Upload
jane-gallagher
View
226
Download
3
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 1
QuickTime™ et undécompresseur Graphismes
sont requis pour visionner cette image.
STI policy rationales.Part I : paradigms
Laurent [email protected]
BETA, university Strasbourg
Pecs Session / Week 2 - July 2010
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 2
Public research infrastructure (universities, research centers, …)research activitiesincentives for researchers
Technology procurement policy
Purchase/pioneer use by public entities (administrations, organisms, public companies,
Support to cooperation between firms and public research"valorization" - Tech transfersjoint research activities
Support to cooperation between firms
Funding of S, T & I activitiesgrantsloans at preferential ratereimboursable advance (conditionned to success)loans garanteeequity fundings/seed, risk capitalexport credits
Setting the scene…
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 3
Tax systemresearch tax credittax relief for technology-related purchaseincome tax on funds providers (business angels, foundations…)
Legal and regulation aspectsIPRNorms, technical reglementationsReglementation on foreign trade (techno transfer, barriers,…)
Competences building(higher) education system
Diffusion of scientific and technical informationlibraries, data base, info network
Standard, plateforms, common langage
Supporting infrastructurestechnical, legal, management …assistance and servicesscientific/technical facilities
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 4
LEVEL OF INTERVENTION• up-stream = science / downstream = innovation • innovation in general / specific innovation• target population• creation / optimisation - adaptation - diffusion
RULES• creation or not of dedicated body • criteria and modalities of selection of beneficiaries • interactions between managing bodies and beneficiaries • interactions between beneficiaries (cooperation)• funding schemes• IPR / diffusion of outcomes …
Organisation, rules, modalities … = "institutionnal arrangement"
Sectoral policies : education, industry, regional, competition…
Entrepreneuriship "climate" (public administrative streamline-simplication, awards, labor market, etc)
Promotion of social consensus supporting science and technology
+
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 5
Long history, recent emphasis (WW II, 80/90s)Many different tools and combination of tools (cf Georghiou-Edler tab)
Fashion aspects, policy imitation and diffusionMultiple stakeholdersMultiple decision levels
A lot of typologies :Mission - diffusion, Vertical - horizontal,Supply side - Demand side, etc
NEED OF THEORETICAL BACKGROUND : IDENTIFICATION OF
RATIONALES, which to some extent are common to the "S", the "T" and the "I" dimensions of policy
Science - Technology - Innovation Policies :
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 6
QuickTime™ et undécompresseur Graphismes
sont requis pour visionner cette image.
STI policy rationales.Part I : paradigms
•The basics : simple rationales for STI policy•The "traditional" opposition between paradigms•"Policy mix" and "rationale mix"
Pecs Session / Week 2 - July 2009
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 7
• Independance, security, prestige
• Growth / industrial development through competitivity
• Social development (education, health, jobs, Quality of Life,...)
• Scientific progress per se
« Simple » rationales for State intervention
in Science, Technology and Innovation (Pavitt - Walker)
1. The basics : simple rationales for STI policy
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 8
• High (and increasing) R&D costs• Uncertainty on feasibility, results, economic value• imitation, knowledge leakage etc• demand reaction
Lack of incentives for private R&D investment:= investment/profitabilty profile does not fit the "normal" private investment/profitability profile (NPV, payback, RoR…)
"too low" level of private investment as compared to the needs of society
PUBLIC INTERVENTION
<=> simpliest formulation of "market failure" argument
risk
• long term rentability
Investment in STI, from innovator standpoint:
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 10
Theoretical foundationsMain features
« Failures » justifying State interventionConsequences of these failures
Basic principles for State intervention(Tools / instruments)
Neo-classical / standard framework (NC) vs Evolutionist structuralist framework (ES)
• Detailed analysis of two paradigms
• Attempts to identify causal beliefs including :
2. The "traditional" opposition between paradigms
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 11
Standard / Neo-classical framework : theoretical foundations - 1
Neo-classical / main stream economics+Theory of incentives : information asymetries + optimal contractsTransaction cost theory : governance cost+« at the fronteer » :
(1) New growth theory (ROMER, LUCAS, AGHION, …) :Endogeneisation of S&TImportance of supply of knowledge (human capital,
education, RD, infrastructure…) as a source of growthBut focus on information, incentives, « mechanical »
aspects => real departure from standard approach ?
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 12
(2) (New) Economics of science (DAVID, DASGUPTA,…) :• inherent and specific properties of the information :
- Imperfect information (information paradox)- Non-rivalry and non-excludability (information as a "public good")=> problem of property right- Low cost of REproduction
• new line between S-related and T-related activities and outputs :- the practices of diffusion associated with incentive schemes - the choice of the optimal level of codification (cf reward system)- the higher uncertainty in the production and use of scientific results- the fact that results from basic research are considered mainly as a information input for applied research (more generic usefulness)- higher indivisibilities in science production- longer term perspective of science=> possible background for distinction between S and T and I policies
Standard / Neo-classical framework : theoretical foundations - 2
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 13
"Linear model"
• the "holy sequence" of clearly distinct steps• fit with classic distinctions :
technology push
BASIC RESEARCH
APPLIEDRESEARCH
DEVELOP-PMENT
"ON THEMARKET"ProductionSales
USE BY NON-INNOVATORSImitatosr,Adoptersclients
invention innovation diffusion
science technology market
demand pull
Nature of knowledge (public vs private), repartition of roles (State – univ - PROs vs firms), incentive mechanisms (Merton vs market) …
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 14
Comprehensive and extremely coherent « paradigm »
• Market : unique mode of coordination and of selection• State is « outside »• Equilibrium• Static analysis• Optimizing rationality• Input - output perspective / linear model of innovation• Central focus : optimal allocation of resources• Normative reference : welfare/Pareto analysis
• Research (S,T,I) as production of output = information+ information as an input for downstream activities
Standard / Neo-classical framework : Main features
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 15
Standard / Neo-classical framework :
Knowledge (scientific, technological, product-embedded etc) + production of knowledge + use of knowledge exhibit some characteristics not fitting with "ideal" characteristics => market/price mechanisms cannot work = market failures => consequences for social optimality => basic principles for public intervention
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 16
• Imperfect information(information paradox)• Non-rivalry and non-excludability=> problem of property right• Low cost of REproduction• Indivisibilities, long term
• Lack of information on results, use and demand => high risk• Long term rentability• High cost• Problem of appropriability of S&T “products” and of gains from innovation
=> knowledge externalities=> market externalities=> network externalities
Reducing uncertainty (environment, S, D)Substituting to the market (S and D sides)
(sharing risk and cost)Allowing for internalizing externalities
(property rights, cooperation)
Standard / Neo-classical framework :failures, consequences and principles for policy action
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 17
Evolutionary theory :focus on evolution of technology, firms, industries, etcdiversity generation / reproduction / selection processes
Systemic / Network approaches (N/L SI, clusters, etc) :
focus on coordination, complementarities,variety of institutions
Knowledge-based economics :focus on knowledge creation, sharing,
processing, access, diffusion, etc / cognitive processes
Evolutionist structuralist framework : theoretical foundations
Different approaches from different disciplines (mono or multi-disciplinary)with common features and specific focus
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 18
"interactive model"
•More complex processus : feedback, overlaps•"Innovation" at all stages•Specific role of knowledge base:
specific to each actor/organisationaccumulation processes (capitalisation, learning, forgetfulness) => "path-dependancy" (example : Kline-Rosenberg model)
•Classical distinction put in question•Linear model = one possible pattern within the interactive model•New perspectives on
Nature of knowledge, repartition of roles, incentive mechanisms …
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 19
NC framework
• Market : unique mode ofcoordination and of selection• State is « outside »• Equilibrium• Static analysis• Optimizing rationality• Input - output perspective /linear model of innovation• Central focus : optimal allocationof resources• Normative reference : welfare/Pareto analysis
• Research (S,T,I) as productionof output = information+ information as an input for downstream activities
• Variety of modes of coordination and of selection• State is part of the game• No equilibrium• Dynamic analysis / Path dependancy• Other forms of rationality• Inter-active model of innovation• Central focus : creation of resources + knowledge (≠ information) = fundamentalresource• Unclear normative reference :« adequate » system, processes, cognitive capacities ? environment ensuring « goodtrajectories » / « good paradigm » ?• Knowledge coming from anywhere in the system (not only Research)
Evolutionist structuralist framework : main features
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 20
• inadequate selection processes• lack of coordination, complementarities, lack of institutions, speed of adjustment between institutions and S&T...• misallocation of resources and cognitive attention between exploration and exploitation• knowledge creation, processing, distribution failures : codification, circulation, emitting/ absorptive / articulation capacity, structure of knowledge...
• lack of diversity• “negative” lock-in• difficulty for paradigmatic changes• knowledge, social, institutional..”gaps”
Not so coherent :Cognitive capacity of actors : development,orientation, adequate conditions of use...
Evolutionist structuralist framework : failures, consequences and principles for policy action
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 21
Common ?
Specific ? Specific ?
Reducing uncertainty (environment, S, D)Substituting to the market (S and D sides)
(sharing risk and cost)Allowing for internalization of externalities
(property rights, cooperation)
Cognitive capacity of actors : development,Orientation, adequate conditions of use...
ES frameworkNC framework
Tools / instruments
Optimal allocation by market(or pseudo-market) mechanisms
Social optimality
Diversity, selection, cohesion
« good » trajectories« good » transitionbetween paradigms
Normativereference ?
State "a priori" in/outof system ?
NoYes
Out In
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 22
Table 1.2 : The two dominant paradigms : failures, consequences and principles for policy actio
• Lack of information on results,use and demand => high risk
• Long term rentabil ity
• High cost
• Problem of appropriabili ty ofS&T “products” and of gainsfrom innovation => knowledge/ market / network externali ties
• Reducing uncertainty (environment, Supplyand Demand sides)
• Substituting to the market (Supply andDemand sides) : sharing risk and cost
• Allowing for internalization ofexternali ties : property rights, cooperation
• Misallocation of resources andcognitive attention betweenexploration and exploitation
• Inadequate selection processes
• Systemic/institutional failures :coordination, complementarity,lack of institutions, speed ofadjustment between institutions andS&T...
• Knowledge creation / processing, /distribution failures : codification,circulation, emitting / absorptive /articulation capacity, structure ofknowledge...
• Lack of diversity
• “Negative” lock-in
• Difficulty forparadigmatic changes
• Knowledge / social /institutional..”gaps”
Not so coherent :
• Cognitive capacity of actors: development, orientation,adequate conditions of use...
Diversity, selection, cohesionOptimal allocation by market (or
pseudo-market) mechanisms
Social optimality« Good » trajectories, « good »transition between paradigms
The NC framework :MARKET FAILURES
The ES framework :LEARNING/SYSTEM FAILURES
POLICY PRINCIPLES
POLICY TOOLS / INSTRUMENTS(see Table)
• Imperfect information(information paradox)
• Non-rivalry and non-excludability
=> problem of property right
• Low cost of reproduction
• Indivisibilities, long term
Failures and rationales for policy action
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 23
Interpretationin the NC framework
Interpretationin the ES framework
Diffusion ofInformation Knowledge
Public intermediaries ofInformation Knowledge
substitute to private investment for production of scientific output considered as public good
Public labs in Scienceincrease and change the available knowledge-base by reinforcing exploration; involves codification; change emitting/absorptive capacity of labs
partially substitute to private investment for production of technology considered as non-rival and partly excludable good
Subsidy to R&D activities of firmsincrease and change the available knowledge-base by reinforcing exploration; involves codification; change emitting/absorptive capacity of firms
substitute to private demand (limited in time)Public procurementorient selection process by reinforcing exploitation
full guarantee of appropriability of technology considered as non-rival and partly excludable good
Property rights partial change of emitting/absorptive capacity
Cooperationfirms, all typesfirms and public labs
substitute to private investment for production of human capital
Education increase cognitive capacity
Emergence of standardsand plateforms
orient selection process; involves codification
Norms, regulationsorient selection process; involves codificationOther related policiesorient selection process
internalize externalities : monetary (vertical coop.), knowledge (horizontal coop.); diffusion of information; risk/cost sharing
change distribution and sharing of knowledge; reinforce coordination and complementarity; change emitting/absorptive capacity
idem idem;reinforce coordination
Basic tools and instrumentsof S&T policy
reduce uncertainty and asymetries change the available knowledge-base; involves codification; change distribution of knowledge
STI tools re-interpreted
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 24
Different rationales adressing different dimensions ? ex extented from A. BONACCORSI :
Beyond this NC / EC opposition :
need to mix approaches ?
(a) Incentives: neoclassical theory of market failure
(b) Factors of production: endogenous growth
(c) Processes and coordination: neo-institutional and evolutionary
(d) Learning: knowledge-based economics
3. "policy mix" and "rationale mix"
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 25
Tools which aim at fostering cooperation between actors :sharing/complementarity of costs, risks, information, joint creation of / distribution of knowledge ?
Public research :beyond « pure public good argument » ?
Patents : Protection/diffusion dilemna, signaling, intangible base for cooperation ? (see slides at end)
Different (mix of ?) rationales underlying one given tool/instrument
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 26
• cooperative agreement /funding / IPR :NC : same failure adressed ? too many failure remedies ? (ex ante vs ex post reward vs patent ?; limit fundings to transaction/cooperation costs ?...)
• policy oriented towards SME :Are supposed SME specificities grounded in rationales ?
• Lisboa agenda and EC "policy mix": "the combination of policy instruments, which interact to infuence the quantity and quality of R&D investment in public and private sectors" (http://www.policymix.eu/policymixtool/)
• Research Infrastructures: sharing cost, create opportunity for networking, research outputs, research tools… (http://cordis.europa.eu/infrastructures/)
• The renewal of Demand side policy (cf Georghiou-Edler paper – next 3
slides)
Mixing tools/instruments and mixing rationales ?
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 27
More on the "I" sideReturn of Demand Side policy in the policy arena (EU, UK), while still present in US and Japan
Definition :All public measures to induce innovation and/or speed up diffusion of innnovations through increasing the demand for innovations, defining new functional requirement for products and services or better articulates demand
The case of Demand side policy
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 28
•Lack of incentives on demand side => fundings (NC)•Asymetries of information, transaction costs => increase and diffusion of info (NC)•Demand is often "local" and should be at least partly "locally" answered :
heterogeneity, path dependancy, idosyncracy etc local Innov System, spillovers, etc user-producer interactions, "lead" user, etc=> System and cognitive failures
•"Good directions" towards orienting innovation processes=> Selection failures
•Demand and Knowledge base should be aligned=> System and cognitive failures (standards, etc)
• Inter- gvtal department strategies and coordinations=> System failures
Mix of rationales :
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 29
Mix of STI policy tools:Basis = public procurement policies (general vs strategic, direct vs catalytic, commercial vs pre-commercial)Combined with supply side fundings - technology plateforms …
Policy mixes :Improvement of public services and policies : better answers to societal need through innovation = sustainable devlopment, health, etc backed up by STI policy
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 30
ST&I vs competition policy (monopoly, cartels, public
aids, public procurement…)
ST&I vs education policy (Univ.-PROs, longlife
training…)
ST&I and environmental/sustainable dvpt oriented
policy
ST&I and …
policy boundaries, overlaps, complementarity :
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 31
Interaction between two types of rationales in the policy design, making and implementation processes
Production policy rationales
Governance policy rationales
3. Towards a « rationale mix » framework for policy processes in reality(from EPOM / Prime NoE project http://www.prime-noe.org/)
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 32
Interaction between two types of rationales :
1. “Production policy rationales", i.e. causal beliefs, about the production of knowledge and set-up of policy instruments; providing a theoretical framework for understanding knowledge creation and justifying public intervention (failure argument) and the type of policy proposed
<=> what was covered in first part of lecture
Economics - Sociology of science"neo-classical paradigm" vs “evolutionist structuralist approach” (Lundvall & Borras 1997; Bach & Matt, 2005 …)
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 33
•Traditional paradigm (V. Bush)Focus on fundamental research, Justification of public research : defense, prestige, general welfare, knowledge per se + « pure public good »•Neo-classical / market paradigm (Arrow + Dasgupta-David)Distinction between fundamental research (open science, knowledge as public good) and technology (property right, Knowledge as private good) + competion / incentives / flexibility of resources / cost-cutting; Justification of public intervention : market failures•System / Network paradigm (Lundvall, Nelson, CSI…)Importance of the complementarity of /the links between multiple actors : coordination, alignement of objectives and resources…; Justification of public intervention : system failure•Evolutionary approach (Nelson & Winter, Dosi, Metcalfe…)focus on the generation (mutations), distribution (diversity) and diffusion (transmission) of changes + fitness and co-evolution as compared to the environment (selection mechanisms). diversity generation, diffusion•Knowledge-based approach (Cohendet Meyer-Krahmer)Knowledge as collectively produced, shared, distributed + multi-dimensional knowledge with tacit dimension + importance of learning processes; Justification of public intervention : learning (cognitive) failures
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 34
Strong connexions to sociology of science (Benner and Biegelbauer in EPOM [2005]) :
•the simplest linear model, distinguishing Research and Economy, then enhanced by the Mertonian tradition;•standard linear model of innovation, with sequential (technology push or demand pull) link, and clear distribution of roles between actors along the steps of the model;•the interactive model stream, including Gibbons mode 2, Triple Helix and the like;•the constructivist approaches.
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 35
• Interaction between the actors – the Triple Helix(Loet Leydedorff Henry Etzkowitz)
Research Politics
Business
Researchers who are prepared to exploit their knowledge. Universities that profile their education and research.
Legislators who influence the conditions under which companies and researchers are working. Politicians who allocate resources for research and development. Local authorities and county councils who set out to facilitate the establishment of new companies and make their local areas pleasant places to live.
Entrepreneurs who recognize the value of new knowledge. Managers who can identify market requirements and have the courage to invest their resources. Investors who are prepared to wait for a return on their investments.
Adapted from M. Benner [2005]
Separate institutions / intermediaries - Modes of direct communications - Mixed roles
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 36
Interaction between two types of rationales :
2. “Governance policy rationales”, reflecting the governance paradigms ruling state intervention in general; not policy sector specific but have encompassing validity; they often correspond to political traditions and culture
Political science - Public management
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 37
•Centralism / technocratic modelCentralization of decision processesHighly professionalized civil servantCommand & Control modelstrong hypothesis on the capacity of State in terms of access to information, processing of information and action•Network State modelwith a focus on coordination role, decentralisation, enablement skills, public/private cooperation, self-regulatory approach•New Public Management modelClear policy target/goalsClear budgetSystematic performance analysisClear and explicit decision processes•Decentralized multi-level model : multiple centers of decision with budget, staff…(not necessarily hierarchical)•Decentralized multi-space model : multiple and heterogeneous public & scientific interest groups (public opinion, consumers, patients, NGO,…)
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 38
Production
Rationales
GovernancePolicy
Rationales
Policy tools
Implementation
Policy-design
&making
PolicyDesign & making
frame
Policy-design
&making
Incl. Monitoring and evaluation tools(+ "no instrument")
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 39
•Public influence and the business point of view•"Fertile soil", i.e. background and receptivity of
policy makers (political preferences, culture, education,…) => selective attention and cognitive choices of policy makers
•Turnover of political personal and of technocrats•Policy entrepreneurs•Boundary institutions•Examples, images and stylised facts ("prototype
embodying knowledge")•Reports and other white papers•"Tactical interests" •Policy-making procedure and its "hidden side"•Competing rationales in government
Policy design/making frame
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 40
Not static / sequential / "once and for all"
Dynamics :•Path-dependancy •Learning and feed-back loops•Continuous (minor) changes•Major revisions triggered by :
inefficiency observed in the systemmajor changes in ideology or rationalesdiffusion of ideas (« emulation », benchmarking)pressure related to external shocks or the public
=> time matching between policy cycle / ideas cycle (windows of opportunity
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 41
mixdynamic coherence
co-evolutionProduction
Rationales
GovernancePolicy
Rationales
Policy-design
&making
Policy tools
Implementation
mix
mix
mix
mix mix
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 42
Production
Rationale
Governance
Rationale
Research &Innovation modes
Neo-classical / market New Public Management
ideal model 2
Standardlinear model
Merton
Knowledge-based
System /Network Network State
Decentralized multi-space
ideal model 2
Evolutionism Decentralized multi-level
Interactive model
/ Gibbons mode 2
Triple Helix
Constructivism
TraditionalCentralism / technocratic
ideal model 1
Simpliestlinear model
Research / Economy Command&Control
Towards « archetypal » mixes ? 3 coherent models
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 43
Knowledge as information + appropriability pb
Patents = appropriability means, strong property right=> to enhance individual motives (individual inventor),BUT should favour global knowledge production
+ appropriability / diffusion (+ cumulativeness) dilemna => Various length and scope of patent
Patent in NC revisited approach :
The case of patent : NC vs K.O. framework(based on [COHENDET-MEYER-KRAHMER, 2004 - PENIN, 2004])
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 44
Patents = appropriability + other dimensions:
o negotiation role (bargaining power)
o first step for cooperation/knowledge exchange (balance of power between members of network)
o Signalling/disclosure device/reputation
Example: communities (free-software) produce semi-public goods (common but not available to all)
Patent in Knowedge-based approach (1) :
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 45
the key role of institutional settings (IS=norms, rules, standard) IS govern incentives to produce and diffuse knowledge IS shape the codification processes and thus the costs of transfering knowledge (science vs. industry)
=> If incentives to build knowledge in a
community are strong, then appropriation is
marginal
Reconsidering incentives (ex. free software) :
Patent in Knowedge-based approach (2) :
STI Policy rationales. Part I : Paradigms - L. BACH 46
Is patent still a valid policy tool ?
new dimensions of patents <=> new uses made by firms => new «K.O. failures» ? does patent help to overcome those «K.O. failures »? If yes, is it an appropriate tool? (ex. : too expensive as a tool to foster cooperation!)
Patents hamper diffusion (traditional view), BUT also the production of knowledge (ex: IPR on software; IPR on fragments of gene before identification of product => no product => go beyond cumulativeness of information : importance of common cognitive platforms).
Patent in Knowedge-based approach (3) :