to 400 miles (500 to 600 kilometers) thick.

4. Mercury’s surface resembles that of Earth’s moon, scarred by many impact craters resulting from collisions with meteoroids and comets.

5. With full Sun Shine the planet MERCURY is bright in color.

49

FACTS ABOUT MERCURY

6. During freezing condition with temperatures in the low -ve 280 0F, Mercury appeared to be blue in color due to icy conditions. Other scientists, may have predicted heavy snowfall and formation of igloos in craters formed by collision of Asteroids and meteoroids.

Mercury with reflections from full sun shine.

Falling comets or meteorites might have brought ice to these regions of Mercury, or water vapor might have out gas from the interior and frozen out at the poles.

50

FACTS ABOUT MERCURY

Majority of the water beds spotted from a distance could have been formed from rains and water produced during high temperatures, and condensation of thick clouds. During high temperatures, the (reverse) controvercial may easily diminish the water level settled in craters.

Most recent discoveries provided more detailed information of heavy snowfall with formation of glacier layers which appear to be look-a-like igloos from a distance. When the temperatures fall below freezing points below -280 0F, conditions like these are obvious and could be drastically felt by any presumed living organisms in these regions in Mercury.

Melting ice producing rain definitely occurs when the temperatures get warm to extreme heat considering Mercury to be the most closest planet to the Sun. But due to revolution, this planet experiences both extreme cold and hot temperatures different periods of time.

The wavelength of light rays penetrating different zones at different frequencies calls for us to believe, that the presences of living organisms may exist in Mercury. Relativity of gravitational is less compare to that of earth. We may tend to feel lighter while in Mercury.

51

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. Astronauts and Scientists test how fast snow can

be made due to combination of condensed compounds found in Mercury with an influence of cold temperatures.

2. Test are performed to validate if the atmospheric composition (by volume): 96.5 percent carbon dioxide, 3.5 percent nitrogen, with minor amounts of sulfur dioxide, argon, water, carbon monoxide, helium and neon.

3. From electromagnetic measurement, the Magnetic field of Mercury is 0.000015 times that of Earth’s .

4. Visit your states’ downtown library or science museum to observe the planetarium solar systems.

52

Chapter 3

Chapter 3VENUS

Venus is the second planet from the SUN, with the same size like that of the EARTH. It orbits the SUN at a distance of about 67.24 million miles.

The planet’s surface is mainly flat, but has raised areas, which looks like the Earth’s continents.

In ancient times, Venus was often thought to be two different stars, the evening star and the morning star — that is, the first appearance was at sunset then sunrise.

In Latin, they were respectively known as Valeria and Valerie. During Christian period, Valerie, or “light-bringer,” became known as Venus.

Astronomers later determined that it was the same planet and agreed on maintaining the name VENUS.

Recent voyages to VENUS has proven were made to study the stability of the planet and if carriers of mini Space Shuttles could land safely without causing planetoids such as asteroids and meteorites to collide with each other.

53

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

VENUS

They have been no known problems during re-entry, orbiting and hovering Venus.

If viewed from above, Venus rotates on its axis the opposite way that most planets rotate. That means on Venus, the sun would appear to rise in the west and set in the east. On Earth, the sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west.

This tells us that, the orbiting position of Venus as related to Earth can be easily be determine that Venus is further East than Earth from SUN.

From detailed images taken by UAA probe Masoda 2, the planet Venus receive Sun light a quadrant faster than

54

VENUS

Earth. The reflections of the Sun on Venus were prominent during these periods.

55

VENUS

Venus is slightly smaller than Earth with a diameter of 7,520 miles compare to that of Earth which is 7,926 miles.

The average distance of Venus from the Sun is 67 million miles. With Venus very similar to Earth, one can assume that the appearance of both the Sun and Moon would be similar in nature although the number of days it takes Venus to orbit the Sun is less than that of Earth; which is 224.7 days as compared to that of Earth, 365 days.

56

UAA Masoda 2

UAA Masoda 2

The atmosphere layers taken by UAA Masoda 2 of Venus, sent back images similar to Earth's layers with a volcano eruption occurring at that instance.

Astronauts brought back samples of trapped air, soils and rocks to further determine most of the elements present on Venus' crust.

It is always very trilling, exciting and courageous to attain and comprehend most of our expectations prior to this mission. The expedition went smoothly and more data were collected during this 2 weeks period.

UAA Masoda 1 and 2 probes transmitted images viewed by scientists in the control centers observing this missions.

Some of the natural existence of these compounds when combine, may have unpleasant smells which can irritate or distort your taste.

In condition like this, fluids replenishment is necessary and a month relaxation to re-corporate is required for all parties involve. The landing site was spectacular in Kennedy Space Center, Orlando, Florida with ambulance and fire truck waiting due to signal interruptions.

57

UAA Masoda 2

“You don't have to be a space junkie to enjoy NASA's Kennedy Space Center, the only spot in the United States from which humans have been hurled into space.

The plethora of hands-on exhibits, IMAX movies, and sheer magnitude of the shuttles will surely impress the most passive fan.

One of the highlights is the Shuttle Launch Simulator, where budding astronauts are strapped into a cockpit and given a high-fidelity ride, which creates the impression of an actual lift-off.

Another is the Rocket Garden, which is an awe-inspiring collection of engine replicas, full-size Titan rockets, spacecraft and scale models, and the 363 ft (110 m) Apollo Saturn 1B rocket. Shuttle tours and the Astronaut Memorial round out the attractions. “ By NASA – Administrators.

58

COMPOUNDS FOUND IN VENUS

COMPOUNDS FOUND IN VENUS

Compounds Symbols

Major: Carbon Dioxide 96.5% CO2

Nitrogen 3.5% N2

Minor (ppm): Sulphur Oxide 150 SO2

Argon 70 Ar

Water 20 H2O

Carbon Oxide 17 CO

Helium 12 He

Neon 7 Ne

59

Carbon Dioxide1%

Nitrogen0%

Sulphur Dioxide54%

Argon25%

Water7%

Carbon Oxide6%

Helium4%

Neon3%

Compounds Present in VENUS

ATOMIC ELEMENTS PRESENT IN VENUS

ATOMIC ELEMENTS PRESENT IN VENUS

60

61

62

jaxson

Typewritten Text

Illustration of elements and compounds found in Venus by Brian Fotso

FACTS ABOUT VENUS

FACTS ABOUT VENUS1. The surface of Venus is extremely dry.

2. There is little or no liquid water on its surface because of intense heat, causing evaporation and disappearance of liquid.

3. Roughly 2/3 percent of the Venusian surface is covered by flat, smooth plains that are marred by thousands of volcanoes, ranging from about 0.5 to 150 miles (0.8 to 240 kilometers) wide, lava flows, causing carving long, winding canals up to more than 3,000 miles (5,000 km) in length, longer than on any other planet.

4. Atmospheric composition (by volume): 96.5 percent carbon dioxide, 3.5 percent nitrogen, with minor amounts of sulfur dioxide, argon, water, carbon monoxide, helium and neon.

5. The winds at the planet’s surface are much slower, estimated to be just a few miles per hour.

6. Venus has an atmosphere mostly of carbon dioxide gas and nitride oxide. This creates a thick atmosphere producing vapor similar to that of

63

FACTS ABOUT VENUS

greenhouse. The temperature could raise more than 864ºF cause by trapped gases combustions.

7. Venus is not as stable compare to Earth due to the frequencies of volcanoes taken place in this planet.

Volcano Explosion and Eruption creating craters

These eruptions causes molten lava produced from composites created by internal combustion to flow from high to low lands. Depending on the rapid eruptions of some of these explosions, lava may flow for up to 2 miles before completely cooling off forming mountainous like zones.

Craters are also formed from curved in explosions of volcanoes and eruptions.

64

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. Astronauts and Scientists during their voyage, test

how fast snow can be made from combination of gases and condense compounds found in Venus.

2. Test may be perform to validate if the atmospheric composition (by volume): 96.5 percent carbon dioxide, 3.5 percent nitrogen, with minor amounts of sulfur dioxide, argon, water, carbon monoxide, helium and neon will produce much water or cool air.

3. From planetary measurement, the Magnetic field: 0.000015 times that of Earth’s field. Test with magnets the strength of magnetic flux on both positive and negative ends, then opposite and determine the attractions in both cases.

4. Visit your states’ downtown library or science museum planetarium.

5. Perform several tests with magnets to see what substances or composites have magnetic effects. Magnetism is commonly present between metals, metallic alloys, iron, and lead.

65

ACTIVITIES

6. Get reddish play dough, mix with recommended amount of water to form molten texture to use in producing images like that of Venus with craters formation as depicted below.

Images of Venus 1988

Image Credit:UAA – Dr. Valerie NJEE

NASA - Space Shuttle Discovery: UAA Masoda 2

66

Chapter 4

Chapter 4EARTH

Planet EARTH is the most talked about planet because it has very many aspects of atmospheric conditions. Scientists and Engineers have device means used by meteorologists to communicate weather conditions.

Earth is the third planet from the SUN with the same size as that of Venus. The earth is a tiny planet in a vast universe, which contains billions of stars, planets and moon as well as huge areas of space containing other

67

EARTH

smaller particles. There is no definite proof of how ancient events such as the earth’s formation took place.

FORMATION OF THE EARTHThe earth is thought to have formed about 4600 million years ago and it has been constantly changing and developing ever since. It probably started as a huge, swirling cloud of dust and gases. Over time, this cloud began to shrink and become solid. Heavy iron-rich minerals collected at the growing planet, eventually creating a core of iron.

It is believed by scientists that, the oceans where formed from huge rains in the early days due to periodic explosions of volcanos causing melted ice beds from the glaciers and deformation of land surface.

During these explosion, gases such as methane, hydrogen and ammonia rose from these volcanos caused by the expansion of gases, shockwaves, heat and light producing chemical and nuclear reactions.

Icy comets and rocky asteroids are believed to have landed on earth during those periodic explosions of volcanos from different galaxies.

68

WORLD MAP AND ITS CONTINENTS


Here is the current world map indicating interval longitudes of 30° increment from the Equator moving both North and South.

The above map indicates the different continents in a smaller scale. On the next paragraphs, we’ll discuss about the formation of early life on Earth.

The Oceans and Seas around Antarctica is very cold, forming glaciers attracting the habitant of penguins, whales, polar bears and sea lions.

69


70

FORMATION OF EARLY LIFE IN OCEANS

FORMATION OF EARLY LIFE IN OCEANS

It is believe conceptually that, around 3,500 million years ago, simple life-forms generated from chemical composites, churning chemical waste, hydrogen and oxygen producing low levels of carbon dioxide and energy into the atmospheres.

These simple life-form organisms’ ranges from green-like plants such as water lilies, coral ridge life organisms and fresh water organisms which continue to produce oxygen and carbon dioxides into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere produces layers of cloud barriers preventing most of the sun’s ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth’s planet surface.

The mantle of the earth is a zone where molten silicates and other minerals are molten due to the intense heat produce from inner heat which generates convection currents of 2,900 km thick.

71

FORMATION OF SHAPES OF CONTINENTS


After the formation of the Earth, the landmasses appeared. The earth’s turbulence coupled with the circulation and explosion of the volcanoes flowing into the oceans created movements and splits of landmasses and body of water forming continents.

Depending on the size of these bodies of water, they are classified as oceans, seas and rivers and lakes.

Dates associated with the formation landmasses were 250 million years and after the splits, there was just one giant landmass called PANGAEA.

PANGAEA began splitting around 225 million years ago forming what are called today as continents.

72


The shapes of the Earth splits ranging back 250 million years ago.

73

VOLCANOES

VOLCANOESVolcanos occur when the earth’s crust, or surface, is divided into enormous pieces called PLATES. These plates are always moving very slowly. When plates move apart, in area where they have compressed heat and very high temperatures causing explosions, molten thick rocks below flow out of a volcano and it’s called LAVA. When earth’s crust and plates or scrapes layers rub against each other, EARTHQUAKES occurs.

These melted rocks called LAVA forms MAGMA when expose to air. The magma within the large solid mantle sometimes rises and collects in certain places. Volcanoes are when it rises to the Earth’s surface and burst out. At this stage magma becomes known as lava.

Super Volcanoes are formed from huge collapsed craters, called CALDERAS with a magma chamber beneath. Only a few Super Volcanoes have been recorded in existence. They are supposed to be very powerful and destructive that a single eruption could alter all life on earth. These magma chambers are built up of enormous pressure over thousands of years.

74

VOLCANOES

Scientists think that the last Super Volcano eruption was in Sumatra, 74,000 years ago.

It is believe that, that eruption blew out enough ashes to block the Sun’s light for around six months, causing the earth to cool down. This would have caused environmental changes all over the world, affecting living organisms.

Most of Coral reef species are known to have existed long before human beings on Earth. The cooling and heat effect had little or no effect on these species. Keeping the seas populated with varieties of varying colors covering the electromagnetic wave spectrum.

75

FACTS ABOUT EARTH

FACTS ABOUT EARTHWhat is Magma? Molten rock usually located deep within the mantle of the Earth that occasionally comes to the surface through cracks in the mantle or through the eruption of volcanoes. Note: When magma cools and solidifies, it forms igneous rock, of which lava is one type.

What is Lava? Lava is the molten rock expelled from volcanos during an eruption and the resulting rock after solidification and cooling. This molten rock is formed in the interior of planets, including Earth, and underground satellites.

The source of the heat that liquefies these rocks within the earths’ crust is classified as a geothermal energy.

When an eruption first occurs from a volcanic vent, lava pours out flowing is a liquid at temperatures between 700 to 1,200 °C (1,292 to 2,192 °F). Up to 100,000 times as viscous as water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic and shear thinning properties.

76

FACTS ABOUT EARTH

What causes Earthquakes? Earthquakes are caused by sudden movement of earth’s crust along fault lines, or cracks present within the earth’s crust. When earth’s

crust and plates or scrape layers rub against each other, earthquakes may occur. Also called seism, temblor

What are Plates? Plates are layers of Earth crusts formation packed in horizontal stratospheres, forming land contours of different magnitudes.

77

CLIMATE CHANGING

CLIMATE CHANGINGClimate changing are due to the increased number of industrial plants, pollution from cars, trucks, ships etc., which are some of the main factors affecting global changing climates today. Ever since the creation of the Earth, the climate changes have being influence due to seasonal weather, where the temperatures fluctuates (depending in the regions, hemispheres, latitudes and longitudes zones) from hot, warm to cold weather temperatures.

These temperatures’ changes may have major to minor impact over the years. The effect of global warming as a whole is a myth, which in some circumstances, have been proven to be true over a period of years. The expansion of industrial development may be considered as one of these factors affecting the global warming index, but how much?

There have been cases reported about the thickness of glaciers getting thinner after a period of time, but with heavy snow fall and temperatures falling below freezing points, the formation of more glaciers are naturally produced and revolution of these glaciers become balance overtime; keeping the thickness of the

78

CLIMATE CHANGING

glaciers to a stable level by conservation and less interference with these areas.

During a full moon, the eclipses are convex, and the temperature change is not as drastic. Slight appearance of the convex / concave of the eclipses can be viewed at early hours after mid-night; partially covering portions of the moon at angles less or equal to 12° angle from the bottom at a perpendicular angle.

If you are lucky, you can see and observe these images. With digital binoculars, readings may be downloaded to your computers as desire. The study of Astronomy continues to fascinate our understanding about creation of the UNIVERSE in relation to global warming.

79

MOON

MOONThe earth has a single MOON that orbits the earth at a distance of 238,855 miles.

The moon is kept in orbit by the gravitational force of the earth. Because of this gravitational force, the moon orbits the earth on the same fixed side while the further side is the far or dark side which has only been seen by space probes and astronauts.

The temperature ranges from 253 ºF. and when the sun is not shinning to -261 ºF during sunny temperature reflection on the moon.

Most scientists and astronomers belief that the moon was formed when massive objects, of sizes like that of small planets (asteroids); collided. This collision may

80

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

By Jason Fotso

MOON

have cause enormous amount of rocky debris when joined together, to form a single mass called the MOON.

The sequence appearance of the MOON to EARTH

It takes 28 days for the Moon to orbit the Earth once. The figure above shows the Moon’s appearance during this period.

Each of the numbering images in the figure above has the following names: -

No. NAME No. NAME1 New Moon 5 Full Moon2 Crescent Convex 6 Three quarter Moon3 Half Moon 7 Half Moon

4 Three quarter Moon 8 Crescent Concave

81

MOON

The Moon does not create its own light, but it reflects the Sun’s rays.

Depending on the Earth Solstices, the Moon can be very bright in the night sky.

Different area of the Moon’s Sun lite side can be seen as it orbits the Earth.

This makes the MOON appear to change shapes during this 28 days orbiting the Earth.

The different shapes are called the phases of the MOON.

82

COMPOUNDS IN EARTH’S CRUST


Compounds in Earth’s Crust within the Soil compose of minerals and other gases.

Compounds are substances which are composed of two or more elements.

Water is one of the simple compounds composing of two elements called hydrogen and oxygen.

The symbol of water is H₂O.

83


Below is a table consisting of a list of common elements and their symbols.

These elements can readily react with one another to form compounds.

All of the elements shown here are listed on Periodic table.

84


Pure water, regardless of its source, consists of 11% hydrogen and 89% Oxygen by mass.

85

GRAVITATIONAL WAVE SPECTRUM


Just like electromagnetic radiation, gravitational radiation comes in a range of frequencies.

The frequency is set by the scale of the system producing the radiation.

Different parts of the spectrum can be observed using different detectors.

The gravitational wave spectrum, sources and detectors. Credit: Harvard University

86


Quantum Physics (Astrophysics)Relativity and Cosmology

Albert Einstein predicted the relativity of gravitational waves in early 1916 on the basis of general relativity, the existence of gravitational waves is still an active topic of research.Ripples in space time that may provide clues about the origins of our universe, gravitational waves are extremely weak and difficult to detect. In general relativity, gravitation is explained through the curvature of spacetime. Massive objects bend spacetime, and the curvature of spacetime tells objects how to move.

It is the influence of curved spacetime that we call gravity.

There is an ongoing effort to detect gravitational waves using interferometers on the ground and in space, and through accurate timing of pulsars.

First detections are expected within the next few years and these observations have the potential to transform our understanding of astrophysics, cosmology and fundamental physics.

87


Members of the IoA Gravity Group are involved with all aspects of this work on gravitational wave detection, including source modeling, data analysis and exploring the scientific exploitation of the data.

LUNAR ECLIPSE

An image of a full moon captured at 11:00 PM CDT from the Eastern horizon during Lunar Halo

Lunar Halo eclipse is similar to total lunar eclipse where the whole moon passes through the Earth’s umbral shadow reflecting the circumference of the earth with three distinct layers of thickness nebulous clouds from light to medium color texture.

88

LUNAR ECLIPSE

The Different Kinds of Lunar Eclipse

A lunar eclipse can take three different forms:

• A penumbral eclipse is when the moon passes through the Earth’s penumbral shadow, but this is very difficult to see.

• A partial lunar eclipse occurs when a portion of the moon passes through the Earth’s umbral shadow. This is easy to see and can be viewed by the naked eye without any danger of damage to the eye whatsoever.

• A total lunar eclipse occurs when the whole moon disappears as it passes through the Earth’s umbral shadow. This is when the moon emits very different vibrant colors which are breathtakingly beautiful on the refraction landing of these rays.

89

SOLAR ECLIPSE

SOLAR ECLIPSEA solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun, blocking all or a portion of the Sun.

A solar eclipse is one of the most thrilling sights on Earth. It occurs when the moon moves in front of the Sun. A solar eclipse happens slowly as the Moon starts its trip across the Sun. It begins by sliding in front of the Earth, covering small portions instantly out of the Sun. As the Moon gets closer to the center of the Sun the darkness occurs more quickly.

While a small crescent of the sun stays in the sky you can observe an unusual phenomenon with a solar eclipse – thin wavy lines appear that are light and dark that can be seen on light colored surfaces.

This perfect circular look is curve from the ring light of the Sun reflecting from the back of the Moon. Depending from what position you are standing, this darkness cause by the moon eclipse can last for more than an hour and up to 4 or more hours.

90

SOLAR ECLIPSE

Observers have documented cases where total eclipse has lasted for up to 7 hours by areas close to the pacific oceans.

Total Solar Eclipse blocking the Sun from Earth

During these periods, it can get very dark that, it’s advisable to turn on your head lights while driving to avoid any negation from visibility.

Streets and inner cities highways’ lights powered by infra-red detectors immediately become on due to

91

SOLAR ECLIPSE

sensitivity of darkness just like what happens during night time.

Baily's beads: Seen about 10-15 seconds before and after totality, Baily's beads are little bead-like blobs of light at the edge of the Moon. These happen because the gaps in the mountains and valleys on the Moon's surface allow sunlight to pass through in some places but not others.

Diamond ring: As the Moon moves to cover the entire disc of the Sun, Baily's beads disappear, leaving one last bead a few seconds before totality.

92

SOLAR ECLIPSE

At this point in the eclipse, the Sun's corona forms a ring around the Moon. The ring around the Moon and the leftover Baily's bead gives the appearance of a diamond ring.

The Sun's chromosphere: The Sun's atmosphere has 3 layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere and the corona. The chromosphere, which gives out a reddish glow can only be seen for a few seconds right after the diamond ring disappears during a total eclipse of the Sun.

The Sun's corona: Like the chromosphere, the Sun's corona is only visible during a Total Solar Eclipse. It can be seen as a faint ring of rays surrounding the dark Moon during totality.

Shadow bands: About one minute before and after totality, moving wavy lines of alternating light and dark can be seen on plain-colored surfaces. These shadow bands are the result of the light emitted from a thin solar crescent being refracted by the Earth's atmosphere.

93

SOLAR ECLIPSE

Total Solar EclipseThe moon occasionally passes between the Earth and the Sun, blocking its light. This is called a total solar eclipse. The Moon can cover the Sun when viewing it from the earth due to a shorter distance compare to that from the moon to the sun. If you close one eye and hold up a coin between your face and a ceiling light, you can see how this works.

During a total solar eclipse, a thin layer of gases around the Sun, called the corona can be seen.

So often, some may consider the SUN a planet but it’s not since it is a massive ball consisting of gas. This object illuminates the EARTH with light depending on the Solaris and eclipses of the MOON.

Apogee and Perigee of the MoonApogee and perigee refer to the distance from the Earth to the moon. Apogee is the farthest point from the earth. Perigee is the closest point to the earth and it is in this stage that the moon appears larger.

94

SOLAR ECLIPSE

Looking at the moon in the sky without anything to compare it to, you wouldn’t notice any size difference. But the difference in size can in fact be quite significant.

If you were to photograph a full moon at apogee and perigee (using the same lens), here’s how the two sizes would appear – compare the sizes:

Apogee is the furthest distance of Earth to the Moon and Perigee closest distance from Earth to the Moon.

Astronomers have formulas for computing the exact distance at any point in time, but the average distance from Earth is 237,700 miles (382,500 km).

95

SOLAR ECLIPSE

Effects of Apogee and PerigeeThe apogee and perigee of the moon have an effect on the tides here on Earth. When the moon is at apogee, the furthest distance from the Earth, it has less gravitational pull which, along with other factors that influence the tides, can contribute to lower tides or lower variation in the high/low tide level.

When the moon is at perigee, closer to the Earth, there is much more gravitational pull which contributes to the opposite effect: higher tides or greater variation in the high and low tide.

Opposite Effect: Causes the gravitational pull in the moon to be much less than that of Earth which is 1.6 m/s2 compare to 9.8 m/s2 on the Moon. During this period, we experience higher tides lasting for 13 to 15 hours for a week or 3 weeks before the normal tides are restored.

With high tides, debris are rushed from different seas to another causing major clean up endeavors to take place.

96

RAINBOW COLORS and EFFECTS


Rainbow occurs at the beginning or after a rain storm, when the stratosphere layer is covered with nimbus clouds, before or after a severe storm is roaring in. These colors are profound and create distinct differences amongst themselves.

Here is an image of a rainbow that occurred after a thunder storm and drizzling rain falling, lasting for 30 minutes. These rainfalls are frequent during winter and spring on the southern hemisphere.

They are usually caused by conventional rainfalls due to collision and cohesion impact of compressed (humidified) air from the stratosphere layer to expanded air present in the troposphere lower layer filled with mild temperature, producing raindrops causing rainbows to form.

97


The brightness of sunlight is produce by a mixture of less refracting colors due to the atmospheric layer where it’s formed. During the raising and settling of the sunlight, the transmitted angles of these colors diminish, causing a less bright sunlight.

98

ENERGY WAVE SPECTRUM

ENERGY WAVE SPECTRUMVisible Light Spectrum: When light passes through a glass prism, it deviates and refract into a continuous flow of light producing a spectrum of colors.

Light leaving the prism spreads out into a continuous band of colors called a spectrum. Colors go from red, which is refracted the least, through orange, yellow, green, and blue all the way to violet, which is refracted the most.

You can create an artificial rainbow by using a garden hose. Simply stand backing the sun and adjust the hose to fine sprays. Position the spray head to a slant of 45°. Rainbows can now be seen at the landings of waterdrops on an open lawn.

99


During foggy periods by waterfalls, rainbows can now be seen within or infront of fine sprays of waterfalls.

A single, or primary, rainbow has red on the outside or top of the bow and violet color in the inside of the rainbow.

Usually the radius of the arc is equal to about one-fourth of the visible sky, or 42 degrees, to the red. When there are showers nearby, simply look in the part of the sky opposite the sun at a 42-degree angle from your shadow; if there is a rainbow that is where it should be.

Here is a chart illustrating an Energy Wave producing rainbow colors spectrum

Using Snell’s Law, the refractive indexes of light rays can be calculated from air through water or glass. Here is an

100


example using the given refraction index of the related media.

We earlier saw a figure of light passing through a glass prism and the rainbow color produce.

These rainbow colors are visible depending on the angle of projection or can be projected on a piece of paper.

101


102


Snell’s Law of Refraction

103

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. With a set (pair) of binoculars, watch the full

circle of the Moon from creation as a crescent moon to a full moon. Draw images and take note of the night of appearance.

2. Perform an experiment to demonstrate the distance of the Earth from the Moon – the Apogee and perigee.

3. In a chart write down the distance of each planets from the SUN, diameter at equator, in miles and the time it takes for each planet to orbit the SUN.

4. What causes rainbows? Can you make or demonstrate a rainbow?

5. Combine Red and Yellow liquid water colors to see what color you produce.

104

ACTIVITIES

6. Combine Yellow and Blue liquid water colors to see what color you produce.

7. Combine Red and Blue liquid water colors to see what color you produce.

8. Use water colors to paint images plants and flowers.

105

ACTIVITIES

Here are some examples of rainbow formation and colors: Credit: KGOO Corporation based in New York, NY.

Illustrated Kangaroo Comic characters with RAINBOW color umbrellas.

Primary colors are – Red, Yellow and Blue and Secondary colors are - Orange, Green and Purple.

106

SPACETIME

SPACETIMESpacetime curvature is also express with respect to a covariant derivative, , in the form of the Einstein

tensor, . This curvature is related to the stress–

energy tensor, , by the key equation

where is Newton’s gravitational constant, and C is

the speed of light. Assumming geometrical units, where C is a measure of Planck’s constant

which is approximately 1.08 x 109 km/hr (where 10+9 is equivalent to 10 to the power of 9).

Credit: Extract from Wikipedia the free Encyclopedia

107

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

jaxson

Typewritten Text

Chapter 5

Chapter 5MARS

Mars is the fourth planet from the SUN. It is half the size of the Earth and orbits the sun at a distance of about 142 million miles, and it takes 687 days to do so.

Mars is referred to as the Red Planet because of the reddish dust covering over its surface. The weather in Mars is presumed to be cold with an Average temperature: ~210 K (-63 °C).

The minimum distance from earth is 55.7 X 106 Km with a maximum distance of 401.3 X 106 Km. Mars is the last of the inner planets from the SUN. During cold temperatures, ice gets formed in craters and over the red covering of Mars.

The composite of Mars’ soil is mixed with residues of compounds made of cooper and iron. Sand sediments are also present with a mixture of clay formation creating thick plates of slates / flagstones. Land quarries formations are found in mountainous areas in this planet.

The reflection of Mars from nearby probes depict the its reddish color from a distance, given it a glow from the

108

MARS

reflection of Sun shine. With the combination of compounds and composite found in this planet, there are substantial evidence that humans can live comfortable in Mars.

In the 60’s and 70’s, the Mariner and Vikings space probes sent back detailed pictures of the surface of Mars. The most recent successful Mars missions called Mars Pathfinder and Mars Global Surveyor were launched in 1996.

109

MARS

The Surveyor craft was use for sending images and information from Mars. The vehicle carried by the Pathfinder is named Sojourner.

This vehicle roamed over Mars planet’s surface taken photographs and performing certain programmed studies which were transmitted into earth.

Mars has two moons called Phobos and Deimos, which are made up of dense dusty formation reflecting the coloration of Mars.

110

MARS

Many astronomers think that these odd-shaped moons are really asteroids that became trapped in orbit around Mars millions of years ago.

Deimos the smaller Mar’s moon is 9 miles across its width and Phobos is 17 miles across its width. It has a large crater named snicker on its surface which is about 3 miles across.

Another hypothesis is that Mars was once surrounded by many Phobos- and Deimos-sized bodies, perhaps ejected into orbit around it by a collision with a large planetoid.

The high porosity of the interior of Phobos (based on the density of 1.88 g/cm3, voids are estimated to comprise of 25 to 35 percent of Phobos’ volume) is

111

MARS

inconsistent with an asteroidal origin. Observations of Phobos in the thermal infrared suggest a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates, which are well known from the surface of Mars.

The spectra are distinct from those of all classes of chondrite meteorites, again pointing away from an asteroidal origin.

The motions of Phobos and Deimos would appear very different from that of our own Moon.

Speedy Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just eleven hours, while Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit, rises as expected in the east but very slowly.

Despite its 30 hour orbit, it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars, and has long again to rise.

So far, it’s not apparent by any means that there were ever any lives living in these two moons of Mars Phobos and Deimos.

Presumably, during high winds it is unsafe for astronauts to embark on sure exploratory voyage in order to avoid collision from swift passing meteoroids

112

MARS

and asteroids escapes from different orbitals of mostly the outer planets.

Some of the craters found on Mars are presumed to have been created by bouncing collisions from asteroids and circular and swirling debris which are capable of immersing through certain depth of the surface of Mars.

113

FACTS ABOUT MARS

FACTS ABOUT MARS1. Mars is covered with reddish dust and referred to

as the Red Planet.

2. The weather in Mars is presumed to be cold with an Average temperature: ~210 K (-63 °C).

3. The minimum distance from earth is 55.7 X 106 Km with a maximum distance of 401.3 X 106 Km.

4. Mars has two moons called Phobos and Deimos, which are made up of dense dusty and solid composites formation reflecting the coloration of Mars.

5. The Surface gravity is 3.71 m/s2 compared to Earth’s which is 9.80 m/s2.

6. The Escape velocity is 5.03 km/s compared to Earth’s which is, 11.19 km/s.

7. Craters are present in Mars due to movements and collisions of asteroids and meteoroids from different nearby planets.

8. Temperature wise, scientists will continue to investigate if vegetation can be cultivate in Mars.

114

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. Using your imagination, on reduce scales; create

three circular objects in the form of Mars, Photos and Diemos to represent their size, color and looks.

2. Talk about the size and distance of these Photos and Diemos from the Sun and Earth.

3. Discuss the stability of an object or craft landing in Mars base on weight.

4. With clarity during longer days, is it possible to have a gleams of the planet Mars from Earth?

115

ACTIVITIES

The Atmosphere Zones / layers

Atmosphere layers and Space vehicles zones

This image above shows a 3D figure of Mars orbiting the SUN at a distance further than that of Earth.

116

Chapter 6

Chapter 6JUPITER

JUPITER is the fifth planet from the SUN and found to be the largest of all. Its diameter is 88,695 miles (142,800 Km), more than eleven times the diameter of the Earth. Jupiter is more than 1300 times the size of the earth.

Jupiter is one of the outer planets, which is the fifth furthest from the SUN. It is a huge ball made almost entirely of gas. Scientists based their idea of Jupiter structure on information from space probes.

117

JUPITER

The outer planets are made up of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Pluto which all found on the outer regions of the solar system. Except of tiny, rocky Pluto, all of them are huge balls made up of entirely gases and are sometimes called The Gas Giants.

The atmosphere’s top layer is broken into vast clouds by high winds. The layer is almost made of compressed hydrogen that behaves like solid. It is 483 million miles away from SUN.

Jupiter consist of The Galilean Moons which are numerous in number but so far, 17 have been identified and known to the public, with more research been done to identify the relationship to astrophysics.

The orbiting distance of Jupiter to Earth is far more, greater than that of the inner planets which are closer to Earth in relation to the SUN. The gravitational acceleration on Jupiter is 24.79 m/s² (meter per second square) compared to that of earth which is a constant of 9.80 m/s².

Due to a much higher gravitational acceleration in Jupiter, stabilization effect is more experience in Jupiter as to that of Earth. Objects tend to be more stable in

118

JUPITER

Jupiter with high wind effects. The visual geometric albedo of Jupiter is 0.52, providing a much clearer visibility.

The inner planets receive direct sunlight and condense reflection from the Sun due to the closeness to the sun. The radiation index is very low in Mercury which is the closest planet to the Sun causing the albedo to be at a minimal. With a higher albedo, the visibility is much clearer providing better visual conditions.

Exceptions may occur due to high winds causing debris, remnants and polluted gases reducing visibility. Also the temperature may also reduce due to frozen conditions producing iced layers and the presences of frozen gases Pollution can only be control by avoiding large amount of debris, maximizing on recycling and implementing adequate majors on numerous possibilities of elimination of high volume of trash. Introducing fresh grown nutritious products within concise packaging if needed.

Humans as well as objects tends to be more stable in environments such as Jupiter and most of the outer planets where the acceleration is more than doubled than that of Earth. The concerns astronomers may have observed, should be related mostly to the atmospheric

119

JUPITER

pressures readings in some areas mostly with the outer planets.

Their ozone layers are much greater due to high level of residues, debris, remnants trash and emission gases of produce due to these high levels of debris. The temperature is very cold which is made up of ammonia ice, water ice and ammonia hydrosulfide caused by the gases present in the atmosphere.

Severe continuous Rainfall throughout the years, has contributed in feeling up craters, ocean and seas. Keeping living organisms fresh and health.

OCEANS AND SEAS

The largest Ocean is the Pacific Ocean and it’s also the deepest of all.

NAME AREA (Square miles)Pacific Ocean 64,185,714Atlantic Ocean 32,744,015Indian Ocean 28,416,988Southern Ocean 13,523,514Mediterranean Sea 967,000South China Sea 895,000Caribbean Sea 750,000Bering Sea 876,000Gulf of Mexico 596,000

120

GALILEAN MOONS

GALILEAN MOONSAstronomers discovered 17 moons around JUPITER. The four larger ones are called the Galilean Moons after the Italian Scientist Galileo, who discovered them in 1610. These four Galilean moons, even without their resonance, are amongst the most fascinating celestial bodies.

The others which are smaller moons may just be asteroids, captured by the planet’s gravity. The Galileo spacecraft was launched to investigate these moons, particularly Europa, in an effort to lay to rest some of these long standing questions.

Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. It is even bigger than the planet Mercury.

Lo is covered with volcanoes that pour sulfur onto its surface.

Callistro is a ball of dusty ice. Its surface is scarred with hundreds of craters.

Europa may have a deep ocean beneath its fractured, icy crust. Some scientists believe that this ocean may contain living organisms.

121

GALILEAN MOONS

There are great deals of tidal resonance amongst the moons. These resonances are caused by magnetism effects between Jupiter and the Galilean moons. The magnetic attraction helps to keep these moons in place while orbiting Jupiter.

List of Galilean Moons of Jupiter

122

FACTS ABOUT JUPITER

FACTS ABOUT JUPITER1. The orbiting distance of Jupiter to Earth is far

more, greater than that of the inner planets which are closer to Earth in relation to the SUN.

2. The gravitational acceleration on Jupiter is 24.79 m/s² (meter per second square) compared to that of earth which is a constant of 9.80 m/s².

3. Due to a much higher gravitational acceleration in Jupiter, stabilization effect is more experience in Jupiter as to that of Earth. Objects tend to be more stable in Jupiter with high wind effects.

4. The visual geometric albedo of Jupiter is 0.52, providing a much clearer visibility.

5. JUPITER is the fifth planet from the SUN and found to be the largest of all.

6. Its diameter is 88,695 miles (142,800 Km), more than eleven times the diameter of the Earth.

7. Jupiter is more than 1300 times the size of the earth.

123

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. Design structures of Jupiter and six of its moons,

illustrating their positions from Jupiter.

2. Name some of the compounds found in Jupiter.

3. If liquid is present in some areas of Jupiter, what would be their colors base on the compounds present in those area.

4. Document the compounds and images of these colors, preferable in Pyrex bakers.

5. Decide to wear uniformed similar colors per day of different solid compounds found in Jupiter during a week’s duration.

124

ACTIVITIES

Chapter 7SATURN

Saturn is the sixth planet from the SUN and second largest planet in the Solar System. Its circumference is 74,898 miles around its equator which is nine times wider than the Earth.

Saturn orbits the Sun once every 29.5 Earth’s years, at a distance of about 888 million miles.

The planet is made up of mostly hydrogen and helium, which are very light gases. This makes Saturn very light

125

SATURN

in weight. Astronomers believe that Saturn may be similar to Jupiter on the inside, because it also generates its own fierce heat.

SATURN RINGSSaturn’s rings are made of dust and rocks. It is also called the Ringed Planet because of its surrounded rings.

These rings were identified in the Seventeenth century by Galileo. Space probes such as Pioneer 11 in 1979 and the voyagers have since sent lots of information about the rings. Scientists now know that there are other planets with rings.

Saturn’s rings are just less than one mile in thickness (diameter) and are made up of dust, rocks and icy boulders. These rings that can be seen from the earth are actually made up of thousands of smaller ringlets.

126

SATURN RINGS

The outer ring particles are kept in place by the gravity of two small moons, known as the shepherd Moons.

Saturn has 18 moons of which have been thought by scientists that both Saturn’s and Jupiter’s moons lies on similar positions in the Solar System where evidence of simple life are mostly to be found.

Shooting Stars seen in the galaxies

127

SATURN RINGS

Cassini - Saturn orbiter and Titan atmosphere probe. Cassini is a joint NASA/ESA project designed to

accomplish an exploration of the Saturnian system with its Cassini Saturn Orbiter and Huygens Titan

ESA Science & Technology: Cassini-Huygens

Saturn is the second largest planet in the Universe with an average distance from the Sun of 888 million miles. It takes Saturn 29.5 years, to orbit the Sun and the time for Saturn to rotate its axis is approximately 10.2 hours.

Saturn is believed to have at least 24 satellites which occasionally cause asteroids and meteoroids to displace from their orbital rings.

This displacement of large objects and debris causes thick dark clouds which may later fall as rains or hails.

With hot temperatures, the water from the rains and hails tend to dissipate and evaporate leaving the planet dry again.

128

FACTS ABOUT SATURN

FACTS ABOUT SATURN1. Saturn is the sixth planet from the SUN and

second largest planet in the Solar System.

2. Saturn’s circumference is 74,898 miles around its equator which is nine times wider than the Earth.

3. Saturn is made up of mostly hydrogen and helium, which are very light gases. This makes Saturn very light in weight

4. Astronomers believe that Saturn may be similar to Jupiter on the inside, because it also generates its own fierce heat.

5. These rings were identified in the Seventeenth century by Galileo. Space probes such as Pioneer 11 in 1979 and the voyagers have since sent lots of information about the rings.

6. Scientists now know that there are other planets with rings such as Uranus, Neptune and Pluto which are all of the outer planets.

129

FACTS ABOUT SATURN

ACTIVITIESImage playing with colorful rings by swirling them around your body, counting the number of circles you can make and get go at it.

Saturn’s rings are ripples of light weighted debris orbiting around SATURN at a uniform distance from the center of SATURN.

1. Blow out bubbles using rings of different sizes.

2. Play with colorful rings swirling each at a time around your body.

3. Propagate objects or small pebbles found by the beach on the top of the sea to great ripples from its center.

4. Spin a topper and observe how it spins before coming to a stop.

5. It is always nice to capture images and write about your experience.

130

Chapter 8

Chapter 8URANUS

URANUS is the 7th planet from the SUN. Uranus is 1,783 million miles average distance from the SUN. It was discovered in the late 18th century and it orbits the sun in a circular motion.

It takes Uranus 84 years to orbit the Sun and 17.9 hours to rotate on its axis. Uranus was discovered by a British Astronomer William Herschel in 1781.

Uranus is presume to have 21 moons, for many years it was thought to have had 15 moons and they may be many more to be discovered. The five largest moons of Uranus are Ariel, Umbriel of which are both dark and cratered, while Titania consists of deep dark long valleys, Oberon is heavily cratered and Miranda is a

131

URANUS

small ball of ice, about 293 miles in diameter which was presumed to have been traverse by a comet in the early 17th centuries.

It is believed that William Herschel made several appearances to William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope naming some of Uranus’ moons after characters.Uranus consists of metalloids and metallic surfaces which may have been created from combination of freezing liquids and solids many many years ago.

In 1986, it was discovered that Uranus consists of ring layers mostly made of dark dust which was probed by voyager 2.

Uranus was officially discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1781It is too dim to have been seen by the ancients. At first Herschel thought it was a comet, but several years later it was confirmed as a planet. Herschel tried to have his discovery named “Georgian Sidus” after King George III. The name Uranus was suggested by astronomer Johann Bode. The name comes from the ancient Greek deity Ouranos.

132

URANUS

Uranus is often referred to as an “ice giant” planet just like the other gas giants; it has a hydrogen upper layer, which has helium mixed in. Below that is an icy “mantle, which surrounds a rock and ice core. The upper atmosphere is made of water, ammonia and the methane ice crystals that give the planet its pale blue color.

Uranus is one of the Coldest Planet with minimum atmospheric temperature of –ve 197°C Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system. The upper atmosphere of Uranus is covered by a methane haze. This hides the storms that take place in the cloud decks.

Uranus has two sets of thin rings of which are dark color made of small particles, ranging from dust-size

133

URANUS

particles to small boulders. There are 9 inner rings and 2 outer rings. They probably formed when one or more of Uranus’s moons were broken due to comet colliding one another. The first set of rings was discovered in 1977 and the second set was discovered in 2003 by the Hubble Space Telescope.

It is denoted that only one spacecraft has flown by Uranus. In 1986, the Voyager 2 spacecraft swept past the planet at a distance of 81,500 km. It returned the first close-up images of the planet, its moons, and rings.

134

FACTS ABOUT URANUS

FACTS ABOUT URANUS1. URANUS is the 7th planet from the SUN.

2. Uranus is 1,783 million miles average distance from the SUN.

3. It was discovered in the late 18th century and it orbits the sun in a circular motion.

4. Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system.

5. The outer surface of Uranus is blue in color which is preeminently formed from Methane ice crystals, water and ammonia.

6. Uranus gravity is 8.87 m/s2 which is, close to that of Earth 9.80 m/s2. This means that humans could comfortable live in Uranus except of the cold temperatures.

135

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIESGet to discover and experience some of the facts about URANUS. People living in freezing temperature zones could easily identify with these temperatures during winter and observation of sky during the night to get a clear gleam of the moons and stars.

1. Dress warmly during extreme cold temperature and observe the sky to discover if you may see any planets or moons from a distance.

2. Capture images of moons or stars found in the sky. Base on the locations and research of these solstice’s objects, you may conclude with agreement what was actually captured by you all if performed as a team.

3. What are the names of the five larger Uranus moons?

4. Draw Uranus’ two sets of rings which are 9 inner and two outer rings.

136

Chapter 9

Chapter 9NEPTUNE

Neptune is the eighth planet and was discovered by astronomers John Couch Adams and Urbain Jean LeVerrier.

It is slightly smaller than Uranus, and spin once every 19.2 hours. Neptune is about 2,799 million miles from the Sun.

137

NEPTUNE

It takes about 165 Earth years to complete a single orbit. Neptune can be seen with the naked eyes and better yet, through a telescope. It appears in the form of a blueish circle. This image was taken by Voyager 2 in 1989.

Neptune’s Atmosphere is made up of Methane gas on its surface which helps to give it its blueish appearance. It also contains ammonia and helium. Beneath its dense blanket of gases, the planet is thought to have an outer layer of liquid hydrogen.

Voyager 2 observed long, swirling clouds swirling around Neptune blown by winds of up to 1,243 miles per hour. It also saw dark spots with the largest named the Great Dark Spot which looks like the size of the earth. Voyager 2 scientists named the little cloud below it the Scooter because it raced around the planet every 16 hours.

Neptune has eight moons with the largest of them named Triton and Nereid. Triton is bigger than the planet Pluto.

Most moons orbit their planets the same direction as the planet spins. Triton, however travels in the opposite

138

NEPTUNE

direction as shown below. Triton’s surface is bright and smooth.

It has some dark streaks over it and pink ice around its south pole. Triton has a thin atmosphere of Nitrogen and Methane as similar to Saturn. Visibility is poor due to thick layers of ozone present in its’ atmosphere.

Scientists and astronomers initiated a joint venture to come up with solutions how best elimination of these ozone layers should be eradicated without little or no harm to crew members. Dedicated scientists who may have experience working with greenhouse formation and lifecycle of organisms and botany are encourage to send an email or on a sheet of paper – procedures on how to easily eliminate ozone from the atmosphere. 2 to 3 options preferably.

Our goal is to best resolve situations like this and keep it precaution steps as a measure and reference for future use or referral.

Email: [email protected] cc [email protected]

Or MailTo :Unified Aerospace and Astrophysics(UAA) 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway Mountain View, CA 94043

139

mailto:[email protected]

NEPTUNE

Despite its great distance from the sun and lower energy input, Neptune's winds are three times stronger than Jupiter's and nine times stronger than Earth's.

In 1989, Voyager 2 tracked a large, oval, dark storm in Neptune's southern hemisphere. This hurricane-like Great Dark Spot was observed to be large enough to contain the entire Earth.

140

NEPTUNE

It spun counterclockwise and moved westward at almost 750 miles (1,200 kilometers) per hour. (Subsequent images from the Hubble Space Telescope showed no sign of the Great Dark Spot photographed by Voyager. A comparable spot appeared in 1994 in Neptune's northern hemisphere but had disappeared by 1997).

Voyager 2 also photographed clouds casting shadows on a lower cloud deck, enabling scientists to visually measure the altitude differences between the upper and lower cloud decks.

The planet has six rings of varying thicknesses, confirmed by Voyager 2's observations in 1989. Neptune's rings are believed to be relatively young and relatively short-lived.

Neptunian Magnetosphere

Dipole field strength: 0.142 gauss-Rn3

Dipole tilt to rotational axis: 46.9 degreesLongitude of tilt: 288 degrees (IAU convention)Dipole offset (planet center to dipole center) distance: 055 RnNASA: Credit-Goddard Space Flight Center OTD (08) Model Note: Rn denotes Neptunian radii, here defined to be 24,765 km

141

FACTS ABOUT NUPTUNE

FACTS ABOUT NUPTUNE

1. It is slightly smaller than Uranus, and spin once every 19.2 hours.

2. Neptune is about 2,799 million miles from the Sun. It takes about 165 Earth years to complete a single orbit.

3. Neptune can be seen with the naked eyes and better yet, through a telescope. This image was taken by Voyager 2 in 1989.

4. Neptune’s Atmosphere is made up of Methane gas on its surface which helps to give it its blueish appearance.

5. Beneath its dense blanket of gases, the planet is thought to have an outer layer of liquid hydrogen.

142

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES1. How many moons are in planet Neptune?

2. What are the names of the largest moons in Neptune?

3. Which moon is the biggest amongst all of them in Neptune?

4. What is the distance of Neptune from the SUN?

5. What is the gravitational force in Neptune? Using this given formula F=mg where mass (m) = 102.42X1024Kg and gravity(g) = 11.15 m/s2

143

Chapter 10

Chapter 10PLUTO

Pluto is the smallest and furthest planet from the SUN. It is the ninth planet. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by an American astronomer called Clyde Tombaugh. Pluto is the coldest planet of the solar system with temperature ranging from -120ºF to -300ºF. It has a diameter of 1420 miles and takes 248 years for it to orbit the SUN.

The Kuiper Belt is a vast debris field which contains myriad primitive icy bodies left over from the solar system’s formation 4.6 billion years ago. A Kuiper belt Object (KBO) has never been seen up close because the belt is so far from the Sun, stretching out to a distance of 5 billion miles from the sun into a never-before-visited frontier of the solar system.

144

PLUTO

The discovery involves targeting a small area of the galaxy in search of Kuiper Belt objects (KBO) for the outbound spacecraft to visit. After passing the dwarf planet Pluto in July 1989, NASA’s space probe used for determining and calculating the medium (approximately an average) distance of both Perihelion and Aphelion is called Horizon Space probe which is named after The Horizon Mission (THM) will hurtle deep into the Kuiper Belt at nearly 35,000 miles per hour.“I am pleased that our science peer-review process arrived at a consensus as to how to effectively use Orbiting satellite telescope’s unique capabilities to support the scientific goals of the Horizon mission,” said Dr. Valerie Njee, Founder of Unified Aerospace and Astrophysics (UAA) in Goose Bay, Oregon.

The full execution of the KBO hypothesis is in contingent with UAA results from an astronomer’s

145

PLUTO

orbital observation using the space telescope calibrations provided by Njee’s directions.

Definition of Astronomical Unit (AU): Is a unit of length based on the mean distance of the earth from the sun 149.6 million Km (93 million mi.); light travel this distance in 8.3 minutes.

The Space Probe calculated the Astronomical Unit (AU) of Pluto to be 3.65 AU in U.S. standard units or 5.87 AU in International Standard Units where AU is +10E9. This calculation was performed by adding and dividing the Perihelion and Aphelion distances from the SUN by 2 to get the medium value which are ((4,436.82 * +10E6) + (7,375.93 * +10E6))/2 Km or ((2,755.8 +10E6) + (4,538.7 * +10E6))/2 Miles.

SATELLITE SPACE TELESCOPE

The space telescope will scan an area of the sky in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius to try and identify any objects orbiting within the Kuiper Belt. To identify the difference in appearance between a foreground KBO and the clutter of background stars in Sagittarius, the telescope will turn at the predicted rate

146


that KBOs are moving against the background stars. In the resulting images, the stars will be streaked, but any KBOs should appear as pinpoint objects.

If the test observation identifies at least two KBOs of a specified brightness, it will demonstrate statistically that the telescope has a chance of finding an appropriate KBO for the Horizon Mission to visit. At that point, an additional allotment of observing time will continue the search across a field of view roughly the angular size of the full Moon.

Astronomers around the world can apply for observing time on the Space Telescope. Competition for time on the telescope is extremely intense and the requested observing time significantly exceeds the observing time available in a given year. Proposals must address significant astronomical questions that can only be addressed with telescope’s unique capabilities and are beyond the capabilities of ground-based telescopes. The proposals are peer reviewed annually by an expert committee, which looks for the best possible science that can be conducted by Space telescope and recommendation from UAA directors qualifying balanced program of small, medium, and large investigations.

147


Though Space Telescope is powerful enough to see galaxies near the horizon of the universe, finding of KBO is as challenging as locating a needle-in-haystack search. A typical KBO along the Horizon’ trajectory may be no larger than Manhattan Island and is bluish grey in color. During clear sky, Sun set is very visible and you can see the entire sun disappearing from a distance.

Even before the launch of the Horizon Mission space probe in 1989, UAA had provided consistent support to aid in the discovery and findings of the edge-of-the-solar system mission.

The Satellite Space Telescope (SST) was used to discover four small moons orbiting Pluto and its binary companion object Charon, providing new targets to enhance the mission’s scientific return. And it has provided the most sensitive search yet for potentially hazardous dust rings around Pluto. SST also has made a detailed map of the dwarf planet’s surface, which astronomers are using to plan Horizon’s missions close-up reconnaissance photos.

In addition to Pluto exploration, recent SST solar system observations have discovered a new satellite

148


around Neptune, probed the magnetospheres of the gas-giant planets, found circumstantial evidence for oceans on Europa, and uncovered several bizarre cases of asteroids disintegrating before our eyes. SST has supported numerous NASA Mars missions by monitoring the Red Planet’s seasonal atmospheric changes. SST made complementary observations in support of the Dawn asteroids mission, and comet saucers. Nearly 9 years ago, in July 1989, using SST, Dr. Valerie Njee and team observe and documented never-before-seen string of comet collisions with Jupiter that resulted from the tidal breakup of comet meteoroids.

“The discovery for a suitable target of the kuiper belt further demonstrates how SST is effectively is being used to support humankind’s initial, connaissance or surveillance which is a mission to obtain information by visual observatory or other detection methods, about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or about the meteorological, hydrographic, or geological characteristics of a particular area of the solar system,” said Dr. Njee. All of the B2 Stealth Boomers are manufactured with these capabilities.

149


“Likewise, it is also a preview of how powerful capabilities of the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope will further bolster planetary science. We are excited by both continuous imageries and observatories for ongoing solar system exploration and discovery.”

ATMOSPHERIC CHART

150

FACTS ABOUT PLUTO

FACTS ABOUT PLUTO1. Pluto is the smallest and furthest planet from

the SUN.

2. Pluto is the ninth planet.

3. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by an American astronomer called Clyde Tombaugh.

4. Pluto is the coldest planet of the solar system with temperature ranging from -120ºF to -300ºF.

5. Pluto has a diameter of 1420 miles and takes 248 years for it to orbit the SUN.

6. SST made complementary observations in support of the Dawn asteroids mission, and comet saucers. Nearly 9 years ago, in July 1989, using SST, Dr. Valerie Njee and team observe and documented never-before-seen string of comet collisions with Jupiter that resulted from the tidal breakup of comet meteoroids.

151

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIESAgain, I will advise users of this book to split up in groups to observe the different moons. Depending on the period of the year(s) you could be lucky to spot some of these planets at night or very early in the morning.

1. Calculate the distance of Pluto from the Sun.

2. Calculate the distance of Pluto from the Moon.

3. Capture images to share with one another and talk about these Planets and Moons.

152

APPENDIX

APPENDIXPlanetary Facts and Figures

Below is a chart listing the size, the diameter and the time it takes for each to orbit the SUN. These planets are made of rocks, metals and gases. All the planets belong to the Solar System, but there exists great differences among themselves. Most of the planets were named by astronomers after Greek and the Roman gods. They choose a god to fit each planet’s appearance.

153

APPENDIX

THE CONTINENTS

NAME AREA(square miles)Asia 16,833.000Africa 11,709,000North America 9,785,000South America 6,798,000Antarctica 5,149,240Europe 4,052,000Australia 3444278

OCEANS AND SEAS

The largest Ocean is the Pacific Ocean and it’s also the deepest of all.

NAME AREA (Square miles)Pacific Ocean 64,185,714Atlantic Ocean 32,744,015Indian Ocean 28,416,988Southern Ocean 13,523,514Mediterranean Sea 967,000South China Sea 895,000Caribbean Sea 750,000Bering Sea 876,000Gulf of Mexico 596,000

154

APPENDIX

LARGEST ISLANDS

NAME AREA (Square miles)Greenland (Kafaallit Nunaat) 840,000New Guinea 305,000Borneo 290,000Madagascar 226,400Baffin Island, Canada 195,928Sumatra, Indonesia 164,000Honshu, Japan 88,000Great Britain 84,400Victoria Island, Canada 83,896Ellesmere Island, Canada 75,767

GREATEST LAKES

The deepest lake, of 5,371,ft, is lake Baykal in Russia. It also contains the freshest water.

NAME LOCATION AREA (Square milesCaspian Sea Europe/Asia 143,243Lake Superior USA/Canada 31,820Lake Victoria Tanzania/Uganda 26,724Lake Huron USA/Canada 23,010Lake Michigan USA 22,400Aral Sea Kazakhstan/Uzbekistan 15,830Lake Baykal Russia 12,162Great Bear Lake Canada 12,096Lake Nyasa (Malawi) Mozambique/Tanzania 11,555

155

APPENDIX

LONGEST RIVERS

NAME LOCATION LENGTH(Miles)Nile (Bahr-el-Nil) North-East Africa 4,145Amazon South America 4,000Chang Jiang China 3,900Mississippi-Missouri USA 3,741Ob’-irtysh Asia 3,362Yenisei-Angara Russia 3,100Huang Ho (Yellow Lake) China 3,000Amur-Shika-Onon East Asia 2,744Lena Russia 2,734Congo (Zaire; Lualaba) Central Africa 2,720

HIGHEST MOUNTAINS

Some lists include Lhotse in fourth position at 27,920 ft, but we have regarded it as a peak of Everest rather than a separate mountain.

NAME LOCATION HEIGHT(Feet)Everest Nepal/Tibet border 29,035K2 (Chogori) Pakistan/China border 28,250Kanchenjunga Nepal/Sikkim border 28,208Makalu Nepal/Tibet border 27,789Cho Oyu Nepal/Tibet border 26,906Dhaulagiri Nepal 26,810Manaslu Nepal 26,781Nanga Parbat Pakistan 26,660Annapurna Nepal 26,504Gasherbrum Pakistan/China border 26,470

156

Bibliography

Bibliography

1. Advanced Studies in Astronomy by Dr. Gleason2. Advanced studies and research on flat and mountainous effect found in Venus –Planetary Explorations and Images Display at NASA Headquarter Washington D.C3. Fotso, Valerie M.N. [1998] Storyberry Series – Astronomy Press Books [1998].4. Lunar and Total Eclipses - www.timeanddate.com 5. National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA 6. Njee, Valerie Dr., STORYBERRY SERIES – ASTRONOMY [1989].7. The Universe – “Big Bang Nucleosynthesis” (Consist of solutions to equations related rare gases).8. The Usborne, Carrie A. Seay, Dr. Janet Mercer [2002] The Usborne Internet-Linked Library of Science EARTH AND SPACE Usborne-quicklinks9. Valerie Njee, Dr. [2010] Aeronautics and Astronautics10. Visible Light Waves [2012] Visible light waves [2012]11. Wilkins, D.R. and S.J. Crass University of Cambridge – Institute of Astronomy “2009 – 2015 Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge”12. Yourdon, E. N., and CONSTANTINE, L. L. [1979] Planetary and Galaxies. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, [1979].

157

http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/research/cosmology.and.fundamental.physics/gravitational.waves

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/visible.html

https://astrophysicsdotcom.wordpress.com/

http://www.usborne-quicklinks.com/

https://astrophysicsdotcom.wordpress.com/2012/10/08/the-big-bang-theory/

http://www.nasa.gov/

Index

Index

Index3D..........................................................116

acceleration....................118, 119, 123

adequate.............................................119

Aerospace.............................................25

agreement..........................................136

airlock.....................................................21

albedo..................................................119

algae........................................................29

altitude.................................................141

angle.....................................................100

angular..........................................31, 147

Antarctica.....................................69, 154

Aphelion..............................................145

Apogee...........................94, 95, 96, 104

Apollo 11...............................................15

Apollo 13...............................................15

Apollo 14...............................................15

Apollo 16...............................................15

Apollo 8..................................................15

appearance...........................................44

apricots...................................................35

artificial...................................................99

asteroid..................................................45

asteroids.......................................12, 111

astronaut........................................17, 46

astronomer...........................................44

Astronomical Unit............................146

ASTRONOMY.......................................10

astrophysics...................................25, 87

Atlantis............................................18, 19

atmosphere..........................................13

atomic.....................................................32

automobile...........................................32

B2 Stealth............................................149

158

Index

Baily's bead...........................................93

balance...................................................78

ball.........................................................117

bananas..................................................35

beach......................................................42

believed..............................68, 128, 141

binocular................................................79

blue..........................................................99

blueish..................................................138

bolster..................................................150

boulders..............................................134

bow.......................................................100

brightness.............................40, 42, 147

broadcasting........................................13

cabin........................................................21

CALDERAS.............................................74

Callistro................................................121

Cape Canaveral...................................18

ceiling.....................................................94

celestial................................................121

Challenger.............................................16

chamber.................................................74

chassis.....................................................21

chemical..........................................29, 42

chlorophyll............................................30

chloroplasts..........................................30

chondrite.............................................112

chromosphere..............................41, 93

circular..........................................90, 113

circumference...................88, 125, 129

clarity....................................................115

classified.........................................72, 76

Climate...................................................78

close-up...............................................134

closeness...............................................43

coldest.....................133, 135, 144, 151

collision................................................111

combustion...........................................64

comet......................132, 134, 149, 151

comets.......................12, 45, 49, 50, 68

159

Index

composite...........................................109

compound.............................................83

Concave..........................................79, 81

conductivity...................................38, 42

constellation......................................146

contingent..........................................145

continuous............................................99

contrast..................................................37

contribute..............................................96

controvercial........................................51

convection.....................................41, 71

convective.............................................35

Convex.............................................79, 81

cooling....................................................76

corona.....................................................93

cosmology............................................87

counterclockwise.............................141

crater...........................................111, 121

crescent..........................81, 90, 93, 104

crust...........45, 46, 74, 76, 77, 83, 121

crystal...................................................133

cyanobacteria......................................29

Dark Spot............................................140

debris....................................................119

debris .....................................................81

Deimos.................................................110

denser.....................................................12

destructive............................................74

detection......................................87, 149

detector..................................................91

diagnostics............................................32

diameter..............................................104

Diamond ring.......................................92

Discovery...............................................16

distinct...................................88, 97, 112

drastic.....................................................79

duration...............................................124

dusty.....................................................114

dwarf planet.......................................145

EARTH.....................................................67

160

Index

EARTHQUAKES....................................74

eclipse.....................................................79

effectively............................................145

elcetromagnetic..................................31

electromagnetic...........................75, 86

embark.................................................112

emitted...................................................31

energy.....................................................28

engineering..........................................25

equator................................................125

eruption...................................74, 75, 76

essential.................................................40

Europa..................................................121

exosphere..............................................44

exploitation...........................................88

explosion.................................64, 68, 72

explosions.............................................64

extreme.................................45, 51, 136

factors.....................................................40

fascinate.................................................79

feasibility................................................22

fierce...........................................126, 129

film...........................................................32

fission......................................................39

foreground.........................................146

formations.............................................12

frequent.................................................97

frontier.................................................144

furthest...............95, 96, 117, 144, 151

fusion........................................29, 38, 39

future space..........................................20

galaxies..................................27, 31, 148

Galilean................................................118

Galileo...........................................17, 126

Gamma rays..................................31, 41

Ganymede..........................................121

geologically..........................................47

Georgian Sidus.................................132

geothermal...........................................76

giant..............................27, 72, 133, 149

161

Index

Giants...................................................118

glacier.....................................................78

glaciers...................................................68

glitter.......................................................27

Global Surveyor................................109

gravitational.........................................28

gravity.....................................................12

Greek....................................................153

green.......................................................99

greenhouse.................................64, 139

hail.........................................................128

hazardous...........................................148

haze.......................................................133

health....................................................120

heavy........................................50, 68, 78

helium..................................................133

hemisphere........................97, 140, 141

horizon.................................................148

HST..........................................................17

Hubble.................................................141

humans.............................109, 119, 135

hurricane-like....................................140

hydrosulfide.......................................120

hypothesis..........................................111

icy...........................................................126

igloo........................................................50

igneous...................................................76

illumination...........................................27

inflammatory........................................36

infra-red.................................................91

infrared................................................112

Infrared light........................................33

initiation.................................................11

inner planets......................................108

intense...................................63, 71, 147

interference..........................................79

interferometer.....................................87

internal...................................................64

investigate.................................114, 121

ionizing...................................................35

162

Index

iron-rich.................................................68

ISLANDS..............................................155

ISS............................................................17

Italian....................................................121

JUPITER................................................117

Kangaroo Comic...............................106

Kennedy Space Station....................46

KGOO Corporation..........................106

Kuiper Belt..........................................146

lander......................................................22

landmass................................................72

largest moons...................................131

Latin..................................................29, 53

latitudes.................................................78

Lava..................................................74, 76

Lo...........................................................121

Longitude............................................141

longitudes.............................................78

LUNA 1, 2,3...........................................14

Luna 9.....................................................14

lunar........................................................89

Magma.....................................46, 74, 76

magnetic........................46, 52, 65, 122

magnetism..................................65, 122

magnetospheres..............................149

maintenance.........................................21

Mariner 10.............................................15

Mariner 4...............................................14

Mariner 9...............................................15

Mars......................................................108

Martian...................................................23

Masoda 1...............................................16

Masoda 2................................16, 54, 66

mass........................................................12

massive...........................................28, 94

Matter.....................................................31

mechanism............................................32

Mercury..................................................43

metallic................................................132

metalloids...........................................132

163

Index

meteoroids............................................12

Mir.....................................................16, 18

Mission...................................................22

missions...............................................109

molten....................................................74

moon.......................................................90

MOUNTAINS..............................92, 156

museum..........................................52, 65

myriad..................................................144

myth........................................................78

naked....................................................138

nanometer............................................31

nativity....................................................11

NEAR.......................................................17

nebulous................................................88

needle-in-haystack..........................148

Neptune..............................................137

Nereid..................................................138

nitride......................................................63

northern..............................................141

nuclear.............................................29, 39

nutrients.................................................40

observations.........................................13

observatory........................................149

OCEANS10, 68, 69, 72, 91, 120, 149, 154

orange....................................................99

Orbiter..................................................128

orbiting................................................122

organisms. .29, 71, 75, 120, 121, 139

oval........................................................140

overhead................................................27

ozone..........................................120, 139

PANGAEA..............................................72

papaya....................................................35

particles...............................................133

Pathfinder..............................................22

Pathfinder ............................................17

penetrating...........................................31

penumbral.............................................89

164

Index

Perigee...................................................94

Perihelion............................................145

Periodic..................................................84

periods...................................................10

Phobos.................................................110

photons..................................................31

photosphere..........................39, 41, 93

photosynthesis....................................29

Physics....................................................25

physiological........................................31

Planck’s constant.............................107

planet......................................................67

planetary................................................45

planets.............................................12, 27

plasma....................................................30

plasmatic...............................................38

PLATES....................................................74

Pluto......................................................144

Pollution.......................................78, 119

porosity................................................111

powerful.................................................27

preeminently.....................................135

pressure.................................................74

pressurized............................................21

Primary.................................................106

prism..............................................99, 101

probe....................................................117

projection............................................101

protective..............................................36

proteins..................................................30

pulsar......................................................87

Pyrex.....................................................124

quadrant................................................54

quarries................................................108

radar........................................................48

radiation..............................................119

Radiative................................................40

radiators.................................................32

rain........................................................128

Rainfall.................................................120

165

Index

reaction..................................................29

recent......................................................51

Red Planet.......................108, 114, 149

reddish.................................................108

refraction.....................................89, 101

relativity..........................................51, 87

remnants...................................119, 120

resonance...........................................121

resonances.........................................122

revolution..............................................10

Ringed..................................................126

ringlet...................................................126

Ripple......................................................87

RIVERS...........................................72, 156

roamed................................................110

rocky.......................................68, 81, 118

rover........................................................22

Salyut 1 .................................................15

Satellite Space Telescope.............148

satellites.................................................13

Saturn...................................................125

scale.................................................69, 86

Scientific.................................................12

Scientist..................................................44

Scooter.................................................138

scrape.....................................................77

second..................................................128

Secondary...........................................106

sediments............................................108

self-luminous.......................................29

sensitive...............................................148

Shadow bands.....................................93

shepherd.............................................127

shockwaves...........................................68

showers................................................100

shrank.....................................................45

sky. .12, 27, 82, 90, 95, 100, 136, 146

Skylab......................................................15

slates.....................................................108

smallest................................................144

166

Index

snicker..................................................111

snowfall...........................................50, 51

Sojourner............................................110

Solar System...............................10, 127

solar systems................................25, 52

solid.......................................................114

solidification.........................................76

solstice.................................................136

south pole...........................................139

SPACE.....................................................25

Space exploration..............................25

spacecraft............................................134

species....................................................75

spectrum.........................................75, 99

split........................................................152

spray head.............................................99

SPUTNIK 1.............................................14

SST.........................................................148

stabilization..............................118, 123

storms..................................................133

stratosphere.........................................97

STS1.........................................................16

substantial..........................................109

SUN..........................................................27

sunglasses.............................................36

sunlight..................................................92

sunny...............................................42, 80

surface exploration............................20

surveillance.........................................149

Surveyor.......................................17, 110

swirling.........................................12, 130

synchronous.......................................112

telescope.............................................147

terrain.....................................................45

The Horizon Mission.......................145

theoretical.............................................25

therapeutic effects.............................35

thermal.................................................112

thickness..............................................126

thixotropic.............................................76

167

Index

tidal.......................................................149

tiny...........................................................67

tissue.......................................................35

Titania...................................................131

traceability............................................32

transmission.........................................32

triangular...............................................23

Triton....................................................138

troposphere..........................................97

UAA......16, 25, 54, 66, 139, 145, 147, 148

ultraviolet..............................................71

Ultraviolet Rays...................................35

umbrella..............................................106

Unified Aerospace...........................145

uniform................................................124

URANUS..............................................131

US Astronomers..................................14

Valeria.....................................................53

Valerie. 19, 25, 53, 66, 145, 149, 151, 157

variation.................................................96

vast.......................................67, 118, 144

vegetation...........................................114

Venera 4.................................................14

Venera 9, 10.........................................16

Venusian................................................63

Viking 1, 2.............................................16

Vikings..................................................109

violet........................................................99

Visibility.....................91, 119, 123, 139

Visible Light..........................................33

visual.....................................................123

Volcano....................................64, 74, 75

volcanoes...............................................64

voyager................................................126

Voyager 1..............................................16

Voyager 2.............................16, 17, 138

168

Index

water....29, 40, 43, 48, 50, 51, 52, 63, 65, 66, 71, 72, 76, 83, 85, 100, 104, 105, 120, 128, 133, 135, 155

waterdrops............................................99

wavelength....................................33, 35

weather.........................................13, 108

William Herschel..............................131

wind......................................................123

X-rays...............................................31, 41

yellow......................................................99

Yuri Gagarin..........................................14

169

Index

Book cover: Leaflet on hardback

U.S. $24.00

CAN $29.99

170

Index

171

STORYBERRY SERIES

ASTRONOMY

Storyberry Series – Astronomy talks about all the nine planets in the Solar Systems, the creation of Earth, the universe, the phases of the Moon and sun,

and their influence on the Seas and Oceans. All of these planets and moons are found in our galaxies.

Storyberry Series – Astronomy goes into detail discussing the study of each one of these planets starting with the first planet,

namely MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH, MARS, JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE and PLUTO and their moons,

illustrating their evolution and revolution around the SUN. The SUN is very important in the formation of the UNIVERSE, it

relativity forces keeps and maintain the planets, moons, asteroids, and meteoroids in their orbiting states.

♦ Descriptive facts

♦ Enticing and fascinating illustrations ♦ Exciting discoveries

♦ Activities and Examples ♦ Fun comics and cartoons

In Storyberry Series – Astronomy the author list facts of

measurements associated continents, biggest lakes, longest rivers, largest islands, highest mountains, oceans and seas at the end of the book. Each planet has a list of activities which would interest both experience astronauts and beginners as well. This book also

list Space Missions timeline from 1957 to recent explorations.

This book is use as a study guide for Astronomy, Astronautics, Planetarium and Space Exploration.

Written By Valerie Njee

Comics and Cartoons by Kgoo Corporation

Documents

STORYBERRY SERIES - ASTRONOMY · 2016-09-06 · PREFACE. This version is the 2. nd. Edition of STORYBERRY SERIES – ASTRONOMY published 1989. Author: Dr. Valerie Njee Space Exploration