From Stereotyping to Invisibility: From Stereotyping to Invisibility: The Psychological Consequences of Using The Psychological Consequences of Using

American Indian MascotsAmerican Indian Mascots

Stephanie A. FrybergStephanie A. FrybergUniversity of ArizonaUniversity of Arizona

Marysville School District

From Stereotyping to Invisibility: The Psychological From Stereotyping to Invisibility: The Psychological Consequences of Using American Indian mascotsConsequences of Using American Indian mascots

Not that I would not, if I could, be both handsome and fat and well dressed, and a great athlete, and make a million a year, be a wit, a bon-vivant, and a lady-killer, as well as a philosopher, a philanthropist, statesman, warrior, African explorer, ‘tone-poet’ and saint.

(James, 1950 [1890])

So the seeker of his truest, strongest, deepest self must review the list carefully and pick out the one on which to stake his salvation.

(James, 1950 [1890])

Relevant Research

Stereotype Threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson,1995; Steele, 1997; Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1997; Steele, Spenser, & Aronson, 2002)

Social Representations (e.g., Moscovici, 1961; 1984; 1994; Wagner, 1987; Jovchelovitch, 1995; Deaux & Philogène, 2001)

According to Stereotype Threat….

1. Stereotypes exist in the world, not simply inside individual minds

2. Stereotypes are reflected and inscribed in the practices, policies, and institutions that comprise society

3. Stereotypes are enacted in everyday, interpersonal behavior

4. Stereotypes are powerful and influential in the performance of minorities

Social RepresentationsA system of values, ideas, and practices with a twofold function:

1. Orientation

2. Communication

The American Flag REPRESENTSREPRESENTS American ideas of freedom and independence.

The American Flag RE-PRESENTSRE-PRESENTS American ideas of freedom and independence.

University of Illinois’

former mascot/symbol

“Chief Illiniwek”

For many non-Indians, an Indian must resemble a historical image, one frozen in the past and in historical archives--the noble, proud warrior dancing about and worshipping nature’s mysteries…

(Trimble, 1987)

Social Representations of American Indians in Mainstream Media

In a content analysis of national newspapers in 1997 and major films from 1990-2000, relatively few (.2%) representations of American Indians (AI) were found (Fryberg, 2003)Representations were largely stereotypic and/or negativeAI were seldom presented as contemporary people or in

contemporary domains (e.g., as students, teachers, doctors) In a composite week of primetime TV in 1997, no AI

characters were identified (Mastro & Greenberg, 2000).

In a two week composite of primetime TV in 2002, 6 out of 1488 (.4%) TV characters were identified as AI (Mastro & Behm-Morawitz, 2005).

In a composite week of TV commercials in 2000, .4% of speaking characters were identified as AI (Mastro & Stern, 2003).

Overview Examine the psychological consequences of

American Indian mascots, on American Indian students, who are the targets of the representations.

Examine the psychological consequences of American Indian mascots on European American students, who are the observers of the representations.

Discuss the implications of American Indian mascots on intergroup relations, in particular, on school and work environments.

Studies 1 & 2What is the impact of American Indian social representations on the self-esteem (Study 1) and community efficacy (Study 2) of American Indians?

MethodsParticipants

Study 1: 72 American Indian (41 females, 31 males) high school students. Mean age = 16.4 years.

Study 2: 152 American Indian (86 females, 60 males) high school student. Mean age = 15.7 years.

Procedure: Studies 1 & 2

1. In a study about “media representations,” participants were primed with an American Indian social representation.

2. Completed a self-esteem (Study 1) or community efficacy (Study 2) measure.

Priming Conditions

Condition 1: Disney’s “Pocahontas”

Condition 2: Cleveland Indian’s team mascot

“Chief Wahoo”

Priming ConditionsCondition 3: Social Problems

“Negative Stereotypes”“Negative Stereotypes” Condition 4: Control

“No Prime”“No Prime” 50-55% of American Indian

high school students drop out of high school (Ward, 1994)

Suicide rates are the highest for any ethnic group (Duran & Duran, 1995)

Alcoholism rates of enormous proportions (Oetting & Bevais, 1987)

Participants completed self-esteem

measure

Study 1Questionnaire

State Self-Esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) I feel that others respect and admire me. I feel confident about my abilities. I feel pleased with my appearance right now. I feel concerned about the impression I am making

right now.

American Indian Social Representations and Self-Esteem

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Pocahontas Chief Wahoo Negative Stereotypes Control Conditions

Stat

e Se

lf-es

teem

Mea

ns

Study 2 Questionnaire

Community Efficacy (Fryberg, 2000) People in my community can take action to make

things better. I feel like I can make a difference in my

community. I wish I could have more respect for my

community.

American Indian Social Representations and Community Efficacy

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Pocahontas Chief Wahoo Negative Stereotypes Control

Conditions

Mea

n C

omm

unity

Effi

cacy

Sco

re

Attitudes About Indian Mascots?

Do you agree or disagree with using Indians as mascots for sports teams?

1 2 3 4 5

Agree Neutral Disagree

Attitudes about American Indian Mascots and Community Efficacy

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Control Chief Wahoo

Disagree Agree

Respect for American Indians?

For sports teams, do you think European Americans who dress up as Indians are showing respect to American Indians?

Yes Neutral No

Mascot is a Caricature

Study 3Do American Indian social representations, in this case American Indian mascots, impact the number of achievement-related possible selves?

Do all American Indian mascots have the same impact on American Indians?

What types of social representations of American Indians will increase wellbeing?

Does it matter if the American Indian mascot represents an American Indian university?

What are Possible Selves? Possible selves are the selves that people would

like to become or are afraid of becoming They are the cognitive manifestations of

enduring goals, aspirations, motives, fears and threats.

(Cross & Markus, 1994; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Oyserman & Markus, 1990; Oyserman & Saltz, 1993)

Social Representations and Achievement- Related Possible Selves

Participants 172 American Indian (92 females, 80 males)

students from a predominantly American Indian University

Mean age = 23.1 years

Procedure

1. Primed with a social representation of American Indians

2. Completed a possible selves measure

Mascot ConditionsCondition 2: Haskell Indian Nations University mascot

“Indians”“Indians”

Condition 1: Cleveland Indian’s team mascot

“Chief Wahoo”“Chief Wahoo”

Mascot ConditionsCondition 4: Control

No primeNo primeCondition 3: University of

Illinois mascot “Chief Illiniwek”“Chief Illiniwek”

Participants completed the possible selves

measure

Positive ConditionCondition 5: American Indian

College Fund Ad

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

American Indian CollegeFund

Chief Wahoo Haskell Indian Chief Illiniwek No-Prime Control

Condition

Perc

ent o

f Ach

ieve

men

t-Rel

ated

Pos

sible

Sel

ves

American Indian Social Representations and Possible Selves

Positive S.R. ConditionCondition 5: American Indian

College Fund Ad

““Have you ever seen a real Indian?”Have you ever seen a real Indian?”

Study 4

What is the impact of American Indian social representations on the self-esteem of European Americans?

Social Representations and European American Self-Esteem

Participants 136 European American college students (71

females and 65 males) Mean age = 19.8 years

Procedure

1. Primed with a social representation of American Indians

2. Completed self-esteem measure

Priming Conditions

Condition 1: Disney’s “Pocahontas”

Condition 2: Cleveland Indian’s team mascot

“Chief Wahoo”

Priming ConditionsCondition 3: Social Problems

“Negative Stereotypes” Condition 4: Control

“No Prime” 50-55% of American Indian

high school students drop out of high school (Ward, 1994)

Suicide rates are the highest for any ethnic group (Duran & Duran, 1995)

Alcoholism rates of enormous proportions (Oetting & Bevais, 1987)

Participants completed self-esteem

measure

American Indian Social Representations and Self-Esteem for European Americans

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Pocahontas Chief Wahoo NegativeStereotypes

Control

Condition

Mea

n St

ate

Self-

Este

em

American Indian Social Representations and Self-Esteem for European Americans

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Pocahontas Chief Wahoo Negative Stereotypes ControlCondition

Mea

n St

ate

Self-

Est

eem

American Indian Social Representations and Self-Esteem

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Pocahontas Chief Wahoo Negative Stereotypes Control Conditions

Stat

e Se

lf-es

teem

Mea

ns

American Indians

European Americans

Studies 5 & 6What is the impact of American Indian social representations on the self-esteem (Study 5) and likeability (Study 6) of European Americans?

MethodsParticipants

Study 5: 55 European American male college students. Mean age = 19.0 years (SD = 1.0).

Study 6: 46 European American male college students. Mean age = 20.7 years (SD = 2.4).

Procedure: Studies 5 & 6

1. Exposed to an American Indian social representation on a t-shirt that was on the research assistant (Study 5) or in a picture.

2. Complete a self-esteem (Study 5) or likeability (Study 6) measure.

Priming ConditionsCondition 2: University of

Notre Dame mascot “Fighting Irish”

Condition 1: Cleveland Indian’s team mascot

“Chief Wahoo”

Condition 3: Control

“No Prime”

Participants completed self-esteem (Study 5) or likeability (Study 6) measure

Priming Conditions

Team Mascots and Self-Esteem for European Americans

3.5

3.7

3.9

4.1

4.3

4.5

Control Chief Wahoo Fighting Irish

Mea

n Se

lf-Es

teem

Study 6 Questionnaire

Likeability (BIRG; Cialdini & De Nicholas, 1989) Do you think you would like this person? Sometimes we see a little of ourselves in other

people. Do you feel this way about this person? Do you feel that you and this person have any

common attributes?

Team Mascots and Likeability for European Americans

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

Control Chief Wahoo Fighting Irish

Mea

n Li

keab

ility

General Discussion Social representations can have unintended and

negative effects.

We are fighting, CaliforniansFor the Blue and Gold;We are starting on the warpathFor a scalp or two;Our blood's up and simply boiling,What can Stanford do?We are starting on the warpathFor a scalp or two. So,... We're goin' to scalp you, Stanford!We're goin' to scalp you blue!We'll do it with Your tomahawkWe took from you. Rah! Rah! Rah!All 'round our belts we'll hang themTo show all friends who's dead;We're goin' to carve some blockheadsWhose scalps are red.We are hotfoot after StanfordCamping on her trail;With our tomahawk before us,We can never fail. Getting ready for the war dance,All our warriors true;We are putting on our war paint,Royal Gold and Blue.

60s & 70s 80s & 90s 2000

University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux Logo

University of North Dakota “Fighting Sioux”

t-shirts

Poster hung outside the University of

North Dakota American Indian

Studies Department

General Discussion

In the case of American Indians, social representations of their group depressed how they felt about themselves (self-esteem), their community (community efficacy), and what they want to become or are able to become (possible selves).

In the case of European Americans, social representations of American Indians increased how they felt about themselves (self-esteem) and their liking for others who used American Indian mascots. European Americans incur no social cost for using American Indian mascots.

Social representations can have unintended and negative effects.

Implications Teachers, coaches and employers should ensure that

the existing or relevant social representations do not devalue or limit individual identity or potential.

In the case of American Indians, it may be important to recognize both what is represented and what is not represented in the environment. The messages that inform Natives that they do not belong or that they cannot be successful in an environment may be invisible.

Creating and developing new and positive social representations may be one route to countering the effects of negative or limited sets of social representations.

Thank You!CollaboratorsHazel Rose MarkusDaphna OysermanJeff StoneJoseph StoneResearch AssistantsIrene YehRabiah MuhammadBrad MylesGreg Eldridge

University of Arizona Culture Collaboratory