Stefan Rebenich, Jerome

8/13/2019 Stefan Rebenich, Jerome

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PREFACE

Jerome is a familiar figure in literature and art. We all know him with alion at his feet, and, with biblical manuscripts in Latin, Greek, and

ebrew in his stud!, he is depicted as a desert hero or as a cardinal."hroughout the ages, changing images have characteri#ed this fatherand doctor of the church.

"he aim of this book, however, is to reflect upon and revise someelements of the traditional portrait of Jerome that even toda!determine his representation across various denominational andideological borderlines. "hus, on the one hand, the saint is veneratedas trilingual translator and commentator and praised as an asceticvirtuoso, while, on the other, he has fre$uentl! been described as ill-tempered and attacked as the spiritual seducer of noble ladies. %ostscholarl! contributions still focus on his individual characteristics, bothpositive and negative. & will, instead, emphasi#e Jerome's position in(hristian societ! of the fourth centur! )*, his archet!pical career as aprovincial parvenu, his social and theological networks, and his role inthe public discourse upon orthodo+! and asceticism. "hus, it is to beasked how Jerome, a traditionall! educated (hristian intellectual, wasable to succeed as an e+ponent both of the ascetic movement and ofNicene orthodo+!, as a translator and a commentator of the ible, andas a mediator between eastern and western theolog!. "he bookproposes to elucidate some of the determining factors in Jerome's

literar! and theological success, and his self-invention as a heroichermit and brave fighter against rigenist heres!.

& have profited much from the great strides modern scholarship onJerome has made in various fields. We are now able to reconstruct histranslations of the New and ld "estament and to assess his linguisticcompetence our understanding of his philological and e+egeticalmethods has improved his literar! theor! and practice has been moreclearl! defined his dependence as an ama#ingl! productive e+egete

on both Greek and Latin predecessors has been discussed new lighthas been shed on man! chronological $uestions the ebrew traditionswithin his oeuvre have become apparent man! of his writings havebeen criticall! edited, translated into modern languages, and copiousl!annotated. /rench scholars in particular0among them Yves-%arie*uval, 1oger Gr!son, and 2ierre Ja!0have studied some of Jerome'sbiblical commentaries in great detail, whereas Neil )dkin, in aprofusion of articles, has discovered man! reminiscences from both



pagan and (hristian authors, and has promoted te+tual criticism ofJerome. &n the last decade, Jerome's correspondence with )ugustinehas attracted special attention, and his circle of female ascetics hasbeen closel! e+amined. & owe much to man! of these contributionsand to the studies of "im arnes, 2eter rown, enr! (hadwick,

3li#abeth (lark, Jac$ues /ontaine, and John %atthews, either onJerome and his contemporaries, or on the social and cultural milieu ofhis times. ut, it should be stressed that this book is not meant to bean e+haustive s!nthesis of increasingl! speciali#ed and diversifiedresearch. & have rather presented a sketch of what & think is essentialto understand and appreciate4 the saint's life and writings. 1eadersfamiliar with m! earlier work on Jerome will reali#e that & haves!nthesi#ed m! doctoral dissertation on Hieronymus und sein Kreis, published ten !ears ago in German, and some of m! othercontributions to the international debate about Jerome.

) final word ma! be said concerning the translations. ) selection ofwritings from an author as prolific as Jerome must alwa!s be biased.ut & hope the reader will get at least an idea of the wide spectrumand ama#ing variet! of Jerome's literar! production. & have decidednot to render once again the famous te+ts that have often been $uotedand translated 5e.g. letter 66 on the 2reservation of 7irginit!, letter89: on the *eath of 2aula, or the Life of 2aul the /irst ermit;, butrather to translate some important, but less well-known passages. &have repeatedl! relied upon the te+t of the Nicene and Post-NiceneFathers, which & have altered now and then, since it is an established

translation that has influenced man! modern 3nglish versions. "hecommentar! is written for a non-specialist audience. "he shortintroductions, however, place the te+ts within Jerome's oeuvre andreflect upon the scholarl! discussion.

ver the !ears, & have received help and encouragement from friendsand colleagues who have read bits and pieces of what & have publishedon Jerome. <ome of them have also commented on earlier drafts ofthis book. &n particular, & should like to thank 2eter eather, )dam=amesar, Wolfram =in#ig, Neil %cL!nn, and

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%ark 7esse!. %an! thanks too to =at>a ?r and (hristian echtold,who have read and improved the t!pescript. John %atthews and 2etereather gave me the opportunit! to discuss some parts of thebiographical introduction in a classics seminar at Yale @niversit! inspring 6999 the audience made man! helpful observations and



suggestions that have been gratefull! received. "omas ?gg kindl!invited me to a meeting of the Nordiskt patristiskt textseminarium atergen in %a! 6999 to give a paper on Jerome's desert period and tostud! the correspondence between Jerome and )ugustine. & shouldlike to e+press m! gratitude to the universit! of ergen and the

participants of the seminar for a highl! stimulating, but at the sametime en>o!able sta! in Norwa!. Last, but not least, it is m! pleasurabletask to thank (arol arrison and 1ichard <toneman, who asked me towrite this book man! !ears ago and waited patientl! for the t!pescript."he! have also saved me from man! errors and much inelegance.

<tefan 1ebenich %arch 6998

%annheim

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Part IINTRODUCTION

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1

FROM STRIDON TO AQUILEIABetween Career and Conversion

%en of letters often make their wa! into the civil service.

<!mmachus

)t the end of the fourth centur! )*, Jerome contemplated writing ahistor! in which he would show how the church during this period

Aincreased in influence and in wealth but decreased in virtue'.8

&n thecourse of his lifetime, Jerome e+perienced the rapid transformation ofthe (hristian church in 1oman societ! and the (hristiani#ation of theimperial government. )fter the end of the Great 2ersecution 5B88; andespeciall! from the moment of (onstantine's promotion of the newreligion 5B86-8B;, the (hristian communities ac$uired legal privilegesand financial benefits from the emperor. "he bishops, who receivedrights of civil >urisdiction, gained much power and influence in the

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cities. %ore and more members of the urban and provincial elites wereattracted b! the prospect of an ecclesiastical career, and man! of theordinar! people in the cities were (hristiani#ed b! the second half ofthe fourth centur!. (hristian communities flourished, new churcheswere erected, institutions of charit! were founded. (hristian culture,

based upon the ible and traditional learning, became more elaborate,better-off (hristians travelled to the hol! places in 2alestine, and theascetic movement fascinated man! true believers.

)t the same time, (hristian congregations all over the 1oman 3mpirewere fragmented through religious divisions. 7iolence and intimidationwere fre$uent, and man! cities saw riots over the election of a bishop.6 &n )frica, where (hristianit! was strong, the dispute between (atholicand *onatist parties forced (onstantine to intervene soon after hebecame senior ruler 5B86;. "he conflict started when the latter grouprefused to accept the bishop of (arthage in about B88 on the groundsthat his consecrator had surrendered the <criptures in the

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*iocletianic persecution. &n spite of several interventions of the state,the schism persisted during the fourth centur!. *uring his reign,(onstantine was also confronted with the teaching of )rius, a priest of)le+andria, who distinguished the divine status of God the /ather fromthat of the <on. is doctrine was strongl! opposed and condemned b!other theologians. "he contending parties, however, appealed to

(onstantine who summoned, in B6C, the (ouncil of Nicaea 5now &#nik;to settle the dispute. "here, the opponents of )rianism defined the(atholic faith in the consubstantialit! of /ather and <on, using thefamous term homoousios. "he emperor took an active part in thediscussion since his polic! was to unite the (hristian church to thesecular state in order to stabili#e the newl! unified 3mpire. "hus, heenforced the homoousios formula, condemned )rius, and deposed twoinsubordinate bishops. ut, soon, (onstantine began to waver andbanished some prominent advocates of the Nicene (reed. "herefore,the )rian $uestion was not solved and remained open until "heodosiusimplemented a strictl! Nicene definition of orthodo+! at the beginningof the B:9s.

When Jerome was born in BDE, B )thanasius, the ferocious chiefopponent of )rianism, had >ust returned from e+ile to his see in)le+andria. "he influence of (onstantine's son, (onstans, who ruledthe western part of the 3mpire, helped to restore him against the willof his brother (onstantius, emperor in the east, who openl! embraced









)rianism. D Jerome grew up in an obscure town called <tridon, whichwas located somewhere on the border between the 1oman provincesof *almatia and 2annonia and within eas! reach of )$uileia and 3mona5L>ubl>anaFLaibach;. C Later, when he ardentl! campaigned forasceticism, he complained about the rusticit! and religious indifference

that were to be found in his own countr!4 A%en's onl! God is theirbell!. 2eople live onl! for the da!, and the richer !ou are the moresaintl! !ou are held to be.' )lthough Jerome's parents were(hristians, who took care that he had been, as a bab!, Anourished on(atholic milk', E he was not bapti#ed as a child in <tridon, but as a!oung man in 1ome. &n those da!s, baptism was postponed untilmaturit!, or even until one's deathbed, for fear of the responsibilitiesincurred b! it. )ugustine and Jerome's friends, 1ufinus and eliodorus,are parallel cases. :

Jerome's father 3usebius, like so man! other parents, both (hristianand pagan, invested in the tuition of his son to prepare the ground fora future career. "he famil! owned propert! around <tridon and waswell off slaves belonged to the household and nurses took care of thechildren. We hear of a !ounger brother named 2aulinianus and

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a sister. Later, Jerome recalled to memor! how he romped about the!oung servants' cells, how he spent his holida!s in pla!, and how hehad to be dragged like a captive from his grandmother's lap to the

lessons of his enraged teacher.H

Jerome ma! have attended theelementar! school in his hometown. "he s!llabus was rather modestand consisted of reading and writing and some arithmetic. We knowfrom )ugustine's Confessions that late anti$ue teaching was not ver!sophisticated. 2upils were forced to chant Ane and one are two, twoand two are four' the main stimulus was the ferula 5the cane;, andeducational theor! focused on coercion and punishment. 89 AWho isthere who would not recoil in horror and choose death, if he was askedto choose between d!ing and going back to his childhoodI' 88 Jeromewould certainl! have >oined in the lamentation of the aged bishop ofippo.

<till, the detestable e+perience of primar! school was the first steptowards the advanced education that was the privilege of the elites ofthe 1oman 3mpire, and a classical training was of vital importance forrecruitment into the imperial bureaucrac!. )mbitious and affluentparents were prepared to send their children first to the school of therammaticus, who advanced the stud! of language and literature, and



























then, at the age of fifteen or si+teen, to the rhetor, who introduced thestudents into the theor! and practice of declamation. "here were, ofcourse, remarkable regional and social differences in these schools.Whereas )ugustine's father, a member of the municipal council of"hagaste in Numidia, was hardl! able to pa! for his son's education in

North )frica, Jerome was allowed to go to 1ome to attend the classesof the best teachers the Latin speaking world could provide. %an!!ears later, Jerome mentioned in a letter to a !oung monk from"oulouse that the latter's mother, when sending her son to 1ome,spared no e+pense and consoled herself for her son's absence b! thethought of the future that la! before him. 86 Jerome's father was alsoprepared to make the economic sacrifice, since he was convinced thate+clusive tuition would be the ke! to his son's success. "hree other!oung provincial careerists >oined Jerome in 1ome4 his friend onosus,who came from <tridon or a neighbouring village, 1ufinus of (oncordia5close to )$uileia;, and eliodorus of )ltinum. )ll of them were(hristians, en>o!ed their student life, but also visited the shrines of themart!rs and the )postles on <unda!s. 8B )fter the! had finished theirstudies, the fellow-pupils remained in close contact.

&n Athe renowned cit!, the capital of the 1oman 3mpire', 8D Jerome wastaught b! the famous grammarian )elius *onatus, 8C and then

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went to a 1oman school of rhetoric. is student !ears in 1ome were

essential to his intellectual formation. )ll his later work reveals thebrilliant pupil who is proud of his language, st!le, and dialectic. eclosel! studied the classics and ma! have picked up some Greek. 8 Whether he had alread! followed lectures on philosoph! in 1ome isdifficult to sa!. ut when he left the !rbs, he was undoubtedl! wellac$uainted with the traditional canon of Latin authors who areubi$uitous throughout his oeuvre. Jerome also started to build up withimmense #eal and labour his own librar!, which, though initiall!restricted to classical authors, soon also housed (hristian te+ts. 8E

"he provincial parvenu shared his bibliophil! with (hristian senators,who stored in their libraries copies of classical te+ts and magnificentmanuscripts of the ible. 8: 1ome, the centre of the old senatorialaristocrac!, also offered Jerome the possibilit! of getting in touch withinfluential friends, amici maiores, who were alwa!s important for socialpromotion. e and his friends from northern &tal! met the !oungaristocrat 2ammachius, who belonged to the illustrious ens Furia, andperhaps %elania the 3lder, whose husband was prefect of 1ome from
























B8 to BB. oth Jerome and 1ufinus profited through all their lifefrom the contacts with the (hristian nobilit! of 1ome that the! hadestablished during their !ears of stud! at the end of the BC9s and thebeginning of the B9s.

&t was now up to Jerome, bene uti litteris, as )ugustine once said, 8H tomake the best out of his education. ence, Jerome, after hisgraduation, moved, together with his friend onosus, to )ugusta"reverorum 5"rier;. )lthough Jerome does not tell us the motives forthis >ourne! to Gaul in his later writings, there cannot be an! doubtthat the two !oung men intended to make careers in "rier, which wasat that time both an imperial residence and an administrative centre.&n )usonius' "he #rder of Famous Cities, written c$B::-H, "rier comessi+th, after 1ome, (onstantinople, (arthage, )ntioch, )le+andria, and >ust ahead of %ilan. 69 "he tetrarchs had based the Gallic prefecturethere, and, throughout the fourth centur!, it accommodated variousemperors and their entourages. 7alentinian &, who was electedemperor in Nicaea in /ebruar! BD, reached "rier in ctober BE,where he concentrated on frontier defence, fought against the)lamanni, and rebuilt the fortifications on the 1hine. <oon after hisarrival, )usonius, who had been teaching grammar and rhetoric inurdigala 5ordeau+; for B9 !ears, was summoned to "rier andappointed tutor of the emperor's son and heir, Gratian. 7alentinianwas known for promoting professors and bureaucrats, and, after hisdeath in BEC, )usonius went on to en>o! a remarkable career,

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securing famil! and friends positions of influence at the imperial court.e himself gained a praetorian prefecture and the consulship of BEH. 68

"he ambitious and talented son of a rich landowner in <tridon musthave hoped that the liberal arts he had studied in 1ome would helphim to get a post in the imperial bureaucrac!. <uch an appointmentwas the passport to success and ascent into the governing classes. &tseems that Jerome decided to go to the right place at the right time.7alentinian's court was an important cultural and political centre in thewest and a catal!st of social mobilit!, where an e+clusive group of newfunctionaries was formed. <ervice at court promised economic successand social prestige, offered relative securit!, and could even promotethe Acourtier' to the highest ranks of the 3mpire.

)s we know, Jerome did not end as a bureaucrat at the imperial court."he intended career was abruptl! stopped through a religious











awakening. What happened nce again, we have no testimon! fromJerome himself, who onl! mentions some !ears later that hepurchased (hristian te+ts and theological treatises for his ever-growing librar!. 66 ) revealing account of a conversion at "rier is alsoto be found in )ugustine's Confessions% that of two court officials,

aentes in rebus, who, while walking through the gardens on thefringe of "rier, happened to meet two hermits who possessed a cop! ofthe &ife of 'ntony b! )thanasius. 6B "he two friends were captivated b!the inspirational biograph! and spontaneousl! decided to embrace anascetic life, giving up their worldl! emplo!ment (militia saecularis) toserve God. AWhat is our motive in doing service (an our hopes incourt rise higher than to be friends of the emperor (amici principis)'the! asked, and came to the conclusion that the! should Abecome afriend of God (amicus dei).' 6D &t has been suggested that the office-holders mentioned in )ugustine were Jerome and onosus. 6C "hisingenious h!pothesis cannot be confirmed, especiall! since )ugustine'sst!li#ed stor! describes an e+emplar! conversion. ut Jerome'swithdrawal from the imperial service ma! be imagined in a similarwa!. &n "rier, he could have come across the popular Latin version ofthe &ife of 'ntony, which spread through the west, and ma! havee+perienced new forms of (hristian living in an area where, in thoseda!s, the first monasteries were founded.

is dedication to the ascetic life was a ma>or event, powerful andoverwhelming. ut, in his later work, Jerome did not reflect upon hisconversion. &nstead, he describes another episode that has alwa!s

fascinated later generations4 his famous dream. We find an impressiveaccount of this event in letter 66, which encouraged the !oung

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1oman lad! 3ustochium to devote herself to virginit! and warned heragainst overestimating the relevance of classical education4

%an! !ears ago when, for the kingdom of heaven's sake, & had cutm!self off from home, parents, sister, relations, and, what was harder,from the daint! food to which & had been accustomed, and when & wason m! wa! to Jerusalem to wage m! warfare, & still could not bringm!self to forego the librar! which & had formed for m!self at 1omewith great care and labour. )nd so, miserable man that & was, & wouldfast onl! that & might afterwards read (icero. )fter man! nights spentin vigil, after floods of tears called from m! inmost heart in recollectionof m! past sins, & would once more take up 2lautus. )nd when attimes & returned to m! right mind and began to read the prophets,















their st!le seemed rude and repellent. With m! blinded e!es & couldnot see the light but & attributed the fault not to them, but to the sun.While the old serpent was thus making me his pla!thing, about themiddle of Lent a fever attacked m! weakened bod!, and while itdestro!ed m! rest completel!0the stor! seems hardl! credible0it so

wasted m! unhapp! frame that m! bones scarcel! held together.%eantime, preparations for m! funeral went on m! bod! grewgraduall! colder, and the warmth of life lingered onl! in m! poorthrobbing breast. <uddenl! & was caught up in the spirit and draggedbefore the >udgment seat of the Judge and here the light was sobright, and those who stood around were so radiant, that & cast m!selfupon the ground and did not dare to look up. & was asked to state m!condition and replied4 A& am a (hristian.' ut he who presided said4 AYou lie, !ou are a follower of (icero and not of (hrist (Ciceronianuses, non Christianus). /or where !our treasure is, there will !our heartbe also 5cf. %atthew .68;.' &nstantl!, & became dumb, and amid thestrokes of the lash0for he had ordered me to be scourged0& was evenmore severel! tortured b! the fire of conscience, considering withm!self that verse, A&n the grave who will give !ou thanks' 52salm.C;. Yet for all that & began to cr! and to lament, sa!ing4 Aave merc!upon me, Lord4 have merc! upon me.' )mid the sound of thescourges m! voice made itself heard. )t last the b!standers, fallingdown before the knees of him who presided, pra!ed that he wouldhave pit! on m! !outh and that he would give me opportunit! to

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repent of m! error, on the agreement that torture should be inflictedon me, if & ever again read the works of gentile authors. @nder thestress of that awful moment, & should have been willing to make stilllarger promises than these. )ccordingl! & took an oath and called uponhis name, sa!ing4 ALord, if ever again & possess worldl! books or readthem, & have denied !ou.' )fter taking this oath & was dismissed andreturned to the upper world. "here, to the surprise of all, & openedagain e!es so drenched with tears that m! distress served to convinceeven the incredulous. "hat this was no sleep nor idle dream, such asoften mock us, & call to witness the tribunal before which & fell downand the verdict which & feared. %a! it never be m! lot again to comebefore such a courtI & profess that m! shoulders were black and blue,that & felt the bruises long after & awoke from m! sleep, and thathenceforth & read the books of God with a greater #eal than & hadpreviousl! given to the books of men. 6






*omine, si um+uam habuero codices saeculares, si leero, te neai 0ALord, if ever again & possess worldl! books or read them, & havedenied !ou.' &t is obvious that Jerome lied0without blushing inembarrassment. f course he read pagan authors after his vow. 6E <till, this dramatic stor!, full of classical rhetoric, might reflect a real

e+perience, which Jerome later inserted into and embellished in histreatise on virginit!. "he e+act setting and date of the celebrateddream is controversial. <ome place it at the beginning of the BE9s at)ntioch on the rontes, others three or four !ears later in the desertof (halcis. "here is, however, reason to think that this episodeoccurred in "rier when Jerome reali#ed that his initial ambitions of asecular career, and his new !earning for an ascetic life, could not cometogether. 6: is conversion was followed b! the radical negation of hisformer conduct and implied the revocation of his classical 5i.e. Agentile'; education and the subse$uent stud! of the ible and(hristian authors. "he dream's narrative, in other words, focuses onthe one conse$uence of the ascetic reorientation that was mostagoni#ing for Jerome, who was a traditionall! trained intellectual andhighl! talented writer. We ma! conclude that this magnificent piece ofshowmanship refers to Jerome's decision to serve God taken in "rier inabout BE9.

)fter his conversion, Jerome sta!ed for some time in northern &tal!.We are not able to reconstruct his itinerar! and the chronolog! of thisperiod, but, from the scattered evidence, it can be deduced that hewished, and tried, to live a life according to ascetic ideals, and

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established contacts with like-minded (hristians. "hus, he got in touchwith a monastic circle at )$uileia, the capital of the province of 7enetiaand &stria. )fter 1ome and "rier, it was again an urban centre thatattracted Jerome. thers followed in due course4 )ntioch on therontes, (onstantinople, and 1ome again. "he first decades of his lifewere formed through sta!s in ma>or cities and imperial residences.

*uring the second half of the fourth centur!, northern &tal! andsouthern Gaul saw the growth of the ascetic movement and thedevelopment of monastic life. (hurch politicians, pilgrims, and e+iles0)thanasius and 2eter of )le+andria, ilar! of 2oitiers and 3usebius of7ercelli0either leaving or returning from the east brought a wealth ofinformation into the west and conve!ed different eastern models ofascetic living. "he eremitic tradition of asceticism represented b! theLatin translation of the &ife of 'ntony mentioned above now became









immensel! influential. )scetic conduct turned out to be more austere,seclusion from communal life was demanded, and spiritual perfectionin solitar! contemplation re$uired. "he contemporar! debate onorthodo+! and the )rian conflict also had a strong impact on theascetic movement, since the fight against heres! and self-imposed

ascetic perfection were interrelated, and ascetic propaganda wasmanipulated for ecclesiastical politics. &n this environment, a new t!peof church politician appeared4 the Amonk-bishop'. )s we can, forinstance, deduce from the &ife of artin b! <ulpicius <everus, themoine-./+ue combined pastoral and ascetic life, defended theorthodo+ tradition, and was vested with spiritual authorit!. 6H Jerome'sfurther career, which led him to become one of the most influential(hristian writers of his time, is onl! to be understood in the conte+t ofthe gradual emergence of occidental monasticism.

/rom an entr! in Jerome's Chronicle, we learn that, in the !ear BED, agroup of clerics founded a monaster! in )$uileia. "heir monasticprogramme was perhaps influenced b! the coenobitic communit! that3usebius, the bishop of 7ercelli, had introduced upon his return frome+ile. B9 Jerome and his friends communicated with ascetic clerics andmonks in the region of )$uileia, 7ercelli, (oncordia, and 3mona. B8 )ver! close ac$uaintance was the presb!ter (hromatius, a learnedscholar, who seems to have lived together with his relatives in aninformall! organi#ed ascetic communit!. (hromatius' widowed motherdenied herself a second marriage, and his sisters vowed themselves tovirginit!. <uch $uasi-monastic households were popular at this time

among pious (hristians in northern &tal!. (hromatius' brother, thedeacon 3usebius, instructed 1ufinus, Jerome's fellow-

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student< !or 0a"tism= 32 At the 0einnin o! the 35s< Aquileia was a stronhold o! icene orthodox( and the 0isho" 9alerian ained much in!luence< since Milan< thenear0( im"erial residence< was controlled 0( the &omoeans< an Arian "art( that was led 0( the 0isho" Auxentius= 33 8ven a!ter havin moved to the east< erome remained in

touch with the Aquileian circle< whose other mem0ers were the archdeacon ovinus< thesu0deacon iceas< and the monk Chr(socomas= A!ter his conversion< eromeimmediatel( 0uilt u" a network o! in!luential clerics 0ased u"on ascetic commitmentand orthodox >eal= The !orm and intention o! these "ersonal contacts remainedtraditional= The asceticall( orientated Christians !rom the educated classes< like their "aan com"eers< 0anded toether with their social equals and looked !or "ower!ul "atrons= .ld !riends were used !or esta0lishin new !riendshi"s= erome;s seventh letterto Chromatius and his !amil( shows that the com0ination o! the ascetic "ro!ession and



















the 0attle aainst heterodox( was the "rinci"al constituent o! this interconnection= #haterome missed in his own countr(< he !ound in Aquileia: ?Thouh ever( da( (oucon!ess Christ 0( kee"in his commandments< (ou have added to this "rivate lor( the "u0lic !ame o! an o"en con!ession< and it was 0( (our e!!orts in the "ast that the "oisono! the Arian heres( was ex"elled !rom (our cit(=; 3$

)urin his sta( in northern ,tal(< erome intensi!ied his commitment to the asceticmovement and 0ecame acquainted with diverent "atterns o! ascetic livin= SomeChristians sta(ed toether as clerics in monastic or quasi'monastic rou"s< some!ounded coeno0itic communities !ul!illin ascetic commitment< and others "ursued theirreliious "er!ection in eremitic "rivation= The ascetic convert souht a !orm o! asceticlivin that a""eared to him to 0e acce"ta0le= At the same time< his new com"anions inAquileia introduced him to the correlation 0etween Christian learnin< asceticism< andorthodox( +i=e= the icene de!inition o! orthodox(-= All those not willin to endorse hisinter"retation o! a Christian li!e were ostraci>ed< like the rustic inha0itants andlukewarm Christians o! his hometown Stridon= 7re"ared in such a wa(< erome decided

suddenl( to o on a "ilrimae to erusalem=

'11'

ANTIOC! AND C!ALCIST"e Ma#in$ o% an As&eti& C"a'(ion

La force de ses tentations me fait plus d'envie $ue sa pKnitence ne me

fait peur.

Nicolas (hamfort

&n the earl! BE9s, Jerome, accompanied b! some friends, left northern&tal! and set out for the east. "rouble with his relatives, who ma! havebeen deepl! disappointed at the complete failure of his secular career,and $uarrels within the )$uileian group of devout clerics about thebest possible form of ascetic self-fulfilment forced Jerome to embarkon a pilgrimage to the east and to Jerusalem. e decided to take hislarge personal librar! of pagan authors and (hristian te+ts with him.Jerusalem, a %ecca of (hristian pilgrims for some time alread!, wasbeginning to attract monastic and ascetic aspirants. 8 ut the would-bemonachus perfectus got onl! as far as )ntioch on the rontes. ereached the residence of the eastern emperor 7alens as a broken man,e+hausted and fever-stricken0in his own words4 A<!ria presented itselfto me, as a secure haven to a ship-wrecked sailor.' 6 "he haven wasthe household of his wealth! and powerful friend 3vagrius, whom he












had met earlier in )$uileia and who now received him with open armsand provided him with a roof. B 3vagrius of )ntioch ranked among theclass of local councillors (curiales) and >oined the imperial servicewhere he e+erted some influence. )fter he was dismissed from hisprovincial office, he entered the church and was ordained a priest b!

the bishop 3usebius of 7ercelli, who brought him to &tal! where he gotinvolved in various ecclesiastical affairs. /or a Greek speaker, he hadan e+traordinar! command of Latin and translated into his languagethe &ife of 'ntony . 3vagrius' e+ample illustrates the continuation of asecular career in the church4 in B::, he was made bishop of his nativecit! )ntioch. <uch

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an ecclesiastical ?reorientation; was not exce"tional !or a man o! his standin andwealth=

The rich "atron 8varius< who had su""orted erome< his "rot@@< in northern ,tal(<returned to his home in Antioch on a di"lomatic mission !rom )amasus< 0isho" o!%ome= There is reason to think that erome and his !riends travelled toether with8varius throuh the Balkans< reece< Thrace< and Asia Minor to Antioch= ,n thecom!orta0le Antiochene household< however< the "lanned "ilrimae to erusalem wasto 0e "ost"oned inde!initel(= erome< havin reained his health and ood tem"er<instead im"roved his understandin o! s"oken and written reek< the lanuae o! theur0an elites< studied "hiloso"hical and theoloical treatises !rom 8varius; well'equi""ed li0rar(< learnt more a0out the so"histicated controversies concernin thedoctrine o! the Trinit( then trou0lin the eastern churches< anda!ter some rather "leasant monthssecluded himsel! in the desert o! Chalcis to "ractise asceticism=

The !ollowin two or three (ears in the wilderness are su""osed to have trans!ormed theascetic neo"h(te into an ascetic cham"ion= 8cclesiastical art< devotional literature< andmodern scholarshi" have created the imae o! a "enitent recluse= $ ?ike the otherhermits he earned his dail( livin as a cra!tsman in the sweat o! his 0row<; wrote eorrt>macher< erome;s 7rotestant 0iora"her< at the 0einnin o! the twentieth centur(=* The Catholic Ferdinand Cavallera was at least dis"osed to 0elieve that ?la solitude desaint @rDme; was ?"lus encore morale que mat@rielle<; / and ==)= Eell(< re"resentin

the Anlican church< thouht that erome !ound his home in ?a natural cave in therocks;< where he ex"erienced ?the harsh realit(; o! a trolod(te= All o! these accountso! erome;s ascetic secessus are misleadin since the( unhistoricall( tr( to harmoni>ehis desert sta( with the conce"t o! total isolation "ractised 0( eastern hermits and "ictured< !or exam"le< in Athanasius; Life of Anton$ and in Theodoret;s Historia

religiosa= erome himsel! descri0ed< and "raised< the sel!'den(in eastern asceticism inhis ama>inl( "o"ular and entertainin novels on various desert heroes= &is "rimar(





















em"hasis was on the need !or "overt( and withdrawal< and he was invitin westernreaders to oin what amounted to a new societ(< and to !eel no loner at a loss a0outtheir ascetic as"irations< 0ut to !ollow the !irm exam"le set 0( ascetic "ioneers=

et us !irst discuss erome;s domicile= Chalcis< also called Chalcis ad Belum or< in thelanuae o! the native "o"ulation< GinnesHn +?eale;s nest;-< lies on the 0order 0etweennorthern S(ria and the reion west o! the 8u"hrates= 4 Toda(< some ruins o! theacro"olis< lower town<

'13'

and cemeter! are still e+tant. &n Jerome's time, (halcis was animportant strategic point in the 1oman defence s!stem of the provinceof <!ria and an economic centre, through which ma>or caravan routespassed. &t was located CC miles east-south-east of the <!rian capital)ntioch and 8E miles south-west of )leppo 5alebFerrhoea;. <o, ithas been argued that Jerome e+posed himself to the scorching sun inthe menacing desert which began a few miles to the south-east of(halcis. H

is own letters written in this period, however, portra! a differentrealit!. "he! give ample evidence that, during his sta! in the solitudoSyriae Chalcidis, he was never completel! secluded from the outsideworld. e was still in touch with 3vagrius, who often visited him andserved as a postman delivering letters and parcels. 89 Jerome

maintained his correspondence with his friends at )$uileia, e+changedepistles with /lorentinus, a wealth! western monk residing inJerusalem with whom he had corresponded from )ntioch, 88 and hewrote two e+cited letters to *amasus asking for theological advice andspiritual direction. 86 bscure as he then was, Jerome mentioned his patronus 3vagrius, who was an ideological confidant of the 1omanbishop. Jerome also ensured that a runawa! slave of /lorentinus wassent back to his master. %oreover, he made several efforts to ac$uireinteresting books. &n a letter, for e+ample, he asked /lorentinus tohave their mutual friend 1ufinus send him the commentaries of1eticius, bishop of )utun, on the <ong of <ongs, and return thetranscript of ilar!'s e+planation of the 2salms and work #n theSynods that he had copied for him at "rier. Ne+t, he begged/lorentinus to get transcribed b! a cop!ist certain books he did notpossess. )s compensation, Jerome offered to provide an! work,especiall! on <cripture, he desired4 A)nd since, through the Lord'sbount!, & am rich in volumes of the sacred librar!, !ou ma! commandme in turn. & will send !ou what !ou please and do not suppose that




















the bishop of 1ome whom he effusivel! praised and to whom hepromised his lo!alt!. 69

bviousl!, the priests, monks, and hermits around (halcis consideredJerome an unwelcome guest. When he preached the consubstantial

"rinit!, the! ostraci#ed him when he subscribed to their statement ofbelief, the! did not trust him. &n the end, even the orthodo+ ma>orit!accused him of being a heretic. e bitterl! complained4 A3ver! da! &am asked for m! confession of faith, as though when & wasregenerated in baptism & had made none. & accept their formulas, butthe! are still dissatisfied. & sign m! name to them, but the! still refuseto believe me. ne thing onl! will content them, that & should leavethis place. &'m on the point of departure. MO &t is preferable to liveamong wild beasts rather than with (hristians such as these.' 68 2eoplewere anno!ed b! this western partisan of 2aulinus, who continued hiscorrespondence throughout the world and was >oined, ama#ingl!enough, b! a group of cop!ists and was supported

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b! the )ntiochene curialis 3vagrius. No wonder that all the! wantedwas for Jerome to go awa!0and, eventuall!, he, with his close friends,made the >ourne! back to )ntioch.

)n unbiased e+amination of Jerome's contemporar! evidence about hisbrief period in the desert of (halcis shows that he did not live the life

of a heroic hermit incessantl! struggling against vices and sensualit!.e did not take up residence in the most inaccessible wilderness, butin a place where he could maintain relations with his patron and with&talian friends and establish new contacts. is residence was obviousl!situated on the road that led from )ntioch to (halcis. &t is ver! likel!that he sta!ed at an estate of 3vagrius' called %aronia, less than thirt!miles from )ntioch. 66 "he propert! probabl! belonged to the district of(halcis and was perhaps located on a rock! plateau that runs south ofthe town of &mma and is known b! the name 0ebel 1aricha. "he rich)ntiochene priest 3vagrius, who s!mpathi#ed with the asceticmovement, seems to have allowed Jerome, along with his friends andalumni, to practise their ascetic ideals in %aronia.

ut, how does this h!pothesis fit with Jerome's description of hisdesert domicile as solitude (solitudo), desert (desertum), andwilderness (eremus). What do these words mean "he! refer to aplace where Jerome could reali#e his ascetic proposal (propositum), and the! underline the contrast with the tumultuous urban life that












Jerome had e+perienced, and en>o!ed, in )ntioch and in other ma>orcities of the 1oman 3mpire. A2nterpretare ocabulum monachi, hoc estnomen tuum% +uid facis in turba, +ui solus est% (onsider the meaningof the word PmonkQ, that is !our name4 What are !ou doing in thecrowd, who should sta! alone' 6B , he wrote to eliodorus at )ltinum

in northern &tal!, urging him to >oin him in the desert. <ome !earslater, he advised 2aulinus of Nola4 A)bandon cities and their throng,live on a small patch of ground, seek (hrist in solitude.' 6D "he perfectmonk has to avoid the bus! cities, the urbium fre+uentia, 6C and retireto a calm refuge where, Afar awa! from the crowds (procul a turbisremotus),' 6 he can find God through pra!er and contemplation. &n hisferocious polemic 'ainst 0ohn of 0erusalem, written in BHE, Jeromestated that he had forsaken the famous cit! of )ntioch to weep overthe sins of his !outh and draw upon himself the merc! of (hrist A inaris et in solitudine% in the countr!side and in solitude.' 6E "he great<!rian metropolis, after 1ome and )le+andria the third largest cit! inthe oi-koumene, with nearl! 699,999 inhabitants, offered a thrilling lifeand man! sophisticated pleasures but it was no place for an ambitious

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ascetic novice. <o, Jerome e+changed his urban ita actia in )ntiochfor a ita contemplatia in the hinterland, which he called solitude anddesert.

/or the same reason, John (hr!sostom left )ntioch in BEC to >oin a

monastic communit! on %ount <ilpius close to the cit! and to bringhimself to perfection under the guidance of an old <!rian. "here>ection of the bod! implied the re>ection of the patria, A) monkcannot be perfect in his own countr!,' 6: and the re>ection of theciitas, the urban centre of ancient civili#ation. "he true ascetic,Jerome suggested, must break completel! with his famil!, renounce allhis possessions, and, above all, live in solitude4 A"hose living in a cit!are not (hristians (+uicum+ue in ciitate sunt, Christiani non sunt).' 6H /rom the beginning of anti$uit!, urban living had distinguished thecivili#ed from ever!thing savage, rustic, and barbarous. Jerome'swithdrawal from )ntioch implied a reversal of the traditional values hehad previousl! held.

)lthough his interpretation of asceticism involved man! featurest!pical of the east, and especiall! of 3g!pt, Jerome felt attracted to thecompan! of others, to Athe heavenl! famil! here on earth.' B9 )mongthe various competitive forms of ascetic life, Jerome thus decidedagainst the radical seclusion and repudiation of the world, an idea later





























&t was onl! when powerful opposition forced him to leave 1ome, insummer B:C, BB that he shifted his ground again. &n a letter, hedescribed in great detail the attraction and beaut! of rural life. "here isnothing like this in 1ome, with its hurr!, the fur! of the arena, themadness of the circus, the profligac! of the theatre, not even in the

dail! meetings of pious matrons. e $uoted "ertullian 3habeat sibiRoma suos tumultus4 . BD ere, a frustrated Jerome is revelling inreminiscence of an e+istence far removed from urban civili#ation. uthis willingness to tolerate a cit! life was not abandoned, onl! modified.&n several letters written in ethlehem, he did not cease praising thehousehold asceticism he had encountered in 1ome. 2aulinus of Nola,the 1oman lad! /uria, <alvina, daughter-in-law of the powerful%oorish officer Gildo and resident in (onstantinople, and others inGaul and <pain4 the! were all to practise ascetic perfection at home.)lthough he stressed that the essence of monastic life is povert! andsolitude, awa! from the cit!, BC he often recommended householdasceticism and coenobitic life as worth! preparation for the eremiticlife and, sometimes, for ordination to the priesthood. &t was nottheological insecurit!, as has been suggested, B that led Jerome todifferent answers to the $uestion4 Aow should an ascetic live', butthe individual e+pectations and re$uests of his audience. Jerome'sconcept of ascetic life was not onl! theologicall! motivated, but alsoaimed at winning the supporters and patrons who were alwa!sessential for him.

&n 1ome, he had started propagating his $ualities as an ascetic master

and spiritual leader. Whereas the interpretation of virginit! proposedb! (!prian, *amasus, and )mbrose was stamped with the authorit! ofepiscopate, BE Jerome had to refer to his personal e+perience to

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enforce his discourse. "hus, he summari#ed his period in thewilderness in a passage often $uoted4 B:

h, how often, when & was living in the desert (heremus), in the vastsolitude (asta solitudo), scorched b! the burning sun, which offersmonks a savage dwelling place, how often did & imagine m!self backamong the pleasures of 1ome. & used to sit alone because & was filledwith bitterness. %! unshapel! limbs were covered in sackcloth and m!skin from long neglect had become as black as an 3thiopian's. "earsand groans were ever! da! m! portion and if sleep chanced toovercome m! struggles against it, & bruised m! bare bones, whichhardl! held together, against the ground.





















e had no companions but scorpions and wild beasts. e slept on thebare ground, drank onl! water, and spurned cooked foods as anunacceptable lu+ur!. e mortified a bod! tormented b! visions ofdancing girls. e subdued his rebellious flesh with weeks of fasting.

& remember MJerome continuesO cr!ing out for da!s and nightstogether and & ceased not from beating m! breast till tran$uillit!returned to me at the Lord's rebuke. & used to dread m! small cell asthough it knew m! thoughts. <tern and angr! with m!self, & used tomake m! wa! alone into the desert. Wherever & saw hollow valle!s,rough mountains, steep cliffs, there & made m! place of pra!er andtortured m! unhapp! flesh. "he Lord himself is m! witness, that, after& had shed man! tears and had fi+ed m! e!es on heaven, & sometimesfound m!self among angelic hosts. )nd in >o! and gladness & sang4 AWe will run after !ou because of the savour of !our good ointments.'5<ong of <ongs 8.B;.

"his touching portrait impressed not onl! the 1oman ladies, but alsogenerations of clerg!men, artists, and scholars. &t is found in the mostfamous of all his letters, de irinitate seranda, addressed to the!oung 1oman aristocrat Julia 3ustochium. &n fact, a fairl! largetreatise, this epistola la!s down the motives that should inspire thosewho devote themselves to a life of virginit!, and also the rules b!which the! ought to regulate their dail! conduct. &t is brilliant in st!le,full of rhetorical displa!, and deals with a whole variet! of relatedthemes. "he letter must be read in the conte+t of the ascetic campaign

that Jerome was carr!ing on in B:B and B:D, with the

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a""roval o! the %oman 0isho"< not onl( amon his circles o! devout ladies 0ut in %omeat lare= erome was usin this e"istle as a "lat!orm !or settin out his challenin "roramme o! !emale asceticism< and also !or "resentin himsel! as an ex"ert in asceticuidance= &e there!ore denounced his numerous rivals< who were also com"etin !or the!avour and !ortunes o! the %oman patronae% as would'0e Christians< worldl( cler( or

charlatans "osin as ascetics= And he de"icted his des"erate strule !or "er!ection andaainst tem"tation when he dedicated himsel! to the ascetic li!e= 8loquent reminiscenceso! his time in the desert o! Chalcis and his !amous dream and outriht reection o!classical culture 36 are inserted in the letter= 8lsewhere< he even ave an asceticex"lanation o! his initiative to learn &e0rew: ?#hen , was a (oun man walled 0( thesolitude o! the desert< , could not resist the "rom"tins o! vice and the !ire o! m( nature=, tried to crush them 0( re"eated !astin< m( mind was in a turmoil with sin!ul thouhts=To 0rin it under control< , made m(sel! the "u"il o! a Christian convert !rom udaism=;






$5

Since onl( a man o! rich ascetic ex"erience could o0tain the "osition o! an ascetic uideto no0le men and women< erome did not hesitate to recast the stor( o! his desertsolitude in Chalcis so that it smoothl( !itted into the ascetic ideas and "ractices he

"assionatel( cam"ained !or in %ome and< later< in Bethlehem= Acce"tance o! histheoloical and ascetic com"etence was vital to his am0itious literar( "roramme=erome< the Christian litteratus and the hermit o! Chalcis< wanted to make himsel! thes"iritual leader o! wealth( Christian intellectuals in the western "art o! the 8m"ire< whoin their turn were a0le to su""ort erome and< later< his monastic communit( inBethlehem= &is 0rilliant showmanshi" as an ascetic cham"ion who had started hisim"ressive career in the wilderness o! Chalcis has 0een so success!ul that< !or more than1</55 (ears< scholars have 0een deceived 0( the "icture o! the learned ascetic in his 0arren cell in the solitu"o &$riae Chalci"is=

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)CONSTANTINOPLET"e For'ation o% a C"ristian *riter

& awoke one morning and found m!self famous.

Lord !ron

n 6E /ebruar! B:9, the emperor "heodosius issued an edict thatmade the Nicene teaching of the bishops *amasus of 1ome and 2eterof )le+andria compulsor! for all his sub>ects. enceforth, the onl! formof (hristianit! to be tolerated was the one that acknowledged the full,undivided divinit! of /ather, <on, and ol! <pirit. 8 &n the same !ear,while suffering from a serious illness, "heodosius decided to bebapti#ed in "hessalonica. n 6D November B:9, he entered(onstantinople and, immediatel! after his arrival, took measuresagainst the )rian bishop *emophilus. When the latter refused tosubscribe to an orthodo+, that is, Nicene (reed, "heodosius did nothesitate to depose him and to entrust the churches of the easternmetropolis to Gregor! of Na#ian#us. <ome weeks later, on 89 Januar!,B:8, "heodosius addressed a rescript to the 2raetorian 2refect3utropius depriving the heretics0the 2hotinians, the )rians, and the3unomians are mentioned expresses erbis0of their consecratedplaces of assembl! and handing them over to the representatives ofthe Nicaena fides. 6 "hen, in %a!, he convoked a council of all eastern












churches in (onstantinople, which was meant to approve hisecclesiastical politics. B

"his contemporar! background allows us to understand Jerome's >ourne! to, and residence in, the eastern capital at the beginning of

the B:9s. D (ontrar! to what has often been supposed, he had nointention of carr!ing on the literar! and theological studies begun in)ntioch. C We should not infer from Jerome's subse$uent allusions tohis preceptor and teacher Gregor! of Na#ian#us that his so>ourn to(onstantinople was an educational leave. &n his later writings,Jerome, depicting himself as Gregor!'s pupil, made much of the

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authorit! of the learned and, we ma! add, orthodo+ (appadocian/ather, in the hope of reducing the critics of his scholarship andorthodo+! to silence. "he contemporar! ecclesiastical and politicalimplications of their first meeting were thus thrust into thebackground not surprisingl! perhaps, since the! did not at all fit theimage Jerome later promoted of himself, which was that of a secludedscholar.

3cclesiastical affairs and ambitions led him to the Golden orn. &t hasbeen convincingl! suggested that Jerome's decision to go to(onstantinople was also influenced b! his effort to back 2aulinus, thebishop of the uncompromising ultra-Nicene minorit! in )ntioch. E

Jerome had committed himself to 2aulinus, b! whom he was ordainedpriest and whose influential partisan 3vagrius was also Jerome'spatron. )lthough leading western bishops like *amasus of 1ome and)mbrose of %ilan had long since ostraci#ed his opponent %eletius, theleader of the larger Nicene communit! in )ntioch, and openl!supported 2aulinus, : the latter's position in )ntioch and in the easternpart of the 3mpire was rather weak. "hus, 2aulinus was in desperateneed of influential friends to boost the prestige of the tin! )ntiochenecongregation and its controversial bishop. What better place was thereto promote 2aulinus' claims than (onstantinople, especiall! when itwas loudl! rumoured that a great council to solve the theologicaldisputes of the east was shortl! to be held there H

Jerome did not hesitate to plead 2aulinus' cause in words and writings,even though the emperor recogni#ed %eletius of )ntioch as acompromise candidate of the ma>orit! of eastern theological factionsand appointed him president of the council. ) masterpiece of Jerome'spropaganda for 2aulinus was his translation and continuation of
























3usebius' Chronicle, which was probabl! composed during his sta! in(onstantinople. 89 Jerome accused %eletius of apostas! from the truefaith (recta fides), and st!led 2aulinus the onl! catholic bishop of)ntioch. "wo )rian bishops, he wrote, introduced %eletius to )ntioch,but 2aulinus was ordained bishop b! the orthodo+ Lucifer of (agliari

who himself met the approval of two other confessors. "rickil!, Jeromedisguised the fact that Lucifer acted precipitatel! and withoutauthori#ation. )t the same time, he alleged that %eletius supportedthe position of an )riani#ing part!0the %acedonians0and thusopposed the teaching of the western churches and of )le+andria. "hemessage of Jerome's Chronicle is obvious4 the bishop of the)ntiochene catholics could be none other than 2aulinus. 88

<hortl! before and during the assembl!, which was later to berecogni#ed as the <econd 3cumenical (ouncil, Jerome had anopportunit! to meet various important theologians and churchpoliticians. e

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took it with both hands. e became ac$uainted with Gregor! ofNa#ian#us, who was appointed bishop of (onstantinople and replaced%eletius as president of the council after the latter's sudden death.Gregor! in turn acted as a mediator in establishing new connectionsfor Jerome. "hus, he met Gregor! of N!ssa 86 and )mphilochius,bishop of &conium in (appadocia and cousin of Gregor! of Na#ian#us.8B

&n (onstantinople, therefore, the ambitious westerner made contactwith important representatives of Nicene theolog!0and orthodo+!0inthe east.

)t the same time, and with Gregor!'s assistance, Jerome came toknow members of the imperial court. &n D99, when he had been livingin ethlehem for more than a decade, he wrote a consolator! letter to<alvina, 8D daughter of Gildo, the governor of )frica who had revoltedagainst the western government in BHE and been killed in the following!ear. <alvina's recentl! deceased husband, Nebridius, 8C was a nephewof /laccilla, first wife of "heodosius the Great and mother of thereigning emperors )rcadius and onorius. is father, also calledNebridius, held high offices. 8 While cit! prefect of (onstantinople, hemarried l!mpias, who came from one of the leading senatorialfamilies of the eastern capital. <oon after their nuptials, he died.Jerome emphasi#ed in his letter to <alvina that the elder Nebridius wasa close friend of his. 8E e must have become ac$uainted with himduring his sta! in (onstantinople between B:9 and B:6 and secured





























ascetic communit! in ethlehem, and his survival in the bitter $uarrelswith 1ufinus during the rigenist controvers!. "he case of 3vagriushas illustrated the function of spiritual support and material assistancefor spreading theological concepts and new forms of living. Jerome'ssta! in the eastern part of the 1oman 3mpire at the end of the BE9s

and the beginning of the B:9s thus e+emplifies the function oftraditional patronage structures in the theological and asceticdiscourse of the fourth centur!.

Jerome's arrival at (onstantinople around the !ear B:9 was almostperfectl! timed. nce again in his life, he was in the right place at theright moment. "heodosius had >ust begun to enforce his religiouspolic! against paganism and (hristian heresies and to strengthen linkswith e+ponents of Nicene orthodo+!. %embers of the court societ! of(onstantinople gave financial and ideological support to the asceticmovement and posed as influential patrons of the intellectual avant-garde of asceticism. ut, how did Jerome succeed in calling theattention of the (hristian court societ! of "heodosian (onstantinople tohis person (ertainl!, Jerome could promote himself as the protKgK ofthe )ntiochene grandee 3vagrius and of the ANicene' bishop 2aulinus.ut, this personal network cannot full! e+plain his impressiveecclesiastical career in the aftermath of the council of (onstantinople.&t must furthermore be noted that, during his time in the east, Jeromelaid the

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foundation of his recognition as a (hristian scholar and writer. Weshould hence be well advised to have a look at the ma>or works thatJerome composed in (onstantinople and, be!ond that, in the easternpart of the 1oman 3mpire, to define their target groups and tocomprehend the reasons for their immense success.

&n the &ife of Paul the First Hermit, Jerome described the e+emplar!ascetic virtues and achievements of his protagonist and invited thereader to imitate the saintl! hermit. 66 )s the title proclaims, the ob>ectof the booklet is to prove that the famous )nton!, who was believed tohave been the first hermit, had in fact had a predecessor in 2aul of"hebes 5in @pper 3g!pt;. ) literar! masterpiece, skilfull! composedand e+tremel! entertaining, the ita obviousl! en>o!ed greatpopularit! immediatel! upon its publication. 6B *eliberatel! revising theideals of )thanasius' &ife of 'ntony, which had been freel! translatedinto Latin b! 3vagrius, Jerome insisted that 2aul, unlike )nton!, hadreceived an e+cellent traditional training. &t is obvious that the &ife of









Paul the First Hermit was addressed to a public of educated (hristianswho were themselves interested in the ascetic movement. Jerome, in abrilliant antithesis, characteri#ed the e+pected audience at the end ofhis work4

& ma! be permitted at the end of this little treatise to ask those who donot know the e+tent of their possessions, who adorn their homes withmarble, who string house to house and field to field, what did this oldman in his nakedness ever lack Your drinking vessels are of preciousstones he satisfied thirst with the hollow of his hand. Your tunics aretrimmed with gold he had not the clothing of the meanest of !ourslaves. ut on the other hand, poor though he was, 2aradise is open tohim !ou with all !our gold will be received into Gehenna. e, thoughnaked, !et kept the robe of (hrist !ou, clad in !our silks, have lostthe vestures of (hrist. 2aul lies covered with worthless dust, but willrise again to glor! over !ou are raised costl! tombs, but both !ou and!our wealth are doomed to burning. ave a care, & pra! !ou, at leasthave a care for the riches !ou love. Wh! are even the grave-clothes of!our dead made of gold Wh! does not !our vaunting cease even amidmourning and tears (annot the carcases of rich men deca! e+cept insilk 6D

Jerome's &ife is evidence for a monastic practice of belles-lettres 6C that combined religious edification and ascetic instruction withpleasant

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entertainment. )fter Jerome had made his public debut as an authorwith the e+citing stor! of the miraculous rescue of the (hristianwoman of 7ercelli, 6 he turned to the lecture 5 la mode 6E of the(hristian upper classes, imitating the literar! model and success of the6ita 'ntonii and its Latin translations. ! virtue of its literar! $ualitiesand the fact that Jerome had written the life of the supposed firsthermit, the 6ita Pauli was able to replace the earlier Latin versions ofthe )thanasian biograph!, which had so far been the onl! accessiblewritings on this topic in the western part of the 3mpire. Jerome's fameas a writer of the ascetic movement was founded upon his first &ife and later increased through the other two &ies, the 6ita Hilarionis andthe 6ita alchi, and man! relevant treatises and letters. "hecontemporar! genesis of an occidental monasticism e+plains Jerome'sfirst best-seller. /or he was the first (hristian writer to respond to thelack of an authentic Latin monk's biograph!.















)lthough the book was sent to his aged friend 2aulus of (oncordia innorthern &tal! and although Jerome pretended to have adopted asimple st!le, 6: we ma! assume that this work delighted the westernassociates of the "heodosian court at (onstantinople who took aninterest in ascetic literature. Jerome tried to reach the same group of

potential benefactors with another genre, his Latin translations ofGreek theological writings. is immense success in this field had fourreasons. /irst, the Latin west was then b! no means able to match theabundant Greek (hristian literature. <econd, the theological discourseof the fourth centur! intensified academic interest in Greekscholarship, and it became necessar! for westerners to tackle thecomple+ philosophical and theological s!stems of the Greek /athers."hird, more and more Latin-speaking (hristians turned to asceticideals originating in the east. /inall!, the number of intellectuals in thewestern 3mpire, who had a good command of both Latin and Greek,was steadil! declining. 6H Jerome thus continued the practice of someearlier western bishops, like 3usebius of 7ercelli and ilar! of 2oitiers,who were e+iled in the east during the )rian controvers! and hadsucceeded in conve!ing Greek theological concepts to the westthrough their translations. <ince Jerome mastered Greek and hadfamiliari#ed himself with Greek (hristian literature, he was able to putLatin-speaking (hristians greatl! in his debt as an interpretChristianus.

Jerome commenced this career b! translating into Latin rigen'sthirt!-seven homilies on &saiah, Jeremiah, and 3#ekiel. &n a dedicator!

letter to his friend 7incentius, who was the first recipient of his versionof the homilies on 3#ekiel, Jerome drew an outline for a

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translation o! .rien;s exeetical work< to ?make availa0le to %oman ears the man who<in the udement o! )id(mus< 0lind 0ut so clear'sihted< is second onl( to the A"ostlesas teacher o! the churches=; 35 In!ortunatel(< he continues< a serious a!!liction o! hise(es< caused 0( continuous readin< "revented him !rom executin the o0< which was

also made more di!!icult 0( the ?the lack o! stenora"hers 'notariorum penuria(% sinceshortae o! cash has removed this aid too=; 31 This am0itious "roramme< which wasnever carried out 0ecause erome 0ecame occu"ied with other "roects< needed9incentius; !inancial su""ort= 7a(in the 0ill !or stenora"hers was an im"ortant task o!wealth( s"onsors< who were also res"onsi0le !or co"(in and disseminatin the writinsthe( "aid !or= 9incentius< however< was "res0(ter in Constantino"le 32 and came< likeerome< !rom the western 8m"ire< as ma( 0e deduced !rom his request !or a translationo! .rien;s work into atin= Thus< he was associated with the atin's"eakin orthodox


















Christians o! Constantino"le and a0le to "ro"aate erome;s versions amon thewesterners at the Theodosian court= 9incentius ma( also have "aid the notarii whomerome needed in order to translate the !ourteen homilies on the "ro"het eremiah<com"leted some time "reviousl(< and 8use0ius; Chronicle= The latter work is alsodedicated to 9incentius and to a certain allienus who is otherwise unknown= 33

erome not onl( translated into atin the Chronicle o! 8use0ius o! Caesarea +i=e= itssecond "art< the s(nchronistic ta0les o! relevant "aan and Christian dates-< 0ut added acontinuation o! the work !rom 32 to 34< endin with the death o! the em"eror 9alens=&e also enlared the 8use0ian work< insertin events and names that were o! interest towestern readers= 3$ Modern scholarshi" has tried to reconstruct erome;s sources !orthese su""lements= 3* #ith the translation and continuation o! 8use0ius; Chronicle<however< erome !or the !irst time made a chronoloicall( structured com"endium o!world histor( !rom A0raham down to the (ear A) 34 availa0le to atin Christianit(=I" to this date< the western church "ossessed no work that could 0e com"ared to theoutstandin chronora"hical achievement o! the 0isho" o! Caesarea= The immediate

success o! erome;s Chronicle amon atin's"eakin Christians causes no sur"rise= Asin the case o! the Life of Paul% erome res"onded to the lack o!< and need !or< a certainenre in the Christian literature o! the atin west and undertook to su""l( the want 0(imitatin a reek model= But he was not content to "resent a world histor( to atinreaders that< in accordance with 8use0ius; work< claimed the su"eriorit( o! the ewish Christian tradition= &is Chronicle% es"eciall( its su""lements< had to meet the

'2'

e+pectations of a well-defined audience. Jerome, therefore, insertedthe names of Latin authors, 1oman emperors, and (hristian bishops,

and mentioned religious, political, and militar! events of the western3mpire. e did not leave it at that. &n addition to new entries ofgeneral interest, he included numerous other details which, at firstsight, seem to be irrelevant, biased, sub>ective, and gossip!. Jeromehas often been blamed on this score. B "his criticism, however,ignores the fact that the additional entries were deliberatel! fitted intothe Latin chronicle in order to attract certain kinds of reader the! are,in other words, the precondition of its literar! success.

! stigmati#ing some eastern bishops, like %eletius, as )rian heretics,

Jerome adopted the position held b! the ma>orit! of politicians andtheologians of the Latin church. BE "he Chronicle depicts the heroicstruggle of orthodo+ bishops and clerg!men, who did not submit tothreats and banishments of heretical emperors, against )rianism.%oreover, Jerome notes various events relating to the histor! ofasceticism and monasticism B: and thus responds to the interest inthese new forms of living, which became increasingl! popular among(hristian men of letters in the western 3mpire during the later fourth






















centur!. "he references to miscellaneous and miraculous phenomena,such as hailstorms and curious rain showers, BH are simpl! meant toentertain the reader. "he inclusion of celebrated Latin authors and ofillustrious contemporar! orators, rhetoricians, and grammarians, D9 who $uite often came from Gaul, reflects the literar! and intellectual

preferences of an educated audience. /inall!, there is a considerablenumber of entries that highlight important patrons and personalfriends, like 2ompeianus, an ancestor of his Adearest 3vagrius', D8 orJerome's 1oman praeceptor, the grammarian *onatus, D6 or the circleof friends living together in a monastic communit! in )$uileia Alike aband of blessed ones' (+uasi chorus beatorum), DB or /lorentinus,onosus, 1ufinus, who are honoured through their monastic life(insines monachi habentur), DD or 1ufinus' rich patrona %elania the3lder. DC

Jerome's purpose in translating and supplementing 3usebius' Chronicleis easil! understood. e composed a chronological compendium thatserved the needs of (hristian litterati in the western 3mpire whomaintained the position of Nicene orthodo+! and s!mpathi#ed with theascetic movement. is additions observed their literar! taste and theirtheological e+perience. 7incentius and Gallienus, the dedicatees andthe Afriends', who are mentioned in the Chronicle, were encouraged tospread the work. Jerome's literar! concept of a Latin chronicle couldwin man! benefactors at once. D

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But erome !lew even hiher= &is master"iece o! "ro"aanda was to reach the court o!Theodosius= At the end o! the "re!ace< erome reveals that he has ended with the sixthconsulshi" o! the em"eror 9alens and the second o! the em"eror 9alentinian ,, +i=e= the(ear A) 34-< since he has ?reserved the remainin "eriod o! ratian and Theodosius!or a wider historical surve(=; $ The announcement o! a se"arate descri"tion o! the reino! ratian and Theodosius +i=e= o! a new im"erial histor(-< at such a "rominent "lace "er!ectl( !its with erome;s as"irations to 0e success!ul as a 0est'sellin Christianauthor in the atin west= This statement directed the attention o! the western entouraeo! Theodosius to a man o! reat literar( talent< o! some ascetic ex"erience and !irmconvictions= 7erha"s erome had hih ho"es in those da(s o! o0tainin access to the

inner circle o! the em"eror;s !riends 'ami" imperatoris( and there0( "romotin hisecclesiastical career= The Chronicle% however< is 0( no means a ?tumultuous work;< as itis called in the "re!ace= $4 This captatio benevolentiae should not o0scure the !act thatthe work is coherent and that the "resentation o! the material is convincin= erome usedhis alleed opus tumultuarium to advance the causes o! icene orthodox( and Christianasceticism= To all those who identi!ied themselves with the fi"es catholica and theascetic movement< erome "resented himsel! throuh his Chronicle as a hihl( ca"a0leauthor< worth( o! su""ort=




































!i$",F-.in$ !o(es and Dee( Fa--

& would have wished him a wife so man! things he would have writtenin a different wa!.

%artin Luther

&n the late summer of B:6, Jerome, the ambitious (hristian author,left (onstantinople, where he had translated into Latin 3usebius'Chronicle and established relations with man! influential churchpoliticians and even with the imperial court. e accompanied 2aulinusof )ntioch and 3piphanius of <alamis as interpreter and adviser. "he!were heading for 1ome to attend a s!nod that )mbrose of %ilan hadpersuaded the 3mperor Gratian to convoke. 8 2aulinus intended toprotest at the court of the 1oman bishop *amasus against the decision

of the council of (onstantinople that had approved his rival %eletius.nce the eastern delegation reached 1ome, the! were accommodatedb! families of the senatorial aristocrac!. 3piphanius was a guest of the!oung widow 2aula who, like her relative %arcella, had transformedher household into a domestic nunner!. "here had been some form ofwestern asceticism in 1ome before Jerome arrived. *uring the fourthcentur!, patterns of ascetic life e+ercised in 1ome evolved under theinfluence of visitors from the east, especiall! through )thanasius, whospent some !ears in 1ome during his second e+ile, and his successor2eter of )le+andria. "hus, the ascetic famil! homes, where a life ofpra!er and chastit! was common, were often transformed intomonastic communities. 6

)lthough the s!nod was a failure, Jerome sta!ed on in 1ome when2aulinus and 3piphanius returned to the east some months later. &nthe following four !ears, Jerome made a brilliant career, which endedabruptl! in B:C. /irst, the clever monk and multilingual scholar wasnoticed and favoured b! bishop *amasus, who relied upon him forinformation about the comple+ ecclesiastical affairs of the Greek

-B8-

east= 3 erome is likel( to have worked in the ecclesiastical archive< which wasreorani>ed and housed in a new 0uildin under )amasus= &e ma( have 0eenres"onsi0le !or dra!tin the o!!icial corres"ondence with the reek churches< and "erha"s )amasus asked him to comment u"on s(nodal inter"ellations and inquiries!rom the eastern "art o! the 8m"ire= ater enerations have there!ore de"icted him asthe 0isho";s secretar(= Jears later +$56-< erome himsel! wrote: ?, was hel"in 0isho")amasus o! %ome with his ecclesiastical corres"ondence and writin his answers to the












questions re!erred to him 0( the councils o! the east and west=; $

)amasus also consulted him on the inter"retation o! di!!icult "oints o! Scri"ture< * encouraed him to translate reek theoloians like .rien and )id(mus< / "aid the 0ills!or co"(ists< and< most im"ortant< commissioned him to revise the atin text o! the

os"els accordin to the reek oriinal:

Jou ure me to make a new work out o! an old one< and< as it were< to sit in udementon the co"ies o! the Scri"tures now scattered throuhout the whole world< and< 0ecausethe( di!!er !rom one another< (ou ask me to decide which o! them aree with the reekoriinal= The la0our is one o! love< 0ut at the same time 0oth "erilous and "resum"tuousK !or in udin others< , must 0e m(sel! uded 0( allK and how can , dareto chane a lanuae that is old and carr( the world 0ack in its hoar( old ae to the earl(da(s o! its in!anc(L ,s there a man< learned or unlearned< who will not< when he takesthe volume into his hands< and "erceives that what he reads does not suit his settledtastes< 0reak out immediatel( into violent lanuae< and call me a !orer and a "ro!ane

"erson !or havin the audacit( to add an(thin to the ancient 0ooks< or to make an(chanes or corrections thereinL ow there are two consolin re!lections which ena0leme to 0ear the odiumin the !irst "lace< the command is iven 0( (ou who are thesu"reme 0isho"K and< secondl(< even on the showin o! those who revile us< readins atvariance with the earl( co"ies cannot 0e riht= For i! we are to "in our !aith to the atintexts< it is !or our o""onents to tell us which< !or there are almost as man( !orms o! textsas there are co"ies= ,!< on the other hand< we are to lean the truth !rom a com"arison o!man(< wh( not o 0ack to the oriinal reek and correct the mistakes introduced 0(inaccurate translators< and the 0lunderin

'32'

alterations of confident but ignorant critics, and, further, all that hasbeen inserted or changed b! cop!ists more asleep than awake' E

Jerome anticipated in this preface the criticism that his new translationof the ible met in 1ome and, later, in ethlehem. /or the moment,the powerful 1oman bishop protected his challenging literar! pro>ects.ut, *amasus also took a fanc! to his protKgK since both of them weredisseminating the ideal of virginit! and chastit! in their writings.*amasus' sister, too, had dedicated herself to an ascetic life. "he

elegant st!le, the linguistic competence, and the ascetic #eal of theprolific author fascinated the bishop, who himself wrote fine epigrams,which are still e+tant in the 1oman catacombs. "he! met withJerome's approval4 A*amasus, bishop of 1ome, had a fine talent formaking verses and published man! brief works in heroic metre.' :

*amasus opened the door for him to noble ladies who practisedchastit! in their famil! homes. Within a short period, Jerome became


















the centre of an ascetic circle that included %arcella, )sella, Lea, 2aulaand her daughters lesilla and 3ustochium. is letters and threnodies,which give touching portraits of late 1oman women, illustrate their rolein the conversion of the 1oman aristocrac! and have e+cited scholarl!controvers! concerning the e+tent to which the ascetic movement

contributed to the emancipation of the feminae clarissimae. H

What could Jerome himself offer to attract the matrons' attention/irst of all, he was able to conve! the ascetic concepts of the east infine-sounding language. ) marvellous e+ample of his rhetoricalcampaign for asceticism is his famous letter, more precisel!, histreatise An the preservation of virginit!' (*e irinitate seranda) addressed to 3ustochium, 89 but aimed at a wider audience, in whichhe praised the virgin as the Lord's bride, laid down e+act rules for herdail! conduct and defined virginit! as the highest level of asceticism.(lassical allusions, biblical references, e+tensive borrowing, andascetic e+amples are the central elements of his literar! st!le. 88 ut, itwas not sufficient to combine <cripture and classical literature and togive practical advice. Jerome had to rewrite the stor! of his limitedascetic self-e+perience. e integrated the episode in his handbook inwhich 3ustochium was told to remain in the safet! of her home, toavoid ostentation, to be submissive to the guidance of an older man ofsanctit!, and to be surrounded b! a pious familia, whose life and dail!tasks she shared completel!4

-BB-

, would not have (ou court the com"an( o! married women or visit the houses o! thehih'0orn= , would not have (ou look too o!ten on what (ou des"ised when (ou desiredto 0e a virin= 8ven i! women o! the world "lume themselves i! their hus0ands are udes or in other hih "ositions< even i! an eaer crowd o! visitors !locks to reet thewi!e o! the em"eror< wh( should (ou insult (our hus0andL #h( should (ou< od;s 0ride< hasten to visit the wi!e o! a mere manL NO Avoid men also when (ou see themloaded with chains and wearin their hair lon like a woman;s< contrar( to the A"ostle;s "rece"t< not to s"eak o! 0eards like those o! oats< 0lack cloaks< and 0are !eet 0ravinthe cold= All these thins are "lain sins o! the devil= NO et (our com"anions 0e thosewho are "ale o! !ace and thin with !astin< a""roved 0( their (ears and their conduct= 12

,n this treatise< as in other e"istles< erome encouraed ascetic seclusion< sexuala0stinence< !astin< and scri"tural meditation= 13 &e ured the su"eriorit( o! virinit( tomarriae and the monastic to civic li!e< advocated the renunciation o! one;s "ro"ert(<recommended "ra(er and Bi0le readin< and ave dietar( advice= ,n %ome< eromeesta0lished himsel! as an educated churchman and develo"ed to the !ull hisinter"retation o! the ascetic li!e= &is ex"erience in the desert o! Chalcis contri0uted tohis contem"oraries; imae o! erome as a s"iritual teacher and ascetic exem"lar= At the


















same time< he souht to reconcile Christian virtues with the traditional "rimac( o! the%oman senatorial aristocrac(: ?earn in this res"ect a hol( arroance 'sancta superbia(+ know that (ou are 0etter than all o! them=; 1$ Ascetic virtues now uaranteed thesu"eriorit( o! the %oman ladies and transcended their no0le oriin= #hile "aan

relatives stronl( o""osed their conversions to asceticism< erome Christiani>edaristocratic com"etitiveness and em"hasi>ed that the hol( women o! asceticismsur"assed the old no0ilit( o! 0irth and o!!ice: ?o0le in !amil(< she was much no0lerstill in holiness 'nobilis genere% se" multo nobilior sanctitate(=; 1* The 0etter "art o!mankind< to use S(mmachus; de!inition o! the senatorial aristocrac(< 1/ still identi!ieditsel! 0( im"ressive enealoies< immense !ortunes< overwhelmin "restie< and socialmuni!icenceK erome ust added ascetic values< a0ove all sexual renunciation andvirinit(=

Moreover< the Christiani senatus lumina% the lihts o! the Christian senate< 1 wereca"tivated 0( erome;s linuistic and exeetical com"etence= ot onl( did he leitimi>e

his ascetic conce"ts throuh scri"tural common"laces taken !rom the Son o! Sons andthe

'3$'

2auline 3pistles, Jerome also presented himself as a learnedcommentator on the ible. <pecial attention should be directed to hiscorrespondence with the 1oman aristocrat %arcella, who herselfpublished studies on the ld and New "estament and whosee+egetical-theological e+pertise attained a remarkabl! high intellectuallevel. %arcella, having been widowed at an earl! age, held firm to herdecision, against the resistance of her famil!, to live an ascetic life andto group around herself, in her house on the )ventine, a circle of like-minded (hristian women. 8: <he ma! have paid Jerome for some of histreatises on the interpretation of difficult biblical passages and themeaning of ebrew words.

)s in his ascetic papers, Jerome borrowed e+tensivel! from earliertheological writers. ut his plagiarism did not damage his image. eknew how to incite Athe ardent love of the divine <criptures' 8H andeven persuaded some of his senatorial friends to learn ebrew. is

most challenging pro>ect was the adaptation of rigen for Latinreaders. e continued his propaganda for the great )le+andrianscholar, which he had alread! spread in (onstantinople. &n his lettersto %arcella, Jerome, without an! reservation, applauded rigen for hisld "estament scholarship and his philological recourse to the ebreworiginal. e celebrated rigen's restless biblical work and critici#edLatin writers for ignoring rigen's outstanding theological legac!4






















*o !ou see how the labours of this one man have surpassed those ofall previous writers, Greek and Latin Who has ever managed to readall that he has written Yet what reward have his e+ertions broughthim e stands condemned b! his bishop, *emetrius, onl! the bishopsof 2alestine, )rabia, 2hoenicia, and )chaia dissenting. 1ome consents

to his condemnation, she convenes her senate to censure him, not0asthe rabid hounds who now pursue him cr!0because of the novelt! orheterodo+! of his doctrines, but because men could not tolerate theincomparable elo$uence and knowledge which, when once he openedhis lips, made others seem dumb.' 69

Jerome emulated the role that the )le+andrian iblicist pla!ed in theeastern churches, and depicted himself as a Latin rigen. 68 Like hisparagon, he wrote on a wide range of topics. is instruction for thepreservation of virginit! became so famous, or notorious, that,according to 1ufinus, even pagan readers copied it. 66 e alsoabandoned his

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!ormer "lan o! writin a histor( o! the 8m"ire under ratian and Theodosius the reat<es"eciall( since the %oman aristocrats did not seem to 0e ver( !ond o! historiora"hicalwork= 23

&is ?taskmaster; and ?slave'driver; Marcella<

2$

and some senatorial men like erome;s!ellow'student 7ammachius and the latter;s !riend .ceanus< com0ined the asceticvocation and the lectio "ivina under erome;s intellectual uidance= The re"resentativeso! the hiher echelons in the cit( o! %ome "ro"aated the ideals o! an asceticall(orientated Christianit( to which the( themselves had su0scri0ed= erome "rovidedtheoretical leitimation and "ractical advice= &is traditional education< 0rilliant st(le<linuistic ca"acit(< and his knowlede o! reek theolo( made him "o"ular with thesenatorial aristocrac( o! %ome who were also res"onsi0le !or s"readin his work= &isepistulae and tractatus% like those o! other contem"oraries< were not onl( written !ordiscussion within "rivate circles< 0ut co"ied and circulated< and thus attained wide "u0licit( and uaranteed ideoloical as well as material su""ort= The ex"loitation o!

e!!ective sources o! in!luence and "atronae ena0led erome to reali>e his am0itiousliterar( "lans and to communicate his "roramme o! stu"ia scripturarum com0ininascetic readin and reek exeesis=

erome could have eno(ed li!e in %ome= &e was on ood terms with some "ower!ul "atronesses and "atrons< and )amasus also "rotected him= #ith all due modest(< eromelater descri0ed his "osition in the 0isho";s entourae as !ollows: ?, was the s"okesmano! )amasus=; 2* And he added: ?Men called me saintl(K men called me hum0le and






















eloquent=; Almost ever(0od( would have uded him worth( o! the hihest o!!ice in thechurch= 2/ But he did not 0ecome 0isho" o! %ome= &is militant cam"ains !or asceticismnot onl( 0rouht him admirers and su""orters< 0ut also enemies in man( "laces= Theoriental ascetic ideas and "ractices erome "ro"aated viorousl( o!!ended "aan

aristocrats and moderate Christians= #ith the same ardour and harshness< he crusadedaainst luxur( o! the 0etter'o!!< coquetr( o! matrons< worldliness o! the cler(< andh("ocris( o! monks= &is shar"est wea"on was satire= 2 ,m"ressivel(< he ex"ressed hisindination a0out wealth( widows and avaricious "riests:

ook at them as the( ride in their ca"acious litters< a row o! eunuchs walkin in !ront o!them< look at their red li"s and their "lum" 0odies< (ou would not think that the( hadlost a hus0and< (ou would !anc( the( were seekin one= Their houses are !ull o!!latterers< !ull o! uests= The ver( cler(< who ouht to ins"ire them with res"ect 0(their teachin

'3/'

and authorit!, kiss these ladies on the forehead, and then stretch outtheir hands0so that, if !ou did not know, !ou would think the! were inthe act of blessing0and to take wages for their visit (salutatio). "hewidows meanwhile, seeing that priests cannot do without them, arelifted up with pride the! know b! e+perience what a husband's rule islike, and the! prefer the libert! of widowhood. "he! call themselveschaste nuns, and after an immoderate dinner the! dream of the)postles. 6:

Jerome also ridiculed a noble lad! standing in the basilica of theblessed 2eter with a band of eunuchs in front of her. <he e+ercisedhumilit! in public and was giving mone! to the poor, a coin apiece, Awith her own hand to increase her reputation of sanctit!'. 3ach beggarreceived a penn!. When an old woman ran forward to get a secondcoin, she received not a penn! but the lad!'s fist in her face, Aand forher dreadful offence she had to pa! with her blood.' 6H "hese citationsdescribe the ecclesiastical patronage wielded b! (hristian women ofthe 1oman senatorial aristocrac! who welcomed their new clericalclientele for the formal morning call paid b! the client on his patron

(salutatio) and supported the poor through alms and welfare work."hese ascetic aristocrats thus amalgamated their traditional liberalit!and public beneficence with the new (hristian command for charit!.

&n 1ome, as in other cities of the 1oman 3mpire, there was toughcompetition among bishops, priests, and monks for the favour of noblewomen. *amasus had been so successful in establishing contacts with
















wealth! (hristian ladies that his opponents called him Athe matron'sear-pick' (auriscalpius matronarum). B9 uite a few servants of Godowed their promotion within the clerical hierarch! to the influence ofwomen. B8 When *amasus' predecessor Liberius was e+iled b!(onstantius, 1oman nobiles feminae asked the emperor when he

visited 1ome in BCE to permit the bishop to reoccup! his see. B6 &nBE9, an imperial rescript was addressed to *amasus that penali#edlegac!-hunting clerg!men who, under the prete+t of religion, misusedthe confidence of rich matrons to obtain their donations. BB No wonderthat the pagan cit! prefect 7ettius )gorius 2raete+tatus said to*amasus in sport4 A%ake me bishop of 1ome, and & will be a (hristian.'BD ) pagan historian like )mmianus %arcellinus also commented uponthe ostentatious lu+ur! of the new ecclesiastical elite sarcasticall!4 A"he! can ride in carriages, dress splendidl! and outdo kings in thelavishness of their table.' "he! would be Atrul! happ!', he appended, ifthe! were to despise urban life Aand follow

-BE-

the e+ample of some provincial bishop' whose self-restraint in foodand drink, rough clothes, and downcast e!es demonstrate to thesupreme deit! and his true worshippers the purit! and modest! oftheir lives. BC

(hristian intellectuals and clerics entered into rivalr! with other(hristian groups for material and ideological backing granted b! the

(hristiani#ed elite of 1ome. Jerome was certainl! a talented andsuccessful cliens, but he was >ust one among man! others. isaggressive polemic against Acertain worthless creatures (+uidamhomunculi),' Atwo-legged asses (bipedes aselli)' and Amercenar! priests(nummarii sacerdotes)' B among the hol! brethren also reflects theharsh struggle for powerful and propertied patronae. )nd ever! inch ofthe ground was contested. 7alentinians, %arcionites, <abellians,%anichaeans, Luciferians, and other heterodo+ movements agitated in1ome. *omestic circles like the one of %arcella integrated hereticaland orthodo+ groups. BE "heological treatises and ascetic manuals weredisseminated. ardl! an! (hristian author in the second half of thefourth centur! failed to write about virginit!. B: (ompetingprogrammes circulated in the $uasi-monastic households of asceticladies. Jerome attacked not onl! worldl! clerg!, but also divergenttheoretical and practical concepts of a (hristian wa! of life. elvidius,for instance, who denied the perpetual virginit! of %ar! and defended(hristian marriage against celibac!, was dismissed in a ferociouspamphlet. BH 7irgins and widows visiting married women's houses were

































called idle and in$uisitive. D9 Novatianists and %ontanists wereostraci#ed. D8 <pecial emphasis was put on the monachisme hippie 5hipp! monasticism; D6 of the aapetae or subintroductae 5i.e. ofwomen who lived together with men in spiritual marriage;4

Whence come these unwedded wives, these new t!pes of concubines,these, as & will call them, one-man harlots "he! live in the samehouse the! occup! the same chamber and often the same bed, and!et the! call us suspicious if we think an!thing is wrong. ) brotherleaves his virgin sister a virgin, slighting her unmarried brother, seeksa brother in a stranger. oth alike pretend to have but one ob>ect, tolook for spiritual consolation among strangers but their real aim is toindulge in se+ual intercourse.' DB

ut Jerome, too, came under fire. is tactless pen and his ascetic #ealoutraged man! of the 1oman clerg!. <ome accused him of havingchanged the Lord's words with his new translation of the Gospels. DD <ome were disgusted b! his discourse on virginit!, like *amasus'

-B:-

successor Siricius< a !ormer %oman deacon= erome;s s"iritual in!luence on hih'rankin women aroused sus"icionK rumours arose= &e com"lained that the disrace o! a!alse chare was laid u"on him= ?, am said to 0e a scandal< a sli""er( turncoat and a liar

usin Satan;s art to deceive others=;

$*

The %oman "atricians were not amused 0( one o!erome;s !avourite to"ics< that %oman ladies should !oret their social standin<renounce their traditional ha0its< nelect their clothin< and "er!orm their servants; o0Kthe( were asked to carr( water< hew wood< trim lam"s< liht !ires< swee" !loors< cleanveeta0les< la( ta0les< and wash dishes= $/ Such a li!est(le stood in shar" contrast to thetraditional ex"ectations o! class and 0irth= The renunciation o! !amil( "ro"ert( !orvarious charities was o""osed 0( non'ascetic mem0ers o! the kinshi"= Finall(< thearistocratic clan !eared that erome;s cam"ain !or chastit( would "revent their wivesand dauhters !rom !ul!illin their vocation o! motherhood and thus securin the !amil(tradition= &ence< the( slandered erome as a sorcerer and a seducer who ?should 0etrans"orted to the ends o! the earth;= $ #hen Blesilla< 7aula;s eldest dauhter< who was

"ersuaded to live a li!e o! a0stinence a!ter her hus0and;s death< died three months a!terher conversion< it was murmured that the (oun widow had died !rom !astin= At the!uneral< her mother was carried out !aintin and the crowd whis"ered: ?&ow lon mustwe re!rain !rom drivin these detesta0le monks out o! %omeL #h( do we not stonethem or hurl them into the Ti0erL The( have misled this unha""( lad(K that she is not anun !rom choice is clear=; $4

#hen )amasus< his "atron< died on 11 )ecem0er 34$< a "ower!ul o""osition !orced































erome to leave %ome= There is reason to think that a council o! the %oman cler( wassummoned to exile the ascetic !omenter who in later da(s calumniated the ?senate o! the7harisees; that drove him !rom %ome= $6 7erha"s Am0rose "artici"ated in this meetinKat least the in!luential 0isho" o! Milan did not rant his 0enevolence to the !allen "riest<

who was dee"l( disa""ointed 0( this and< some (ears later< accused Am0rose o! havin "laiari>ed )id(mus; treatise ?.n the &ol( S"irit; !or his own work on the su0ect=erome teased his rival as an ul( crow who adorned himsel! with 0orrowed "lumes<and continued to hea" venomous attacks u"on him= *5 ,n summer 34*< erome !inall( 0oarded shi" in 7ortus< the har0our o! %ome< to sail to the east= &e was never to see thecit( he now called Ba0(lon *1 aain=

Modern scholarshi" has o!ten overestimated erome;s "osition within the Christiansociet( o! %ome in the 345s 0( rel(in u"on his own testimon(< in which he de"ictshimsel! as an in!luential ?s"iritual

'36'

guide and scriptural teacher of a remarkable group of 1oman ladies.' C6

&n fact, his position was never unchallenged. Jerome was a highl!controversial e+ponent of e+treme ascetic conduct. "he evidenceprovided in the letters written during his sta! in 1ome, and later inethlehem, shows that the 1oman topograph! of the asceticmovement was comple+ and became even more comple+ when non-ascetic (hristian groups were integrated into the discourse of dissent.<tudents of the (hristian communities in 1ome in the second half of

the fourth centur!, or of the 1oman noble women mentioned b!Jerome, would therefore be well advised not to reproduce Jerome'sself-invention. %arcella was much more emancipated than Jeromewanted to lead posterit! to believe. &t is certainl! clear that shediscussed %ontanist ideas, read the writings of man! prominent(hristian authors, formed her own opinions in theological and church0political matters and corresponded with various prominent theologiansof her da!. Jerome was reckoned among her theological counsellors,but he was b! no means the onl! one who profited intellectuall! andfinanciall! from this remarkable 1oman lad!.

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5

BETHLEHEM (I)The rigenist !ontro"ersy














Jesterda(< all m( trou0les seemed so !ar awa(=

ohn ennonP7aul McCartne(

&avin le!t %ome in Auust 34*< erome set out !or the east aain and< a!ter an edi!(intour o! the hol( "laces< esta0lished himsel! in Bethlehem in 34/= )urin the !ollowinthree (ears< erome< s"onsored 0( the %oman aristocrats 7aula and 8ustochium< whohad !ollowed him into exile< !ounded a monaster(< a convent< and a hos"ice !or "ioustravellers= Servants< who had accom"anied the illustrious rou"< were now enlisted asthe !irst monks and nuns= 1 The withdrawal to Bethlehem did not im"l( renunciation o!the world= The decision to settle at the 0irth"lace o! Christ and to 0uild 7aula;s conventnext to the Church o! the ativit( "romised a livel( exchane with wealth( westernvisitors !rom the east and the west< who received a warm welcome at the hos"ice= 2 Sometimes< erome even com"lained a0out masses o! "ilrims distractin him !romwork= 3

&is !orced de"arture !rom %ome was in no wa( !ollowed 0( the colla"se o! the asceticnetwork care!ull( constructed 0( erome durin his sta( in %ome= etters< treatises<commentaries< and hand0ooks were addressed to in!luential ,talian "atrons like Marcellaand 7ammachius< who "aid !or the co"(ists and secured the distri0ution o! erome;swork= Messeners were sent on s"ecial missions deliverin orders and inquiries andkee"in erome in touch with the Christian circles o! the western world= Their main taskwas to maintain communication 0etween 7alestine and ,tal(= &is %oman !riends werealso in contact with ascetic rou"s in northern ,tal(< aul< and S"ain whom eromea""roached a!ter he had taken u" residence in Bethlehem= $

&is works o! this "eriod res"onded to the intellectual needs and literar( interests o! aconstantl( increasin num0er o! Christians o!

'$1'

birth, elo$uence, and wealth, as Jerome himself once pointedl!remarked C that is, of ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries, whoadvocated the theological tenets of the fides catholica and supportedthe ascetic movement. /rom among such people0men and womenwhose prestige and influence, according to 2aulinus of Nola, rested onhonour, education, and possessions 0the supporters of the ambitiousauthor were recruited. "he bond of ascetic and orthodo+ friendshipwas now strengthened b! an e+change of letters.

)t ethlehem, the erudite monk was occupied with the translation ofGreek theologians, above all of rigen, and started to composelearned handbooks and commentaries on the <cripture and totranslate the ld "estament into Latin from the original languages. E

























e wrote the &ife of Hilarion, a native of "habata near Ga#a and son ofpagan parents, who allegedl! founded the first monastic communit! in2alestine. ilarion was said b! Jerome to have been known for hisbiblical learning and his literar! education and mirrored Jerome'sperception of himself as the ideal monk0scholar.

&n BH6 or BHB, Jerome published his &ies of Famous en, whichcontains 8BC (hristian authors from 2eter to himself. &n fact more acatalogue, as 3rasmus had alread! noted, than a literar! histor!, itwas meant to demonstrate to the ignorant pagan public that thechurch had men of great learning. "his handbook of ecclesiasticalwriters, which was dedicated to his powerful friend Nummius)emilianus *e+ter, followed the model of <uetonius. &t named Greek,Latin, and <!riac authors, included heretics and even mentioned Jewsand the pagan <eneca. : &n another work, Jerome unleashed hisvenom against the monk Jovinian, who denied the superiorit! ofvirginit! and widowhood to marriage and maintained that e+tremeabstinence did not make an ascetic champion holier than thosebapti#ed (hristians who lived a normal life. Like elvidius, he$uestioned the perpetual virginit! of %ar!. A"he 3picurus of (hristians'was attacked in two books ('ainst 0oinian), which caused someanno!ance at 1ome, not onl! among Jovinian's adherents but also inthe ascetic circles that were shocked b! the violence of Jerome'spolemic. H

Jerome was working da! and night, corresponding with man! Latin-

speaking (hristians, e+plaining obscure scriptural passages, givingpastoral advice, and fighting against heterodo+!. A"he heretics hatehim, because he never desists from attacking them the clerics hatehim, because he assails their life and crimes. ut be!ond doubt, all thegood admire and love him MO e is alwa!s occupied in reading,alwa!s at his books with his whole heart4 he takes no rest da! ornight he is perpetuall! either reading or writing something,' a

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theologian were condemned, then it was to be feared that he, theLatin rigen, would be banned along with him. "hat would have beenthe end of his far-reaching literar! ambitions and the communit! inethlehem. 8E &n the following !ears, therefore, Jerome tried hard todissociate himself from rigen and to refute the charge of rigenism.

2robabl! in mid-<eptember BHB, 3piphanius visited Jerusalem andwanted to obtain a condemnation of rigen from its bishop, John. e












was not ver! successful. "he !oung clerg!men ridiculed his re$uest to Adenounce the perverse doctrines of rigen', >eered at Athe sill! oldman', Agrinned like dogs, wrinkled their noses, scratched their heads,and nodded to one another'. 8: "he $uarrel with the bishop ofJerusalem soon became worse when, in earl! summer BHD, a

frustrated 3piphanius ordained Jerome's brother 2aulinian presb!terwithout calling in John in whose diocese ethlehem la!. Jerome pouredoil on to the fire when he translated a letter of 3piphanius into Latin, inwhich the latter vindicated his condemnation of rigen. "hus, theconflict, which so far had been limited to the east, was e+hibited towestern readers, 8H and Jerome was charged with having mistranslatedthe original Greek letter. John was disgusted with these machinationsand 2aulinian's ordination gave him a most welcome formal cause tointervene. Without further ado, he e+communicated Jerome and theinsubordinate monks troubling the peace in 2alestine and obtained asentence of e+ile against Jerome from the imperial authorities. 69 "hereis some reason to think that the powerful official 1ufinus, then2raetorian 2refect of the 3ast, was involved in the proceedings hisassassination at the end of November BHC ma! have prevented thebanishment from being carried out. )nd certainl! the attention of thegovernment was at that time likel! to be directed to the incursions ofthe uns into )sia %inor and not to an obscure ecclesiastical case inthe ol! Land.

"he debate over the nature of the rigen's teaching divided themonasteries of 2alestine and aggravated the tensions between various

nationalities and different ascetic groups. rigenism had so far been asub>ect of theological discussion, but was now transformed into anecclesiastical and even political issue. &t was a struggle for power.3litist networks were involved in the controvers! from the ver!beginning. 2owerful friends and influential patrons served on bothsides as advocates for the literar! e+ponents of the debate andensured the dissemination of polemical and theological statements."he controvers! had become an international affair. &t has beencon>ectured that this debate cost Jerome his friendship with 1ufinus.ut the rift ma! have occurred earlier, when the latter disapproved of

Jerome's decision to-DD-

translate the ld "estament from the ebrew original. 68 "here wasalso a certain amount of rivalr! between the monasteries in ethlehemand Jerusalem, and 2alladius, in his &ausiac History, pointed at the illwill and env! between the groups. 66 oth 1ufinus and Jerome were


















an+ious not to discourage wealth! patrons from supporting theircommunities and suppressed ever! possible doubt about theirorthodo+!. &n BHC, Jerome wrote to 2aulinus of Nola, the offspring of anoble )$uitainian famil!, who had >ust decided to lead a monastic lifeat the tomb of <t /eli+ at Nola in (ampania. e warned him not to

come to Jerusalem, which he described as a worldl! cit! full ofprostitutes, actors, and idlers. 6B <ome months earlier, when he hadstill hoped to persuade 2aulinus to live in ethlehem, he hadlampooned his powerful monastic antagonist on the %ount of lives as%elania's handmaid and theological ignoramus4 Athers0& blush to sa!0learn of women what the! are to teach men and as if even this werenot enough, the! boldl! e+plain to others what the! themselves b! nomeans understand.' 6D

When a letter of John, in which the bishop described in great detail hisview of the debate and Jerome's sudden change of heart, was read in1ome and weakened his case, he answered with his most aggressivepamphlet 'ainst 0ohn of 0erusalem 5BHE;. "wo or three !ears earlier5BHD-C;, )ugustine launched his first attack against Jerome. 6C e first$uestioned Jerome's e+egesis, in his Commentary on 7alatians, that2aul's confrontation with 2eter at )ntioch 5Gal. 6, 88-8D; was stagedto serve the e+pectations of both the Gentile and the Jewish(hristians. "hen, he raised the issue of the authorit! and veracit! ofthe <eptuagint and e+pressed his doubts about Jerome's decision to goback to the ebrew original when translating the ld "estament intoLatin. 6 &n both instances, Jerome's approach had been influenced b!

rigen's biblical scholarship, so that )ugustine's en$uir! forced Jerometo define his relation to the rigenist tradition. When his first letterfailed to find its wa! to ethlehem, )ugustine asked Jerome again ande+plicitl! to specif! rigen's false doctrines.

<ome time later, in about BHE, he reiterated, in greater detail, hisreservations against Jerome's interpretation of the controvers!between 2eter and 2aul in )ntioch and insisted that Jerome shouldprovide him with Aan e+plicit account of rigen's errors, which provethat a man of his stature departed from the true faith.' 6E )nd he askedJerome to correct his views on Galatians, to Asing a palinode.' 6: necan imagine Jerome's perturbation when the epistle b! the bishop ofippo reached him onl! after a long od!sse! and b! chance4 a friendof his had found a cop! on an )driatic island and learnt that Jerome's

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heretical fallacies into the works of rigen. is translation of the 'poloy of 2amphilus and his own treatise on "he Falsification of the1ooks of #rien were supposed to corroborate this theor!. &t wasobvious that his accusations were directed against 3piphanius, whoincessantl! struggled to unmask the )le+andrian theologian as a

heretic. &n BH:, 1ufinus published in 1ome his Latin translation ofrigen's ma>or stud! #n First Principles or Peri 'rchon. &n the preface,he e+plained his theor! of translation, a topic Jerome, too, had dealtwith some time before. "he issue of falsif!ing the original and forgingorthodo+ doctrine incited the discourse Aon the principles of goodtranslation', B "hus, 1ufinus4

Wherever & have found something in his books contrar! to the truthconcerning the trinit! which he has in other places spoken in a strictl!orthodo+ sense, & have either omitted it as something foreign andinterpolated, or set it down in terms agreeing with the rule of faithwhich we find him constantl! assenting to. "here are things, no doubt,which he has developed in somewhat obscure language, wishing topass rapidl! over them, and as addressing those who have e+perienceand knowledge of such matters in these cases & have made thepassage clearer b! adding words which & had read in other books of hiswhere the matter was more full! treated. ut & have added nothing ofm! own & have onl! given him back his own words, though & havetaken these words from other passages.' BE

1ufinus further declared that he would continue the >ob, and the

method, of a well-known Abrother' and Acolleague', who had renderedsevent! homilies of rigen into Latin and announced even moretranslations to incite in ever!bod! an avid desire for reading rigen. &twas not too difficult to identif! the anon!mous translator to whom thisre$uest was made b! bishop *amasus. Jerome's 1oman circle,

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who had 0( questiona0le methods secured the !irst dra!t o! the translation< wereimmediatel( alarmed and sent a co"( to Bethlehem< lon 0e!ore %u!inus had it read( !or "u0lication= The( asked erome to "u0lish his own version and added maliciousl( that%u!inus mani"ulated erome;s re"utation to s"read the work o! .rien= 34

erome< havin received his !riends; messae< did not hesitate to et down to work= ,n366< he "u0lished a literal translation o! .rien;s ,n First Principles% which was<toether with two letters< sent to %ome= The one was destined !or %u!inus< the other !or













his aents .ceanus and 7ammachius= 36 #hereas the e"istle to %u!inus was rathermoderate in tone< the letter to his %oman allies< which was written !or "u0lic circulation<admitted and de!ended his !ormer admiration o! the Alexandrian theoloian< 0ut thenim"uned .rien;s "ro"aators and chared them with heres(= Althouh he ave no

names< the attack was rihtl( considered to 0e directed aainst %u!inus< who neverreceived erome;s "ersonal letter since erome;s !riends decided to withhold it= $5

The controvers( reached its climax when one (ear later +$55- a council at Alexandriaconvoked 0( Theo"hilus< who had< in the meantime< 0ecome an a"ostate o! .rienism<condemned .rien< the ?h(dra o! heresies;< and< larel( !or "olitical motives< ex"elled!rom their monasteries the !our monks who led the .rienist movement in 8("t andwere called ?Tall Brothers;= erome e!!usivel( conratulated the Alexandrian "atriarchon the success o! his crusade aainst .rienism< $1 and translated into atin a series o! "aschal and s(nodical letters in which the errors o! .rien were listed and re!uted= $2 ,n,tal(< however< the situation was still unsettled= There< Melania +who had returned !rom

the &ol( and in $55- and %u!inus were unitin and enlarin their !orces= The %omanlad( used her !ar'reachin relationshi"s throuhout the western world< and even inConstantino"le< to "romote the case o! her "rot@@= #e know that the ecclesiastical "oliticians Chromatius o! Aquileia< audentius o! Brescia< Siricius o! %ome< andSim"licianus o! Milan were "re"ared to su""ort them= A war o! "ro"aanda was in "roress: ?#h( do (ou write 0ooks addressed to others aainst me< and s"read them 0((our satellites throuh the whole worldL; erome asked later= $3

.n erome;s side there were to 0e !ound 7ammachius< .ceanus< Marcella< whosu""orted her %oman client 'cliens( a!ter some hesitation< $$ and one 8use0ius o!Cremona< who carried incriminatin documents ?round to "rivate houses< to ladies< to

monasteries and to Christian men one 0( one=;$*

The circles were linked throuh !amil(ties< "atronae< ascetic devotion< and orthodox "ro!ession= 8ach side

'$4'

aimed at winnin new allies= %u!inus ho"ed !or some time to attract Anastasius< 0isho" o!%ome< as com0atant< to whom he addressed a short treatise de!endin his "osition= $/Also< ohn o! erusalem wrote to his %oman colleaue urin him to 0ack %u!inus= $

The "u0lic de0ate 0etween erome and %u!inus< which was !ollowed 0( an ever'rowin

audience< culminated in two lare a"oloetical works= First< %u!inus "u0lished hisA"olo( aainst erome in two 0ooks +$51-< in which he clearl(< 0ut tediousl(<demonstrated erome;s erstwhile and domaticall( untrou0led admiration o! .rien< hise!!orts at disuisin the de"endence on .rien in his commentar( on the 8"istle to the8"hesians $4 and his violation o! the solemn oath he had sworn to the ude that hewould never aain "ossess or read wordl( 0ooks= $6 ,n addition< %u!inus de!ended histranslation o! .n First 7rinci"les= *5 erome did not wait to "ossess a co"( o! thea"oloia= #hen rumours reached him< he sat down to write his "olemical answers= &is

























A"olo( +$51- com0ined sel!'de!ence and assault and is another master"iece o! "olemic=The arument is less com"ellin= 8videntl(< %u!inus re"lied in a "rivate letter askinerome to "ut an end to his onslauhts and threatenin him with disclosures and even alawsuit= erome came 0ack with a third< extremel( vitriolic 0ook o! A"olo( +$52-: ?&owcan (ou dare to sa( that (ou are s"eakin as a Christian< not !or dis"la( 0ut !or

edi!ication< when (ou set (oursel! in mature ae to sa( thins aainst (our equal which amurderer could hardl( sa( aainst a ro00er< or a whore aainst a "rostitute or a 0u!!oonaainst a !arce'"la(erL; At the end< he suested an areement on his terms: ?,! (oudesire "eace< la( down (our arms= , can 0e at "eace with one who shows kindnessK , donot !ear one who threatens me= et us 0e at one in !aith< and "eace will !ollowimmediatel(=; *1 Auustine was riht in concludin that the controvers( had ruined anexce"tional !riendshi"= *2

%u!inus did not re"l(= &e did not need to= &is 0ackin was stron enouh to withstanderome;s attacks< whose inconsistent handlin o! the de0ate had enlared the num0er o!his enemies< who also critici>ed his new translation o! the Bi0le and his ascetic verve=

The %enaissance scholar Sa0ellicus was surel( wron to o0serve that the writins o!%u!inus were ?as the strummin o! a !lea to the trum"etin o! the ,ndian ele"hant=; *3 &is "osition as an oriinal writer and success!ul translator could not 0e challened 0( erome=At the invitation o! 7aulinus o! ola< !or instance< he wrote a commentar( on theBenedictions o! the Twelve 7atriarchs= *$ erome< on the contrar(< continued tocalumniate %u!inus 0( nast( so0riquets= &e loved to call his !ormer !riend ?the scor"ion;<?the ross swine<; and the ?runtin "i;

'$6'

(7runnius).

CC

3ven after 1ufinus' death in D89, he re>oiced4 A"he<corpion lies under the soil of <icil!. MO "he man!-headed h!dra hasat last ceased to hiss against me.' C ther enmities too were pursued.)fter a visit to ethlehem, 7igilantius, a presb!ter of )$uitaine, hadattacked Jerome as an rigenist. Jerome replied with two letters andhis 'ainst 6iilantius 5D9;, in which he nicknamed his opponent A*ormitantius' 5i.e. Asleep!head';, blamed him for repudiating the cultof relics, the observation of vigils, celibac!, and monasticism in south-west Gaul. A7igilantius has again opened his fetid lips and is vomitingout a torrent of filth! venom upon the relics of the hol! mart!rs,'Jerome observed, and recommended4 A"he doctors should cut out his

tongue or he should be put under treatment for insanit!.' CE

"he outbreak of the controvers! over rigen's orthodo+! movedJerome to condemn his old hero and to den!, or at least pla! down, hisearlier admiration. )fter BHB, he tried to disconnect his literar!programme from the rigenian persona and manoeuvred himself intoa difficult situation that became even more difficult, since the great












variet! of the topics rigen dealt with led to a rather vague concept ofrigenism, which could be applied to different theological positions.Jerome's solution, which artificiall! separated rigen's scripturale+egesis from his theological doctrine, did not convince ever!bod!4

rigen is a heretic, true but what is that to me, who do not den! thathe was heretical in ver! man! points e erred about the resurrectionof the bod!, he erred about the condition of souls, he erred b!supposing it possible that the devil ma! repent, and0an error moreimportant than these0he declared in his commentar! upon &saiah thatthe <eraphim mentioned b! the prophet are the divine <on and theol! Ghost. &f & did not allow that he erred or if & did not dail!anathemati#e his errors & should be partaker of his fault. /or while wereceive what is good in his writings we must on no account bindourselves to accept also what is evil. <till in man! passages he hasinterpreted the scriptures well, has e+plained obscure places in theprophets, and has brought to light ver! great m!steries, both in theld and in the New "estament. &f then & have translated what is goodin him and have either cut awa! or altered or ignored what is evil, am& to be regarded as guilt! on the score that through me the Latinsreceive the good in his writings without knowing an!thing of the badC:

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Jerome, however, could weather out the severe crisis not because he

had the better arguments and more vigorous polemic on his side, butbecause his &talian network provided financial means and personalresources throughout the controvers!. "hus, the rigenist controvers!is not onl! a stor! of personal rivalr!, hostile insinuations, andrhetorical aggression, but also a splendid e+ample of the social settingof a late anti$ue (hristian debate.

Jerome's character and doctrine remained disputed, CH and onl! fewcontemporaries would have agreed with the <paniard !datius who,continuing Jerome's Chronicle in the second half of the fifth centur!,characteri#ed his predecessor as follows4

) man outstanding in all respects, left innumerable volumes of hiswork. e was highl! skilled in ebrew letters and it is written that hemeditated constantl!, both da! and night, upon the law of the Lord. "othe ver! end he pounded with the adamantine hammer of truth thesect of 2elagius along with its originator. is greatl! esteemed worksagainst these and other heretics are e+tant.' 9












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/

BET!LE!EM 0IIT"e Bi2-i&a- S&"o-ar

"he great Jerome, the onl! scholar in the church universal who had aperfect command of all learning both sacred and heathen.

3rasmus

)lbrecht *Rrer, in an engraving of 8DH6, depicted the learned asceticand the translator of the ld and New "estament in his stud! dealing

with Latin, Greek, and ebrew versions of the ible.8

<till, toda!,Jerome's name is linked with ebrew scholarship and, of course, the7ulgate. 6 ut, we must not forget that the passionate controversies inJerome's da!s about his rendering of the ld "estament iuxtaHebraeos 5i.e. according to the ebrew te+t;, and hence about theinspiration of the <eptuagint and the ld "estament canon, had theconse$uence that the merit of his translations, including the Gospels,was recogni#ed onl! long after his death. Not until the ninth centur!was his work accepted, and, even then, up to the thirteenth centur!,monks and priests were still cop!ing and reading the ld Latinversions of the <criptures. &n Jerome's lifetime, his translation wouldnot even supersede the 6etus &atina, in &tal!, though 1ome was theplace where he started to propagate his new interpretation with theideological and financial help of influential friends, who also maintaineda large staff of cop!ists. )ugustine, (assiodorus, and Gregor! theGreat, to give onl! three e+amples, used both versions at the sametime. )nd, in practice, the te+t of the 7ulgate $uickl! becamecorrupted with passages taken from the ld Latin ible. )mong thethree oldest Gospel manuscripts of the 7ulgate that date back to thefifth centur!, there is onl! one that has not borrowed elements fromthe 6etus &atina8 the other two manuscripts have h!brid te+ts. B

%odern scholarship has been able to reconstruct Jerome's translationsof the New and ld "estament. &t has thus emerged that he

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onl! revised the te+t of the Gospels, but not of )cts, the 3pistles, and1evelation. "he passages Jerome himself cites from these books of the














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and the Hexapla, respectivel!, onl! included the above-mentionedbooks of the <criptures. 8D

"his work had to remain unfinished since Jerome increasingl! devotedhimself to the ebrew original or Aebrew verit! (Hebraica eritas)'.)bout BH9, convinced of the superiorit! of the ebrew te+t, he startedon a new Latin version of the complete ld "estament iuxta Hebraeos.oth the relative and the absolute chronolog! of his translations of thebooks of the ld "estament are controversial. &n Famous en, hestates, A& translated the ld "estament from the ebrew.' 8C "his is,along with the corresponding remark on his rendering of the New"estament, most certainl! an e+aggeration since, in his own preface toJoshua, Jerome said that he finished the translation of the ld"estament according to the ebrew te+t about D9C. 8 &t appears thatup to BH6-B, Jerome had translated onl! the Psalter, the Prophets, the1ooks of Samuel and Kins, and 0ob. 8E "he remaining books of theebrew canon, as well as the deuterocanonical books 0udith and "obit,were translated in the following fourteen !ears or so.

"he prefaces, but also the commentaries and man! epistlesdemonstrate the occasion, intention, techni$ue and theor! oftranslation, and especiall! the criticism his new translations of the ld"estament provoked. 8: "he recourse to Hebraica eritas was firml!re>ected b! those who, like 3piphanius or 1ufinus, recogni#ed the

<eptuagint as the onl! true and legitimate, divinel! inspired version ofthe ld "estament. &n addition, those, like )ugustine, who had doubtsabout the authorit! of the <eptuagint nevertheless >oined the critics,because the te+t was familiar to the congregation and a translationfrom the Greek version was checked more easil! than one from theebrew original. 8H

"he new Latin version of the ible was an attempt at providing aneducated (hristian audience with a scholarl! and accurate translationthat also pleased the literar! taste of an audience that was familiarwith classical literature. 69 ut, criticism forced Jerome to back it upwith a vast programme of commentaries, dedicated to his 1omanpatrons, !et written for a wider public. is immense e+egetical outputwas not onl! an answer to the growing need for intellectual studies onthe <criptures, but also part of his strateg! of defending his new Latinible. )t the same time, he tried to reconcile (hristian e+egesis withpagan literar! standards.
























e commented on man! books of the (hristian ible and added specialtreatises, such as his #n Hebre: Names, 68 the 1ook of Places, 66 andthe Hebre: ;uestions. 6B "he e+tent of Jerome's dependence, as anama#ingl! productive e+egete, on both Greek and Latin predecessors

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is apparent. )gain, rigen emerges as the inspirer of Jerome's te+tualcriticism and e+egesis of <cripture, even after the outbreak of therigenist controvers!. 7igilant readers among his contemporariesoften discovered that rigen was his model. Jerome replied4 AWhatthe! consider a reproach, & regard as the highest praise, since & desireto imitate rigen who, & doubt not, is acceptable to all wise men.' 6D When 1ufinus charged him with having plagiari#ed heterodo+arguments in his commentar! on the 3pistle of 2aul to the 3phesians,Jerome >ustified his method4

What & have done in that and other commentaries is to develop bothm! own opinion and that of others, stating clearl! which are hereticaland which catholic. "his is the common rule and custom of those whoundertake to e+plain books in commentaries4 "he! give at length intheir e+position the various opinions, and e+plain what is thought b!themselves and b! others. 6C

&n writing his commentaries, Jerome borrowed from virtuall! all the(hristian biblical e+egesis that was available to him. 6 ut, he

consulted Jewish advisers as well, who also assisted him in translatingthe ible into Latin. 1ecent research has rightl! stressed that Jeromeas biblical scholar learned from Jewish e+egesis at least as much asfrom rigen. Jerome's concept of Hebraica eritas was dependent onthe help of Jewish scholars and e+egetes. 6E

&n fact, Jerome's approach to the works of preceding andcontemporar! writers was in no wa! different from his approach tosecular literature. %an!, if not most of the authors and their works hecited were $uoted second-hand. 6: 3ven in Jerome's lifetime, 1ufinuslaughed at the ama#ing number of philosophers, historians, and poetswhose works he pretended to have studied. "hus, 1ufinus in$uiredhow it could be possible that Jerome had read letters of 2!thagoras,given that probabl! no single work of this philosopher had beenpreserved. 6H Jerome's repl! was poor4 A& was speaking not of thebooks but of the tenets, with which & was able to ac$uaint m!selfthrough (icero, rutus, and <eneca.' B9

































1ecognition of the e+tent of Jerome's carefull! disguised plagiarismand patchwork method has naturall! prompted doubt about histheological and e+egetical originalit!. /or that reason, man! studentsof Jerome, in the last decades, have formed a negative opinion of thedoctor ecclesiae. ut, Jerome was entirel! in line with the

contemporar! practice of both (hristian and pagan authors when hee+tracted the

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writings of preceding authors. )nd, in the Latin west, he pla!ed animportant role as an intermediar! of Greek and ebrew e+egesis.Jerome's e+egetical importance can properl! be compared with thetheological importance of )ugustine.

"he image of a learned e+egete of ol! <cripture, promoted b! Jeromehimself, was absolutel! necessar! to obtain authorit! among, andsupport from, well-to-do (hristians. 7er! much to the point here washis reputation as ir trilinuis, which underla! recognition of hisprestige as a translator and commentator of <cripture, both b!contemporaries and later generations. ence, it is not surprising that,from the time of his sta! in 1ome, Jerome repeatedl! and carefull!depicted himself as a Atrilingual' scholar with a command of Latin,Greek, and ebrew. B8 e also reports, of an earlier stage of his life inthe desert of (halcis, that he spoke fluent <!riac, B6 and oftenmentions that he was translating from the A(haldee' 5i.e. from

)ramaic;.BB

Jerome was able to celebrate his knowledge of languagessince hardl! an! of his contemporaries could come near to rivallinghim4 BD his knowledge of the ebrew tongue receives special mentionin the literature of the time. BC )lthough modern scholars havesometimes $uestioned Jerome's command of the language, a closee+amination of the evidence makes it more than likel! that he at leastknew some ebrew. B & would con>ecture that his ebrew was at thesame level as his )ramaic, which he could read and understand betterthan he could speak it. BE e had perhaps onl! received elementar!instruction in both languages. "he numerous references to ebrewscholars, among whom one, aranina, is mentioned b! name, B: andebrew sources confirm that Jerome did not onl! have access to theJewish tradition through Greek authors, but was in direct contact withJews, who were helping him in translating the ld "estament and insolving e+egetical problems. &t was their e+cellence that enabledJerome to propagate and to defend his notion of the ebrew verit!."hroughout almost all his time in ethlehem, he was able to consultJewish scholars their importance is proved not least b! the fact that



























Jerome spared no e+pense to emplo! them. "hus, he remarked4 AWhattrouble and mone! it cost me to get aranina to teach me during thenight.' BH "he bills for the language lessons and ebrew scholars were,of course, paid b! Jerome's wealth! sponsors.

Jerome's new Latin translation raised serious suspicions, as thefamous incident of the gourd shows. D9 &n Jonah D., in the ebrewte+t, a plant is mentioned called +<+=>?n, which on God's commandgrew up fast in order to throw its shade over Jonah. Jerome translatedthe ebrew word as hedera, iv!. )s a result, he was heavil! critici#ed

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in %ome 0ecause the .ld atin Bi0le rendered -.-/01n as cucurbita% ourd< rather than

erome;s iv(= For that reason< an in!luential %oman o""onent< "ro0a0l( a mem0er o! thesenatorial aristocrac(< accused him o! sacrilee= $1 erome< driven onto the de!ensive<tried to re!ute the chare 0oth 0( "ersonal "olemics and 0otanical< as well as "hiloloical< ex"ertise= The "lant< called ciceia in S(riac and 7unic< he ex"lained< was a!ast'rowin 0ush< which was to 0e !ound es"eciall( in dr( "laces in 7alestineK the atintonue had no equivalent so that< to avoid a new word< he had translated the ex"ressionwith he"era% iv(< !ollowin the reek versions o! the He#apla% which have kiss2s +iv(-<and not with cucurbita% ourd< !ound in the Se"tuaint and the .ld atin version= $2 Thenew translation had not 0een critici>ed !or linuistic< 0ut !or theoloical reasons: eromewas attacked 0ecause his translation di!!ered !rom the traditional +i=e= divinel( ins"ired-readin o! the Bi0le=

The a!!air was not settled then= %u!inus< in his Apolog$% sarcasticall( advised his readersthat u"on the ancient tom0s the ourds should< !or erome;s sake< 0e re"laced 0( iv(= $3 ,n A!rica< too< the new renderin was !ound distur0in= The 0isho" o! .ea +Tri"oli- inTri"olitania had ado"ted erome;s new translation o! onah= $$ But< when the "assaewas read out in a church o! his diocese< a tumult 0roke out since the word iv( wasun!amiliarthe conreation ex"ected the traditional ourd= ,t was even rumoured thatthe text was !ored= Thus< some resident ews were consulted who "ronounced aainsterome;s translation ex"lainin that the readin o! the &e0rew manuscri"ts corro0oratedthe translation !ound in the Se"tuaint and the .ld atin version= As a result< the 0isho"had to erase the word= Auustine< who recorded the stor(< was seriousl( distur0ed 0(

the news o! a "rotestin !lock and tied u" this event with his criticism o! erome;stranslation o! the .ld Testament !rom the &e0rew= erome< in his re"l(< arued that thewhole matter had 0een resolved !or a lon time< re!erred to the detailed "hiloloical and 0otanical o0servations in his commentar( on onah< and< !inall(< assailed the ews who?throuh malice or inorance 'malitia vel inperitia(; "ronounced in !avour o! theSe"tuaint= &e concluded that his version was in corres"ondence with the &e0rewmanuscri"ts= $* ,n this case< a rou" o! ?traditionalists; evidentl( challened erome;s?moderni>in; translation and accused him o! an o0vious mistranslation a!ter consultin

























ewish scholars< "ro0a0l( ra00is= ,n his re!utation< erome de!ended his translation o!-.-/01n and countered criticism o! his linuistic "ro!icienc( 0( em"hasi>in that he hadcon!erred with ewish ex"erts< who had o!!ered their assistance with di!!icult textual "ro0lems= $/

'*'

ut the most perilous charge Jerome had to face while translating theld "estament according to the ebrew te+t la! in the argument thathe was abandoning the divinel! inspired version of the <eptuagint andthus Judai#ed the ld "estament. is decision for Hebraica eritas andthe Jewish e+egesis led to the accusation that he was deviating from(hristian tradition. &t was precisel! this point that 1ufinus made in his 'poloy aainst 0erome%

"his action is !ours, m! brother, !ours alone. &t is clear that no one inthe church has been !our companion or confederate in it, but onl! thatarrabas whom !ou mention so fre$uentl!. What other spirit than thatof the Jews would dare to tamper with the records of the church whichhave been handed down from the )postles &t is the!, m! brother, !ouwho were most dear to me before !ou were taken captive b! the Jews,it is the! who are hurr!ing !ou into this ab!ss of evil. DE

Jerome's campaign for the superiorit! of the ebrew te+t threatenedhis entire programme of studia scripturarum. is dissenters even

forged a letter, in which Jerome was said to have condemned his newLatin version from the ebrew when this document circulated in)frica, his 1oman supporters were seriousl! disturbed. D: "he strongopposition might e+plain Jerome's different, even inconsistent remarkson the <eptuagint, which are not onl! contingent upon the time butalso upon the addressee of the work. DH "here is no doubt that Jeromehimself considered his translation of the ld "estament from theebrew superior to the <eptuagint and even to the te+t of thee+aplaric <eptuagint, since his rendering followed the original moreclosel!. "ime and again, he asked his readers to compare his versionwith the <eptuagint and, if necessar!, to consult Jewish scholars. ut,since the sharp criticism, which his successivel! published Latintranslations of the ld "estament evoked, could be silenced neitherthrough ardent polemic nor through careful reasoning, Jeromedeveloped a fle+ible response to vilification. n the one side, he >ustified his recourse to Hebraica eritas b! adducing philological andtheological arguments. "hus, he tried to provide his friends andpatrons, who were responsible for propagating his works, with
















arguments to prove the supremac! of his version. n the other side,he repressed his underl!ing reservations and criticism and sometimesacknowledged the e+aplaric te+t, even the <eptuagint, whenever itwas necessar! to repulse the attacks of those who, like 1ufinus,considered the <eptuagint and conse$uentl! the ld Latin versions to

be

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inspired b! God, and therefore went on charging Jerome with heres!."his accusation was no less serious than the charge that he adhered torigenism. Jerome had no choice but to fight against both charges inorder to defend his reputation and his authorit! as a translator andcommentator of the ible.

When Jerome died on B9 <eptember D8H or0more likel!0D69, he hadproduced an immense oeuvre. Ne+t to )ugustine, he was the mostprolific of all (hristian Latin authors in the ancient world. Latergenerations venerated him as a trilingual theologian and praised himas an ascetic virtuoso. ut, he has also been attacked as a person ofweak character and e+tremel! nast! temper and as the spiritualseducer of aristocratic women. Yet, Jerome should also be understoodas a provincial parvenu who made a brilliant career as a (hristianwriter. is literar! talent, his ascetic self-invention, a strong feeling forself-promotion, man! innovative writings, and an e+traordinar!command of languages enabled him to succeed at last as a literar!

e+ponent both of the ascetic movement and of Nicene orthodo+!, as abiblical scholar, and as a mediator between eastern and westerntheolog!. Jerome is thus a remarkable e+ample of social mobilit! andintellectual achievement in the (hristian societ! of late anti$uit!.

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Part IITRANSLATIONS

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3

T!E NO4ELIST



Letter 1 to Inno&enti5sINTRODUCTION

Jerome's first epistle has been harshl! critici#ed b! modern scholars.

"he stor! of the miraculous rescue of a (hristian woman falsel!condemned to death for adulter! is said to be the ver! modest debutof a literar! novice 5%onceau+ M8HBBO H9 cf. (avallera M8H66O i 6:erschin M8H:O 8BD;, full of Ae+aggerated pathos', Auncriticalcredulit!', and with a Aflair for brutall! realistic description' 5=ell!M8HECO D9 cf. as earl! as GrRt#macher M8H98-:O i 8DD and NordenM68H9HO ii C9f.;. owever, a thorough e+amination of the te+t b!<courfield 58H:B; B6-8B: has proved once again that it is a highl!mannered piece combining classical $uotations, ld "estamentreminiscences, rhetorical stratagems, and vivid descriptions for theone purpose of glorif!ing the faith of a woman who is characteri#ed asa mart!r. ence, it is not surprising that there are some affinities with(hristian hagiographic literature. "he woman withstands e+cruciatingtorments, calls God to witness, and looks up to heaven while beingtortured. "he governor grows more and more furious seeing herendurance, and two different e+ecutioners are driven to despair b!their unsuccessful efforts to behead her. /inall!, the devil comes up inthe person of the headsman to look for the corpse. bviousl!, it is notJerome's intention to give a report of a true incident, and there is noneed to interpret the stor! allegoricall! 5cf. GrRt#macher M8H98-:O i8DC;. A"he significance of the events at 7ercellae la! for him not in the

unfairness of the trial and the summar! e+ecution, nor in an! clashbetween (hristianit! and the state, but in the courage of the victimand the triumph of the (hristian faith' 5<courfield M8H:BO DE;. "heauthor wants to demonstrate his capacit! for writing the edif!ingaccount of a Aprofane mart!rdom' 5erschin M8H:O 8BD cf. %RllerM8HH:O 69:ff.;.

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"he narrative of this remarkable event is cast in the form of a letter toJerome's friend &nnocentius, who belonged to the group of asceticsJerome >oined in northern &tal!. e, like Jerome, travelled to )ntioch,where he died in the household of their wealth! patron, 3vagrius, afew months after his arrival 5cf. ier. ep. B.B.8;. Yet, the )ntiochenecurialis 5cf. (hapter 6; is the true addressee of the epistle. )t the end,he appears as deus ex machina8 his appeal to the emperor leads tothe heroine's release. %oreover, his support for the 1oman bishop*amasus and his fight against )rianism are praised. Jerome is



therefore writing a paneg!ric to 3vagrius, who pla!ed an importantrole as a semi-official representative of the western church in the east,defended the Nicene faith, and supported monastic communities andascetic pilgrims such as Jerome himself and &nnocentius. )t the sametime, Jerome is aiming to please a larger Latin-speaking audience

enchanted b! the new genre of Ahagiographical prose narrative' 5cf./ontaine M8H::bO B6;, which is also represented b! 3vagrius' Latintranslation of the &ife of 'ntony . 53vagrius had rendered )thanasius'famous biograph! into Latin during his visit to the west and dedicatedit to &nnocentius.; "hus, Jerome's first letter served two purposes4 itwas an encomium for an influential patron whom Jerome had alread!won, or whom he intended to win, and it demonstrated the literar!talent of an ambitious (hristian writer who was >ust about to make aliving out of writing in support of Nicene orthodo+! and the asceticmovement. &ts success was remarkable. 3ven the author of theHistoria 'uusta ma! have used it for his anti-(hristian polemics5(hastagnol M8HE6O;. "he date of the first letter is controversial.<chwind 58HHE; argued that it was probabl! written after Jeromesettled in ethlehem 5i.e. after B:C;, but he was immediatel! refutedb! %Rller 58HH:;, who corroborated the accepted view that epistula 8was written at the beginning of the BE9s, either before Jerome left)$uileia for the east 5cf. 1ebenich M8HH6aO E8; or during his sta! at)ntioch 5cf. e.g. (avallera M8H66O ii 8Bf. <courfield M8H:O;.

TE6T1 Jou have o!ten asked me< dearest ,nnocent< not to kee" silent a0out the miraculousevent that has ha""ened in our time= 1 , have declined the request !rom modest( and<as , now learn 0( ex"erience< with ustice< 0elievin m(sel! to 0e inca"a0le o! it< 2

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0ecause all human lanuae is insu!!icient to the "raise o! heaven< and also 0ecauseinactivit(< like rust u"on the intellect< has dried u" an( little "ower o! eloquence that ,once "ossessed= Jou on the other hand ured that in the a!!airs o! od one must look notat the "ossi0ilit(< 0ut at the courae< and that he who trusted in the #ord would not !indthat words !ail him= 3

2 #hat then shall , doL $ The task is 0e(ond me< * and (et , dare not decline it= Anunskilled "assener< / , am "laced in command o! a heav( caro'vessel= A "ersonwho has never "ulled an oar on a lake< , am entrusted to the turmoil o! the 8uxineSea= 4 , see the land sinkin 0eneath the hori>on< ?on ever( side is sk(< on ever( sidethe sea; 6 K darkness lowers over the water 15 and in the 0lack niht o! the stormclouds the waves are white with !oam= Jou ure me to hoist the swellin sails< toloosen the sheets< and to take the helm= 11 ow , o0e( (our command< and as lovecan do all thins and the &ol( S"irit is uidin m( course< , ma( !eel con!ident that ,shall !ind com!ort in either case= For< i! the rouh sea drives me to the desired haven<






































, shall 0e rearded as a naviatorK i! m( rude diction runs around amid the rouhcross'currents o! lanuae< (ou ma( 0lame m( lack o! "ower< 0ut (ou will not 0ea0le to question m( ood intentions=3 9ercellae< then< is a iurian town< 12 situated not !ar !rom the !oot o! the Al"s<once im"ortant< 0ut now s"arsel( "o"ulated and l(in hal! in ruins= 13 #hen the

"rovincial overnor 1$

was holdin his visitation there< a woman and her lover were 0rouht 0e!ore him accused 0( the hus0and o! adulter(< and he consined them tothe "enal horrors o! "rison= 1* Shortl( a!terwards< excruciatin tortures were in!lictedto discover the truth= 1/ #hen the 0lood'stained hook struck the (oun man;s livid!lesh and tore !urrows in his side< the unha""( (outh souht to avoid "roloned "ain 0( a s"eed( death< and ivin a !alse account o! his own "assions< he involvedanother in the chare= Thus it a""eared that he was o! all men the most misera0le andthat his execution was ust !or he le!t to an innocent woman no chance o! sel!'de!ence=

But the woman was more couraous than her sex= 1 Althouh her 0od( was

stretched u"on the rack<

14

and althouh her hands< stained with the !ilth o! the "rison< were tied 0ehind her< she looked u" to heaven with her e(es< 16 which alonethe torturer had 0een una0le to 0ind< and while the tears rolled down her !ace< cried:?Jou are m( witness< ord esus< to whom nothin is hidden< who tries the reins andthe heart= 25 Jou are m( witness that it is not to save m(sel! !rom death that , makethe denial< 0ut

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that it is to save m(sel! !rom sin that , am unwillin to lie= And as !or (ou< unha""( man<21 i! (ou are hastenin to "erish< wh( must (ou destro( two innocent "ersonsL , also<

m(sel!< desire to die< desire to "ut o!! this hated 0od(<

22

0ut not as an adulteress= , o!!erm( throat< , welcome the leamin sword without !ear< so lon as , take m( innocencewith me= &e does not "erish< who is trium"hant in his death=; 23

$ The overnor< who had 0een !eastin his e(es u"on the 0lood( s"ectacle< now< likea wild animal that a!ter once tastin 0lood alwa(s thirsts !or it< 2$ ordered her tortureto 0e dou0led< and cruell( nashin his teeth< threatened the executioner with like "unishment i! he !ailed to extort !rom the weaker sex a con!ession which manl(strenth had not 0een a0le to kee" 0ack=* &el"< ord esus= &ow man( tortures have 0een invented !or this one creature o!(oursQ &er hair is 0ound to a stake< her whole 0od( is !ixed more !irml( on the rack<and !ire is "ut to her !eet= 2* The executioner a0s her on 0oth sides< and even her

0reasts are not s"ared= Still the woman remains unshaken< and her s"irit is !ree !romthe "ain o! her 0od(K still eno(in a clear conscience she re!uses to allow thetortures to vent their rae u"on her= 2/ The cruel ude rises< as i! he were de!eated=She still "ra(s to the ord= &er lim0s are wrenched !rom their sockets< she onl( turnsher e(es to heaven= Another con!esses their common uilt= She< !or the con!essor;ssake< denies it< and< in "eril o! hersel!< vindicates one who is in "eril o! his= 2 / ,n the meantime she has 0ut one thin to sa(: ?Beat me< 0urn me< tear me in "ieces=, have not done it= ,! (ou do not 0elieve m( words< the da( will come when this























































chare will 0e care!ull( examined= , will have a ude to do me ustice=; 8xhausted 0( this time< the torturer was sihin and moaninK 24 nor could he !ind a "lace !or a!resh wound= &e shuddered to see the 0od( he had torn< and his cruelt( vanquished=,mmediatel(< the overnor was roused to new rae and cried: ?#h( does it sur"rise(ou< 0('standers< that the woman "re!ers torture to deathL ,t takes two "eo"le<

certainl(< to commit adulter(K and , think it more credi0le that a uilt( woman shouldden( a crime than that an innocent (oun man should con!ess one=; The same sentence< there!ore< was "assed on 0oth< and the executioner draedawa( the condemned "air= The entire "o"ulace "oured out to see the siht< rushinout in a dense mass throuh the crowded ates< so that one miht have thouht thecit( was miratin= At the ver( !irst stroke o! the sword the head o! the

--

misera0le (outh was cut o!!< and the headless trunk rolled over in its own 0lood=Then came the woman;s turn= She knelt down u"on the round< and the leamin

sword was li!ted over her trem0lin neck= The executioner summoned all his strenthinto his trained riht arm< 0ut the moment it touched her 0od( the deadl( swordsto""ed short< and< lihtl( ra>in the skin< merel( scratched it su!!icientl( to draw alittle 0lood= The striker 0ecame !rihtened 0( the !ailure o! his handK he is ama>edthat his riht arm has 0een de!eated< the sword 0ecomin "owerless< and whirled it!or a second stroke= Aain the sword !ell !orceless on the woman< sinkin harmlessl(on her neck< as thouh the steel !eared to touch the accused= 26 Thereu"on theenraed and "antin soldier 35 threw his cloak 0ack over his shoulder= As he ave his!ull strenth to the 0low< he shook to the round the 0rooch which clas"ed the edeso! his arment< and not noticin this< he "oised his sword !or another stroke= ?ook<;said the woman< ?a old "in has !allen !rom (our shoulder= 7ick u" what (ou have

earned 0( hard la0our< that (ou ma( not lose it=;4 , ask (ou< what is the source o! such con!idenceL She has no !ear o! the death thatthreatens her= #hile she exults< when hit hard< the executioner turns "ale= &er e(esdo not see the sword< the( onl( see the 0rooch= And as thouh to have no !ear o!death were not enouh< she does an act o! kindness to her cruel enem(= And now them(ster( o! the Trinit( 31 had rendered vain the third 0low< tooK 32 the soldier 33 wasthorouhl( terri!ied< and no loner trustin the 0lade "ut the "oint to her throat< withthe idea that the sword which could not cut< miht "lune into her 0od( 0( the "ressure o! his hand= The swordan ama>in !act< unheard o! throuhout the aes 0ent 0ack to the hilt< and< as i! lookin at its master in its de!eat< con!essed itsina0ilit( to strike=

6 ow< now let me 0rin to mind the exam"le o! the three children< who< amid thecool circles o! the !lames< san h(mns instead o! wee"in< and around whose tur0ans3$ and hol( hair the !lames "la(ed harmlessl(= 3* ow let me recall the stor( o! the 0lessed )aniel< 3/ accordin to which the lions waed their tails and were a!raid o!their "re(= 3 et Susannah also ascend to the minds o! all in the no0ilit( o! her !aith<who< a!ter she had 0een condemned 0( an unust sentence< was saved 0( a (outh!illed with the &ol( S"irit= 34 ote that in 0oth cases the ord;s merc( was notdissimilarK Susannah was !reed 0( the ude that she miht not die 0( the swordK this








































woman< who had 0een condemned 0( the ude< was acquitted 0( the sword=

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15 At last the "o"ulace takes u" arms to de!end the woman= 7eo"le o! ever( ae and

sex drive o!! the executioner= The crowd !orms a circle around her and hardl(an(0od( can trust what he has seen= The news o! their action throws the adacent cit(into con!usion< and the entire !orce o! the overnor;s attendants is mustered= Theo!!icer who is res"onsi0le !or the execution o! criminals 0ursts !rom their midst< and?stainin his re( hair with de!ilin dust;< 36 exclaims: ?,s it m( li!e (ou are seekin<citi>ensL Are (ou makin me a su0stitute !or herL ,! (ou are merci!ul< i! (ou areclement< i! (ou wish to save a condemned woman< surel( ,an innocent man ouht not to "erish=; &is lamenta0le a""eal took e!!ect u"on the crowd< the( were all 0enum0ed 0( the in!luence o! sorrow< and there was a strane chane o! will=Be!ore< it had seemed their dut( to de!end the woman< now it seemed their dut( in awa( to allow her to 0e executed=

11 Accordinl( a new sword is !etched< a new executioner a""ointed= The victimtakes her "lace< strenthened onl( with the !avour o! Christ= The !irst 0low makesher quiver< 0eneath the second she is shaken< 0( the third she !alls wounded to theround= .h< the maest( o! the divine "ower to 0e extolledQ She who "reviousl( hadreceived !our strokes without inur(< now seems< !or a moment to die< that aninnocent man ma( not "erish in her stead= $5 12 Those o! the cler(< whose dut( it was< $1 wra" the 0lood'stained cor"se in a linensheet< di out the earth and< "ilin u" stones< "re"are the customar( tom0= &asteninits course< the sun sets< and 0( the merc( o! the ord the niht !alls swi!tl( andquickl(= $2 Suddenl( the woman;s 0reast quivers< her e(es seek the liht< her 0od( isrestored to new li!e= She 0reathes< she looks round< she ets u" and s"eaks= At last

she is a0le to cr( aloud: ?The ord is m( hel"er= , will not !ear= #hat can man do tomeL; $3 13 ,n the meantime an aed woman< su""orted 0( the !unds o! the church< $$ ave 0ack her s"irit to heaven !rom which she had received it= $* And as thouh the courseo! events had 0een "ur"osel( ordered< her 0od( took the woman;s "lace in the tom0=,n the twiliht< the devil comes on the scene in the "erson o! the executioner< $/ looks!or the cor"se o! the woman who had 0een slain< and desires to have her rave "ointed out to him= &e thinks that she is still alive< !or he is astonished that she couldhave died= The cler( show him the !resh tur! and the earth that a little while ao had 0een hea"ed u"K the( reect his demands with words as !ollows: ?Come and di u"the 0ones $ which have ust 0een 0uriedQ )eclare war anew aainst the tom0< and i!

that is

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not enouh< scatter the lim0s to 0e mutilated 0( 0irds and 0eastsQ Seven times struck 0(the sword< she must endure somethin more than death=;

1$ Such hostile words throw the executioner into con!usion< and the woman is
































secretl( revived at home= And that the !requenc( o! the doctor;s visits to the churchmiht not ive occasion !or sus"icion< she has her hair cut short and is sent in thecom"an( o! some virins to a secluded countr( house= There she chanes her dress!or that o! a man< and raduall( scars !orm over her wounds= Jet a!ter all thesemiracles the laws are still rain aainst her= &ow true it is that< where there is most

law< there is also most inustice=$4

1* See now to what "oint the order o! events has 0rouht meQ #e come to the nameo! our !riend 8varius= $6 ,! , were to su""ose that , could descri0e his la0our !orChrist< , should onl( show m( own !oll(K and i! , decided to "ass them over< , stillwould not 0e a0le to "revent m( voice !rom cr(in out in o(= For who could!ittinl( "roclaim that 0( this man;s viilance Auxentius< that nihtmare o! Milan<was 0uried even 0e!ore he was dead< *5 and the 0isho" o! %ome< *1 when almostentanled in the toils o! !action< overcame his o""onents and (et s"ared them in theirde!eatL But ?this , must leave !or others to relate< shut out 0( envious straits o! timeand s"ace;= *2

, am content onl( to record the conclusion o! the "resent stor(= 8variusenereticall( seeks an audience with the em"eror< wearies him with his entreaties<so!tens him 0( the service he has done him< and ains his cause throuh his "ainstakin attention= The em"eror restored to li0ert( the woman who had 0eenrestored to li!e=

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7

T!E T!EOLO8IANLetter 19 to Da'as5sINTRODUCTION

When Jerome arrived at )ntioch in the earl! BE9s, theologicalcontrovers! had been turning the <!rian metropolis upside down fornearl! half a centur!. No less than three candidates for the episcopalsee and their pressure groups were fighting each other4 %eletius,2aulinus, and 3u#oius. "he tensions increased when a fourth bishop,one 7italis, was consecrated. "he schism was not onl! a personal feudabout political influence and economic resources, but reflecteddifferent notions of the doctrine of the "rinit!. "he )rian bishop,3u#oius, who was recogni#ed b! the imperial government of the east,refused to accept the Nicene doctrine of the consubstantialit! of/ather, <on, and ol! <pirit. e was opposed b! %eletius, who hadbeen transferred from the see of <ebaste to )ntioch in B9, andadvocated new theological concepts spread b! the (appadocian




















/athers. <o he, according to asil of (aesarea's teaching, describedthe three divine persons as three hypostaseis 5i.e. as three individualrealities;, to distinguish them from one another. ut the formula Athree

hypostaseis in one ousia was not !et ever!where considered to

be a representation of the Nicene doctrine of the consubstantial

"rinit!. 3speciall!, western theologians translating hypostasis b!the Latin word substantia 5substance; thought that their easterncolleagues were propagating the idea of three Asubstances' whenspeaking of three hypostaseis in the Godhead. ence, %eletius wasaccused of tritheism and failed to secure the backing of )thanasius,bishop of )le+andria, and *amasus, bishop of 1ome, while asil of(aesarea and the ma>orit! of the eastern bishops supported his claim.

%eletius was twice banished under the emperor 7alens and was ine+ile when Jerome reached )ntioch. is large anti-)rian communit!

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had to !ace the "resence o! two rival ?orthodox; rou"s at Antioch< who deniedcoo"eratin< and re"udiated the Meletian inter"retation o! the icene Creed= .ne wasled 0( the 0isho" 7aulinus< who< consecrated 0( uci!er o! Caliari and reconi>ed 0(Athanasius and the west< insisted that in od there was onl( one h$postasis% the other

0( 9italis< who shared the !undamentalist Christoloical "osition o! A"ollinaris o!aodicea and denied the com"lete manhood in Christ +c!= Cavallera 165*OK !or thetheoloical im"lications< c!= =C= Stead< s=v=&omousios< 3AC 1/< 166$< 3/$'$33 and= &ammerstaedt< s=v= &("ostasis< ibi"4 64/'153*-=

The monks livin next to erome;s retreat in the ?desert o! Chalcis; +i=e= at Maronia-were also aruin a0out h$postasis and ousia% and ured erome to de!ine his !aith= ,nthis situation< erome decided to a""eal to the authorit( o! the 0isho" o! %ome and toask ?the successor o! the !isherman; !or theoloical uidance= Indistinuished as hethen was< erome mentioned his "atron 8varius< who had su""orted )amasus; claimto the e"isco"al see< "ut himsel! !orward as as an aent o! western thouht<

em"hasi>ed the "rimac( o! the %oman e"isco"ate and "romised< as a %oman 'homo 3omanus(% to o0e( )amasus; decision= &e insisted that< accordin to the secular andecclesiastical tradition< h$postasis is to 0e reconi>ed as no di!!erent !rom ousia andtranslated 0oth words 0( substantia +su0stance-= The Meletians< the advocates o! thethree h$postaseis% were dismissed as Arians= #ith his ela0orate letter !ull o! rhetoricaldis"la( and !latter(< erome tried to attract the attention o! the controversial %oman 0isho"< who "romoted the su"remac( o! ?the a"ostolic see;< showed s(m"ath( !or theascetic movement< acknowleded men o! cultivated interests< and< like erome< !ailed

http://www.questia.com/ib1488732g70004vpp.fpx






to understand the new theoloical develo"ments o! the east=

The !irst theoloical controvers( erome 0ecame involved in reveals his weakness as atheoloian= &e "re!erred "olemical sim"li!ication to su0tle distinction< doctrinal

conservatism to !resh ideas< rhetorical dis"la( to su0stantial arument< learnedallusions to discursive rami!ications< domatic reassurance to intellectual rece"tivit(<and authoritative decision to inde"endent udement=

The letter was written durin erome;s sta( at Maronia= The ex"licit re!erence to8varius< erome;s "atron at Antioch< and )amasus; ideoloical con!idant in the eastat that time< dis"roves autin;s h("othesis +164/O< 35$- that it was com"osed atBethlehem in 34= For a closer anal(sis o! the letter< c!= Comer!ord awler +165-< de&alleux +164$- 331!!=< %e0enich +1662a- 154!!=< and Conrin +2551- 164!!=

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TE6T1 Since the 8ast< disunited 0( the ancient rae o! its "eo"le aainst each other< is 0it 0( 0it tearin into "ieces the seamless ro0e o! the ord< ?woven !rom the to"throuhoutO<; 1 and the !oxes are destro(in the vine(ard o! Christ< 2 so that amonthe 0roken cisterns that hold no water 3 it is di!!icult to discover where la( the!ountain sealed and the arden enclosed< $ there!ore , think it m( dut( to consult thechair o! 7eter and the !aith that has 0een "raised 0( the a"ostolic mouth= * , now ask!or !ood !or m( soul !rom that "lace whence , once received the vestment o! Christ= /

,ndeed< the wide s"ace o! the water and the lare area o! intervenin land cannot

kee" me !rom m( search !or ?the "earl o! reat "rice=;

?#here the carcass is< therewill the eales ather=; 4 A!ter an evil "roen( wasted their "atrimon(< 6 (ou alonekee" the heritae o! (our !athers intact= There the land with !ruit!ul soil ives 0ackthe "ure seed o! the ord in a hundred!old "ro!itK 15 0ut here the corn that is chokedin !urrows deenerates into darnel and oats= 11 ow the sun o! rihteousness 12 isrisin in the westK in the east< uci!er< who had !allen< 13 has set his throne a0ove thestars= 1$ ?Jou are the liht o! the world=; 1* ?Jou are the salt o! the earth=; 1/ Jou arevessels o! old and o! silver= 1 &ere are vessels o! cla( or o! wood that wait !or therod o! iron and the eternal !ire= 14 2 Jet< althouh (our reatness terri!ies me< (our kindness invites me= From the "riest, demand sa!et( !or the victim< !rom the she"herd the "rotection o! the shee"= Awa(

with all indinationQ et the randeur o! the %oman eminence withdraw= , s"eak tothe successor o! the !isherman and to the disci"le o! the cross= As , !ollow none 0utChrist as m( leader< so , am united in communion with (our holiness< 16 that is withthe chair o! 7eter= , know that u"on this rock the church is 0uilt= 25 #hoever eats thelam0 outside this house is "ro!ane= 21 #hoever is not !ound in the ark o! oah< will "erish when the !lood "revails= 22

For m( sins , have 0etaken m(sel! to this desert which lies on the con!ine 0etween







































































S(ria and the 0ar0arian reion= 23 There!ore , cannot< 0ecause o! the reat distance 0etween us< alwa(s ask o! (our sanctit( 2$ the hol( thin o! the ord= 2* Consequentl(, !ollow here the 8("tian con!essors< (our colleaues< 2/ and hide m(sel! like asmall 0oat under heav( caro'vessels= , do not know 9italis< , reect Meletius< ,

know nothin a0out 7aulinus=2

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#hoever does not ather with (ou< scatters< 24 that is< he that is not o! Christ< is o!Antichrist=3 ust now< , am sorr( to sa(< a!ter the icene Creed< and the decree o! Alexandria<in which the west has oined< 26 the Cam"enses< 35 that Arian 0rood< demand that ,< a%oman< 31 acce"t the novel !ormula o! three h$postaseis= #hich a"ostles< , shouldlike to know< have transmitted these doctrinesL #hich new 7aul< teacher o! theentiles< has tauht itL #e ask them what three h$postaseis are su""osed to mean=

?Three "ersons su0sistin<;32

the( answer= #e re"l( that this is our 0elie!= The( arenot satis!ied with the meanin< the( demand the word< 0ecause some venom ishidden in the s(lla0les= #e cr(: ?,! an(one does not acknowlede three h$postaseis as three enh$postata% that is three "ersons su0sistin< let him 0e condemnedQ; And 0ecause we do not learn the words< we are counted heretics= But i! an(one inter"retsh$postasis as ousia +su0stance- and does not sa( that in the three "ersons there is oneh$postasis% he has no "art in Christ and 0( reason o! this con!ession we< like (ou< are 0randed with the stima o! union= 33 $ )ecide< , 0eseech (ou= ,! (ou aree< , will not !ear to s"eak o! three h$postaseis= ,!(ou "rescri0e< a new creed shall su"ersede the icene< and we< the orthodoxmem0ers o! the church< shall make a con!ession o! !aiths usin the same terms as the

Arians= ,n the whole rane o! secular learnin h$postasis never means an(thin 0utousia= And will an(one< , ask< 0e so sacrileious as to s"eak o! three su0stancesL 3$ There is onl( one nature o! od< and this alone trul( exists= For that which issu0sistent is derived !rom no other source 0ut is all its own= All other thins< whichhave 0een created< althouh the( a""ear to exist< do not exist< !or there was a timewhen the( were not< and that which once did not exist ma( aain cease to 0e= odalone< who is eternal< that is< who has no 0einnin< trul( 0ears the name o!?essence;= 3* There!ore also he sa(s to Moses !rom the 0ush< ?, am that , am<; andaain< ?&e who is has sent me;= 3/ At that time existed the anels< the sk(< the earth<and the seas= And how can od claim !or himsel! the name o! ?essence;< which wascommon to allL But 0ecause od;s nature alone is uncreated< 3 and 0ecause in the

three "ersons there su0sists 0ut one odhead<

34

which trul( exists and is one nature=#hoever declares that there are three< that is three h$postaseis% tries under the nameo! "iet( to allee that there are three natures= And i! this is true< wh( are we severed 0( walls !rom Arius< when in !aithlessness we are unitedL et Irsinus !orm a!riendshi" with (our holiness< 36 let Auxentius 0e associated with Am0rose= $5

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Far 0e it !rom the %oman !aithQ Ma( the devout hearts o! the "eo"le not 0e in!ected withso reat a sacrileeQ et us 0e satis!ied to s"eak o! one su0stance and o! three su0sistin "ersons: "er!ect< equal< coeternal= $1 et nothin 0e said< i! (ou decide< o! threeh("ostaseis< and kee" to one= ,t arouses sus"icion when di!!erent words are used !or thesame thin= et us 0e satis!ied with the a!oresaid !orm o! creed< or< i! (ou think it riht<

write that we should s"eak o! three h("ostaseis and ex"lain what we mean 0( them= , donot re!use (our request< 0ut< 0elieve me< there is "oison hidden under the hone(= An anelo! Satan has trans!ormed himsel! into an anel o! liht= $2 The( ive a "lausi0leinter"retation o! h("ostasisK (et when , sa( that , understand the term in the same sensethe( declare me a heretic= #h( are the( so tenacious o! a wordL #h( do the( hidethemselves under am0iuous lanuaeL ,! their !aith corres"onds to their inter"retation< ,do not condemn them !or kee"in it= ,! , 0elie! what the( themselves "retend to think<the( should allow me to s"eak o! their o"inion in m( own words=

* , im"lore (our holiness< there!ore< 0( the Cruci!ied< the salvation o! the world<and 0( the consu0stantial Trinit(< to authori>e me 0( letter either to re"udiate or to acce"tthis !ormula o! three h("ostaseis= $3 And lest the o0scurit( o! the "lace where , live

should "u>>le the carriers o! (our letters< , "ra( (ou to address (our re"l( to the "res0(ter8varius< whom (ou know ver( well= $$ At the same time also sini!( with whom , amto communicate at Antioch< 0ecause the Cam"enses< who are united with the heretics o!Tarsus< $* strive !or nothin else than to "reach the three h("ostaseis in the traditionalsense o! the word< sined with the authorit( o! communion with (ou=

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T!E C!RONO8RAP!ER

Pre%a&e to t"e Chronicle o% E5se2i5sINTRODUCTION

)bout B:9, Jerome, then sta!ing at (onstantinople, finished his workof translating, supplementing, and continuing 3usebius of (aesarea'sChronicle. e produced a chronologicall! arranged compendium ofuniversal histor! from the birth of )braham, dated in 698 (, to the!ear )* BE: 5i.e. the death of the emperor 7alens in the battle of)drianople;. Jerome's Chronicon was part of an ambitious programme.e Alaunched out on a fresh branch of literar! activit!0translation. enow possessed a master! of Greek, and with the guidance of well-informed friends was familiarising himself with Greek (hristianliterature. e must have been struck b! its vast e+tent and high$ualit!, as compared with the Latin (hristian literature that wasavailable, and he certainl! felt the impulse to introduce it to westernreaders' 5=ell! M8HECO E6;.



"he preface reveals that Jerome was alread! becoming aware of themanifold difficulties of translation. is introductor! essa! discussespagan and (hristian predecessors. /irst, Jerome evaluates (icero'srenderings of Greek te+ts into Latin and then moves on to the differentversions of the ld "estament. "his preface marks the beginning of his

reflections on the best method of translation. &n the following !ears,he elaborated his theor! and argued that, e+cept in the case of the<criptures, the translator should alwa!s render the sense rather thanthe words cf. especiall! his letter CE with the learned commentar! b!artelink 58H:9;.

"he Chronicle is dedicated to 7incentius, a presb!ter at(onstantinople, and to a certain Gallienus who is otherwise unknown.7incentius also supported Jerome's translations of rigen and paid forstenographers and cop!ists. /or their sake, some remarks are

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included about the technical features of the manuscript that Jeromehad introduced in the interest of lucidit!.

/or a critical te+t of the preface, see 1. elm in 7CS DES9usebius@erke E, 68HC 5B8H:D;, pp. 8-E. /or a more detailed discussion ofJerome's Chronicle, see (hapter B.

TE6T

Jerome to 7incentius and Gallienus, Greeting.

&t has long been the practice of learned men to e+ercise their minds b!rendering into Latin the works of Greek writers, and, what is moredifficult, to translate the poems of illustrious authors though impededb! the re$uirements of verse. &t was thus that our "ull! 8 translatedword for word whole works of 2lato 6 and after rendering )ratus intoLatin he+ameters, B he amused himself with Tenophon's #economicus.D &n this latter work the golden river of elo$uence again and again

meets with obstacles, around which its waters break and foam to suchan e+tent that persons unac$uainted with the original would notbelieve the! were reading (icero's words. C &t is indeed a difficult thingto follow another man's lines and ever!where keep within the length ofthe original. &t is a hard task to preserve in translation the elegance ofwhat had been so well e+pressed in another language. 3ver! word hasits own meaning & have no word of m! own to conve! the meaning,and while & am seeking to satisf! the sense & ma! go a long wa! round


















and accomplish but a small distance of m! >ourne!. "hen we must takeinto account the intricacies of transposition, the variations in cases,the diversit! of figures, and, lastl!, the peculiar, and, so to speak, thenative idiom of the language. ) literal translation sounds absurd if, onthe other hand, & am obliged to change the order or the words

themselves, & shall appear to have failed in the dut! of a translator.

<o, m! ver! dear 7incentius, and !ou, Gallienus, whom & love as m!own soul, & beg !ou, whatever ma! be the value of this hurried pieceof work, to read it with the feelings of friends rather than with thoseof >udges. )nd & ask this all the more earnestl! because, as !ou know,& dictated with great rapidit! to m! stenographer. E )nd how difficultthe task is, the sacred records testif!, for the distinctive $ualit! is notpreserved in the Greek version b! the <event!. : &t was this thatstimulated )$uila, <!mmachus, and "heodotion, H and the result oftheir labours was to impart a totall! different character to one and thesame

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work one strove to give word for word, another the general meaning,while the third desired to avoid an! great divergence from theancients. ) fifth, si+th, and seventh edition, 89 though no one knows towhich authors the! are to be attributed, e+hibit so pleasing a variet! oftheir own that, in spite of their being anon!mous, the! have won anauthoritative position. ence, some go so far as to consider the sacred

writings somewhat harsh and >arring to the ear but these people arenot aware that it is a translation from the ebrew, and therefore,looking at the surface and not at the substance, the! shudder at thes$ualid dress before the! notice the splendid bod! which the languageclothes. 88 &n fact, what can be more musical than the 2salter 86 Likethe writings of our /laccus 8B and the Greek 2indar it now flows iniambics, now resounds in alcaics, now swells into sapphics, now useshalf a metrical foot. 8D What can be lovelier than the h!mns of*euteronom! and &saiah What more solemn than <olomon, whatmore perfect than Job )ll these works, as Josephus 8C and rigenwrote, were composed in he+ameters and pentameters and circulatedamong their own people. When the! are read in Greek their sound isdifferent when in Latin the! are utterl! incoherent. ut if an! onethinks that the grace of language does not suffer through translation,let him render omer word for word into Latin. & will go further andsa! that, if he will translate this author into the prose of his ownlanguage, the order of the words will seem ridiculous, and the mostelo$uent of poets almost mute.

































What is all this getting at & would not have !ou think it surprising ifhere and there we fail, if the language is halting or bristles withconsonants or forms breaks between vowels or is constricted b!condensation of the narrative, when the most learned among menhave toiled at the same task. &n addition to the general difficult!,

which we have alleged to attend all translation, a peculiar difficult!besets us, inasmuch as the histor! is manifold, is full of barbarousnames, the circumstances of which the Latins know nothing, dateswhich are impossible to disentangle, critical marks blended alike withthe events and the numbers, so that it is almost harder to discern these$uence of the words than to come to a knowledge of what is related."herefore & think !ou should take care that each portion should bepreserved as written, including the range of colours emplo!ed, lestan!one should think that this device had been contrived for the sake ofthe irrational pleasure of the e!es alone, and should weave a lab!rinthof error into the te+t in an attempt to escape the monoton! of his >ob.<o the midnight oil has been burnt over the work to distinguish thecolumns of regnal dates which were muddled b! too great pro+imit!

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throuh the use o! red ink 1/ and to "reserve the colour at the same "lace throuhout the "aes= 1

, am well aware that there will 0e man( "eo"le who< with their customar( !ondness !oruniversal detraction< will drive their !ans into this volume= .nl( those who write

nothin at all esca"e !rom those critics= The( will cavil at the dates< chane the order<im"un the accurac( o! events< winnow thorouhl( the s(lla0les< and< as is ver(!requentl( the case< will im"ute the nelience o! co"(ists to the authors= , should haveever( riht to tell them that the( need not read the 0ook< i! the( do not like it< 0ut ,would rather send them awa( in a calm state o! mind< so that the( ma( attri0ute to thereek author the credit which is his due< and ma( reconi>e that an( insertions !orwhich we are res"onsi0le have 0een taken !rom other men o! the hihest re"ute= Thetruth is that , have "artl( done the o0 o! a translator and "artl( that o! a writer= , havewith the hihest !idelit( rendered the reek "ortion< and at the same time have addedcertain thins which a""eared to me to have 0een allowed to sli"< "articularl( in the%oman histor(< which 8use0ius< the author o! this 0ook< as it seems to me< onl( lanced

atK not so much 0ecause o! inorance< !or he was a learned man< as 0ecause< writin inreek< he thouht them o! minor im"ortance to his countr(men= So aain !rom inusand A0raham< riht u" to the ca"tivit( o! Tro(< the translation is !rom the reek onl(=From Tro( to the twentieth (ear o! Constantine 14 there is much< at one time added< atanother included< which , have excer"ted with reat dilience !rom Tranquillus 16 andother !amous historians= 25 The section !rom the a!oresaid (ear o! Constantine to thesixth consulshi" o! the em"eror 9alens and the second o! the em"eror 9alentinian 21 isentirel( m( own= Content to end here< , have reserved the remainin "eriod< that o!





















ratian and Theodosius< !or a wider historical surve(K not that , am a!raid o! writin!reel( and truth!ull( a0out "eo"le who are still alive< 22 !or the !ear o! od 0anishes the!ear o! man< 0ut at a time when our countr( is still ex"osed to the !ur( o! the 0ar0ariansever(thin 0ecomes uncertain=

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1;

T!E EPISTOLO8RAP!ERLetter )1 to E5sto&"i5'

INTRODUCTION

Jerome's e+tensive collection of letters, which are the finest of(hristian anti$uit!, is of greatest historical importance for his life andtimes. 3rasmus of 1otterdam, the most renowned scholar of the1enaissance, was an admirer of Jerome and celebrated hisepistolographical st!le 5cf. 1ice M8H:CO 88ff.;. Jerome's epistlescomprise a wide range of sub>ects4 ascetic e+hortation, theologicalpolemics, defence of orthodo+!, consolation, monastic advice,pedagogical discourse, scriptural e+egesis, historical digressions,ecclesiastical politics, moral edification, and personal invective.

Letter B8 to &ulia 3ustochium, 2aula's daughter, deals with a different

matter. "he !oung 1oman aristocrat had sent some articles as apresent on the festival of <t 2eter0bracelets, doves, a basket ofcherries0and Jerome wrote to thank her for them, reflecting upon theallegorical meaning of the items received.

n the basis of this letter, Georg GrRt#macher, Jerome's 2rotestantbiographer, has labelled him as a Asalon confessor in the st!le of theabbKs in the reign of Louis T&7 5M8H98-:O ii 66;. "his characteri#ationclearl! fails to understand the function of ep$ B8 and ep$ DD to%arcella, which has a similar theme 5cf. Letsch-runner M8HH:O 8Hff;.

"he e+change of sophisticated gifts and a cultivated letter of thankswas part of the social interaction between Jerome and his noblepatronesses 5cf. =rause M8H:EO 6f. ). <tuiber, s$$Jeschen, =., R'C 89, 8HE:, HHff.;, and observes the traditional standards ofcommunication within the educated elite, as the correspondences of)usonius of ordeau+ and of 2aulinus of Nola confirm 5cf. <ivanM8HHBaO E6f.;. <uch a letter offered the golden opportunit! ofdispla!ing classical and biblical erudition.






-EH-

TE6T1 The 0racelets< the letter< and the doves are outwardl( small i!ts which , havereceived !rom a virin< 0ut the a!!ection which has "rom"ted them enhances theirvalue= And since hone( ma( not 0e o!!ered in sacri!ice to od< 1 (ou have skill!ull(taken o!! their clo(in sweetness andi! , ma( sa( so!lavoured them with the "unent taste o! "e""er= For nothin that is sim"l( "leasura0le or merel( sweet "leases od= 8ver(thin must have in it a shar" seasonin o! truth= Christ;s "assovermust 0e eaten with 0itter her0s= 2 2 A !estival such as the 0irthda( o! St 7eter 3 should 0e cele0rated with more aiet(than usual= Still our !acetious s"eech must not !oret the limit set 0( Scri"ture< andwe must not stra( too !ar !rom the 0oundar( o! our wrestlin'"lace= $ 8>ekieldescri0es how erusalem is adorned with 0racelets< * Baruch receives letters !romeremiah< / and the &ol( S"irit descends in the !orm o! a dove= But , will ive (ou<too< a "inch o! "e""er and remind (ou o! m( !ormer letter= 4 Take care that (ou do

not !oret to adorn (oursel! with ood works< !or the( are the true 0racelets= 6 )o nottear a"art the letter written in (our heart 15 as the "ro!ane kin cut with his "enkni!ethat delivered to him 0( Baruch= 11 )o not let &osea sa( to (ou as to 8"hraim< ?Jouare like a sill( dove;= 12 ?Jour words are too harsh;< (ou will sa(< ?and hardl( suita0leto the !east'da(;= But (ou have "rovoked them 0( the nature o! (our own i!ts= Solon as (ou "ut 0itter with the sweet< (ou must ex"ect the same !rom me< harshwords< that is< as well as "raise=3 &owever< (ou should not think that , wish to reduce the value o! (our i!ts= , alsoreceived a 0asket o! !ine cherries< 0lushin with such a virin modest( that , can!anc( them !reshl( im"orted 0( ucullus himsel!= For it was he who< a!ter hisconquest o! 7ontus and Armenia< !irst 0rouht the !ruit !rom Cerasus to %omeK and

the cherr( tree is so called a!ter its "lace o! oriin= 13 ow as the Scri"tures s"eak o!a 0asket o! !is< 1$ 0ut do not mention cherries< , will use these instead to "raise thei!t= 1* Ma( (ou 0e made o! !ruits such as those which are set out 0e!ore od;stem"le and o! which he sa(s< ?Behold the( are ood< ver( ood=; 1/ For the Saviourlikes nothin that is hal! and hal!< and< while he does not shun the cold and welcomesthe hot< he tells us in the A"ocal("se that he will s"it out the lukewarm= 1 There!ore

-:9-

we must 0e care!ul to cele0rate our hol( da( not so much with a0undance o! !ood as withexultation o! s"irit= For it is entirel( "re"osterous to wish to honour a mart(r 0( excess

who himsel!< as we know< "leased od 0( !astin= #hen (ou have a meal alwa(sremem0er that eatin should 0e !ollowed 0( readin< and also 0( "ra(er= 14 And i!< 0(takin this course< (ou dis"lease some< re"eat the words o! the A"ostle: ?,! , (et "leasedmen , should not 0e the servant o! Christ=; 16

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11

T!E SATIRISTLetter +; to Mar&e--a &on&ernin$ Onas5sINTRODUCTION

A<t. Jerome is the author of the final chapter in the brilliant volume ofancient satire, one of the chief glories of Latin literature' 5WiesenM8HDO 6D;. Jerome is definitel! the most important satirical author ofLatin (hristianit!. e himself claimed to be a successor of orace,2ersius, and Juvenal 5cf. ep$ C9.C and Wiesen M8HDO ff. )dkinM8HHDO;. "he following letter, which coarsel! ridicules a priest callednasus, is a chef-d4oeure of satire. Jerome carefull! concealed hisadversar!'s real name 5 pace GrRt#macher M8H98-:O i 6:8 f. NenciM8HHCO; since the latter ma! have been an influential person whom hehad met during his sta! at 1ome and who was insulted b! Jerome'sattacks against clerics also competing for aristocratic patronage. "hename is taken from a passage of the 7errines, where (icero speaks ofnasus of <egesta, a well-known and high-born man 5(ic. 6err$ C.DC.869 cf. Labourt ii M8HC8O 8H 2reau+ M8HC:O Letsch-runnerM8HH:O 86Dff.;. ut Jerome had more reasons to use this sobri+uet .nasus is another form of nesimus, Athe helpful', and Jerome cannotresist commenting sarcasticall! upon this meaning. "he name alsosuggests nasus, nose, and throughout the letter his opponent's big and

stinking nose is an ob>ect of mocker!. ther satirists such as orace,2ersius, and %artial also make fun of noses 5cf. tto M8:H9O 6B:;.%oreover, nasus evokes both the Greek and Latin word for donke!,Anos and asinus 5cf. Wiesen M8HDO 69Bf.; therefore, this name isJerome's hostile starting point to deride his rival's intellectual andrhetorical deficiencies. "he letter intended, at the same time, tocalumniate an influential adversar! and to entertain an educatedaudience b! a brilliant s!nthesis of biblical learning and satiricalmanoeuvre.

&n another letter to %arcella, Jerome lamented AWhat have & said withtoo great freedom MO ave & ever assailed an!bod! in too

-:6-

0itter termsL; +ep4 2=2=1-= 8ven the most 0enevolent reader o! the onslauht aainst



.nasus will 0e sur"rised to read this !ulsome a"olo(= &e ma( answer with uvenal+&at4 1=35-: "ifficile est saturam non scribere it is di!!icult not to write a satire=

TE#T1 The medical men called sureons are thouht to 0e cruel< 0ut reall( are "itia0le=1 ,s it not "itia0le to !eel the "ain o! another;s wounds and to cut awa( the dead!lesh with the merci!ul kni!eL ,s it not "itia0le to show no horror at treatin amalad( which seems horri0le even to the "atient and to a""ear as an enem(L Theorder o! nature is such that while truth is alwa(s 0itter< "leasant vices areesteemed= ,saiah oes naked without 0lushin as a t("e o! the !uture ca"tivit(= 2 eremiah is sent !rom mid'erusalem to the 8u"hrates< a river in Meso"otamia<and leaves his irdle to 0e ruined amon hostile nations< the Ass(rians and thecam" o! the Chaldaeans= 3 8>ekiel is told to eat 0read made o! minled seeds ands"rinkled !irst with man;s and then with cattle;s dun= $ &e looks u"on his wi!e;sdeath without sheddin a tear= * Amos is driven !rom Samaria= / #h( was all this<, askL ,t was 0ecause s"iritual sureons who cut awa( the "arts diseased 0( sinured men to re"entance= The A"ostle 7aul sa(s: ?, have 0ecome (our enem( 0ecause , tell (ou the truthL; 4 And 0ecause the Saviour;s words seemed hard<man( o! his disci"les went awa(= 6 2 So it is not sur"risin that we have o!!ended man( 0( ex"osin their !aults= ,have arraned to cut a !oul'smellin noseK let him who su!!ers !rom a swellintrem0le= , wish to re0uke a chatterin small crowK let the !ellow'crow reali>e thathe is "utrid= 15 But is there onl( one "erson in the %oman world ?whose nose ismutilated 0( a shame!ul woundL; 11 ,s .nasus o! Seesta alone in "u!!in out hischeeks like 0ladders and 0alancin hollow "hrases on his tonueL 12

, sa( that certain "ersons have< 0( crime< "erur(< and !alse "retences< attained toa certain "osition= #hat is that to (ou< who know that the chare does not touch

(ouL , lauh at the advocate who himsel! is in need o! a de!enderK , eercontem"tuousl( at his eloquence which "er!ectl( suits his sill( sha"ed nose= 13 #hat does it matter to (ou who are such a ood s"eakerL , want to

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attack mercenar( "riests= 1$ #h( are (ou< who are a rich man< anr(L , wish to 0urnlim"in 9ulcan in his own !lames= Are (ou his uest or his neih0our that (ou tr( tosave an idol;s shrine !rom the !ireL , like to lauh at hosts< niht'0irds< eale owls 1*

and monsters o! the ileK and whatever , sa(< (ou take it as aimed at (ou= 1/ Atwhatever !ault , "oint the shar" end o! m( "en< (ou cr( out that (ou are meant< (ou oin issue and dra me into court and a0surdl( chare me with writin satires in "lain "roseQ

So (ou reall( think (oursel! a !ine !ellow 0ecause (ou have a luck( nameQ 1 ,s not arove called lucus% 0ecause the liht does not 0reak throuh it '-uo" minime luceat(L14 Are the Fates called the ?s"arers;< 0ecause the( s"are no manL Are not the Furiescalled the ?racious; '5umeni"es(% 16 and in common s"eech the 8thio"ians ?silver'coloured "eo"le;L Still< i! m( descri"tion o! !aults makes (ou anr(< , will sin o!





























































(our 0eaut( the words o! 7ersius: ?Ma( kins and queens desire (ou !or theirdauhters< ma( the irls scram0le !or (ou= Ma( roses 0loom wherever (ou "lant (our!ootQ; 25 3 , will ive (ou< however< a word o! advice= There are some thins (ou must hide i!

(ou want to look (our 0est= et (our nose not 0e seen u"on (our !ace and kee" (ourmouth shut= Jou will then stand some chance o! 0ein thouht 0oth handsome andeloquent=

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1

T!E BIO8RAP!ERT"e Life of Malchus the Captive Monk INTRODUCTION

"he saints' lives of Jerome0the &ife of Paul the First Hermit, the &ifeof alchus, and the &ife of Hilarion0are masterpieces of monasticromance. "he! were immensel! popular and drew contemporar! andlater readers under their spell, although some $uestioned the author'sreliabilit! 5cf. 6ita Hilarionis 8 MP& 6B, B9O;. Jerome adopted literar!forms and narrative elements of pagan provenance, borrowed from them!thological lore of classical authors, and integrated man! featuresthat were meant to entertain an educated audience 5cf. 1eit#ensteinM8H9O (oleiro M8HCEO =ech M8HEEO /uhrmann M8HEEO 1ousseauM8HE:O 8BBff. amblenne M8HHBO astiaensen M8HHDO uber-1ebenich M8HHHO 1ebenich M6999aO;. "he &ife of alchus is bestdescribed as a monastic novella concentrating on the monk's ama#ingperegrination. )ll %alchus wants is to preserve his virginit!. "hepamphlet is a Apaean in praise of life-long chastit!' 5=ell! M8HECO 8E8;."he protagonist has to go through man! adventures4 kidnapping,enslavement, forced marriage, despair, escape, persecution, untilsalvation comes in the form of a lioness.

We are still in need of a modern critical edition of the lives. %igne 52.L6B, 8E-6; reproduced *omenico 7allarsi's te+t from the eighteenthcentur!. "he recent editions of the 6ita alchi b! %icrow 58H8;, andof the 6ita Pauli b! =o#ik 58H:; and *Kgorsk! 58H:E; do not alwa!sprovide a better te+t and are to be used with caution =o#ik, forinstance, censored the original version of the 6ita Pauli, leaving outthe stor! about the !oung mart!r and the prostitute 5chap. B;. /or the










masters or !ellow slaves= M( !ate seemed to 0e like that o! aco0< and reminded mealso o! MosesK 0oth o! whom were once she"herds in the desert= 1$ , lived on !reshcheese and milk< "ra(ed continuall(< and san "salms which , had learnt in themonaster(= , was delihted with m( ca"tivit(< and thanked od !or &is udement< 0ecause , had !ound in the desert the monk;s state which , was on the "oint o! losin

in m( countr(=/ But nothin is ever sa!e !rom the )evil= &ow mani!old and uns"eaka0le are hissnaresQ &idden thouh , was< his malice !ound me out= M( master seein his !lockincreasin and !indin no dis'honest( in me +, knew that the A"ostle has ivencommand that masters should 0e as !aith!ull( served as od &imsel! 1* -< andwishin to reward me in order to secure m( reater !idelit(< ave me the woman whowas once m( !ellow servant in ca"tivit(= #hen , re!used and said , was a Christianand that it was not law!ul !or me to take a woman to wi!e so lon as her hus0and wasalive +her hus0and had 0een ca"tured with us< 0ut carried o!! 0( another master-< m(owner was relentless in his rae< drew his

-::-sword and 0ean to menace me= ,! , had not without dela( stretched out m( hand andtaken "ossession o! the woman< he would have shed m( 0lood on the s"ot=

B( this time a darker niht than usual had set in and< !or me< all too soon= , led m( 0rideinto a hal!'demolished cave= Sorrow was 0ride;s'maid= #e shrank !rom each other 0utdid not con!ess it= Then , reall( !elt m( ca"tivit(= , threw m(sel! down on the round< and 0ean to lament the monastic state which , had lost< and said: ?#retched man that , amQ&ave , 0een "reserved !or thisL &ave m( sins 0rouht me to this< that now with m( hairturnin re( , must lose m( virinit( and 0ecome a married manL #hat is the ood o!

havin des"ised "arents< countr(< "ro"ert(< !or the ord;s sake< i! , do the thin , wishedto avoid doin when , des"ised themL And (et it ma( "erha"s 0e the case that , am in thiscondition 0ecause , loned !or m( native countr(= #hat are we to do< m( soulL Are we to "erish or conquerL Are we to wait !or the hand o! the ord or "ierce ourselves with ourown swordL Turn the 0lade aainst (oursel!Q , must !ear (our death< m( soul< more thanthe death o! the 0od(= Chastit( "reserved has its own mart(rdom= et the witness !orChrist lie un0uried in the desert= , will 0e 0oth the "ersecutor and the mart(r=;

Thus , s"oke and drew m( sword which littered even in the darkness< and turnin its "oint towards me , said: ?Farewell< unha""( woman< receive me as a mart(r not as ahus0and=; She threw hersel! at m( !eet and exclaimed: ?, 0eseech (ou 0( esus Christ<

and adure (ou 0( this hour o! trial< do not shed (our 0lood and 0rin its uilt u"on me= ,!(ou are determined to die< !irst turn (our sword aainst me= et us rather 0e united u"onthese terms= 8ven i! m( hus0and should return to me< , would "reserve the chastit( whichca"tivit( has tauht me= , would even die rather than lose it= #h( should (ou die to "revent a union with meL , would die i! (ou desired it= Take me then as the s"ouse o!(our chastit(K and love more this union o! the s"irit than that o! the 0od(= et our masters 0elieve that (ou are m( hus0and= Christ knows (ou are m( 0rother= 1/ #e shall easil(convince them we are married when the( see us so lovin=;












, con!ess< , was astonished and< much as , had 0e!ore admired the virtue o! the woman< ,now loved her as a wi!e still more= Jet , never a>ed u"on her naked 0od(= , nevertouched her !lesh< !or , was a!raid o! losin in "eace what , had "reserved in the con!lict=Man( da(s "assed awa( in wedlock o! this kind= .ur

-:H-

marriae had made us more "leasin to our masters< and there was no sus"icion o!!liht= Sometimes , was a0sent !or even a whole month like a trust( she"herd o! the!lock traversin the wilderness= A!ter a lon time< as , sat one da( 0( m(sel! in the desert seein nothin 0ut earthand sk(< , 0ean to turn thins over in m( thouhts< and amon man( others called tomind the com"anionshi" o! the monks< and es"eciall( the look o! the !ather who hadinstructed me< ke"t me< and lost me= #hile , was thus meditatin , noticed a crowdo! ants swarmin over a narrow "ath= Jou miht see them carr(in loads larer than

their own 0odies= Some with the !orce"s o! their mouths were drain alon theseeds o! her0sK others were excavatin the earth !rom "its and 0ankin it u" to kee"out the water= .ne rou"< in view o! a""roachin winter< and wishin to "reventtheir ranar( !rom s"routin throuh the dam"ness o! the round< were cuttin u"the seeds the( had carried inK another with solemn lamentation were removin the 0odies o! the dead= And< what is straner still in such a host< those comin out didnot hinder those oin in= %ather< i! the( saw one !all 0eneath his 0urden< the( would "ut their shoulders to the load to ive him assistance= ,n short that da( a!!orded me adeliht!ul entertainment= So< remem0erin how Solomon sends us to the shrewdnesso! the ant and quickens our sluish !aculties 0( settin 0e!ore us such an exam"le< 1

, 0ean to tire o! ca"tivit(< and to (earn !or the cells o! the monaster(< and loned to

imitate those ants and their doins< where toil is !or the communit(< and< sincenothin 0elons to an( one< all thins 0elon to all=4 #hen , returned to m( 0ed< m( wi!e met me= M( look could not dissem0le thesadness o! m( heart= She asked wh( , was so dis"irited= , told her the reasons< andexhorted her to esca"e= She did not reect the idea= , 0eed her to 0e silent on thematter= She "leded her word= #e constantl( s"oke to one another in whis"ers< andwe !loated in sus"ense 0etween ho"e and !ear= , had in the !lock two he'oats o!unusual si>e= These , killed< made their skins into 0as< 14 and !rom their !lesh "re"ared !ood !or the wa(= Then in the earl( evenin when our masters thouht wehad retired to rest we 0ean our ourne(< takin with us the 0as and "art o! the !lesh=#hen we reached the river which was a0out ten miles o!!< havin in!lated the 0as

and ot u"on them< we entrusted ourselves to the water< slowl( "addlin with our!eet< that we miht 0e carried down 0( the stream to a "oint on the o""osite 0ankmuch 0elow that at which we em0arked< and

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that thus the "ursuers miht lose the track= But meanwhile the !lesh 0ecame sodden< 0itso! it !ell o!!< and we could not de"end on it !or more than three da(s; sustenance= #e








consciousness o! our chastit(= The lioness< a!raid o! some snare and aware that shehad 0een seen< took u" her cu0 with her teeth and carried it awa( earl( in themornin< leavin us in "ossession o! our retreat= .ur con!idence was not restoredall at once= #e did not rush out< 0ut waited !or a lon time< !or as o!ten as we

thouht o! comin out we "ictured to ourselves the horror o! meetin her=15 At last we ot rid o! our !riht< and when that da( was s"ent< we sallied !orthtowards evenin< and saw the camels< which are called dromedaries on account o!their reat s"eed< 23 quietl( chewin the cud= #e mounted< and with the strenthained !rom the new su""l( o! rain< a!ter ten da(s travellin throuh the desertarrived at a %oman cam"= A!ter 0ein "resented to the tri0une we told all< and !romthence we were sent to Sa0ianus< who was militar( commander o! Meso"otamia< 2$ where we sold our camels= M( old a00ot was now slee"in in the ord= , 0etookm(sel! there!ore to this "lace 2* and returned to the monastic li!e< while , entrustedm( com"anion here to the care o! the virins< !or thouh , loved her as a sister< ,did not commit m(sel! to her as i! she were m( sister=

All these thins the old man< Malchus< told me when , was (oun= ow ,< an oldman< have related them to (ou= , have set them !orth as a histor( o! chastit( !or thechaste= 9irins< , exhort (ou< uard (our chastit(= Tell the stor( to them that comea!ter< that the( ma( know that in the midst o! swords< deserts and wild 0easts<chastit( is never a ca"tive< and that a man who is devoted to the service o! Christma( die< 0ut cannot 0e conquered=

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$%

THE BIBLI!AL &!HLARPre'ace to the Book of Hebrew Questions

ITR*!TI

erome intended to "rovide as accurate a atin translation as "ossi0le o! the Bi0le= &isrecourse to the oriinal lanuaes was illuminated and de!ended in the "re!aces to thetranslated 0i0lical 0ooks and in a series o! commentaries on the .ld and ewTestaments= 8xeetical letters and treatises dedicated to his %oman !riends and other 0ene!actors su""lemented his "roramme o! scientia scripturarum= Two works in

"articular should 0e understood as "re"arator( studies to his cam"ain !or a new atintranslation o! the .ld Testament 0ased u"on the &e0rew version: the Liber

interpretationis Hebraicorum nominum or Liber "e nominibus Hebraicis '6he Book on

Hebrew ames( and the Quaestiones Hebraicae in 7enesim 'Hebrew Questions on7enesis(=

The latter stud(< "u0lished around 362< is< in erome;s own words< ?a new work 'opus









novum(; +QH7 7rae!=- and ?a collection o! &e0rew questions and traditions 'vel-uaestionum Hebraicarum vel tra"itionum congregatio est(; +Q7H 1$=14'16-= eromemade a Christian audience !amiliar with &e0rew teachins that he himsel! had acquiredthrouh "hiloloical research and with the assistance o! learned ewish teachers= So<

Q7H is a remarka0le exam"le o! Christian scholarshi"< "hiloloical ex"ertise< andtheoloical innovation in late antiquit(= erome advocated his "re!erence !or the &e0rewverit( 'Hebraica veritas( over the Se"tuaint and< at the same time< his use o! ewishtradition=

The Q7H should 0e cited accordin to the edition o! 7= de aarde +ei">i 14/4- or o!)= 9allarsi in PL 23 +643'15/2-= The re"rint o! aarde;s edition in CCL 2 +""= 1'*/-includes some mis"rints and errors= There is an 8nlish translation and !ine commentar( 0( &a(ward +166*-= The authoritative stud( on Q7H is 0( Eamesar +1663- who hasalso convincinl( challened the view that erome<

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when referring to Jewish sources, onl! plagiari#ed Greek sources,especiall! rigen, )cacius of (aesarea, and 3usebius of 3mesa.)lthough, in some other writings, Jerome borrowed Aebrew traditions'from Greek theologians, in ;7H he emplo!s a wide range of Jewishmaterial.

TE6T

&n the prefaces to m! books & ought to set forth the argument of thework which follows but & am compelled to begin b! answering whathas been said against me. %! case is somewhat like that of "erence,who put on stage the prologues of his pla!s as a defence of himself./or Luscius Lanuvinus, like our Luscius, pressed him and broughtcharges against the poet as if he had been a plunderer of the treasur!.8 "he poet of %antua 6 suffered in the same wa! he had translated afew verses of omer ver! precisel!, and the! said that he was nothingbut a plagiarist from the ancients. B ut he answered them that it wasno small proof of strength to wrest the club of ercules from his

hands. )nd even "ull!, who stands on the pinnacle of 1omanelo$uence, D that king of orators and glor! of the Latin language, hadcharges for e+propriation C brought against him b! the Greeks.

& cannot, therefore, be surprised if a poor little fellow like me ise+posed to the gruntings of filth! swines who trample our pearls withtheir feet, since spite bla#ed up against the most learned men, whoshould have con$uered env! with glor!. E &t is true, this happened b! a















kind of >ustice to men whose elo$uence had filled with its resonancethe theatres and the senate, the public assembl! and the rostrabraver! in the open alwa!s courts detraction, and Athe highest peaksinvoke the lightning's stroke.' : ut & am in a corner, remote from thecit!, the forum, the lawcourts and the crowds !et, even so 5as

uintilian sa!s; Aill will has discovered the one who has kept out of thepublic e!e.' H "herefore, & beseech the reader0A&f one there be, whoshall read these lines, held captive b! love' 89 0not to e+pectelo$uence or oratorical grace 88 in those ooks of ebrew uestions, 86

which & propose to write on all the sacred books but rather, that heshould himself answer m! opponents for me, and tell them that a newwork can claim some indulgence. We are poor and of low estate weneither possess riches nor do we think it right to accept them if the!are offered us and, similarl!, the! should know that it is impossiblefor them to have the knowledge of the <criptures, that is the riches of(hrist, and the world's riches as well.

-HD-

&t will be our aim, therefore, first, to point out the mistakes of thosewho suspect some fault in the ebrew <criptures, and, secondl!, tocorrect the faults, which evidentl! teem in the Greek and Latin copies,b! reference to the original authorit! 8B and, further, to e+plain theet!molog! of things, names, and countries, when it is not apparentfrom the sound of the Latin words, b! giving a paraphrase in thenative tongue. "o enable the student more easil! to take note of an

emendation, & propose, in the first place, to set out the witnesses, asthe! e+ist among us, and then, b! bringing the later readings intocomparison with it, to indicate what has been omitted or added oraltered. &t is not m! purpose, as >ealous people pretend 8D , to convictthe <event! translators of error, nor do & look upon m! own labour asa censure of theirs, since the! did not want to make known to =ing2tolem! of )le+andria all the m!steries which the sacred writingscontain, 8C and especiall! those which give the promise of the adventof (hrist, lest the Jews might appear to worship a second God also. /orthe king, who was a follower of 2lato, used to make much of the Jews,on the grounds that the! were said to worship one God.

ut the 3vangelists, and even our Lord and <aviour, and the )postle2aul, also, bring forward man! citations as coming from the ld"estament which are not contained in our manuscripts and on these &shall dilate more full! in their proper places. ut it is clear from thisfact that those are the best copies which agree with the authorit! ofthe New "estament. )dd to this that Josephus, who gives the stor! of





















the <event! translators, reports them as translating onl! the fiveooks of %oses 8 and we also acknowledge that these are more inharmon! with the ebrew than the rest. )nd, further, those translatorswho lived afterwards0& mean )$uila and <!mmachus and "heodotion8E 0give a version ver! different from that which we use.

& have but one word more to sa!, and it ma! calm m! detractors./oreign goods are to be imported onl! to the regions where there is ademand for them. 2easants ma! not bu! balsam, pepper, and dates.)s to )damantius, 8: & sa! nothing. is name 5if & ma! compare smallthings with great 8H ;' is even more than m! own the ob>ect of ill will,because, though following the common version Mof the <cripturesO inhis homilies, which were spoken to common people, !et, in his tomes,69 that is, in his fuller discussion of <cripture, he is overcome b! theebrew verit! (H ebr aica eritas), 68 and, though surrounded b! hisown forces, occasionall! seeks the foreign tongue as his all!. 66 "hisone thing & sa!4 & should gladl! have his knowledge of the

-HC-

Scri"tures 'scientiascripturarum(% even i! accom"anied with all the ill will which clinsto his name< and that , do not care a straw !or these imaes and shadows o! hosts< 23 whose nature is said to 0e a terror to little children and to chatter in dark corners=

'6/'

1+T!E LITERAR< !ISTORIANLives of Famous Men

INTRODUCTION

Jerome's first period of literar! activit! after his settlement inethlehem ended with the publication of de iris illustribus, ahandbook of ecclesiastical writers, which was composed somewhere

between BH6 and BHB 5for BH6 or the beginning of BHB, cf. e.g.(avallera M8H66O ii B8 =ell! M8HECO 8ED ooth M8H:8O 6D8 n. 8Earnes M68H:CO 6BCf. for BHB, cf. Nautin M8H8O BBf. and M8HEDO6:9ff.;. "he work is less a literar! histor! than a catalogue of (hristianauthors, as 3rasmus had alread! noted 5)ntin M8HE6O;. "he motive ofthe work was apologetic, as Jerome reveals in the preface. <ince thegreat enemies of (hristianit!0(elsus, 2orph!r!, and Julian0hadalwa!s regarded the new religion as vulgar and plebeian, Jerome















wanted to e+hibit the intellectual, literar!, and philosophical $ualitiesof (hristian authors.

)lthough Jerome introduced a new and successful genre into (hristianliterature 5for the manuscript tradition, cf. /eder M8H6EO;, his work was

far from being original. &n his preface, he mentions man! Greek andLatin literar! historians, but his most important model was <uetonius5cf. (eresa-Gastaldo M8HEHO M8H:DO;. )s (icero had compiled a list ofLatin orators in his 1rutus, Jerome purposed to enumerateecclesiastical writers. ut he had to face a ma>or problem4 for his task,he had no direct predecessor, A!et & must acknowledge that 3usebius2amphilus in the ten books of his Church History has been of thegreatest assistance'. %an! scholars have argued cogentl! that the firstsevent!-eight chapters are taken almost entirel! from 3usebius'ecclesiastical histor! and the chronicle 5cf. e.g. uemer M8:HDO von<!chowski M8:HDO esp. 8:ff. DHff. ernoulli M8:HCO (ourcelle M8HD:OE:ff. agendahl M8HC:O 8B:ff. arnes M68H:CO ff. and

-HE-

6Bff.;. "heir >udgement of Jerome's originalit! has been devastating5cf. also =ell! M8HECO 8Eff.;.

"he list begins with the )postle 2eter and ends with Jerome himself,covering the period Afrom the Lord's passion down to the fourteenth!ear of the emperor "heodosius' 5ir$ill$ prol.;. Greek, Latin, and a few

<!riac authors who had written on theological topics are included.Jerome also mentions a number of heretics like %arcellus, 2hotinus,and 3unomius 5ir$ill$ : 89E 869 cf. )ugustine's criticism in )ug.ep$ D9.E; and even non-(hristians. 2hilo is praised for being a spiritualantecedent of the monastic movement 5ir$ill$ 88; Josephus isinserted because Jerome had read the (hristian interpolations aboutJesus in 0e:ish 'nti+uities 5ir$ill$ 8B; and the entr! on the paganphilosopher <eneca is >ustified b! referring to his e+change of letterswith the )postle 2aul 5cf. (orsaro M8H:EO %astandrea M8H::OGamberale M8H:HO;, now regarded as apocr!phal 5ir$ill$ 86;. "helemmata dealing with the (hristian authors of the first three centuriesare weighted and reveal Jerome's fondness for certain theologians."he! also reflect the tendenc! of the sources he leaned on. /inall!,Jerome's inaccuracies and inconsistencies in cop!ing earlier te+ts havedeformed some of the entries. Jerome devoted most space to (lementof )le+andria 5ir$ill$ B:;, "ertullian the presb!ter who was harassed Ab! the env! and offences of the 1oman clerg!' 5ir$ill$ CB;, theimmortale inenium of rigen 5ir$ill$ CD;, ippol!tus of 1ome 5ir$ill$





erome;s imae as a "roli!ic author o! the western church who continued the work o! themost distinuished Christian theoloian< in short: to de"ict erome as the atin .rien+c!= 9esse( 1663aO-= This extraordinar( lau"atio sui ipsius was< as Eell( +16*- 14has acutel( o0served< ?the a""ro"riate "lace !or one who was as it were an untimel( 0irth< the ver( least o! all Christians +&ier= ep4 $=3=2-=;

TE#T1 ,< erome< son o! 8use0ius< 1 o! the cit( o! Stridon< which was overthrown 0( theoths and was once close to the 0order o! )almatia and 7annonia< 2 u" to the "resent (ear< that is< the !ourteenth (ear o! the rein o! the em"eror Theodosius< 3 have written the !ollowin works= $ 2 Life of Paul the Monk% * one 0ook o! Letters to "ifferent persons% / an 5#hortation

to Helio"orus% Altercation of a Luciferian with an

'66'

,rtho"o#% 4 Chronicl e of 8niversal Histor$% 6 twent('eiht homilies of ,rigen on

*eremiah an" 59ekiel%

15

which , have translated !rom reek into atin< ,n the &eraphim%11 ,n ,sanna% 12 ,n the pru"ent an" the pro"igal sons% 13 ,n three -uestions of the

ancient law% 1$ two Homilies on the &ong of &ongs= 1* 3 Again st Helvi"ius% on the perpetual virg init$ of Mar$% 1/ 6o 5ustochium% on the

preservation of virginit$% 1 one 0ook o! 5pistles to Marcella% 14 a consolator( letter6o Paula on the "eath of a "aughter% 16 three 0ooks o! Commentaries on the 5pistleof Paul to the 7alatians% 25 three 0ooks o! Commentaries on the 5pistle to the

5phesians% one 0ook ,n the 5pistle to 6itus% one 0ook ,n the epistle to Philemon%

Commentaries on 5cclesiastes=$ .ne 0ook o! Hebrew Questions on 7enesis% 21 one 0ook ,n places% one 0ook o! Hebrew ames% one 0ook )i"$mus on the Hol$ &pirit% which , have translated intoatin< 22 thirt('nine homilies on Luke% 23 seven tractates ,n the Psalms% from the

6enth to the &i#teenth% 2$ ,n the captive Monk% 2* 6he Life of the blesse" Hilarion= 2/ * ,have translated the ew Testament !rom the reek< and the .ld Testament !romthe &e0rew< 2 and the num0ers o! letters 6o Paula an" 5ustochium is uncertain< !orthe( are written dail(= 24 / , have written< moreover< two 0ooks o! 5#planations on Micah% one 0ook ,n

ahum% two 0ooks ,n Habakkuk% one 0ook ,n :ephaniah% one 0ook ,n Haggai% 26 and man( other s on the work o! the "ro"hets< which , am still at work u"on< and arenot (et !inished= 35

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$5

THE TRA&LATRThe Pre'ace to the +ulgate "ersion o' the Pentateuch




















































ITR*!TI

erome;s reatest achievement was his translation o! most o! Scri"ture into atin !romthe oriinal lanuaes= &e also rendered reek theoloical writins< es"eciall( 0(.rien and )id(mus< and o!ten re!lected u"on the various di!!iculties he encountered asa translator= ,n a letter written in 36*'/ and addressed to his in!luential %oman !riend7ammachius< he discussed the 0est method o! translatin +ep4 *K there is a learnedcommentar( 0( Bartelink 1645O-= erome cateoricall( demanded that a translatorshould render sense !or sense and not word !or word +ep4 *=*=2: non verbum e verbo%

se" sensum e#primere "e sensu+ c!= also his "re!ace to the Chronicle Cha"ter 6O-=

Althouh erome areed< at least in "rinci"le< that the sacred writins o! the Bi0leshould 0e rendered word !or word< he o!ten advocated a more !lexi0le a""roach to "reserve the characteristic eleance o! the atin lanuae= 8ven the A"ostles and8vanelists< he arued< ?in translatin the .ld Testament souht to ive the meaninrather than the words< and the( have not reatl( cared to "reserve !orms orconstructions< so lon as the( could make clear the su0ect to the understandin; +ep4 *=6=4-= Still< erome !elt the dilemma o! ever( translator< !or< on the one hand< i! healters an(thin !rom a !orein lanuae ?the work 0ecomes less a version than a "erversion; and< on the other hand< ?a literal adherence to the oriinal 0( no means tendsto "reserve the charm o! its eloquence; +ep4 4$=12=2reardin his translation o!.rien;s Peri Archon-= For erome;s translation theor( and technique< c!= #inkelmann+165-K Marti +16$-< es"= /1!!=K Banniard +1644-K )= Brown +1662- 16$!!=

,n translatin Scri"ture< erome soon 0ecame aware o! the "ro0lems arisin !rom thevarious versions o! the .ld Testament= &e there!ore

'151'

decided to go back to the ebrew original and, necessaril!, to theebrew canon and thus anticipated the 1eformers' position. &n theprologue to the ooks of <amuel and =ings, Jerome set forth hisprinciples adopted in all his translations from the ebrew. "his Ahelmeted preface (aleatum pincipium)' was meant to serve as ane+position to all the books that Jerome translated from ebrew intoLatin. )t the same time, he gave a list of twent!-two canonical booksand declared that an! book outside his catalogue must be regarded as

apocr!phal 56ul$ Re(H)$ prol. Mp. BC WeberFGr!sonO;.

&n his preface to his translation of the five 1ooks of oses, Jeromeresponded to the harsh criticism his new Latin translation of the ld"estament evoked. e was even accused of forging a new AJewish'version. <o, Jerome had to defend and e+plain his disapproval of thecommon belief, that the Greek ld "estament, the <eptuagint, wasverball! inspired. /or a critical te+t, cf. the editions of the 1iblia Sacra



b! WeberFGr!son 5pp. B-D; and of Contra Rufinum 5 'po& 6.6C MCC& EH, pp. 8-BO, since Jerome $uoted this passage in his apolog!; for acommentar!, cf. Lardet 58HHB; 68Eff.

TE6T

& have received letters so long and eagerl! desired from m! dear*esiderius 8 who, as if the future had been foreseen, shares his namewith *aniel, 6 entreating me to put our friends in possession of atranslation of the 2entateuch from ebrew into Latin. "he work iscertainl! ha#ardous and it is e+posed to the attacks B of the detractors,who maintain that it is through contempt of the <event! translatorsthat & have set to work to forge a new version to take the place of theold. "he! thus test abilit! as the! do wine, whereas & have again andagain declared that & dutifull! offer, in the "abernacle of God, what &

can, and have pointed out that the great gifts which one man bringsare not marred b! the inferior gifts of another.

ut & was stimulated to undertake the task b! the #eal of rigen, whoblended with the old edition "heodotion's translation D and usedthroughout the work as distinguishing marks the asterisk and theobelus, that is the star and the spit, the first of which makes what hadpreviousl! been defective to beam with light, while the otherslaughters and transfi+es all that was superfluous. ut & wasencouraged above all b! the authoritative publications of the3vangelists and )postles, in which we read much taken from the ld"estament

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which is not found in our manuscripts. /or e+ample, Aut of 3g!pt have& called m! son', C A/or he shall be called a Na#arene', A"he! shall lookon him whom the! pierced', E A1ivers of living water shall flow out ofhis bell!', : A"hings which e!e has not seen, nor ear heard, nor haveentered into the heart of man, which God has prepared for those wholove him', H and man! other passages which lack their proper conte+t.

Let us ask our opponents then where these things are written, andwhen the! are unable to tell, let us produce them from the ebrew."he first passage is in osea, 89 the second in &saiah, 88 the third inUechariah, 86 the fourth in 2roverbs, 8B the fifth also in &saiah. 8D eingignorant of all this man! follow the ravings of the )pocr!pha, andprefer to the authentic books the <panish rubbish. 8C &t is not for me toe+plain the causes of the error.






















"he Jews sa! it was deliberatel! and wisel! done to prevent 2tolem!,8 who was a worshipper of one God, from thinking the ebrewsacknowledged two deities. )nd that which chiefl! influenced them inthus acting was the fact that the king appeared to be falling into2latonism. &n a word, wherever <cripture evidenced some sacred truth

respecting /ather, <on, and ol! <pirit, the! either translated thepassage differentl!, or passed it over altogether in silence, so thatthe! might both satisf! the king, and not divulge the secrets of thefaith. & do not know whose false imagination led him to invent thestor! of the sevent! cells at )le+andria, in which, though separatedfrom each other, the translators were said to have written the samewords. 8E )risteas, the protector of that same 2tolem!, 8: andJosephus, 8H long after, relate nothing of the kind their account is thatthe <event! assembled in one basilica 69 consulted together, and didnot prophes!. /or it is one thing to be a prophet, another to be atranslator. "he former, through the <pirit, foretells things to come thelatter must use his learning and facilit! in speech to translate what heunderstands. &t can hardl! be that we must suppose "ull! was inspiredwith rhetorical spirit when he translated Tenophon's #economicus.2lato's Protaoras, and the oration of *emosthenes 2n *efence ofCtesiphon. 68 therwise the ol! <pirit must have $uoted the samebooks in one sense through the <event! translators, in anotherthrough the )postles, so that, whereas the! said nothing of a givenmatter, these falsel! affirm that it was so written. What then )re wecondemning our predecessors ! no means. 66 ut following thosewho have preceded us we contribute such work in the house of the

Lord as lies in our power. "he! translated before the advent of (hrist,and e+pressed in ambiguous terms that which the! knew not. We,after his passion and resurrection, write not prophec! so much as

-89B-

histor(= For one st(le is suita0le to what we hear< another to what we see= The 0etter weunderstand a su0ect< the 0etter we descri0e it=

isten then< m( rival< listen< m( detractor: , do not condemn< , do not censure theSevent(< 0ut , am 0old enouh to "re!er the A"ostles to them all= ,t is the A"ostlethrouh whose mouth , hear the voice o! Christ< and , read that in the classi!ication o!s"iritual i!ts the( are "laced 0e!ore "ro"hets< 23 while inter"reters occu"( almost thelowest "lace= #h( are (ou tormented with ealous(L #h( do (ou in!lame the minds o!the inorant aainst meL #herever in translation , seem to (ou to o wron< ask the&e0rews< consult their teachers in di!!erent cities= #hat the( have concernin Christ




























(our manuscri"ts do not contain= 2$ The case is di!!erent i! the( have reected 2* "assaeswhich were a!terwards used aainst them 0( the A"ostles< and the atin texts are morecorrect than the reek< the reek than the &e0rewQ But this is said aainst ealous "eo"le= , ask (ou now< m( dearest )esiderius< who encouraed me to undertake such a

work and to make a start with the 0ook o! enesis< to su""ort me with (our "ra(ers< sothat , will 0e a0le to translate the 0ooks into atin in the same s"irit in which the( have 0een written=

'15$'

1/

T!E CONTRO4ERSIALIST Against Vigilantius

INTRODUCTION

"hroughout his life, Jerome did not hesitate to fight against a largegroup of opponents whom he lampooned as half-witted heretics andcantankerous backbiters. is ma>or polemical writings assault personalenemies4 'ainst Helidius, 'ainst 0oinian, 'ainst 0ohn of 0erusalem, and 'ainst Rufinus, some others attack heterodo+ groups4 'ainst the &uciferians and 'ainst the Pelaians. Jerome was notcontent with denouncing his adversaries at the same time, hedepicted himself as a stronghold of orthodo+! and insisted that his

scholarship was be!ond criticism. is brilliant invectives not onl!illustrate his nast! character, as scholars have suggested, but also thefierce fight for ideological and material resources fought b! (hristianintellectuals. nl! the fittest were able to survive.

ne ke! issue in the theological debate of the late fourth and thebeginning of the fifth centur! was asceticism. pposition to monasticpractices was common. )lso, 7igilantius, a presb!ter of )$uitaine,propagated anti-ascetic and anti-monastic views, attacked the cult ofthe mart!rs, ridiculed the vigils at the basilicas of the mart!rs, andre>ected the cult of the saints. /inall!, he critici#ed the sending of almsto 2alestine and proposed to spend them among the poor in eachseparate diocese. "he bishop 3+uperius of "oulouse strongl! supported7igilantius, so that his ideas began to spread widel!.

7igilantius was born about BE9, at (alagurris, near (onvenae5(omminges;, which was a station on the 1oman road from )$uitaineto <pain. nce, on the recommendation of 2aulinus of Nola, he had









4 ovinian< condemned 0( the authorit( o! the church o! %ome< amidst "heasants 6 and swine;s !lesh< 0reathed out< or rather 0elched out his s"irit= And now this tavern'kee"er o! Calaurris< 15 who< accordin to the name o! his native villae is a dum0Guintilian< 11 is mixin water with the wine= 12 Accordin to the trick which he knowso! old< he is tr(in to 0lend his "er!idious "oison with the Catholic !aith= &e assails

virinit( and hates chastit(= &e revels with worldlins and declaims aainst the !astso! the saints= &e "la(s the "hiloso"her over his cu"s< and soothes himsel! with thesweet strains o! "salmod(< while he smacks his li"s over his cheese'cakesK nor couldhe dein to listen to the "salms o! )avid and edutun< and Asa"h and the sons o!Eorah< exce"t at the 0anquetin ta0le= This , have "oured !orth with more rie! thanamusement< !or , cannot restrain m(sel! and turn a dea! ear to the wrons in!licted onA"ostles and mart(rs=2 Shame!ul to relate< there are 0isho"s who are said to 0e associated with him in hiswickednessi! at least the( are to 0e called 0isho"s 13 who ordain no deacons 0utsuch as have 0een "reviousl( married< who credit no celi0ate with chastit(rather<who show clearl( what measure o! holiness o! li!e the( can claim 0( indulin in

evil sus"icion o! all men< and< unless the candidates !or ordination a""ear 0e!orethem with "renant wives< and in!ants wailin in the arms o! their mothers< will notadminister to them Christ;s ordinance= #hat are the churches o! the east to doL #hatis to 0ecome o! the 8("tian churches and those 0elonin to the a"ostolic seat<which acce"t !or the ministr( onl( men who are virins< or those who "racticecontinence< or< i! married< a0andon their conual rihtsL Such is the teachin o!)ormitantius< who throws the reins u"on the neck o! lust< and 0( his encouraementdou0les the natural heat o! the !lesh< which in (outh is mostl( at 0oilin "oint< orrather slakes it 0( intercourse with womenK so that there is nothin to se"arate us!rom swine< nothin wherein we di!!er !rom the 0rute creation< or !rom horses<res"ectin which it is written: ?The( were towards women like rain horsesKever(one neihed a!ter his neih0our;s wi!e=; 1$ This is what the &ol( S"irit sa(s 0(the mouth o! )avid: ?)o not 0ehave like a horse and a mule which have nounderstandin=; 1* And aain res"ectin )ormitantius and his !riends: ?Bind the awso! them who do not come near (ou with 0it and 0ridle=; 1/

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3 But it is now time !or us to adduce his own words and answer him in detail= For< "ossi0l(< in his malice< he ma( choose once more to misre"resent me< and sa( that ,have trum"ed u" a case !or the sake o! showin o!! m( rhetorical and declamator( "owers in com0atin it< like the letter which , wrote to aul< relatin to a mother and

dauhter who were at variance=

1

This little treatise< which , now dictate< is due tothe reverend "res0(ters %i"arius and )esiderius< who write that their "arishes have 0een de!iled 0( 0ein in his neih0ourhood< and have sent me< 0( our 0rotherSisinnius< the 0ooks which he vomited !orth in a drunken !it= 14 The( also declare thatsome "ersons are !ound who< !rom their inclination to his vices< assent to his 0las"hemies= &e is a 0ar0arian 0oth in s"eech and knowlede= &is st(le is rude= 16 &ecannot de!end even the truth< 0ut< !or the sake o! la(men< and "oor women< ladenwith sins< ever learnin and never comin to a knowlede o! the truth< , will s"end






















u"on his ru00ish 25 a sinle niht;s la0our< otherwise , shall seem to have treatedwith contem"t the letters o! the reverend "ersons who have entr eated me toundertake the task=$ &e certainl( well re"resents his race= S"run !rom a set o! 0riands and "erso nscollected toether !rom all quarters +, mean those whom naeus 7om"e(< a!ter the

conquest o! S"ain< when he was hastenin to return !or his trium"h< 0rouht down!rom the 7(renees and athered toether into one town< whence the name o! the cit(Convenae 21 -< he has carried on their 0riand "ractices 0( his attack u"on the churcho! od= ike his ancestors the 9ectones< 22 the Arre0aci< and the Celti0erians< 23 hemakes his raids u"on the churches o! aul< not carr(in the standard o! the cross< 0ut< on the contrar(< the ensin o! the devil= 7om"e( did ust the same in the 8ast=A!ter overcomin the Cilician and ,saurian "irates and 0riands< he !ounded a cit(< 0earin his own name< 0etween Cilicia and ,sauria= 2$ That cit(< however< to this da(<o0serves the ordinances o! its ancestors< and no )ormitantius has arisen in it< 0utaul su""orts a native !oe< and sees seated in the church a man who has lost his headand who ouht to 0e "ut in the strait'acket which &i""ocrates recommended= 2*

Amon other 0las"hemies< he ma( 0e heard to sa(< ?#hat need is there !or (ou notonl( to "a( such honour< not to sa( adoration< to the thin< whatever it ma( 0e<which (ou carr( a0out in a little vessel and worshi"L; And aain< in the same 0ook<?#h( do (ou kiss and adore a 0it o! "owder wra""ed u" in a clothL; And aain< inthe same 0ook< ?Inder the cloak o! reliion we see what is all 0ut

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a heathen ceremon( introduced into the churches: while the sun is still shinin< hea"so! ta"ers are lihted< and ever(where a "altr( 0it o! "owder< wra""ed u" in a costl(cloth< is kissed and worshi""ed= reat honour do men o! this sort "a( to the 0lessed

mart(rs< who< the( think< are to 0e made lorious 0( trum"er( ta"ers< when theam0 who is in the midst o! the throne< with all the 0rihtness o! his maest(< ivesthem lihtL;* Madman< who in the world ever adored the mart(rsL #ho ever thouht man wasodL )id not 7aul and Barna0as< when the "eo"le o! (caonia thouht them to 0eu"iter and Mercur(< and would have o!!ered sacri!ices to them< rend their clothesand declare the( were menL 2/ ot that the( were not 0etter than u"iter andMercur(< who were 0ut men lon ao dead< 0ut 0ecause< under the mistaken ideas o!the entiles< the honour due to od was 0ein "aid to them= And we read the sameres"ectin 7eter< who< when Cornelius wished to adore him< raised him 0( the hand<and said< ?Stand u"< !or , also am a man=; 2 And have (ou the audacit( to s"eak o!

?the m(sterious somethin or other which (ou carr( a0out in a little vessel andworshi";L , want to know what it is that (ou call ?somethin or other;= Tell us moreclearl( +that there ma( 0e no restraint on (our 0las"hem(- what (ou mean 0( the "hrase ?a 0it o! "owder wra""ed u" in a costl( cloth in a tin( vessel;= ,t is nothinless than the relics o! the mart(rs which he is vexed to see covered with a costl( veil<and not 0ound u" with ras or hair'cloth< or thrown on the dunhill< so that9iilantius alone in his drunken slum0er ma( 0e worshi""ed= Are we< there!oreuilt( o! sacrilee when we enter the 0asilicas o! the A"ostlesL #as the 8m"eror






















Constantius uilt( o! sacrilee when he trans!erred the sacred relics o! Andrew<uke< and Timoth( to Constantino"leL 24 ,n their "resence the demons cr( out< andthe devils who dwell in 9iilantius con!ess that the( !eel the in!luence o! the saints=And in the "resent da( is the 8m"eror Arcadius uilt( o! sacrilee< who a!ter so lona time has conve(ed the 0ones o! the 0lessed Samuel !rom udea to ThraceL 26 Are

all the 0isho"s to 0e considered not onl( sacrileious< 0ut sill( into the 0arain< 0ecause the( carried that most worthless thin< dust and ashes< wra""ed in silk< in aolden vesselL Are the "eo"le o! all the churches !ools< 0ecause the( went to meetthe sacred relics< and welcomed them with as much o( as i! the( 0eheld a livin "ro"het in the midst o! them< so that there was one reat swarm o! "eo"le !rom7alestine to Chalcedon with one voice re'echoin the "raises o! ChristL The(

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were< indeed< adorin Samuel and not Christ< whose evite and "ro"het Samuel was= Joushow mistrust 0ecause (ou think onl( o! the dead 0od(< and there!ore 0las"heme= %ead

the os"el: ?The od o! A0raham< the od o! ,saac< the od o! aco0: &e is not the odo! the dead< 0ut o! the livin=; 35 ,! then the( are alive< the( are not< to use (ourex"ression< ke"t in honoura0le con!inement=

/ For (ou sa( that the souls o! A"ostles and mart(rs have their a0ode either in the 0osom o! A0raham< or in the "lace o! re!reshment< or under the altar o! od< and thatthe( cannot leave their own tom0s< and 0e "resent where the( will= The( are< itseems< o! senatorial rank< and are not su0ected to the worst kind o! "rison and thesociet( o! murderers< 0ut are ke"t a"art in li0eral and honoura0le custod( in the isleso! the 0lessed and the 8l(sian !ields= #ill (ou la( down the law !or odL #ill (ou "ut the A"ostles into chainsL So that to the da( o! udment the( are to 0e ke"t incon!inement< and are not with their ord< althouh it is written concernin them<

?The( !ollow the am0< wherever he oes=;

31

,! the am0 is "resent ever(where< thesame must 0e 0elieved res"ectin those who are with the am0= And while the deviland the demons wander throuh the whole world< and with onl( too reat s"eed "resent themselves ever(whereK are mart(rs< a!ter the sheddin o! their 0lood< to 0eke"t out o! siht shut u" in the altar< 32 !rom whence the( cannot esca"eL Jou sa(< in(our "am"hlet< that so lon as we are alive we can "ra( !or one anotherK 0ut once wedie< the "ra(er o! one "erson !or another cannot 0e heard< and all the more 0ecausethe mart(rs< thouh the( cr( 33 !or the avenin o! their 0lood< have never 0een a0leto o0tain their request= ,! A"ostles and mart(rs while still in the 0od( can "ra( !orothers< when the( ouht still to 0e anxious !or themselves< how much more mustthe( do so when once the( have won their crowns< overcome< and trium"hedL A

sinle man< Moses< o!ten wins "ardon !rom od !or six hundred thousand armedmenK 3$ and Ste"hen< the !ollower o! his ord and the !irst Christian mart(r< entreats "ardon !or his "ersecutorsK 3* and when once the( have entered on their li!e withChrist< shall the( have less "ower than 0e!oreL The A"ostle 7aul sa(s that twohundred and sevent('six souls were iven to him in the shi"K 3/ and when< a!ter hisdissolution< he has 0eun to 0e with Christ< must he shut his mouth< and 0e una0le tosa( a word !or those who throuhout the whole world have 0elieved in his os"elLShall 9iilantius the live do 0e 0etter than 7aul the

















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dead lionL , should 0e riht in sa(in so a!ter 8cclesiastes< 3 i! , admitted that 7aul isdead in s"irit= The truth is that the saints are not called dead< 0ut are said to 0e aslee"=#here!ore a>arus< who was a0out to rise aain< is said to have sle"t= 34 And the

A"ostle !or0ids the Thessalonians to 0e sorr( !or those who were aslee"=36

As !or(ou< when wide awake (ou are aslee"< and aslee" when (ou write< and (ou 0rin 0e!ore me an a"ocr("hal 0ook which< under the name o! 8sdras< is read 0( (ou andthose o! (our !eather< and in this 0ook it is written that a!ter death no one dares "ra(!or others= $5 , have never read the 0ook: !or what need is ther e to take u" what thechurch does not receiveL ,t can hardl( 0e (our intention to con!ront me withBalsamus< and Bar0elus< and the Thesaurus o! Mani< $1 and the ludicrous name o!eusi0orasK $2 thouh "ossi0l( 0ecause (ou live at the !oot o! the 7(renees< and 0order on ,0eria< (ou !ollow the incredi0le marvels o! the ancient heretic Basilides $3 and his so'called knowlede< which is mere inorance< and set !orth what iscondemned 0( the authorit( o! the whole world= , sa( this 0ecause in (our short

treatise (ou quote Solomon as i! he were on (our side< thouh Solomon never wrotethe words in question at allK so that< as (ou have a second 8sdras (ou ma( have asecond Solomon= And< i! (ou like< (ou ma( read the imainar( revelations o! all the "atriarchs and "ro"hets< and< when (ou have learned them< (ou ma( sin themamon the women in their weavin'sho"s< $$ or rather order them to 0e read in (ourtaverns< the more easil( 0( this ru00ish $* to stimulate the inorant mo0 to re"lenishtheir cu"s= As to the question o! ta"ers< however< we do not< as (ou in vain misre"resent us<liht them in the da(time< 0ut 0( their solace we would cheer the darkness o! theniht< and watch !or the dawn< lest we should 0e 0lind like (ou and slee" in darkness=And i! some "ersons< 0ein inorant and sim"le minded la(men< or< at all events<

reliious womeno! whom we can trul( sa(< ?, allow that the( have a >eal !or od< 0ut not accordin to knowlede; $/ ado"t the "ractice in honour o! the mart(rs<what harm is there0( done to (ouL .nce u"on a time even the A"ostles "leaded thatthe ointment was wasted< 0ut the( were re0uked 0( the voice o! the ord= $ Christdid not need the ointment< nor do mart(rs need the liht o! ta"ersK and (et thatwoman "oured out the ointment in honour o! Christ< and her heart;s devotion wasacce"ted= All those who liht these ta"ers have their reward accordin to their !aith<as the A"ostle sa(s: ?et ever( one

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a0ound in his own meanin=;

$4

)o (ou call men o! this sort idolatersL , do not den(that all o! us who 0elieve in Christ have "assed !rom the error o! idolatr(= For we arenot 0orn Christians< 0ut 0ecome Christians 0( 0ein 0orn aain= And 0ecause we!ormerl( worshi""ed idols< does it !ollow that we ouht not now to worshi" od lestwe seem to "a( like honour to him and to idolsL ,n the one case res"ect was "aid toidols< and there!ore the ceremon( is to 0e a0horredK in the other the mart(rs arevenerated< and the same ceremon( is there!ore to 0e allowed= Throuhout the whole8astern church< even when there are no relics o! the mart(rs< whenever the os"el is




























to 0e read the candles are lihted< althouh the dawn ma( 0e reddenin the sk(< noto! course to scatter the darkness< 0ut 0( wa( o! evidencin our o(= And accordinl(the virins in the os"el alwa(s have their lam"s lihted= $6 And the A"ostles aretold to have their loins irded< and their lam"s 0urnin in their hands= *5 And o! ohnBa"tist we read< ?&e was the lam" that 0urns and shines;K *1 so that< under the !iure

o! cor"oreal liht< that liht is re"resented o! which we read in the 7salter< ?Jourword is a lam" unto m( !eet< . ord< and a liht unto m( "aths=; *2 4 )oes the 0isho" o! %ome do wron when he o!!ers sacri!ices to the ord< as weshould sa(< over the venera0le 0ones o! the dead men 7eter and 7aul< 0ut accordinto (ou< over a worthless 0it o! dust< and udes their tom0s worth( to 0e Christ;saltarsL And not onl( is the 0isho" o! one cit( in error< 0ut the 0isho"s o! the wholeworld< who< des"ite the tavern'kee"er 9iilantius< enter the 0asilicas o! the dead< inwhich ?a worthless 0it o! dust and ashes lies wra""ed u" in a cloth<; de!iled andde!ilin all else= Thus< accordin to (ou< the sacred 0uildins are lik e the se"ulchreso! the 7harisees< whitened without< while within the( have !ilth( remains< and are!ull o! !oul smells and uncleanliness= And then he dares to ex"ectorate his !ilth u"on

the su0ect and to sa(: ?,s it the case that the souls o! the mart(rs love their ashes<and hover round them< and are alwa(s "resent< lest ha"l( i! an( one come to "ra( andthe( were a0sent< the( could not hearL; .h< monster< who ouht to 0e 0anished to theends o! the earthQ *3 )o (ou lauh at the relics o! the mart(rs< and in com"an( with8unomius< *$ the !ather o! this heres(< slander the churches o! ChristL Are (ou nota!raid o! 0ein in such com"an(< and o! s"eakin aainst us the same thins whichhe utters aainst the churchL For all his !ollowers re!use to enter the 0asilicas o!A"ostles and mart(rs< so that< indeed< the( ma( worshi" the dead

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8unomius< whose 0ooks the( consider are o! more authorit( than the os"elsK and the( 0elieve that the liht o! truth was in him ust as other heretics maintain that the7araclete came into Montanus< ** and sa( that Mani himsel! was the 7araclete= Joucannot !ind an occasion o! 0oastin< even su""osin (ou are the inventor o! a new kindo! wickedness< !or (our heres( lon ao 0roke out aainst the church= ,t !ound<however< an o""onent in Tertullian< a ver( learned man< who wrote a !amous treatisewhich he called most correctl( &corpiacum% */ 0ecause< as the scor"ion 0ends itsel! likea 0ow to in!lict its wound< so what was !ormerl( called the heres( o! Cain * "ours "oison into the 0od( o! the churchK it has sle"t or rather 0een 0uried !or a lon time< 0uthas 0een now awakened 0( )ormitantius= , am sur"rised (ou do not tell us that theremust u"on no account 0e mart(rdoms< inasmuch as od< who does not ask !or the

0lood o! oats and 0ulls< much less requires the 0lood o! men= This is what (ou sa(< orrather< even i! (ou do not sa( it< (ou are taken as meanin to assert it= For inmaintainin that the relics o! the mart(rs are to 0e trodden under !oot< (ou !or0id thesheddin o! their 0lood as 0ein worth( o! no honour=

6 %es"ectin viils and the !requent kee"in o! nihtwatches in the 0asilicas o! themart(rs< , have iven a 0rie! re"l( in another letter *4 which< a0out two (ears ao< ,wrote to the reverend "res0(ter %i"arius= Jou arue that the( ouht to 0e a0ured<lest we seem to 0e o!ten kee"in 8aster< and a""ear not to o0serve the customar(


















(earl( viils= *6 ,! so< then sacri!ices should not 0e o!!ered to Christ on the ord;sda( lest we !requentl( kee" the 8aster o! our ord;s %esurrection< and introducethe custom o! havin man( 8asters instead o! one= #e must not< however< im"uteto "ious men the !aults and errors o! (ouths and worthless women such as are o!tendetected at niht= ,t is true that< even at the 8aster viils< somethin o! the kind

usuall( comes to lihtK 0ut the !aults o! a !ew !orm no arument aainst reliion ineneral< and such "ersons< without kee"in viil< can o wron either in their ownhouses or in those o! other "eo"le= The treacher( o! udas did not annul the lo(alt(o! the A"ostles= And i! others kee" viil 0adl(< our viils are not there0( to 0esto""edK no< rather let those who slee" to rati!( their lust 0e com"elled to watchthat the( ma( "reserve their chastit(= For i! a thin once done 0e ood< it cannot 0e 0ad i! o!ten doneK and i! there is some !ault to 0e avoided< the 0lame lies not in its 0ein done o!ten< 0ut in its 0ein done at all= And so we should not

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watch at 8aster'tide !or !ear that adulterers ma( satis!( their lon "ent'u" desires<or that the wi!e ma( !ind an o""ortunit( !or sinnin without havin the ke( turnedaainst her 0( her hus0and= The occasions which seldom recur are those which aremost eaerl( loned !or=15 , cannot traverse all the to"ics em0raced in the letters o! the reverend "res0(tersK /5 , will adduce a !ew "oints !rom the tracts o! 9iilantius= &e aruesaainst the sins and miracles which are wrouht in the 0asilicas o! the mart(rs<and sa(s that the( are o! service to the un0elievin< not to 0elievers< as thouh thequestion now were !or whose advantae the( occur< not 0( what "ower= rantedthat sins 0elon to the !aithless< who< 0ecause the( would not o0e( the word anddoctrine< are 0rouht to 0elieve 0( means o! sins= 8ven our ord wrouht sins!or the un0elievin< and (et our ord;s sins are not on that account to 0eim"uned< 0ecause those "eo"le were !aithless< 0ut must 0e worth( o! reateradmiration 0ecause the( were so "ower!ul that the( su0dued even the hardesthearts< and com"elled men to 0elieve= And so , will not have (ou tell me that sinsare !or the un0elievinK 0ut answer m( question: how is it that "oor worthless dustand ashes are associated with this wondrous "ower o! sins and miraclesL , see< ,see< most un!ortunate o! mortals< wh( (ou are so sad and what causes (our !ear=That unclean s"irit who !orces (ou to write these thins has o!ten 0een tortured 0(this worthless dust< (es< and is 0ein tortured at this moment< and thouh in (ourcase he conceals his wounds< in others he makes con!ession= Jou will hardl(!ollow the heathen and im"ious 7or"h(r( /1 and 8unomius< and "retend that theseare the tricks o! the demons< and that the( do not reall( cr( out< 0ut !ein their

torments= et me ive (ou m( advice: o to the 0asilicas o! the mart(rs< and someda( (ou will 0e cleansedK (ou will !ind there man( in like case with (oursel!< andwill 0e set on !ire< not 0( the mart(rs; ta"ers which o!!end (ou< 0ut 0( invisi0le!lamesK and (ou will then con!ess what (ou now den(< and will !reel( "roclaim(our namethat (ou who s"eak in the "erson o! 9iilantius are reall( eitherMercur(< !or he was reed( o! ainK or octurnus< who< accordin to 7lautus; Amphitr$on% /2 sle"t while u"iter< two nihts toether< had his adulterous











connection with Alcmena< and thus 0eot the miht( &erculesK or at all eventsFather Bacchus< /3 o! drunken !ame< with the tankard hanin !rom his shoulder<with his ever ru0( !ace< !oamin li"s< and un0ridled 0rawlin=

'11$'

11 .nce< when a sudden earthquake in this "rovince awoke us all out o! our slee" inthe middle o! the niht< (ou< the most "rudent and the wisest o! men< 0ean to "ra(without "uttin (our clothes on< and recalled to our minds the stor( o! Adam and8ve in 7aradiseK the(< indeed< when their e(es were o"ened were ashamed< !or the(saw that the( were naked< and covered their shame with the leaves o! treesK 0ut (ou<who were stri""ed alike o! (our shirt and o! (our !aith< in the sudden terror whichover'whelmed (ou< and with the !umes o! (our last niht;s 0oo>e still hanin a0out(ou< showed (our wisdom 0( ex"osin (our nakedness in onl( too evident a mannerto the e(es o! the 0rethren= /$ Such are the adversaries o! the churchK these are theleaders who !iht aainst the 0lood o! the mart(rsK here is a s"ecimen o! the oratorswho thunder aainst the A"ostles< or< rather< such are the mad dos which 0ark at the

disci"les o! Christ=12 , con!ess m( own !ear< !or "ossi0l( it ma( 0e thouht to s"rin !rom su"erstition=#hen , have 0een anr(< or have had evil thouhts in m( mind< or some "hantom o!the niht has 0euiled me< , do not dare to enter the 0asilicas o! the mart(rs< ,shudder all over in 0od( and soul= Jou ma( smile< "erha"s< and deride this as on alevel with the wild !ancies o! weak women= ,! it 0e so< , am not ashamed o! havin a!aith like that o! those who were the !irst to see the risen ordK who were sent to theA"ostlesK who< in the "erson o! the mother o! our ord and Saviour< werecommended to the hol( A"ostles= Belch out (our shame< i! (ou will< with men o! theworld< , will !ast with womenK no< with reliious men whose looks witness to theirchastit(< and who< with the cheek "ale !rom "roloned a0stinence< show !orth the

chastit( o! Christ=13 Somethin< also< a""ears to 0e trou0lin (ou= Jou are a!raid that< i! continence<so0riet(< and !astin strike root amon the "eo"le o! aul< (our taverns will not "a(<and (ou will 0e una0le to kee" u" throuh the niht (our dia0olical viils anddrunken revels= Moreover< , have learnt !rom those same letters that< in de!iance o!the authorit( o! 7aul< no< rather o! 7eter< ohn< and ames< who ave the riht hand o!!ellowshi" to 7aul and Barna0as< and commanded them to remem0er the "oor< (ou!or0id an( "ecuniar( relie! to 0e sent to erusalem !or the 0ene!it o! the saints= ow<i! , re"l( to this< (ou will immediatel( ive tonue and cr( out that , am "leadin m(own cause= Jou< indeed< were so enerous to the whole communit( that i! (ou hadnot come to erusalem< and lavished (our own mone( or

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that o! (our "atrons< we should all 0e on the vere o! starvation= , sa( what the 0lessed A"ostle 7aul sa(s in nearl( all his 8"istlesK and he makes it a rule !or thechurches o! the entiles that< on the !irst da( o! the week< that is< on the ord;s da(<contri0utions should 0e made 0( ever( one which should 0e sent u" to erusalem !orthe relie! o! the saints< and that either 0( his own disci"les< or 0( those whom the(









should themselves a""roveK and i! it were thouht !it< he would himsel! either send<or take what was collected= /* Also in the Acts o! the A"ostles< when s"eakin to theovernor Felix< he sa(s< ?A!ter man( (ears , went u" to erusalem to 0rin alms tom( nation and o!!erins< and to "er!orm m( vows< amidst which the( !ound me "uri!ied in the tem"le=; // Miht he not have distri0uted in some other "art o! the

world< and in the in!ant churches which he was trainin in his own !aith< the i!ts hehad received !rom othersL But he loned to ive to the "oor o! the hol( "laces who<a0andonin their own little "ossessions !or the sake o! Christ< turned with theirwhole heart to the service o! the ord= ,t would take too lon now i! , "ur"osed tore"eat all the "assaes !rom the whole rane o! his 8"istles in which he advocatesand ures with all his heart that mone( 0e sent to erusalem and to the hol( "laces!or the !aith!ulK not to rati!( avarice< 0ut to ive relie!K not to accumulate wealth< 0utto su""ort the weakness o! the "oor 0od(< and to stave o!! cold and huner= And thiscustom continues in udea to the "resent da(< not onl( amon us< 0ut also amon the&e0rews< so that the( who meditate in the law o! the ord< da( and niht< / and haveno !ather u"on earth exce"t the ord alone< /4 ma( 0e cherished 0( the aid o! the

s(naoues and o! the whole worldK that there ma( 0e equalit(not that some ma( 0e re!reshed while others are in distress< 0ut that the a0undance o! some ma( su""ortthe need o! others= /6 1$ Jou will re"l( that ever( one can do this in his own countr(< and that there willnever 0e wantin "oor "eo"le who ouht to 0e su""orted with the resources o! thechurch= And we do not den( that doles should 0e distri0uted to all "oor "eo"le< evento ews and Samaritans< i! the means will allow= But the A"ostle teaches that almsshould 0e iven to all< indeed< es"eciall(< however< to those who are o! thehousehold o! !aith= 5 And res"ectin these the Saviour said in the os"el< ?Make to(ourselves !riends o! the mammon o! unrihteousness< who ma( receive (ou intoeverlastin ha0itations=; 1 #hatQ Can those "oor creatures< with their ras and !ilth<lorded over< as the( are< 0( rain lust< can the(

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who own nothin< now or herea!ter< have eternal ha0itationsL o dou0t it is not the "oor sim"l(< 0ut the "oor in s"irit< who are called 0lessedK those o! whom it iswritten< ?Blessed is he who ives his mind to the "oor and need(K the ord shalldeliver him in the evil da(=; 2 But the !act is< in su""ortin the "oor o! the common "eo"le< what is needed is not mind< 0ut mone(= ,n the case o! the saintl( "oor themind has 0lessed exercises< since (ou ive to one who receives with a 0lush< andwhen he has received is rieved< that while sowin s"iritual thins he must rea" (our

carnal thins= As !or his arument that the( who kee" what the( have< and distri0uteamon the "oor< little 0( little< the increase o! their "ro"ert(< act more wisel( thanthe( who sell their "ossessions< and once !or all ive all awa(< not , 0ut the ordshall make answer: ?,! (ou wish to 0e "er!ect< o< sell all that (ou have and ive tothe "oor< and come< !ollow me=; 3 &e s"eaks to him who wishes to 0e "er!ect< who<with the A"ostles< leaves !ather< shi"< and net= The man whom (ou a""rove stands inthe second or third rankK (et we welcome him "rovided it 0e understood that the !irstis to 0e "re!erred to the second< and the second to the third=



















1* et me add that our monks are not to 0e deterred !rom their resolution 0( (ouwith (our vi"er;s tonue and savae 0ite= $ Jour arument res"ectin them runsthus: ,! all men were to seclude themselves and live in solitude< who is there to!requent the churchesL #ho will remain to win those enaed in secular "ursuitsL#ho will 0e a0le to ure sinners to virtuous conductL Similarl(< i! all were as sill( as

(ou< who could 0e wiseL And< to !ollow out (our arument< virinit( would notdeserve our a""ro0ation= For i! all were virins< we should have no marriaes< therace would "erish< in!ants would not cr( in their cradles< midwives would lose their "a( and turn 0earsK and )ormitantius< all alone and shrivelled u" with cold< wouldlie awake in his 0ed= The truth is< virtue is a rare thin and not eaerl( souht a!ter 0( the man(= #ould that all were as the !ew o! whom it is said: ?Man( are called<!ew are chosen=; * The "rison would 0e em"t(= But< indeed< a monk;s !unction is notto teach< 0ut to lament< to mourn either !or himsel! or !or the world< and with terrorto antici"ate our ord;s advent= Enowin his own weakness and the !railt( o! thevessel which he carries< he is a!raid o! stum0lin< lest he strike aainst somethin<and it !all and 0e 0roken= &ence he shuns the siht o! women< and "articularl( o!

(oun women< and so !ar chastens himsel! as to dread even what is sa!e=

-88E-

1/ #h(< (ou will sa(< o to the desertL The reason is "lain: That , ma( not hear or see(ou< that , ma( not 0e distur0ed 0( (our madness< that , ma( not 0e enaed in con!lictwith (ou< that the e(e o! the harlot not lead me ca"tive: that 0eaut( ma( not lead me tounlaw!ul em0races= Jou will re"l(: ?This is not to !iht< 0ut to run awa(= Stand in line o! 0attle< "ut on (our armour and resist (our !oes< so that< havin overcome< (ou ma( wearthe crown=; , con!ess m( weakness= , would not !iht in the ho"e o! victor(< lest sometime or other , lose the victor(= ,! , !lee< , avoid the swordK i! , stand< , must either

overcome or !all= But what need is there !or me to let o certainties and !ollow a!teruncertaintiesL 8ither with m( shield or with m( !eet , must shun death= Jou who !ihtma( either 0e overcome or ma( overcome= , who !l( do not overcome< inasmuch as , !l(K 0ut , !l( to make sure that , ma( not 0e overcome= There is no sa!et( in slee" with aser"ent 0eside (ou= 7ossi0l( he will not 0ite me< (et it is "ossi0le that a!ter a time he ma( 0ite me= #e call women mothers who are no older than sisters and dauhters< and we donot 0lush to cloak our vices with the names o! "iet(= #hat 0usiness has a monk in thewomen;s cellsL #hat is the meanin o! secret conversation and looks which shun the "resence o! witnessesL &ol( love has no restless desire= Moreover< what we have saidres"ectin lust we must a""l( to avarice< and to all vices which are avoided 0( solitude=#e there!ore kee" clear o! the crowded cities< that we ma( not 0e com"elled to do what

we are ured to do< not so much 0( nature as 0( choice=

/

1 At the request o! the reverend "res0(ters< as , have said< , have devoted to thedictation o! these remarks the la0our o! a sinle niht< !or m( 0rother Sisinnius ishastenin his de"arture !or 8("t< where he has relie! to ive to the saints< and isim"atient to 0e one= ,! it were not so< however< the su0ect itsel! was so o"enl( 0las"hemous as to call !or the indination o! a writer rather than a multitude o! "roo!s= But i! )ormitantius wakes u" that he ma( aain a0use me< and i! he thinks !itto dis"arae me with that same 0las"hemous mouth with which he "ulls to "ieces










A"ostles and mart(rs< , will s"end u"on him somethin more than this shortlucu0ration= , will kee" viil !or a whole niht on his 0ehal! and on 0ehal! o! hiscom"anions< whether the( 0e disci"les or masters< who think no man to 0e worth( o!Christ;s ministr( unless he is married and his wi!e is seen to 0e with child= 4

-88:-

$,

THE THREI&TLetter $-, to Principia

ITR*!TI

Ten letters in erome;s opera omnia are written to o!!er words o! com!ort to !riends

a!!licted 0( rie!= Two threnodies were com"osed in %ome: letter 23 to Marcella toconsole her !or the loss o! her !riend ea< and letter 36 to 7aula whose dauhter Blesillahad died within three months o! her conversion to asceticism= etter /5 is a consolator(letter to erome;s old !riend &eliodorus< now 0isho" o! Altinum< who had lost hisne"hew e"otian +on ep4 /5 there is an excellent commentar( 0( Scour!ield 1663O-=etter // reached 7ammachius a!ter the death o! his (oun wi!e 7aulina< one o! 7aula;sdauhters= etter * tries to soothe the rie! o! the S"anish lad( Theodora who hadrecentl( lost her hus0and ucinus +c!= %e0enich 1662aO 263!!=-= etter to .ceanus isa eulo( o! the %oman aristocrat Fa0iola< and epistula 6 is a letter o! consolation toSalvina on the death o! her hus0and e0ridius< who was a mem0er o! the im"erial courtat Constantino"le= etter 154< erome;s larest consolation< is addressed to 8ustochium

on 7aula;s death= etter 114 is written to the wealth( no0leman ulian whose wi!e andtwo dauhters had died=

erome varied his com"osition with reard to the individual addressee< the s"eci!icsituation o! the case< and the "ersons involved= &is a""roach em"hasi>es the !lexi0ilit(o! the enre= erome;s consolations< which do not re!lect a chronoloical develo"ment+ pace uttilla 1645'1O and 164$'*O-< illustrate Christian assimilation o! "aanconsolator( literature= erome relies u"on the Bi0le< 0ut he also a0sor0s the "aanliterar( tradition and includes a num0er o! classical quotations< e#empla% and otherre!erences= Scour!ield +1663- 33 has rihtl( stressed ?erome;s conscious and una0asheduse o! 0oth classical and 0i0lical sources;= For erome and the consolator( tradition< c!=

also Fave> +163-K )uval +16-K and Eierdor! +1645-=

'116'

)lthough Jerome's consolations are associated with the e+pression ofs!mpath!, with e+hortation and comfort, he $uite often celebrated theascetic virtues of the deceased and encouraged the bereaved to live alife of renunciation and povert!. "he eulogistic element features






prominentl! in consolations to members of the senatorial aristocrac!.ere, Jerome propagated a new, (hristian concept of nobilit! that wasnot based upon illustrious ancestr!, but upon ascetic perfection. 2aulais praised4 nobilis enere, sed multo nobilior sanctitate0Anoble infamil!, she was much nobler still in holiness' 5ier. ep$ 89:.8.8;. ut

the elitist self-fashioning of the 1oman aristocrats who perceivedthemselves as pars melior eneris humani, Aa better part of mankind'5<!mm. ep$ 8,C6;, was not challenged b! Jerome. n the contrar!, the(hristiani#ation of the aristocratic famil! traditions completed andconsummated the glorious past of the pagan entes. "he socialstanding and prestige of a noble clan was no longer measured b! thenumber of consuls and praetorian prefects, but b! (hristian irtutes and ascetic castigation. Now the Ahol! pride' 5sancta superbia, cf. ier.ep$ 66.8.8; of the (hristian ladies e+celled the fame of the politicians5cf. 1ebenich M8HH6aO 8:8ff. and /eichtinger M8HHEaO;.

Letter 86E, written about two !ears after the sack of 1ome in D89,should be considered as a memoir, or an obituar!, of Jerome'sinfluential patroness %arcella, addressed to her 1oman protKgKe2rincipia. "he 1oman aristocrat %arcella 5for a new biograph!, seeLetsch-runner M8HH:O;, after being widowed at an earl! age, heldfirm to her decision, against the opposition of her famil!, to live anascetic life and to gather in her palace on the )ventine a circle of(hristian women. )t the beginning of the fifth centur!, Jerome hadcalled the 1oman matron of rank and her fellow aristocrat, the senator2ammachius, Christiani senatus lumina, Alights of the (hristian senate'

5ier. ep$ HE.B.8;. )fter describing %arcella's biograph!, character,and intellectual studies, and celebrating her devotion to chastit!,Jerome praised her eminent position in the fight against heres!,especiall! against rigenism 5ep$ 89:.H-88 H-88 cf. also LaurenceM8HHO;. e depicted %arcella as the first 1oman lad! to adopt themonastic life and she thus becomes a paragon of asceticism andorthodo+!. ut Jerome overemphasi#ed her dependence on histheological advice and underrepresented her individualism in doctrinal$uestions, since %arcella was familiar with the works of variouscontemporar! (hristian writers and formed an opinion of her own in

theological and church0political issues."he letter includes a vivid description of the fall of 1ome, which isdramaticall! intervowen with the eve of %arcella's life

-869-



5ep$ 89:.86-8D;. /or a substantial anal!sis of the letter, cf. de 7ogRK58HH8-:; vol. i. C, 66Bff.

TE6T1 Jou have 0eed me o!ten and earnestl(< 7rinci"ia< 1 virin o! Christ< to dedicate aletter to the memor( o! that hol( woman Marcella< and to set !orth the oodness weso lon eno(ed !or others to know and to imitate= And it rieves me that (ou shoulds"ur a willin horse 2 and think that , need (our entreaties when , do not (ield evento (ou in love o! her= ,n recordin her sinal virtues , shall receive !ar more 0ene!itm(sel! than , can "ossi0l( con!er u"on others= That , have hitherto remained silentand have allowed two (ears to o over without s"eakin< has not 0een due to a wishto inore her as (ou wronl( su""ose< 0ut rather to an incredi0le sorrow< which hasso overwhelmed m( mind that , uded it 0etter to remain silent !or the moment thanto "raise her virtues in inadequate lanuae= either will , now !ollow the rules o!rhetoric in euloi>in (our< m(< or to s"eak more trul(< our Marcella< 3 the lor( o!all saints and es"eciall( o! the cit( o! %ome= , will not extol her illustrious !amil(<the s"lendour o! her no0le lineae< and the lon series o! consuls and "raetorian "re!ects who have 0een her ancestors= $ , will "raise her !or nothin 0ut that which isher own and which is the more no0le< 0ecause des"isin wealth and rank she haswon hiher no0ilit( 0( "overt( and humilit(= * 2 &er !ather;s death le!t her an or"han< / and she had 0een married less than sevenmonths when her hus0and was taken !rom her= Then Cerealis< whose name is!amous amon the consuls< 4 "aid court to her with reat assiduit( since he wasattracted 0( her (outh< her ancient !amil(< her 0eaut(which alwa(s is an attractionto menand her sel!'control= Bein an old man he "romised her all his mone( ando!!ered to trans!er his !ortune so that she miht consider hersel! less his wi!e than hisdauhter= Moreover< her mother Al0ina tried ver( hard to secure such an illustrious "rotector !or the widowed household= But Marcella answered: ?,! , wished to marr(

and not rather to dedicate m(sel! to "er "etual chastit(< , should look !or a hus0andand not !or an inheritance=; #hen Cerealis arued that sometimes old men live lonwhile (oun men die earl(< she cleverl( retorted: ?A (oun man ma( "ossi0l( dieearl(< 0ut an old man cannot live lon=; This de!inite

-868-

reection convinced other men that the( had no ho"e o! winnin her hand=

,n the os"el accordin to uke we read the !ollowin "assae: ?There was also a "ro"hetess< Anna< the dauhter o! 7hanuel< o! the tri0e o! Aser= She was a ver( old

woman and had seen man( da(s= She had lived with a hus0and seven (ears !rom hervirinit(K and she was a widow o! eiht('!our (ears= She never le!t the tem"le 0utserved od with !astin and "ra(er niht and da(=; 6 ,t is no marvel that she won thevision o! the Saviour< whom she souht so earnestl(= et us then com"are her casewith that o! Marcella= et us com"are the seven (ears with the seven months= Annaho"ed !or Christ< Marcella held him !ast= Anna con!essed him at his 0irth< Marcella 0elieved in him cruci!ied= Anna did not den( the child< Marcella reoiced in the manas kin= , am not drawin distinctions o! merit 0etween hol( women< as some "eo"le



















!oolishl( do 0etween hol( men and leaders o! churches= The conclusion at which ,aim is that< as 0oth have one la0our< so 0oth have one reward=3 ,n a slander'lovin communit( 15 and in a cit( such as %ome< which !ormerl( was!illed with "eo"le !rom all "arts o! the world and where it was the trium"h o!

wickedness to critici>e the u"riht and to de!ile even the "ure and the clean< it is hardto esca"e !rom the !a0les o! calumnious ossi"s= A stainless re"utation is di!!icultand almost im"ossi0le to attainK the "ro"het ho"es rather than thinks to win it whenhe sa(s: ?Blessed are the unde!iled in the wa( who walk in the law o! the ord=; 11 The unde!iled in the wa( o! this world are those whom no 0reath o! scandal has eversullied and who have earned no re"roach !rom their neih0ours= ,t is this whichmakes the Saviour sa( in the os"el: ?Be kindl( toor: 0e !avoura0le to(ouradversar( while (ou are in the wa( with him=; 12 #hoever heard an(thin dis"leasino! Marcella that deserved creditL #ho 0elieved such without makin himsel! uilt(o! malice and 0ack0itinL She "ut the entiles to con!usion 0( showin them thenature o! that Christian widowhood which she set !orth in her conscience and look=

For worldl( women are wont to "aint their !aces with roue and white lead< to wearro0es o! shinin silk< to adorn themselves with ewels< to "ut old chains round theirnecks< to "ierce their ears and han in them the costliest "earls o! the %ed Sea< and toscent themselves with musk= #hile mournin !or the hus0ands the( have lost the(reoice that the( have esca"ed !rom their "artner;s dominion< the( look a0out !ornew mates< intendin

-866-

not to o0e( them< as od wills< 0ut to rule over them= #ith this o0ect in view the(

choose "oor men< who are content with the mere name o! hus0ands and who must "atientl( "ut u" with rivals= And i! the( murmur< the( will 0e kicked out at once= 13 .urwidow wore clothes that were meant to kee" out the cold and not to show her !iure=8ven her old seal'rin she reected and chose to store her mone( in the stomachs o! the "oor rather than to hide it in a "urse= 1$ She went nowhere without her mother< and nevervisited without witnesses one o! the monks< or cler(< as the needs o! her lare householdrequired her to interview= &er escort was alwa(s com"osed o! virins and widows< 1* andthese women were seriousK !or she knew that the licentious 0ehaviour o! the maids s"eaksill !or the mistress and a woman;s character is shown 0( her choice o! com"anions= 1/

$ &er ardent love !or the divine Scri"tures was incredi0le= She alwa(s san: ?Jourwords have , hid in m( heart that , miht not sin aainst (ou;< 1 as well as the words

which descri0e the "er!ect man: ?&is deliht is in the law o! the ordK and in his lawhe does meditate da( and niht=; 14 This meditation in the law meant !or her not areview o! the written words< as amon the ews the 7harisees think< 0ut a carr(in itout in action 16 accordin to that sa(in o! the A"ostle: ?#hether< there!ore< (ou eator drink or whatsoever (ou do< do all to the lor( o! od=; 25 She remem0ered alsothe "ro"het;s words: ?Throuh (our "rece"ts , have ot understandin<; 21 and knewthat onl( when she had !ul!illed these "rece"ts she would 0e "ermitted to under standthe Scri"tures= So we read elsewhere ?that esus 0ean 0oth to do and teach=; 22



















&owever !ine someone;s teachin ma( 0e< it is "ut to the 0lush when his ownconscience re0ukes himK and it is in vain that his tonue "reaches "overt( or teachesalmsivin< i! he himsel! is swollen with the riches o! Croesus 23 and i!< in s"ite o!his coarse cloak< he !ihts to kee" the moths !rom his silk ro0es=

Marcella "ractised !astin< 0ut in moderation= She a0stained ! rom eatin meat< andshe knew rather the scent o! wine than its taste< !or she drank it onl( !or herstomach;s sake and her !requent in!irmities= 2$ She seldom a""eared in "u0lic andtook care to avoid the houses o! no0le ladies< that she miht not 0e !orced to looku"on what she had once !or all renounced= She !requentl( visited the 0asilicas o!A"ostles and mart(rs 2* that she miht ive hersel! to quiet "ra(er< avoidin thethron o! "eo"le= To her mother she was so o0edient that occasionall( she did !or hersake thins o! which she hersel! disa""roved= For

-86B-

exam"le< when Al0ina< who was devoted to her own kin< wished to trans!er all her "ro"ert( to her 0rother;s !amil(< since she was without sons and randsons<Marcella would have "re!erred to ive the mone( to the "oor instead< 0ut still shecould not o aainst her mother= There!ore she handed over her necklaces andother e!!ects to "eo"le alread( rich< content to throw awa( her mone( rather than tosadden her mother;s heart=* ,n those da(s no lad( o! rank in %ome knew an(thin o! the monastic li!e< or hadventured to call hersel! a nun= For the thin was strane and the name wascommonl( viewed as inominious and deradin= 2/ ,t was !rom some "riests o!Alexandria< !rom "o"e Athanasius< and su0sequentl( !rom 7eter< who to esca"e the "ersecution o! the Arian heretics had all !led !or re!ue to %ome as the sa!est haven

in which the( could !ind communionit was !rom these that Marcella heard o! theli!e o! the 0lessed Anton(< then still alive< and o! the monasteries in the The0aid!ounded 0( 7achomius< and o! the disci"line laid down !or virins and !or widows=2 She was not ashamed to "ro!ess a li!e which she knew was "leasin to Christ=Man( (ears later her exam"le was !ollowed !irst 0( So"hronia 24 and then 0(others< o! whom it ma( 0e well said in the words o! 8nnius: ?#ould that never in7elion;s woodsQ; 26

Marcella;s !riendshi" was also eno(ed 0( the revered 7aula< and in her cell8ustochium< that "araon o! virins< was trained= Thus it is eas( to see o! whatcharacter the teacher was who had such "u"ils=

The un0elievin reader ma( "erha"s lauh at me !or dwellin so lon on the "raises o! weak women= But i! he will remem0er how hol( women !ollowed ourord and Saviour and ministered to him o! their su0stance< and how the threeMar(s stood 0e!ore the cross and es"eciall( how Mar( o! Madalacalled ?o! thetower; 35 !rom her earnestness and ardent !aithwas "rivileed to see the risenChrist !irst< even 0e!ore the A"ostles< 31 he will convict himsel! o! "ride soonerthan me o! !oll(< who ude o! virtue not 0( sex 0ut 0( character= 32 ,t was !or this


























reason that esus loved the evanelist ohn most o! all= For he was o! no0le 0irthand known to the hih "riest< and he !eared the "lots o! the ews so little that heintroduced 7eter into the hih "riest;s court(ard< 33 and was the onl( A"ostle whostood 0e!ore the cross and took the Saviour;s mother to his own home= 3$ ,t was the

virin son3*

who received the virin mother as a leac( !rom the virin ord=

'12$'

/ Marcella then lived an ascetic li!e !or man( (ears< and !ound hersel! old 0e!ore sheever remem0ered that once she had 0een (oun< a""rovin 7lato;s sa(in that "hiloso"h( consists in meditatin on death= 3/ So our own A"ostle sa(s: ?8ver( da( ,die !or (our salvation=; 3 ,ndeed accordin to the old co"ies our ord himsel! sa(s:?#hosoever does not 0ear his cross dail( and come a!ter me cannot 0e m( disci"le=;34 And aes 0e!ore< the &ol( S"irit had declared 0( the "ro"het: ?For (our sake arewe killed all the da( lon: we are counted as shee" !or the slauhter=; 36 Man(enerations a!terwards the words were s"oken: ?%emem0er the end and (ou will

never o wron<; $5 as well as that "rece"t o! the eloquent satirist: ?ive with death in(our mindK the hour !liesK the word that , s"eak is so much taken !rom it=; $1 #ellthen< as , was sa(in< Marcella "assed her da(s and lived alwa(s in the thouht thatshe must die= &er ver( dress reminded her o! the tom0< and she "resented hersel! as alivin sacri!ice< reasona0le and acce"ta0le unto od= $2 #hen the needs o! the church at last 0rouht me to %ome in com"an( with thehol( 0isho"s 7aulinus and 8"i"haniusthe !irst o! whom ruled the church o! theS(rian Antioch while the second "resided over that o! Salamis in C("rus, in m(modest( was inclined to avoid the e(es o! no0le ladies= $3 But Marcella "leaded soearnestl(< ?0oth in season and out o! season;< as the A"ostle sa(s< $$ that at last her "erseverance overcame m( reluctance= And< as in those da(s m( name was held in

some renown as that o! a student o! the Scri"tures< she never came to see me withoutaskin me some question a0out them< nor would she rest content at once< 0ut on thecontrar( would dis"ute themK this< however< was not !or the sake o! arument< 0ut tolearn 0( questionin the answers to such o0ections which miht< as she saw< 0eraised= $* &ow much virtue and intellect< how much holiness and "urit( , !ound in her, am a!raid to sa(< 0oth lest , ma( exceed the 0ounds o! men;s 0elie! and lest , ma(increase (our sorrow 0( remindin (ou o! the 0lessins (ou have lost= This onl( will, sa(< that whatever , had athered toether 0( lon stud(< and 0( constantmeditation made "art o! m( nature< she tasted< she learned and made her own=Consequentl(< a!ter m( de"arture !rom %ome< i! an( dis"ute arose concernin thetestimon( o! the Scri"tures< it was to her verdict that a""eal was made= And so wise

was she and so well did she understand what "hiloso"hers call to pr;pon% that is< "ro"riet( o! conduct< $/ that when she answered questions she ave her own o"inionnot as

-86C-

her own 0ut as !rom me or someone else< thus admittin that what she tauht she hadhersel! learned !rom others= For she knew that the A"ostle had said: ?, do not allow a
































women to teach;< $ and she would not seem to do a wron to the male sex< andsometimes even to "riests< when the( questioned her concernin o0scure and dou0t!ul "oints=

4 , have heard that (ou immediatel( took m( "lace as her close com"anion< and that<as the sa(in oes< (ou never le!t her side even !or a !iner;s'0readth= $4 Jou 0oth

lived in the same house< and had the same cell and 0ed< so that ever(one in the cit(knew !or certain that (ou had !ound a mother in her and she a dauhter in (ou= Anestate in the su0ur0s o! %ome was (our monaster(< $6 and (ou chose the countr( 0ecause o! its loneliness= For a lon time (ou lived toether< and as man( ladies!ollowed (our exam"le and oined (our com"an(< , had the o( o! seein %ometrans!ormed into another erusalem= Monastic esta0lishments !or virins 0ecamenumerous< and there were countless num0ers o! monks= ,n !act so man( were od;sservants that monasticism< which had 0e!ore 0een a term o! re"roach< 0ecamesu0sequentl( one o! honour= Meantime we consoled ourselves !or our se "aration 0(exchanin letters o! encouraement< and dischared in the s"irit the de0t which inthe !lesh we could not "a(= .ur letters alwa(s crossed< sur"assed in courtesies< and

antici"ated in reetins= ot much was lost 0( a se "ar ation thus e!!ectuall( 0rided 0( a constant corres"ondence= *5 6 ,n the midst o! this tranquillit( and service rendered to od< there arose in these "rovinces a tem"est o! heres( which threw ever(thin into con!usion< and !inall(swelled to such a reat !ur( that it s"ared neither itsel! nor an(thin that was ood= *1 And as i! it were not enouh to have distur0ed ever(thin here< it introduced a shi"!reihted with 0las"hemies to the "ort o! %ome= There the dish soon !ound itsel! acoverK *2 and the mudd( !eet !ouled the clear !ountain *3 o! the %oman !aith= owonder that in the streets and in the market"lace a "ainted soothsa(er can strike !oolson the 0uttocks and< catchin u" his stick< knock out the teeth o! his o0ector< whensuch venomous and !ilth( teachin !ound du"es at %ome to lead astra(= ext camethe scandalous version o! .rien;s 0ook ,n First Principles% and that ?!ortunate;disci"le *$ who would have 0een indeed !ortunate i! he had never !allen in with sucha master= ext !ollowed the ardent ** con!utation set !orth 0( m( su""orters< which threw the school o! the 7harisees */ into con!usion= Finall(< the hol( Marcella< whohad lon closed

-86-

her e(es to all this lest she should 0e thouht to act !rom "art( motives< came!orward o"enl( since she !ound that man( "eo"le !ailed to res"ect the !aith which theA"ostle once "raised= * As the heretic was drawin to his cause not onl( "riests<

monks and a0ove all lait(< 0ut was even im"osin on the sim"licit( o! the 0isho"<who uded other men 0( himsel! < *4 she "u0licl( with'stood him< choosin to "leaseod rather than men= *6 15 ,n the os"el the Saviour "raises the dishonest steward 0ecause< althouh hede!rauded his master< he acted wisel( !or himsel!= /5 The heretics in the same wa(<seein that a small s"ark had kindled a reat !ire< and that the !lames a""lied 0( themto the !oundations had now reached the houseto"s< so that the dece"tion "ractised onman( could no loner 0e hidden< asked !or and o0tained letters !rom the church o!


























niht was Moa0 taken< in the niht did her wall !all down=; 45 ?. od< the heathenhave come into (our inheritanceK the( have de!iled (our hol( tem"leK the( have madeerusalem an orchard= The dead 0odies o! (our servants the( have iven to 0e meatunto the !owls o! heaven< the !lesh o! (our saints unto the 0easts o! the earth= Their 0lood have the( shed like water all round erusalemK and there was none to 0ur(

them=; 41

#ho can set !orth the carnae o! that nihtL#hat tears are equal to its aon(L.! ancient date a soverein cit( !allsKAnd li!eless in its streets and houses lieInnum0ered 0odies o! its citi>ens=,n man( a hastl( sha"e does death a""ear= 42

-86:-13 Meanwhile< as was natural in such con!usion< one o! the 0lood'stained victors 0ursthis wa( into Marcella;s house= ?Be it mine to sa( what , have heard<; 43 rather to relatewhat those hol( men have seen who were "resent at that time< and the( sa( that (ou toowere with her in the hour o! daner= #hen the soldiers entered she is said to havereceived them with !earless !aceK and when the( asked her !or old and 0uried treasuresshe "ointed to her coarse dress= &owever< the( would not 0elieve in her sel! chosen "overt(< 0ut 0eat her with sticks and whi""ed her= She is said to have !elt no "ain< 0ut tohave thrown hersel! in tears at their !eet and to have 0eed them that (ou miht not 0etaken !rom her< or (our (outh !orced to endure what she as an old woman had no

occasion to !ear= Christ so!tened their hard hearts< and even amon 0lood'stained swordsan attitude o! res"ect !ound "lace= The 0ar0arians conve(ed 0oth her and (ou to the 0asilica o! the A"ostle 7aul< that (ou miht !ind there either a "lace o! sa!et( or a tom0=There Marcella is said to have 0urst into reat o( thankin od !or havin ke"t (ouunharmed !or her= She said she was thank!ul too that ca"tivit( had !ound her "oor< notmade her so< and that she was now in want o! dail( 0read< 0ut that Christ satis!ied herneeds so that she no loner !elt huner= She was a0le to sa( in word and in deed: ?akedcame , out o! m( mother;s wom0< and naked shall , return thither= ust as it seemed oodto the ord< so it has 0een doneK 0lessed 0e the name o! the ord=; 4$

1$ A!ter a !ew months 4* she !ell aslee" in the ord< sound in mind and not su!!erin!rom an( malad(= She made (ou the heir o! her "overt(< or rather she made the "oor

her heirs throuh (ou= ,n (our arms she closed her e(es< (our li"s received her last 0reathK (ou shed tears 0ut she smiled 4/ conscious o! havin lived a ood li!e andho"in !or her reward herea!ter=

,n one short niht , have dictated this letter to (ou< 4 revered Marcella< and to (ou<m( dauhter 7rinci"ia< not to show o!! m( own eloquence 0ut to ex"ress m( dee"!eltratitude to (ou 0oth= M( one desire has 0een to "lease 0oth od and m( readers=


























clerg! should conduct their life. )sceticism had now become part ofthe ever!da! life of the church and laid the spiritual foundation ofclerical authorit!. &n ep$ 86C to 1usticus of %arseille, Jerome alsoharmoni#ed monastic conduct and ordination to the presb!terate.)lthough a life in solitude, far awa! from the cities, remained the ideal

of monasticism 5ep$ 86C, 69, C;, the domestic setting was no longer aconditio sine +ua non, at least for ambitious and wealth! !oung men.)scetic perfection is defined as the best preparation for the priesthoodand the episcopate 5cf. 1ebenich M8HH6aO 6:Hff.;.

"he most bewildering pieces of ascetic propaganda are twopedagogical manuals Jerome wrote for his 1oman audience. Laeta,daughter-in-law of 2aula, was told in ep$ 89E how she ought to bringup her infant daughter, also called 2aula. <ome ten !ears later 5after)ugust D89;, Jerome gave advice for the training of the 1oman girl2acatula 5ep$ 86:;. oth girls were consecrated to virginit! and to theservice of (hrist, as soon as the! were born. "he conduct theirmothers had been free to choose was now imposed upon them.Jerome demanded an entirel! ascetic education, e+cluded the stud! ofsecular literature, recommended the reading of the ible from thebeginning to the end and of the edif!ing books written b! the /athers./or this purpose, the! should learn Greek and Latin. When the girls getolder, bo!s are to be kept at a distance, the! should mortif! theirbodies b! vigils and fasting, be simpl! dressed and confined to theirroom, and even shun baths since the! Aadd fuel to a sleeping fire' 5ep$ 89E.88.6;. &nstead the! are told to recite pra!ers and psalms at night,

sing h!mns in the morning and spin wool. /inall!, Jerome invited Laetato send 2aula to ethlehem. e seems to have been successful.)lthough some have applauded this educational scheme, moresensible readers have reali#ed that the little girls were to be forcibl!trained up as nuns 5cf. =ell! M8HECO 6EC;. &t should be noted that theLatin bo!s taught b! Jerome himself in his monaster! en>o!ed a moretraditional curriculum4 grammar, 7irgil, the comic and l!ric poets, andthe historians 5cf. 1uf. 'pol$ 6.88 MCC& 69, p. H6O;. "he harsh preceptsfor (hristian perfection in ep$ 86:, however, are contrasted with avivid account of the collapsing 1oman 3mpire and the sack of 1ome b!

)laric in )* D89. &n this letter, too, Jerome makes e+tensive use ofclassical elements 5 pace agendahl M8HC:O 6C;.

"here are patristic reflections on Jerome's pedagogical e+pertise5runner M8H89O ardicchia M8H6CO Gorce M8HB6O /ave# M8HD:O/aggin M8HE8O, 66Cff.;, some illuminating remarks b! /eichtinger

-8B8-





o! an adulteress dro" as an hone(com0< 4 which is sweet indeed in the eater;s mouth 0ut is a!terwards !ound more 0itter than all=; 6 ?This;the( arue?is the reasonthat hone( is never o!!ered in the sacri!ices o! the ord< 15 that the wax in whichhone( is stored is contemned< and that oil< the "roduct o! the 0itter olive< is 0urned inhis tem"le= 11 Moreover it is with 0itter her0s that the "assover is eaten< 12 and with

the unleavened 0read o! sincerit( and truth=13

Those who receive these shall su!!er "ersecution in the world= #here!ore the "ro"het s(m0olicall( sins: , sat alone 0ecause , was !illed with 0itterness ;= 1$ 3 #hat thenL ,s (outh to run riot so that luxur( ma( a!terwards 0e more resolutel(reectedL ?Far !rom it<; the( sa( ?let ever( man< wherein he is called< therein a0ide=;1* ?,! a man is called with the marks o! circumcision on him;that is< a virin?lethim not 0ecome uncircumcised; 1/ that is< let him not seek the coat o! marriaeiven to Adam on his ex"ulsion !rom the "aradise o! virinit(= 1 ?,s an( called inuncircumcision;that is< havin a wi!e and covered in the skin o! matrimon(lethim not seek the nakedness o! virinit( 14 and o! that eternal chastit( which he haslost once !or all= o< let him "ossess his vessel in sancti!ication and honour< 16 let

him drink o! his own wells not out o! the dissolute cisterns

25

o! the 0rothels whichcannot hold within them the "ure waters o! chastit(= 21 The same 7aul also in thesame cha"ter< when discussin the su0 ects o! virinit( and marriae< calls thosewho are married slaves o! the !lesh< 0ut those not under the (oke o! wedlock!reemen< who serve the ord in all !reedom= 22

-8BB-

#hat , am sa(in now , am not sa(in as universall( a""lica0leK m( treatment o! thesu0ect is onl( "artial= , s"eak o! some onl(< not o! all= &owever m( words are addressedto those o! 0oth sexes< and not onl( to ?the weaker vessel=; 23 Are (ou a virinL #h( then

do (ou !ind "leasure in the societ( o! a womanL #h( do (ou commit to the hih seas(our !rail "atched 0oat< wh( do (ou so con!identl( !ace the reat "eril o! a danerousvo(aeL Jou know not what (ou desire< and (et (ou clin to her as thouh (ou had eitherdesired her 0e!ore or< to "ut it as lenientl( as "ossi0le< as thouh (ou would herea!terdesire her= ?#omen<; (ou will sa(< ?make 0etter ser vants than men=; ,n that case choosean old woman< choose one who is misha""en< choose one whose continence is a""rovedin the ord= #h( should (ou !ind "leasure in a (oun irl< "rett(< and volu"tuousL Jou!requent the 0aths< walk a0road sleek and rudd(< eat !lesh< a0ound in riches< and wear themost ex"ensive clothesK and (et (ou !anc( that (ou can slee" sa!el( 0eside a death'dealin ser"ent= )o (ou sa( that (ou do not live in the same house with her< at least atnihtL But (ou s"end whole da(s in conversin with her= #h( do (ou sit alone with her

and without an( witnessesL B( so doin< i! (ou do not actuall( sin (ou a""ear to do so<and (ou em0olden unha""( men 0( (our exam"le< and the authorit( o! (our name< to dowhat is wron= Jou too< whether virin or widow< wh( do (ou allow a man to detain (ouin conversation so lonL #h( are (ou not a!raid to 0e le!t alone with himL At least o outo! doors to satis!( the wants o! nature< and !or this at an( rate leave the man= #ith (our 0rother (ou did not 0ehave with such li0ert( as this< and (ou were more modest with (ourhus0and= Jou have some question< (ou sa(< to ask concernin the &ol( Scri"tures= ,! so<ask it "u0licl(K let (our maidservants and (our attendants hear it= ?8ver(thin that is




































made mani!est is liht=; 2$ &onest words do not look !or a corner< or rather the( are ladto have hearers and to win "raise= &e must 0e a !ine teacher who thinks little o! men< doesnot care !or the 0rothers< and la0ours in secret merel( to instruct ust one weak woman=

$ , have wandered a little !rom m( immediate su0ect to discuss other to"icsK andwhile it is m( o0ect to train< or rather to nurse< the in!ant 7acatula< , have in a

moment drawn u"on m(sel! the hostilit( o! man( women who will 0e hard to "aci!(=2* But , shall now return to m( "ro"er theme=

A woman 2/ should associate onl( with her own sex< she should not know how to "la( with 0o(s< no< she should 0e a!raid to do

-8BD-

so= She should never hear an unclean word< and i! amid the 0ustle o! the householdshe should chance to hear one< she should not understand it= &er mother;s nod should 0e to her as much as s"eech< her mother;s advice equivalent to a command= She

should love her as her "arent< o0e( her as her mistress< and reverence her as herteacher= She is now a child without teeth and without ideas< 0ut< as soon as she isseven (ears old< a 0lushin irl knowin what she should not sa( and dou0tin whatshe should sa(< she should commit to memor( the 7salter< and until she is rown u"<the 0ooks o! Solomon< the os"els< the A"ostles and the "ro"hets should 0e thetreasure o! her heart=

She should not a""ear in "u0lic too !reel( nor alwa(s seek crowded churches= All her "leasure should 0e in her cham0er= She must never look at (oun men or turn here(es u"on curled !o"s< who wound the soul throuh the ears with their sweet voices=The wantonness o! other irls must also 0e ke"t !rom her= The more !reedom o!

access such "ersons "ossess< the harder is it to avoid them when the( comeK and whatthe( have once learned themselves the( will secretl( teach her and will thuscontaminate a secluded )anaU 0( vular talk= 2

et her teacher 0e her com"anion< her "edaoue her uardian< let her 0e a womannot iven to much wine< one who< in the A"ostle;s words< is not idle nor a tattler< 24 0ut so0er< rave< industrious in s"innin wool 26 and one whose words will !orm airl;s mind to the "ractice o! virtue= For< as water !ollows a !iner drawn throuh thesand< so one o! so!t and tender (ears is "lia0le !or ood or evilK she can 0e drawn inwhatever direction (ou choose to uide her= Moreover< s"ruce and a( (oun meno!ten seek access to (oun ladies 0( !latterin or "a(in court to nurses< or 0(

0ri0in them<

35

and when the( have thus entl( e!!ected their a""roach the( 0low u"the !irst s"ark into a con!laration 31 and little 0( little advance to the most shamelessrequests= And it is quite im"ossi0le to sto" them then< !or the verse is "roved true intheir case: ?Jou can hardl( 0lame a ha0it which (oursel! (ou have allowed=; 32 , amashamed to sa( it< and (et , must= &ih0orn ladies who have reected more hih 0ornsuitors coha0it with men o! the lowest rade and even with slaves= Sometimes in thename o! reliion and under the cloak o! continence the( desert their hus0ands< andlike another &elen !ollow their Alexander 33 without the smallest !ear o! Menelaus=














Such thins are seen and lamented< 0ut the( are not "unished< !or the multitude o!sinners ives licence to sin= 3$

-8BC-

* Shame!ul to sa(< the world sinks into ruin< 0ut our sins still !lourish= The renowned cit(<the ca"ital o! the %oman 8m"ire< is swallowed u" in one tremendous !ireK and there is no "art o! the earth where %omans are not in exile= 3* Churches once held sacred are now 0uthea"s o! dust and ashesK and (et we have our minds set on the desire !or ain= #e live asthouh we are oin to die tomorrowK (et we 0uild as thouh we are oin to live alwa(sin this world= 3/ .ur walls shine with old< old leams u"on our ceilins and u"on theca"itals o! our "illarsK (et Christ dies 0e!ore our doors naked and hunr( in the "ersons o!his "oor= The "onti!! Aaron< we read< !aced the rain !lames< and 0( "uttin !ire in hiscenser checked the wrath o! od= The hih "riest stood 0etween the dead and the livin<and the !ire dared not "ass his !eet= 3 od said to Moses< ?et me alone and , will

consume this "eo"le<;34

showin 0( the words ?let me alone; that he can 0e withheld!rom doin what he threatens= The "ra(ers o! his servant hindered his "ower= #ho< think(ou< is there now under heaven a0le to sta( od;s wrath< to !ace the !lame o! his udment< and to sa( with the A"ostle< ?, could wish that , m(sel! were accursed !or m( 0rethren;L 36 Flocks and she"herds "erish toether< 0ecause as it is with the "eo"le< so isit with the "riest= $5 Moses s"oke in his com"assionate love< ?(et now i! (ou will< !orivetheir sinK and i! not< 0lot me< , "ra( (ou< out o! (our 0ook=; $1 &e desires to "erish withthose that "erish and is not satis!ied to secure his own salvationK !or indeed ?in themultitude o! "eo"le is the kin;s honour=; $2

Such are the times into which our little 7acatula has 0een 0orn= These are the rattles o!

her earliest childhood= She is destined to know o! tears 0e!ore lauhter and to !eel sorrowsooner than o(= And hardl( does she come u"on the stae when she is called on to makeher exit= She thinks that the world has alwa(s 0een what it is now= She knows not o! the "ast< she shrinks !rom the "resent< she !ixes her desires on what is to come=

These thouhts o! mine are 0ut hastil( written down= For m( rie! !or lost !riends hasknown no intermission and onl( recentl( have , recovered su! !icient com"osure to writean old man;s letter to a little child= M( a!!ection !or (ou< 0rother audentius< $3 hasinduced me to make the attem"t and , have thouht it 0etter to sa( a !ew words than tosa( nothin at all= The rie! that "aral(ses m( will will excuse m( 0revit(K whereas< i! ,were to sa( nothin< the sincerit( o! m( !riendshi" miht well 0e dou0ted=

-8B-

Part IIIBIBLIO8RAP!<

































Commentarii in e"istulas 7aulinas ad alatas< ad 8"hesios< ad Titum< ad 7hilemonem=8d=: 7 2/< 35'/14 +331'/*/-=&.M,,8S A) T%ACTAT8S

erome;s Tractatus in "salmos< his homilies< sermons< and other tractates are edited in

CC 4< 16*4K = Morin c!= Anecdota Maredsolana iii= 2'3< 146'1653O< B= Ca"elle< =Frai"ont=

A translation o! erome;s *6 Tractatus in 7salmos< his Tractatuum in 7salmos seriesalt@ra< his Tractatus in Marci 8vanelium< and o! various homiliae is to 0e !ound in TheFathers o! the Church< vol= $4 +16/$- and vol= * +16//-< 0( M== 8wald= C!= also M'&=St@0@< Marc< comment@ "ar @rDme et ean Chr(sostome< 7aris 164/< 23'155 +Frenchtranslation and commentar(- and = Co""a< .rieneirolamo< $ omelie sul li0ro deisalmi< Milan 1663 +,talian translation and commentar(-=8TT8%S

8d=: CS8 *$ +1615-< ** +1612-< */ +1614-K , &il0er= 8d= altera su""lementis aucta166/K ,ndices com"= M= Eam"tner 166/ +WCS8 */=2-K c!= S= %e0enich< (mnasium 15/+1666- *'4=

'1$1'

Letters not published in CS9&% 3pistula ad 2raesidium 5S2s.-ier. ep$ 8:;4 G. %orin in 1'&'C B, 8H8B, C8-9. (f. P& B9, 8:6 58::; ff.

3pistula 6EV ad )urelium 2apam (arthaginensem4 CS9& ::, 8H:8,

8B9-B J. *iv>ak. (f. J. *iv>ak and Y-%. *u val, 1ibliothB+ue 'uustinienne D, 2aris 8H:E, BHD-D98 C9-C: 5with a /renchtranslation and commentar!;.

3pistula ad <ophronium de ecclesia L!ddensi4 %.van 3sbroeck, 1ediKarthlisa$ R.ue de karth.loloie BC, 8HEE, 86E-B8.

J. Labourt, Saint 0.r?me$ &ettres, : vols, Collection 1ud., 2aris 8HDH-B 5Latin te+t with a /rench translation;. <. (ola, San 7irolamo, &elettere, D vols, 1ome 8H8-B, 68HH-E 5&talian translation andcommentar!;.

3nglish translations4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , 8-6HC, DDE. /.).Wright, Select &etters of St$ 0erome, &oeb Classical &ibrary vol. 66,(ambridge, %ass.FLondon 8HBB 5various reprints;. (.(. %ierow and ".(omerford Lawler, "he &etters of St$ 0erome Mep$ 8-66O, 'ncientChristian @riters vol. BB, Westminster 8HB. 2. (arroll, "he Satirical&etters of St$ 0erome, (hicago 8HC non idiD.



"he correspondence between Jerome and )ugustine is edited b! J.<chmid, SS$ 9usebii Hieronymi et 'urelii 'uustini 9pistulae mutuae,Florileium Patristicum vol. 66, onn 8HB9. /or an 3nglish translation,cf. White 58HH9;. "here are special studies of some letters whichinclude commentaries andFor translations cf. e.g. artelink 58H:9;

astiaensen et at$ 58HEC; <courfield 58H:B; <courfield 58HHB;.

POLEMICAL *RITIN8S

'ltercatio &uciferianiet#rthodoxi$ 3d.4 CC& EH, 6999 ). (anellis. (f.P& 6B, 8CC 58B; ff. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , B8H-BD.

'dersus Helidium de ariae irinitate perpetua$ 3d.4 P& 6B, 8:B-69 58HB-68;. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , BBD-D. J.N.rit#u, Saint 0erome$ *omatic and Polemical @orks, "he Fathers of

the Church, vol. CB, Washington, *( 8HC, 8-DB.

'dersus 2oinianum$ 3d.4 2L 6B,688-BB: 5668-BC6;. (f. 3. ickel,*iatribe in Senecae philosophi framenta 8, Leip#ig 8H8C, B:6-D695te+t of 8, D8-H 6,C-8D;. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , BD-D8.

Contra 6iilantium$ 3d.4 P& 6B, BBH-C6 5BCB-:;. "ransl.4 NPNF <econd <eries, vol. , D8E-6B.

Contra 2ohannem Hierosolymitanum$ 3d.4 CC& E', 8HHH J. /eiertag.(f. P& 6B, BCC 5BE8; ff. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , D6D-DE.

Contra Rufinum ('poloia contra Rufinum, libri 22 and 9pistulaadersus Rufinum

-8D6-

G &iber tertius adersus libros RufiniD)$ 3d.4 CC& EH, 8H:6 2. Lardet.2. Lardet, Saint 0.r?me$ 'poloie contre Rufin, SC B9B, 2aris 8H:B. (f.P& 6B, BHE 5D8C; ff. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. B, D:6-CD8.

J.N. rit#u, Saint 0erome$ *omatic and Polemical @orks, "he Fathersof the Church, vol. CB, Washington, *( 8HC, DC-669. /or acommentar! see Lardet 58HHB;.

*ialoi adersus Pelaianos$ 3d. CC& :9, 8HH9 (. %oreschini. (f. P& 6B, DHC 5C8E; ff. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. , DDE-:B. J.N.rit#u, Saint 0erome$ *omatic and Polemical @orks, "he Fathers ofthe Church, vol. CB, Washington, *( 8HC, 668-BE:.



TRANSLATIONS

Chronicon$ 3d. of Jerome's translation and continuation of 3usebius'Chronicle in 7CS DES9usebius @erke E,6 8HC 5B8H:D; 1. elm."ransl.4 %.*. *onalson, ' "ranslation of 0erome4s Chronicon :ithHistorical Commentary, Lewiston, New York, 8HH. (f. also rugnoli,Curiosissimus 9xcerptor 5see <econdar! Literature;, who reproduceselm's edition and comments upon the te+t 5in &talian;.

#rienis in 2eremiam homiliae$ 9d$% P& 6C, C:C-H6. 7CS BBS#rienes@erke :, 8H6C, 6H9-B8E W.). aehrens. SC 6B:, 8HEE, B99-E 2.Nautin.

#rienis in 9echielem homiliae$ 3d.4 7CS BBS#rienes @erke :,8H6C, B8H-DCD W.). aehrens. SC BC6, 8H:H %. orret.

#rienis in 2saiam homiliae$ 3d.4 7CS BBS#rienes @erke :, 8H6C,6D6-:H W.). aehrens.

#rienis in Canticum Canticorum homiliae$ 3d.4 7CS BBS#rienes@erke :, 8H6C, 6E-9 W.). aehrens. SC BEI, 8H . 1ousseau.

*idymi 'lexandrini liber de Spiritu Sancto$ 3d.4 SC B:,8HH6 L.*outreleau.

#rienis in &ucam homiliae$ 3d.4 7CS DHS#rienes @erke H, 68HCH %.

1auer. SC :E, 8H6 . (rou#el, /. /ournier, 2.2Krichon. (f. FontesChristiani vol. D.8-6, 8HH8-6 -J. <ieben.

Pachomiana$ 3d.4 ). oon, Pachomiana &atina, Leuven 8HB6.

OT!ER *OR=S

6ita S$ Pauli$ 3d.4 P& 6B, 8E-6: 5S 7allarsi;. (f. &.<. =o#ik, "he First*esert Hero% St$ 0erome4s 7ita 2auli, New York 8H: and . *Kgorski,9diione critica della 7ita <ancti 2auli primi eremitae di 7irolamo,

1ome 8H:E. "ransl.4 NPNF, <econd <eries, vol. ,

-8DB-

6HH-B9B. %.L. 3wald, 9arly Christian 1ioraphies, "he Fathers of theChurch, vol. 8C, Washington, *( 8HC6 568HD B8H:8;, 68E-B:. /or an3nglish commentar!, cf. oelle 58HCB;.





00, "aceo de meis similibus 5Jerome, epist$ CB,E;, 6etChrist 6H,8HH6, 68-:.

00, ierosol!mam militaturus pergerem. ) Note on the Location ofJerome's *ream, Koinonia 8E, 8HHBa, :8-B.

00, "he *ate of the *ream of <aint Jerome, SC# DB, 8HHBb, 6B-EB.

00, A)dulter! of the "ongue'4 Jerome, 3pistle 66.6H.f., Hermes 868,8HHBc, 899-:.

00, )mbrose and Jerome4 the pening <hot, nemosyne D, 8HHBd,BD-E.

00, Jerome, )mbrose and Gregor! Na#ian#en, 6ichiana D, 8HHBe,6HD-B99.

00, Juvenal and Jerome, CPh :H, 8HHD, H-E6.

00, Jerome's @se of <cripture efore and )fter his *ream, 2CS 69,8HHC, 8:B-H9.

00, Who is accusator meus at the <tart of Jerome's &iber de optimoenere interpretandi 53pist. CE;, &atomus CC, 8HHa, :E-E.

-8DC-

)dkin, N., 2ope <iricius' A<implicit!' 5Jerome, epist. 86E,H,B;, 6etChr BB, 8HHb, 6C-B:.

00, Jerome on )mbrose. "he 2reface of the "ranslation of rigen'sHomilies on &uke, R 1en 89E, 8HHE, C-8D.

00, Jerome's 7ow ANever to 1eread the (lassics'4 <ome bservations,R9' 898, 8HHHa, 88-E.

00, Jerome on %arcella. 3pist. 86E,89,D, 1Stud&at 6H, 8HHHb, CD-

E9.

00, 1iblia paana% (lassical 3choes in the 7ulgate, 'uustinianum D9, 6999a, EE-:E.

00, Jerome, <eneca, Juvenal, R1Ph E: 6999b, 88H-6:.

)llen, %., "he %art!rdom of Jerome, 0HCS B, 8HHC, 688-8B.



)llgeier, )., aec vetus et vulgata editio, 1iblica 6H, 8HD:, BCB-H9.

)ntin, 2., 9ssai sur saint 0.r?me, 2aris 8HC8.

00, Recueil de saint 0.r?me, rRssel 8H:.

00, (atalogus che# JKrme and Xrasme, R9'u 8:, 8HE6, 8H8-B.

)rnheim, %.".W., "he Senatorial 'ristocracy in the &ater Roman9mpire, +ford 8HE6.

)rns, 3., &a "echni+ue du lire d4aprBs saint 0.r?me, 2aris 8HCB.

agnall, 1.<., 9ypt in &ate 'nti+uity, 2rinceton 8HHB.

ammel, (.2.., *ie e+apla des rigenes4 *ie hebraica eritas im

<treit der %einungen, 'uustinianum 6:, 8H::, 86C-DH.

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-8DE-

Burstein< 8=< a com"@tence de @rDme en h@0reu= 8x"lication de certaines erreurs< 35Aug 21< 16*< 3'12=

Buress< %=#=< erome and the <aisergeschichte% Historia $$< 166*< 3$6'/6=

Burrus< 9= ?,n the Theater o! i!e;: The 7er!ormance o! .rthodox( in ate Antiquit(<

in #=8= Elinshirn and M= 9esse( +eds-< 6he Limits of Ancient Christianit$4 5ssa$son Late Anti-ue 6hought an" Culture in Honor of 34A4 Markus% Ann Ar0or 1666< 45'6/=

Bur>acchini< =< ote sulla "resen>a di 7ersio in irolamo< 7!F => +W=S= /-< 16*<*5'2=



c

Cameron< A=< The atin %evival o! the Fourth Centur(< in #= Treadold +ed=-< 3enaissances before the 3enaissance% Stan!ord 164$< $2'*4=

Cameron< Av=< 9irinit( as Meta"hor: #omen and the %hetoric o! 8arl( Christianit(<in ead= +ed=-< Histor$ as 6e#t? the @riting of Ancient Histor$% ondon 1646< 141'25*=

< Christianit$ an" the 3hetoric of 5mpire4 6he )evelopment of Christian

)iscourse% Berkele(Pos AnelesP.x!ord 1661=

< 8arl( Christianit( and the )iscourse o! Female )esire< in == Archer< S=Fischler and M= #(ke +eds-< @omen in Ancient &ocieties? an !llusion of the ights% Basinstoke 166$< 1*2'/4=

Canellis< A=< a Com"osition du )ialoue contre les uci!@riens et du )ialouecontre les 7@laiens de saint @rDme: [ la recherche d;un canon de l;altercatio< 35Aug$3< 166< 2$'44=

Cavallera< F=< Le schisme "Antioche% 7aris 165*=

< &aint *;r1me4 & a vie et son oeuvre% 2 vols< ou vainP7aris 1622=

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< The Biora"hical Method o! erome;s )e viris illustribus% &tu"ia Patristica 1*=1< 164$< **'/4=

Chadwick< &=< Priscillian of Avila4 6he ,ccult an" the Charismatic in the 5arl$

Church% .x!ord 16/=

< Heres$ an" ,rtho"o#$ in the 5arl$ Church% ondon 1661=

Chastanol< A=< Les Fastes "e la pr;fecture "e 3ome au basempire% 7aris 16/2=

< e Su""lice invent@ "ar Avidius Cassius: remarques sur l;&istoire Auuste et lalettre 1 de saint @rDme< Bonner Historia Augusta Collo-uium 165< Bonn 162< 6*'15=

Chromatius 5piscopus DDEDD% AAA" G% Idine 1646=

Clark< 8=A=< *erome% Chr$sostom% an" Frien"s4 5ssa$s an" 6ranslations% ewJorkPToronto 166=



< Ascetic Piet$ an" @omens Faith4 5ssa$s on Late A ncient Christianit$% ewJorkPToronto 164/=

'1$4'

Clark< 8=A=< The 7lace o! erome;s Commentar( on 8"hesians in the .rienistControvers(: The A"okatastasis and the Ascetic ,deal< 9Chr $1< 164< 1*$'1= < The .rienist Controvers(= The Cultural Construction o! an 8arl( Christian)e0ate< 7rinceton 1662= < ,deolo(< &istor(< and the Construction o! ?#oman; in ate Ancient Christianit(<8CS 2< 166$< 1**'4$= Clark< =< #omen in ate Antiquit(: 7aan and Christianli!est(les< .x!ord 1663=Cloke< =< ?This !emale Man o! od=; #omen and S"iritual 7ower in the 7atristic Ae<A) 3*5'1*5< ondonPew Jork 166*=Coleiro< 8=< St= erome;s ives o! the &ermits< 9Chr 11< 16*< 1/1'4=Comer!ord awler< T=< erome;s First etter to )amasus< in E(riakon= Festschri!t =

Guasten< Mnster 165< *$4'*2=Conrin< B=< &ieron(mus als Brie!schrei0er= 8in Beitra Rur s"\tantiken 8"istolora"hie<T0inen 2551=Consolino< F=8=< Modelli di com"ortamento e modi di santi!ica>ione "er l;aristocra>ia!emminile d;.ccidente< in A= iardina +ed=-< Societ[ romana e im"ero tardoantico< vol= i<Bari 164/< 23'35/=Con(0eare< C=< 7aulinus oster= Sel! and S(m0ols in the etters o! 7aulinus o! ola<.x!ord 2551=Coo"er< E=< ,nsinuations o! #omanl( ,n!luence: An As"ect o! the Christiani>ation o! the%oman Aristocrac(< %S 42< 1662< 1*5'/$= < The 9irin and the Bride= ,dealised #omanhood in ate Antiquit(< Cam0ride<

Mass=Pondon 166/=Corsaro< F=< Seneca nel Cataloo dei Santi di erolamo +vir= ill= xii-< .r"heus 4< 164<2/$'42=Courcelle< 7=< es lettres recques en .ccident de Macro0e [ Cassiodore< 7aris 16$4= < %echerches sur les Con!essions de saint Auustin< 7aris 216/4= < es ectures de l;8n@ide devant les randes invasions ermaniques< %omBar0 1<16/< 2*'*/=Cox Miller< 7=< The Bla>in Bod(= Ascetic )esire in erome;s etter to 8ustochium<8CS 1< 1663< 21'$*=Cracco'%uini< =< a cristiani>>a>ione nelle citt[ dell;,talia settentrionale< in #= 8ckand &= alsterer +eds-< )ie Stadt in .0eritalien und in den nordwestlichen 7rovin>en des

r]mischen %eiches< Colone 1661< 23*'$6=Crou>el< &=< Saint erome et ses amis toulousains< B8 3< 162< 12*'$/= < .riYne< 7aris 164* +W.rien< 8din0urh 1646-=)aron< =< aissance d;une ca"itale= Constantino"le et ses institutions de 335 [ $*1<7aris 2164$='1$6'



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00, &e &ire de 0onas dans la litt.rature chr.tienne rec+ue et latine%sources et influence du Commentaire sur 0onas de saint 0.r?me, 6vols, 2aris 8HEB,

00, /ormes profanes et formes bibli$ues dans les oraisons funZbresde saint )mbroise, in Christianisme et formes litt.raires de l4anti+uit.

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-8C8-



)= 7orte and '7= Bonniec +eds- Hommages Henri Le Bonniec4 3es sacrae% Brussels1644a< 1 62=

Fontaine< =< ;esth@tique litt@raire de la "rose de @rDme usqu;[ son second d@"art en.rient< in J'M= )uval +ed=-< *;r1me entre l,cci"ent et l,rient% 7aris 16440< 32'$2=

Frst< A=< Veritas Latina4 Auustins &altun een0er &ieron(mus;Bi0el0erset>unen< 35Aug $5< 166$a< 15*'2/=

< Er0is oder 8!euL Rur ^0erset>un von ona $</< Biblische oti9en 2< 166$0<12'16=

< Augustins Briefwchsel mit Hieron$mus% Mnster 1666=

Fuhrmann< M=< )ie M]nchseschichten des &ieron(mus= Formex"erimente iner>\hlender iteratur< in Christianisme et formes litt;raires "e lAnti-uit; tar"ive en

,cci"ent% 5ntretiens sur lA nti-uit; classi-ue 23< 9andoeuvresPeneva 16< $1'66=

Funke< &=< Inivira= 8in Beis"iel heidnischer eschichtsa"oloetik< *bAC 4P6 % 16/$'*<143'4=

am0erale< =< Seneca in cataloo sanctorum: considera>ioni su &ier= vir=ill= 12< !nvLuc 11< 1646< 253 1=

illiam< =F=< The 7ro Caelio in St= erome;s etters< H6h3 $/< 16*3< 153'=

odel< M=< %@miniscences de "oYtes "ro!anes dans les ettres de Saint @rDme< MH 21<

16/$< /* 5=

orce< )=< La lectio divina "es origines "u c;nobitisme saint Beno.t et Cassio"ore% vol=i: &aint *;r1me et la lecture sacr;e "ans le milieu asc;ti-ue romain% 7aris 162*=

< Lettera a Leta o "ell e"uca9ione "ella figliuola% Modena 1632=

ordini< =< ;o""ositione al monachesimo a %oma nel ,9 secolo< in M= Fois et al4 +eds-< )alla chiesa antica alla chiesa mo"erna% %ome 1643< 16'3*=

rimm< 9=< From Fea"ing to Fasting% the 5volution of &in4 Attitu"es to Foo" in Late

Anti-uit$% ondonPew Jork 166/=

rt>macher< =< Hieron$mus4 5ine biographische &tu"ie 9ur alten <irchengeschichte% 3 vols< ei">i 1651 4=

uttilla< =< Tematica cristiana e "aana nell;evolu>ione !inale della consolatio di sanirolamo< AL7P 1'14< 1645'1< 4'1*2=



< a !ase ini>iale della consolatio latina cristiana< AL7P 21'2< 164$'*< 154 21*=

&\< T= and 7h= %ousseau +eds-< 7reek Biograph$ an" Paneg$ric in Late Anti-uit$% Berkele( 2555=

&aendahl< &=< Latin Fathers an" the Classics4 A &tu"$ of the Apologists% *erome an"

,ther Christian @riters% ]te0or 16*4=

< erome and the atin Classics< VChr 24< 16$< 21/'2=

'1*2'

&aendahl< &=< Von 6ertullian 9u Cassio"or4 )ie profane literarische 6ra"ition in "enlateinischen christlichen &chriften% ]te0or 1643=

and =&= #as>ink< s4v4&ieron(mus< in 3ealle#ikon fIr Antike un" Christentum 1*<1646< 11'36=

&am0lenne< 7=< a lon@vit@ de @rDme: 7ros"er avait'il raisonL< Latomus 24< 16/6<1541'116=

< %electures de "hiloloue sur le ?scandale; du lierrePricin +&ier= !n !on4 $</-< 5uphros$ne 1/< 1644< 143'223=

< Traces de 0iora"hies recques ?"aZennes; dans la 9ita 7auli de @rDmeL< inCristianesimo Latino e cultura 7reca sino al sec4 !V% %ome 1663< 256'3$=

&ammond< C=7=< The ast Ten Jears o! %u!inus; i!e and the )ate o! his Move South!rom Aquileia< *6h& =S= 24< 16< 32'$26=

&anson< %=7=C=< 6he &earch for the Christian )octrine of 7o"4 6he Arian Controvers$

EDDE% 8din0urh 1644=

&arnack< A=< )as MJnchtum4 &eine !"eale un" seine 7eschichte% ie_en $146*=

&a(ward< C=T=%=< ewish traditions in erome;s commentar( on eremiah and the

Tarum o! eremiah< Procee"ings of the !rish Biblical Association 6< 164*< 155'25=

< *eromes &e0rew Guestions on enesis= 6ranslate" with !ntro"uction an"

Commentar$% .x!ord 166*=

&eather< 7=< 7oths an" 3omans =GD% .x!ord 1661=



&elm< %=< &ieron(mus und 8utro"< 3hM /< 162< 134'5 and 2*$'35/=

< )ie neuesten &("othesen >u 8use0ius; +&ieron(mus;- Chronik< &it9ungsber4 "er

Preuss4 Aka"4 "4 @iss4% Phil4hist4 <l4 1626a< 31'$54=

< Hieron$mus :usKt9e in 5usebius Chronik un" ihr @ert fIr "ie

Literaturgeschichte% 7hilolous Su""l= 21=2< 16260=

&ennins< %=< )er Briefwechsel 9wischen Augustin un" Hieron$mus un" ihr &treit um

"en <anon "es Alten 6estaments un" "ie Auslegung von 7al4 =% EEEG% eiden 166$=

< &ieron(mus >um Bischo!samt< :<7 154< 166< 1'11=

&o"kins< E=< Social Mo0ilit( in the ater %oman 8m"ire: The 8vidence o! Ausonius<CQ 11< 16/1< 236'$6=

&u0er'%e0enich< =< &aiora"hic !iction as entertainment< in &= &o!mann +ed=-< Latin

Fiction4 6he Latin ovel in Conte#t% ondonP ew Jork 1666< 14'212=

&uemer< =< Studien >u den \ltesten christlichen iteraturhistorikern< @& 1/< 146$< 121'*4=

&unt< 8=)=< Hol$ Lan" Pilgrimage in the Later 3oman 5mpire A4)4 E=G% .x!ord1642=

&unter< )==< %esistance to the 9irinal ,deal in ate'Fourth'Centur( %ome: the Case

o! ovinian< 6h& $4< 164< $*'/6=

'1*3'

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00, JKrme auditeur d')pollinaire de LaodicKe \ )ntioche, R9'u 69,8HED, B-D8.



00, <aint JKrme et le triple sens de l'3criture, R9'u 6, 8H:9, 68D-6E.

00, La datation des premiZres traductions de l')ncien "estament surl'hKbreu par saint JKrme, R9'u 6:, 8H:6, 69:-86.

00, &49x.Bse de saint 0.r?me d4aprBs son (ommentaire sur &sa`e,2aris 8H:C.

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-8CD-

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-8CC-

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Maraval< 7=< Lieu# saints et pNlerinages ",rient4 Histoire et g;ographie "es origines la con-Ote arabe% 7aris 164*=

< Petite vie "e saint *;r1me% 7aris 166*=



Marti< &=< 8berset9er "er Augustin:eit4 !nterpretation von &elbst9eugnissen% Mnchen16$=

Mastandrea< 7=< a morte di Seneca nel iudi>io di San erolamo< in = Bonamente and

A= estori +eds-< ! cristiani e limpero nel !V secolo% Macerata 1644< 25*'=

Mathisen< %=< 5cclesiastical Factionalism an" 3eligious Controvers$ in FifthCentur$7aul% #ashinton 1646=

Matthews< =< 6he 3oman 5mpire ofAmmianus% ondon 1646=

< @estern Aristocrac$ an" !mperial Court A4)4 GG=% .x!ord 21665=

Ma(er< #=< Constantino"olitan #omen in Chr(sostom;s Circle< VChr *3< 1666< 2/*'44=

Me(vaert< 7=< 8xcer"ts !rom an Inknown Treatise o! erome to audentius o! Brescia< 3Ben 6/< 164/< 253'14=

Miehe< %=< s4v4 &ieron(mus< in Le#ikon "er christlichen !konographie / % 16$< *16'26=

Millar< F=< 6he 5mperor in the 3oman @orl" +31 BC'A) 33-< ondon 16=

Mohrmann< C=< Saint @rDme et saint Auustin sur Tertullien< VChr *< 16*1< 111'12=

Momiliano< A= +ed=-< 6he Conflict between Paganism an" Christianit$ in the Fourth

Centur$% .x!ord 16/3=

Mommsen< Th=< ^0er die Guellen der Chronik des &ieron(mus< Abhan"l4 "4 <gl4 &Kchs47es4 "4 @iss4 2< 14*5< //6'63 +re"r= in id=< 7esammelte &chriften vol= vii< Berlin 1656</5/'36-=

< 3Jmisches &trafrecht% e">i 1466 +re"r= )armstadt 16**-=

Monceaux< 7=< &aint *;r1me4 &a *eunesse4 L5tu"iant et lermite% 7aris 1632 +8nlish:&t4 *erome? 6he 5arl$ ears% ew Jork 1633-=

Moreschini< C= and = Menestrina +eds-< Motivi letterari e" esegetici in 7erolamo%

Brescia 166=

Mouterde< %=and A= 7oide0ard< Le Limes "e Chalcis% 2 vols< 7aris 16$*=

Mras< E=< achwort >u den 0eiden let>ten Ausa0en der Chronik des &ieron(mus< @& $/< 1624< 251'4=

Mller< &=< )er \lteste Brie! des heilien &ieron(mus= Ru einem aktuellen



)atierunsvorschla< @& 111< 1664< 161'215=

Mur"h(< F=X=< 3ufinus of A-uileia 'GGEE(4 His Life an" @orks% 7h) #ashinton16$*=

'1*/'

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-8CE-

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7aredi< A=< San erolamo e S= Am0roio< in M;langes 54 6isserant% vol= v +W&tu"i etesti 23*-< %ome 16/$< 143'64=

7aschoud< F=< 3oma Aeterna4 5tu"es sur le patriotisme 3omain "ans l,cci"ent latin l;po-ue "es gran"es invasions% %ome 16/=

7enna< A=< &an 7erolamo% Turin 16$6=



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7eri< 9=< ,melie origeniane sui &almi% %ome 1645=

7ietri< Ch=< <o ma Christiana4 3echerches sur l5glise "e 3ome% son organisation% sa politi-ue% son i";ologie% "e Miltia"e &i#te !!! 'EEGG(% 2 9ols< %ome 16/=

and = 7ietri< Prosopographie "e l!talie chr;tienne 'EG(% 2 9ols< %ome1666'2555=

PL35R6he Prosopograph$ of the Later 3oman 5mpire% vol= i: 2/5'36*K vol= ii: 36*'*2< Cam0ride 161'45=

P@ WA= 7aul( and = #issowa +eds-< 3eal5nc$clopK"ie "er classischen

Altertumswissenschaft% Stuttart 1463'1645=

7r@aux< '=< 7roc@d@s d;invention d;un so0riquet "ar saint @rDme< Latomus 14< 16*4</*6'/$=

7ron0erer< =< BeitrKge 9ur Chronologie "er Brief e "es hl4 Hieron$mus% Am0er1613=

3ACR3ealle#ikon fiSr Antike un" Christentum% Stuttart 16*5!!=

%ahmer< M=< )ie hebrKischen 6ra"itionen in "en @erken "es Hieron$mus? )urch eine

Vergleichung mit "en 0I"ischen Quellen kritisch beleuchtet% 8rster Theil: )ie

Quaestiones in 7enesinO % Berlin 14/1=

< )ie hebrKischen 6ra"itionen in "en @erken "es Hieron$mus? )urchVergleichung mit "en 0I"ischen Quellen un" "ltesten Versionen kritisch beleuchtet% )ie

Commentarii 9u "en 9wJlf kleinen Propheten% 2 vols< Berlin 1652=

%atti< S=< @rDme et icomaque Flavien= Sur les sources de la Chronique "our les ann@es3*'/$< Historia $/< 166< $6'*54=

%e0enich< S=< Hieron$mus un" sein <reis4 Prosopographische un" so9ialgeschichtliche8ntersuchungen% Stuttart 1662a=

< )er heilie &ieron(mus und die eschichteRur Funktion der 8xem"la inseinen Brie!en< 3QA 4< 16620< 26'$/=

< erome: The vir trilinguis and the hebraica veritas% VChr $< 1663a< *5'=

< &ieron(mus und 8varius von Antiochia< &tu"ia Patristica 24< 16630< *'45=



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-86-



TE&$ .RM &TRI T A/*ILEIA1 &ier= Vita Malchi 1=

2 C!= Mc(nn +1662-K im +166*a-K im +166*0-K Maier +166*0-=

3 The exact date o! erome;s 0irth is su0ect to scholarl( de0ate= The Chronicle o!7ros"er o! Aquitaine ives the (ear 331 + M7H AA 6< "= $*1-< c!= &am0lenne+16/6- and Eell( +16*- 33'6= There are< however< com"ellin aruments !ordatin his 0irth 0etween 3$* and 3$'4< c!= a( +163- and Booth +166-=

$ C!= Barnes +1663- 4!!=

* &ier= vir4ill4 13*K c!= Cha"ter 1$=

/ &ier= ep4 =*=

&ier= Vulg4!ob 'H(4 "rol= +"= 32 #e0er-K ep4 42=2=2=

4 C!= Au= Conf4 6=/=1$= For &eliodorus and %u!inus< c!= &ier= ep4 $=2K %u!= Apol4 c4

Hier4 1=$ +CCL 25< "= 36-=

6 &ier= Apol4 1=35=

15 C!= Au= Conf4 1=6=1$'1*K 1=13=22=

11 Au= civ4 "ei 21=1$= For the educational s(stem in orth A!rica< c!= now 9]ssin+166-=

12 C!= &ier= ep4 12*=/=1=13 &ier= Comm4 in 59ech4 $5=*'13 +CCL *< "= $/4-=

1$ &ier= ep4 124=*=1=

1* &ier= Chron4 s4a4 3*$ +"= 236 &elm-=

1/ But see %u!= Apol4 c=&ier= 2=6 +CCL 25< "= 61-=

1 &ier= ep4 22=35=1=

14 A= Cameron +164$-=

16 Au= Conf4 1=15=1/=

25 Aus= ,r"o 24'3$ +ed= reen-=

21 &o"kins +16/1-K Matthews +21665- 32!!=K */!!=K Sivan +1663a-=

'1/3'



































22 C!= &ier= ep4 *=2=3 +&ilar( o! 7oitiers< ,n &$no"s-=

23 The 0isho" o! Alexandria had s"ent time in exile there +3**'-= , will not discusshere Athanasius; authorshi"< which has 0een challened 0( Barnes +164/-=

2$ Au= Conf4 4=/=1*= For the amici principis% c!= Millar +16- 115'22=

2* Courcelle +216/4-< 141!= C!= also Steinhausen +16*1-< es"= 13$!=

2/ &ier= ep4 22=35= Allen +166*- has shown that< in this "assae< erome descri0eshimsel! as Christ and 8ustochium as the Bride o! Christ=

2 C!= es"= &aendahl +16*4- 61'324K &aendahl +1643- 46!=K &aendahl and #as>ink+1646- 125 pace Adkin +1661- 1$!=K Adkin +166*-K Adkin +1666a-= &ier= ep4 22=35and Apol4 1= 31 +CCL 6< "= 31!=- are< , 0elieve< clear enouhin the latter case<erome de!ends himsel! aainst %u!inus; chare that he had reread the classics 0(sa(in the vow was sim"l( a somnii sponsio% a "romise iven in a dreamQ

24 For a detailed discussion and !urther readin< c!= %e0enich +1662a- 3!!= , aree<thouh on di!!erent rounds< with Adkin +164$- 121!!=K Adkin +1663a- that the words Hierosol$mam militaturus pergerem in ep4 22=35=1 do not "rovide a clue to thedream;s location= For the literar( st(le o! the "assae in question< c!= Adkin +164$-123!!=K Adkin +16630-K Adkin +1663c-< who convincinl( anal(ses the lanuae o!mart(rdom erome uses and rihtl( em"hasi>es that it is not "ossi0le to date thedream= For a "ost'structuralist inter"retation o! the dream< c!= Feichtiner +1660-=

26 C!= Fontaine +163-K %ousseau +164- 6!!=< 1$3!!=K Stancli!!e +1643-=

35 &ier= Chron4 s4 a4 3$ +"= 2$ &elm-=

31 C!= Chromatius 5piscopus +1646-K )uval +1646a-K Cracco'%uini +1661-KErahwinkler +1662-< es"= /!!=< 4!!=

32 %u!in= Apol4 c4 Hier4 1=$ +CCL 25< "= 36-=

33 C!= &ier= ep= 1=1* +Cha"ter -=

3$ &ier= ep4 =/=2=

ANTIOC! TO C!ALCIS1 C!= &unt +1642- pass=

2 &ier= ep4 3=3=1=

3 .n 8varius< c!= %e0enich +1662a- *!!=K %e0enich +16630-=

$ , ust re!er to the !amous "aintin o! Al0recht )rer !rom a0out 1$6/ where eromeis shown 0eside a cruci!ix< holdin a rock with which to 0eat his 0reast in "enance=&e kee"s a 0ook in his riht hand< "resuma0l( the Bi0le= Below this are thecardinal;s ro0e and






























-8D-

hat with which erome was traditionall( de"icted= To his riht is the lion< !romwhose "aw erome had< accordin to an earl( Medieval vita% removed a thorn=

* rt>macher +1651'4- i 1*: ?)urch &andar0eit erwar0 er sich wie die anderen8remiten im Schwei`e seines Anesichts t\lich seinen k\rlichen Interhalt=;

/ Cavallera +1622- i $/=

Eell( +16*- $ and */=

4 For this reion< c!= Mouterde and 7oide0ard +16$*-K Tchalenko +16*3'4-K Tate+1662-K Stru0e +166/-=

6 C!= e== Eell( +16*- $=

15 C!= &ier= ep4 =1=2K 1*=*=1=

11 C!= &ier= ep4 $ +written in Antioch- and *=

12 &ier= ep4 1* +Cha"ter 4- and 1/=

13 &ier= ep4 *=2=$=

1$ C!= &ier= ep4 1=3=2=

1* C!= rt>macher +1651'4- i *$!= + pace Cavallera 1622O i 1*!=-=

1/ Banall +1663-< 26/!=

1 &ier= ep4 =2=1= The readin barbarus semisermo seems "re!era0le to barbarus seni sermo% which &il0er suested in his edition= C!= also &ier= ep4 1=2A=

14 &ier= ep4 12*=12=1!=

16 A!ter his return !rom a di"lomatic mission in the west +in 33 or 3$-< 8variushad withdrawn !rom communion with the MeletiansK c!= Bas= ep4 1*/=3 and%e0enich +1662a- 2=

25 C!= &ier= ep4 1* +Cha"ter 4- and 1/=

21 &ier= ep4 1=3=1!=

22 Maronia is mentioned in &ier= Vita Malchi 2 + PL 23< **-K c!= %e0enich +1662a-4/!!=

23 &ier= ep4 1$=/=1=

2$ &ier= ep4 *4=$=2: Tsi urbibus et fre-uentia urbium "erelicta in agello habites et

Christum -uaeras in solitu"ine4

2* &ier= ep4 12*=4=1K c!= C4 Vigil4 1/=






























2/ &ier= ep4 11=1=2=

2 &ier= C4 !oh4 $1 +CCL 6A< "= 6-=

24 &ier= ep4 1$==2: monachum perfectum in patria sua esse non posse4

26 C!= &ier= ep4 1$=/=$=

35 &ier= ep4 3=1=

31 &ier= ep4 4$=3=1 and a( +16$-=

32 &ier= ep4 2$=$=3=

33 C!= Cha"ter $=

3$ &ier= ep4 $3=3=3K c!= %e0enich +166$-=

'1/*'

3* &ier= ep4 12*=!=

3/ C!= e== %ousseau +164- 114=

3 C!= &ier= ep4 22=22=3=

34 &ier= ep4 22==

36 &ier= ep4 22=35=

$5 &ier= ep4 12*=12=1=

) CONSTANTINOPLE1 CTh 1/=1=2K c!=< moreover< So>om= Hist4eccl4 =$=*!= and CTh 1/=2=2* +which ma(

have 0een "art o! the same law-=

2 C!= CTh 1/=*=/ and 8nsslin +16*3- 24!= For church and state at the 0einnin o!Theodosius; rein< c!= 8rrinton +166a-K 8rrinton +1660-=

3 C!= Socr= Hist4eccl4 *=4=

$ , have shown elsewhere that it is ver( likel( that erome entered Constantino"leshortl( a!ter 2$ ovem0er 345K c!= %e0enich +1662a- 114!=

* C!= e== rt>macher +1651'4- i 1 and Cavallera +1622- i *4=

/ C!= &ier= ep4 *5=1=3K *2=4=2K vir4ill4 11K a"v4!ovin4 1=13 + PL 23< 235-K Apol4 1=13+CCL 6< "= 12-K Comm4 in !s4 3=/=1 +CCL 3< "= 4$-K Comm4 in 5ph4 *=32 +7 2/<*3*- and Adkin +1661-K ardet +1663- 1!= a" Apol4 1=13=

C!= Antin +16*1- 1=






































4 C!= 7ietri +16/- 61!!= and Mc(nn +166$- 136!!=

6 A0out those rumours< c!= %itter +16/*- 33=

15 C!= Sch]ne +1655- 2*5!!=K rt>macher +1651'4- i **!!=K Cavallera +1622- ii 25!!=KEell( +16*- 2!!=K %e0enich +1662a- 11 and n= *1K Buress +166*- 3*1 and 3*$=

The Chronicle itsel! lacks "recise evidence a0out the date and "lace o! itscom"ositionK it can onl( 0e dated in the oint rein o! the em"erors ratian andTheodosius +i=e= 0etween 36 and 343-= C!= &ier= Cbron4 "rol= +"= &elm-=

11 C!= &ier= Cbron4 s4a4 3/5< 3/2< 3/$ +""= 2$1'3 &elm-=

12 C!= &ier< vir4ill4 124=

13 C!= &ier< vir4ill4 133=

1$ &ier= ep4 6=

1* C!= 7%8 i /25 +3- and #= 8nsslin< s4v4 e0ridius< in: P@ &uppl4 < 16$5< **1=

1/ ,n 342'$< he was comes rei privatae and 0ecame "re!ect o! Constantino"le in 34/K c!=7%8 i /25 +2-K )aron +164$- 2*3!=K Matthews +21665- 156!=

-8-

1 &ier= ep4 6=1=$=

14 For .l(m"ias< see 7%8 i /$2!=K Matthews +21665- 132K and Ma(er +1666-= Mc(nn+1664- 224'35 has challened the identi!ication o! the .l(m"ias connected withTheodosia and Am"hilochius with the !amous Constantino"olitan heiress=

16 C!= &ier= ep4 6=2 and ff4

25 At least Flavius %u!inus should also 0e mentioned here< 7raetorian 7re!ect in the east362'* and consul o! 362< who 0ecame erome;s "ower!ul o""onent in the middle o!the 365s +c!= Cha"ter *-=

21 C!= %e0enich +1662a- 12*!= and 21$!= For a eneral evaluation o! the westerners atthe court o! Theodosius in Constantino"le< see Matthews +21665- 151!!=

22 For a detailed inter"retation o! the Vita Pauli primae eremitae% c!= %e0enich +2555a-with !urther readinK !or the datin o! the li!e< c!= de 9o@ +1661- and &am0lenne

+1663- 215 n= *=23 The Life was soon translated into reek< S(riac< Co"tic< and 8thio"icK c!= .ld!ather

+16$3- 1$3!!=

2$ &ier= Vita Pauli 1 + PL 23< 24!!=-=

2* C!= alread( &arnack +146*- 26=


























2/ &ier= ep4 1 +Cha"ter -=

2 C!= Fontaine +163- 155=

24 &ier= ep4 15=3=3=

26 C!= e== Courcelle +16$4- and ellen +1641- 123!!=35 &ier= Hom4 ,rig4 in 59ech4 +7C& 33< "= 314-= .n the work< c!= rt>macher

+1651'4- i 141!!=K Cavallera +1622- i /4!!=< ii 4!!=K Eell( +16*- *!!K and autin+1644-=

31 &ier= Hom4 ,rig4 in 59ech4 +7C& 33< "= 314-=

32 C!= &ier= C4 !oh4 $1 +CCL 6A< "= 4-=

33 &ier= Chron4 "rol= +7C& 8us= < "= 1-=

3$ C!= &ier= Chron4 "rol= +7C& 8us= < "= /-=

3* For the Quellenforschung on erome;s Chronicle% which has iven rise to muchcontrovers(< see Mommsen +14*5-K &elm +162-K &elm +1626a-K &elm +16260-KEell( +16*- 2!!K Brunoli +166*-K ,nle0ert +166/- 21!!=K %atti +166-K andBuress +166*- who arues that erome< !or his continuation< used the <aisergeschichte as the sinle source=

3/ C!= e== rt>macher +1651'4- i 163K Eell( +16*- *=

3 The exam"le o! Meletius has alread( 0een mentioned +see note 11-K c!= also theentries on Am0rose +"= 2$< 1/!!= &elm-K Athanasius +"= 2$2< 1/!!=-K 8use0ius o!

9ercelli +"= 236!=K 2$2< 16-K &ilar( +"= 2$5< 11!!=K 2$1< 1!!=K 2$2< *!=-K i0erius o!%ome +"= 23< 1!!=-<

-8E-























Ti0erianus< vir "isertus and Praefectus Praetorio 7alliarum% ibi"4 33/ +"= 233- andTitianus< vir elo-uens and Praefectus Praetorio 7alliarum% ibi"4 3$* +"= 23/-=

$1 Chron4 s4a4 23 +"= 222 &elm-=

$2 Chron4 s4a4 3*$ +"= 236 &elm-=

$3 Chron4 s4a4 3$ +"= 2$ &elm-= .n erome;s links with the monastic communit( inAquileia< c!= Cha"ter 1=

$$ Chron4 s4a4 3 +"= 2$4 &elm-=

$* Chron4 s4a4 3$ +"= 2$ &elm-: ?the no0lest o! %oman women;= Because o!Melania;s !riendshi" with %u!inus< erome< accordin to %u!inus + Apol4 c4 Hier4 2=26 CCL 25< "= 15*O-< erased her name !rom his "ersonal co"ies o! the Chronicle a!ter the out0reak o! the .rienist controvers(= .n other alterations in later (ears<see Sch]ne +1655- 6/!!=< 11!!= and 1*1!!=

$/ C!= also ,nle0ert +166/- 2/!!=< 263!!=$ &ier= Chron4 "rol= +"= &elm-: c!= Cha"ter 6=

$4 &ier= Chron4 "rol= +"= 2 &elm-=

$6 ,! the Altercatio Luciferiani et ,rtho"o#i 'R)ialogus contra Luciferianos( is to 0e "laced in this "eriod< erome would have also made his !irst attem"t at a "olemical theoloical "am"hlet in the east= But the datin o! the work is controversial< c!=%e0enich +1662a- 66 n= $3< 134 n= /46K more recentl(< eanean +1666- 21 !!= hasarued that it was written a!ter erome;s ordination= For rhetorical elements used inthe Altercatio% c!= Canellis +166-=

*5 erome;s !irst commentar( on .0adiah< "ro0a0l( com"osed durin his collee da(sin %ome< has not survivedK c!= Booth +166- 3$6!!K %e0enich +1662a- 26 and n= /5=&e had attem"ted an alleorical and m(stical exeesis o! which he was laterashamed +&ier= comm4 in Ab"4 "rol= CCL /< "= 3*5O-=

'1/4'

*1 &ier= ep4 14A and 14B on ,s= /=1'6= .n the letter< c!= rt>macher +1651'4- i 144!!=KCavallera +1622- i 5!!=K Eell( +16*- !!K and a( +164*- /3!=

*2 C!= Eamesar +1663- $5!!=

+ ROME1 C!= Mc(nn +166$- 1$2!!=

2 C!= oren> +16//- and %ousseau +164- 45!!=

3 C!= %u!= A"ult4 13 +CCL 25< "= 1*!=-K &ier= Apol4 2=25 +CCL 6< "= */!=-K Eell( +16*-41!=K 9esse( +166/- *11!!=< who rihtl( em"hasi>es< that %u!inus is our onl(



















evidence outside erome;s own writins !or his activit( in the entourae o! 0isho")amasus=

$ &ier= ep4 123=6=1=

* &ier= ep4 16'25K 21K 3*'3/= Contra autin +1643a-< who arues that these letters were

concocted a!ter the 0isho";s death< as "art o! an attack aainst Am0roseK c!=%e0enich +1662a- 1$*!!= and Adkin +1663d- 3*!= !or an authentic address=

/ C!= &ier= Hom4 ,rig4 in Cant4 "rol= +7C& 33< "= 2/- and ep4 $/=1=$< 4==$=

&ier= Vulg4 5vang4 "rol= +"= 1*1* #e0erPr(son-=

4 &ier< vir4ill4 153=

6 7= Brown +16/1-K Jar0rouh +16/-K 8=A= Clark +164/-< es"= 1*!!=K Sal>man +1646-KCoo"er +1662-K Sal>man +1662-K Barnes +166*-K Feichtiner +166*a-< es"= 11$!!=KCloke +166*-K Steininer +166-=

15 &ier= ep4 22=

11 ,n recent (ears< eil Adkin has studied ep4 22 in reatest detailK c!= e== VChr 3<1643< 3/'$5K 7lotta /2< 164$< 46!=K Philologus 124< 164$< 116'2/K 3F!C 112< 164$<24'61K 7B 1*< 1644< 1'4/K @& 15$< 1661< 1$6'/5K Arctos 31< 1662< *'14K 3&L3 24< 1662< $/1'1K VChr $/< 1662< 1$1'*5K 3F!C 125< 1662< 14*'253K Philologus 13/< 1662< 23$'**K MH $6< 1662< 131'$5K &, /4< 1663< 126'$3K 3BPh 1< 1663< 6/'15/K ,rpheus 1$< 1663< 13*'$5K BollClass 1$< 1663< 1$2'6K ,rpheus 1*< 166$< 1*$'/K Hermes 121< 1663< 155'4K &ileno 16< 1663< 3/1'2K 5merita /2< 166$< $3'*/K CPh46< 166$< /6'2K 3hM 13< 166$< 14'6*K &!FC 3=12< 166$< 125'2K PP 26< 166$<$33'/K 5irene 35< 166$< 153'K &ic7$mnM% 166$ 166O< 31*'1K Helmantica $*<

166*< 156'1$K CUM $/< 166*< 23'*$K Athenaeum 43< 166*< $5'4*K MH *3< 166/<*/'/5K Hermes 12*< 166< 2$5!=

12 &ier= ep4 22=1/=1< 24=1< 1=1=

13 For various as"ects o! erome;s ascetic "roramme and its "lace

-8H-

within Christian tradition< c!= Consolino +164/-K 7= Brown +1644-K Av= Cameron+1646-K 8=A= Clark +166- 3*!!=K = Clark +1663-K 8=A= Clark +166$-K Av= Cameron

+166$-K Feichtiner +166*a-K Coo"er +166/-K rimm +166/- 1*!!=K aurence+166a-K aurence +1664a-K 9id@n +1664- with !urther readin= For a stud( o!erome;s theor( o! sexualit( set !orth in ep4 22< c!= Cox Miller +1663-=

1$ &ier= ep4 22=1/=1=

1* &ier= ep4 154=1=1K c!= also ep4 135=/=1= See %e0enich +1662a- 141!!=K Sivan +16630-Kand Feichtiner +166a-=



























1/ S(m= ep4 1=*2: pars melior generis humani4

1 &ier= ep4 6=3=1=

14 For Marcella< c!= etsch'Brunner +1664- and Cha"ter 1=

16 &ier= ep4 12=$=1: ar"or "ivinarum scripturarum4 25 &ier= ep4 33=*=

21 C!= 7= Brown +1644- 3//!!= and 9esse( +1663a-=

22 C!= %u!= Apol4 c4&ier= 2=* +CCL 25< "= 4/-=

23 C!= Amm= Marc= 24=$=1$=

2$ &ier= ep4 24=1: ergo"i2ktes4 ,t should 0e noted that .rien< too< used this ironicex"ression to characteri>e his "atron Am0rose< c!= .ri= Comm4 in !oan4 *< "rol= +&C 125< "= 32-=

2* &ier= ep4 $*=3=1: )amasi os meus sermo erat4

2/ !bi"4

2 Still authoritative< #iesen +16/$-=

24 &ier= ep4 22=1/=2'3=

26 &ier= ep4 22=32=2=

35 Collectio Avellana o= 1=6 +C&5L 3*=1< "= $-K c!= Fontaine +1644a-=

31 C!= &ier= Comm4 in !s4 2=3=12 +CCL4 3< "= *2-=

32 Theodoret= hist4eccl4 2=1=1' +7C& $$< 13/!=-=

33 CTh= 1/=2=25= C!= &ier= ep4 *2=/=1 and Am0r= ep4 3+14-=13=

3$ C!= &ier= C4 !oh4 4 +CCL 6A< "= 1*-=

3* Amm= Marc= 2=3=1$!K c!= Matthews +1646- $$$!=

3/ &ier= ep4 2=1=1< 2=1=3< $5=2=2K c!= #iesen +16/$- 15 n= $$ and Adkin +166$- 5=

3 C!= 7ietri +16/- $5!!= and Maier +166*a-=

34 C!= %ousselle +1643- 11!!=

36 )e perpetua virginitate beatae Mariae a"versus Helvi"ium liber unus+ c!= Av=Cameron +1661- 11!!=K &unter +1663-=

$5 &ier= ep4 22=26=$=

$1 C!= &ier= ep4 $1 and $2=







































$2 Fontaine +166- $$=

$3 &ier= ep4 22=1$=1!=

$$ C!= &ier= ep4 2=1=

-8E9-

$* &ier= ep4 $*=2=1K c!= also e"= $* pass% and ep4 2=2=

$/ &ier= ep4 //=13=2!=

$ &ier= ep4 //=13=2=

$4 &ier= ep4 36=/=2= For ep4 36 a" Paulam "e obitu Blesillae% c!= Feichtiner +166*0-=

$6 C!= &ier= )id(m= spir4 "rol= + PL 23< 15!=- and Cavallera +1622- ii 4/!!=K autin+1643a- 3$5!!=

*5 Students o! erome have made reat e!!orts to detect sha!ts aainst Am0rosethrouhout his writins= Since he rarel( mentioned the 0isho" 0( name< theidenti!ication and inter"retation o! invectives are su0ect to scholarl( dis"uteK c!=7aredi +16/$-K auro( +1644-K Testard +1644-K .0erhelman +1661-K Adkin +1662-KAdkin +1663d-K Adkin +1663e-K Mc(nn +166$- 246!=K Adkin +166- with !urtherreadin=

*1 C!= &ier= ep4 $*=/=1=

*2 Eell( +16*- 61=

9 BET!LE!EM 0I1 C!= &ier= ep4 154=1$=

2 .n the hol( land "ilrimae< c!= )onner +166- 134!!=K &unt +1642-K Maraval +164*-KStem0erer +164- 44!!=K aurence +1664c-=

3 C!= &ier= ep4 1=*=1=

$ C!= %e0enich +1662a- 256!!= For the im"ortant role "la(ed 0( the letter'carriers in thee"istolar( exchane< c!= also Con(0eare +2551- 35!!=

* &ier= ep4 //=/=2: viri nobiles% viri "iserti% viri locupletes4

/ 7aul= ol= carm4 2$=$41 !=

C!= autin +166-K autin +16430-=

4 C!= the introduction to Cha"ter 1$= .n erome;s acquaintance with Seneca;s work<c!= Adkin +25550-=

6 C!= Eell( +16*- 145!!= and &unter +164-K &unter +1663-=




































35 Au= ep4 3=1=$ +W&ier= ep4 115=1=$-=

31 &ier= ep4 15*=2=1 +WAu= ep4 2=2=1-K c!= &ier= ep4 152=2=1 +W Au= ep4 /4=2=1-=

32 C!= &ier= ep4 15*=$=2 +WAu= ep4 2=$=2-=

33 &ier= ep4 15*=2=2 +WAu= ep4 2=2=2-=

3$ .n erome and 7elaius< c!= Eell( +16*- 356!!= and eanean +1666- 34!!= with!urther readin= For the sini!icance o! "atronae networks in the 7elaianmovement< c!= 7= Brown +16/4-K 7= Brown +165-=

3* &ier= ep4 1$1 +WAu= ep4 16*-=

3/ &ier= ep4 * ')e optima genere interpretan"i(+ c!= Bartelink +1645-= For variousattem"ts to identi!( the anon(mous accuser o! erome mentioned in ep4 *=1=2< c!=also Adkin +166/a-=

3 %u!in= Praef4 in libros ,rig4 5P! APWX 1=3 +CCL 25< "= 2$/-=

34 C!= &ier= ep4 43 +written 0( 7ammachius and .ceanus-=

36 &ier= ep4 41 and 4$=

$5 C!= &ier= Apol4 1=12K 3=34 +CCL 6< "= 12K 15/!=-=

$1 &ier= ep4 4/ and 44=

$2 C!= &ier= ep4 61'$K 6/K 64'155=

$3 &ier= Apol4 3= +CCL 6< "= 45-=

-8E6-

$$ C!= &ier= ep4 12=6'11K c!= Cha"ter 1=

$* %u!in= Apol4 c4 Hier4 1=21 +CCL 25< "= **-=

$/ %u!in= Apologia a" Anastasium +CCL 25< ""= 16'24-= .n the link 0etween %u!inusand the 0isho" o! Brescia< audentius< see Me(vaert +164/- and )uval +164-=

$ C!= AC, 1=*< "= 3!= +W PL 25< /4'3-=

$4 %u!in= Apol4 c4 Hier4 1=22'$$K 2=13'22K 2=24 +CCL 25< "= */!!=K 63!!=K 153!=-= C!=&ier= Apol4 3=11 +CCL 6< "= 43-=































$6 %u!in= Apol4 c4 Hier4 2=/!= +CCL 25< "= 4!!=-= .n erome;s oath< see Cha"ter 1=

*5 %u!in= Apol4 c4 Hier4 1=$'1/ +CCL 25< "= 36!!=-=

*1 &ier= Apol4 3=3K $$ +CCL 6< "= *K 11/-=

*2 C!= Au= ep4 3=/'15 +W&ier= ep4 115=/'15-=*3 Cited in PL 21< 1*K c!= 7= Brown +165- 215=

*$ C!= &ammond +16- $12!!=

** C!= e== &ier= ep4 116=11=*K 12=15=3K Comm4 in Hier4 26=1$'25 +CCL $< "= 15$-Kand Cavallera +1622- ii 131!!=

*/ &ier= Comm4 in 59ech4 1< "rol= +CCL *< "= 3!=-=

* &ier= ep4 156=1=1K 2=$K c!= also ep4 /1 and C4 Vigil% "ass= For erome;s "olemicalwork and his relation to 9iilantius< c!= %e0enich +1662a- 2$5!!= and eanean

+1666- **!!=

*4 &ier= ep4 /1=2=1'3=

*6 For di!!erent contem"orar( "erce"tions o! erome< c!= Sul"= Sev= )ial4 1=4=$'/K1=6=1K $!=K 1=21=*= .n erome and Sul"icius Severus< c!= %e0enich +1662a- 2*2!!=with !urther readin=

/5 &(d= Chron4 s4a4 $1* +"= 4$ Buress-=

0 BETHLEHEM (II)1 .n erome;s re"resentation in art< see un0lut +16/-K Miehe +16$-K %ice +164*-K

#ie0el +164*-= The enravin o! A=)rer is< !or instance< to 0e !ound in thecataloue o! the exhi0ition A= )rer 1$1'161< rn0er 161< no= 1*1< !i= 65and no= 23< !i= 1*/ =

2 erome;s atin translation o! the Bi0le was !irst called the 9ulate +i=e= Biblia

&acra Vulgatae 5"itionis- at the Council o! Trent= )urin the Middle Aes<erome;s version was known as nostra translatio% nostra usitata e"itio or ea

translatio -ua nostrae ecclesiae passim utuntur+ c!= e== Alleier +16$4-K Sutcli!!e+16$4a-K Sutcli!!e +16$40-=

3 C!= e== oewe +16/6- 152!!=K Fischer +162- 1!!= +1*/!!=-K %eichmann +1645-KSmalle( +1643-K !or a eneral introduction< c!= also Bible "e

'13'

tous les temps% vol= 2: Le Mon"e latin anti-ue et la Bible% 7aris 164* and vol= 3:&aint Augustin et la Bible% 7aris 164/=

$ C!= Bammel +1663-= .n the date o! the commentaries< see autin +166-=

























* &ier< vir4ill4 13*: ?, translated the ew Testament !rom the reek;K c!= &ier= ep4 1=*=3K 112=25=*=

/ For %u!inus and erome< see &ier= ep4 *1=2=$K 41=2 +on the identi!ication< see as earl(as )= 9allarsi< PL 22< 3/ note +e-K and Fischer +162- 241!!=

C!= Cha"ter $=

4 &ier= Comm4 in 6it4 3=6 + PL 2/< /35-K &ier= Comm4 Ps4 1=$ +CCL 2< "= 145-K c!= also&ier< vir4ill4 3K *K 113 and &ier= Apol4 3=12 +CCL 6< "= 4$-=

6 C!= &ier= Vulg4 Ps '7(4 "rol= +"= / #e0erPr(son-=

15 C!= &ier= Vulg4 Ps 'H(4 "rol= +"= /4!= #e0erPr(son-=

11 &ier= Vulg4 !ob '7( "rol= + PL 26< c=/3!=-=

12 &ier= Vulg4 &alom4 '7( "rol= + PL 26< $2*!!=-K &ier= Vulg4 Par4 '7( "rol= +ibi"4 $23!!=-=

13 C!= e== &ier= ep4 1=*=3K 15/=2=$K 13$=2=3 +WAu= ep4 12=2=3-K &ier= Apol4 2=2$K 3=2*+CCL 6< "= /1K 6-=

1$ rt>macher +1651'4- ii 62!!=

1* &ier< vir4ill4 13*=

1/ C!= &ier= Vulg4 !os4 "rol= +"= 24*!= #e0erPr(son- and Eell( +16*- 243!=

1 See a( +1642-=

14 C!= e== &ier= Vulg4 Par4 'H( "rol= +"= *$/ #e0erPr(son-=

16 C!= Bammel +1644-K Frst +166$a-K and &ennins +166$- 11 .!!=25 For erome;s imitation o! classical literature in the 9ulate< c!= #issemann +1662-K

Brown Tkac> +166/-K Brown Tkac> +166-K Brown Tkac> +1666-K Adkin +2555a-=

21 Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum% or Liber "e nominibus Hebraicis inCCL 2< ""= *6'11/K c!= 7=de aarde< ,nomastica sacra% ]ttinen 2144< 2/'11/=

22 )e locis or Liber "e situ et nominibus locorum Hebraicorum in 8= Elostermann< 5usebius @erke 3=1< ei">i 165$ +7C& 11=1-K 7=de aarde< ,nomastica sacra% ]ttinen 2144< 114'65= The work is a close translation o! 8use0ius; ,nomasticon=

23 Quaestiones Hebraicae in 7enesim in CCL 2< ""= 1'*/K c!= Eamesar +1663- and&a(ward +166*-=

2$ &ier= Comm4 in Mich4 "rol= 2 +CCL /< "= $3-=

2* &ier= Apol4 3=11 +CCL 6< "= 43-K c!= &ier= ep4 112=*=2 +WAu= ep4 *=*=2- and116=1=$=



































-8EC-

+&- "rol= +"= 31 #e0erPr(son-K 9ul= )an= "rol= +"= 13$1 #e0erP r(son-=

$5 C!= )uval< SC 323< $16!!=K &am0lenne +1644-K Frst +166$0-=

$1 C!= &ier= Comm= in ,on= $=/ +SC 323< 26/!!=-=

$2 ,0id=

$3 %u!in= A"ol= c= &ier= 2=36 +CC 25< "= 11$-= This moti! o! the onah c(cle wasindeed quite o!ten de"icted on earl( Christian sarco"haiK c!= e== S"\tantike und FrhesChristentum= Eatalo der Ausstellun im ie0ihaus< Frank!urtPM 1643< 2$1!!= with 0i0liora"h(= For erome;s re"l(< see &ier= A"ol= 1=35 +CC 6< "= 26-=

$$ &ier= e"= 15$=* +WAu= e"= 1=*-K c!= )uval +16//- and Frst +166$a-=

$* &ier= e"= 112=22=1'3 +WAu= e"= *=22=1'3-=

$/ &ier= e"= 112=25=*K 21=1 +WAu= e"= *=25=*K 21=1-K c!= also &ier= 9ul= 7ent= "rol=+"= $ #e0erPr(son-K 9ul= 7ar= +- "rol= +7 26< $2/-K 9ul= 8sr= "rol= +i0id= /34-=

$ %u!in= A"ol= c= &ier= 2=$1 +CC 25< "= 11*-=

$4 &ier= A"ol= 2=2$ +CC 6< "= /5-=

$6 C!= e== &ier= Comm= in 8ccles= "rol= +CC 2< "= 2$6-K A"ol= 2=2$ +CC 6< "=

/5!=-K e"= 15/ to the oths Sunnia and Fretula=

T&8 .98,ST1 The !irst two "arara"hs o! the letter are a dedicator( "re!ace= ,t was conventional!or an author to state that he was writin his work in order to con!orm to the wishes o!othersK c!= Scour!ield +1643- $6!!=

2 erome;s sel!'de"recator( ex"ression that he is not a0le to handle the stor( ismeant to lori!( the su0ect= &e likes this kind o! a!!ected modest(K !or other instances o!recusatio< c!= Scour!ield +1643- *6!!K /!!=K Scour!ield +1663- !!=

3 erome "la(s on ?words; +ver0a- and the divine ?#ord; +ver0um or loos- o! n=1=1=

$ For this rhetorical question< c!= Guint< inst= 6=2=11 and &ier= e"= /5=2=1K 4$=$=1K135=1=2=

* C!= n= 2=










/ C!= &ier= e"= 135=2=3=

scalmum rexi= scalmus is the "e to which an oar is !astened in rowin< the thole' "in +c!= .) s=v=-=

4 The reek name !or the Black Sea= +ebxeinos- means ?the hos"ita0le;< o0viousl( aeu"hemism< since !rom a Mediterranean "ers"ective it was cold< dee"< and tem"estuous=

6 9er= Aen= 3=163=

'1/'15 C!= 9er= Aen4 3=16$!= and *=4'11=

11 erome;s meta"horical use o! nautical ex"ressions is reminiscent o! Cic= "e ,rat4 1<1$ and Guint< inst4 12 prooem4 3!=K c!= Scour!ield +1643- 5!!= and &aendahl+16*4- 155!!=< althouh , dou0t whether these lines indicate that ?when writin them

erome retained a livel( recollection o! the sea and the ex"eriences o! a sea'vo(ae<i=e=O his vo(ae to the 8ast; +&aendahl 16*4O 155!=-=

12 9ercellae< a arrison town and municipium in the earl( em"ire< was a Christiancentre o! Cisal"ine aul in the !ourth and !i!th centuries A)= For the use o! a "ro"ername at the 0einnin o! a narrative< c!= Guint< inst4 $=2=1!=

13 C!= ucan= 1=2$' and odel +16/$- /4=

1$ Consularis Aemiliae et Liguriae% the overnor o! the "rovince o! Aemilia andiuria= &is identit( cannot 0e esta0lishedK c!= 7%8 i 1516 +Anon(mus 65-=Am0rose held the o!!ice when he was elected 0isho" o! Milan< c!= 7%8 i *2

+Am0rosius 3-= For the "rovincial overnorshi"< see ones +16/$- i 15/!=

1* The event can 0e related to the trials !or maic and adulter( conducted in senatorialcircles 0( 9alentinian ,K c!= Amm= Marc= 24=1 and Matthews +1646- 256!!=KScour!ield +1643- 34!!= For the issue o! adulter( in ate Antiquit(< c!= also =)ellin< s4v4 8he0ruch< 3AC $< 16*6< ///'=

1/ C!= = Thr< s4v4 Folter< 3AC 4< 162< 151'12 and = 9erote< s4v4 Folterwerk>eue<ibi"4 112'$1=

1 at verior mulier se#u fortior suo4 , !ollow &il0er;s text +C&5L *$< "= 3-= Most o! themanuscri"ts have at verior mulier se#u infirmior virtute fortior +?But the woman was

stroner in virtue< i! weaker in sex;-= erome o!ten stresses the reliious strenth andascetic >eal o! womenK c!= e== ep4 122=$=3 and Feichtiner +166*a- 1*2=

14 eculeus% an instrument o! torture= A""arentl(< it had the !unction o! stretchin thevictimK c!= also 7rud= Perist4 15=156!!= and Scour!ield +1643- 4!=

16 ,n "ra(er< c!= 0elow ep4 1=*=2=

25 C!= 7S= =15= , aree with Scour!ield +1643- 46 who suests scrutator renum et










cor"is% since ?it is the "lural !orm which is reularl( !ound in the 9ulate;= &il0er+C&5L *$< "= 3- reads scrutator renis et cor"is=

21 The (oun man=

22 , dou0t that this "hrase is an echo o! 9er= Aen4 6=$6/< as &il0er +C&5L *$< "= 3-

indicates=

23 The ox(moron non moritur% -uis-uis victurus occi"itur can also 0e rendered as!ollows: ?&e does not "erish< who dies to live aain;< i! victurus is derived !romvivere and not !rom vincere= This understandin

-8EE-

o! the "assae is to 0e !ound in some translations +e== PF = vol= /< "= 2K #rihtin his oe0 edition o! &elect Letters of &t4 *erome% "= K c!= also a0ourt i< "= $ and

1/1-= But the woman;s !rank s"eech alludes to the lanuae o! mart(rdom: she is "re"ared to die !or her !aith and her ?0a"tism o! 0lood; is a victor( over death= C!=also Scour!ield +1643- 65!=

2$ C!= ucan= 1=32'31 and odel +16/$- /4=

2* ote that in this letter erome shi!ts easil( 0etween the historic "resent and "asttenses=

2/ C!= &ier= ep4 12=13=2= For a di!!erent readin o! the text< c!= Sch\u0lin +163- */who o0ects to vetuit circa se saevire tormenta= &owever< Scour!ield;s aruments!or the text< which is read 0( all the manuscri"ts< seem to 0e com"ellin +164O$44!=-=

2 C!= Scour!ield +1643- 155: ?erome causes the woman to make her denial notmerel( on her own 0ehal! 0ut on that o! the man whose con!ession has 0rouht herto this "osition= But it is onl( an a""arent act o! love and sel!'sacri!iceK i! onedenies adulter(< one can hardl( avoid den(in it !or one;s alleed lover also=erome is em"lo(in a trick to 0uild u" the woman;s stature=;

24 ote that the torturer;s roanin contrasts with the woman;s !irmness< whowithstands the torment without wailin=

26 Stories o! miracles at the scene o! execution can 0e read in man( mart(r acts< c!=)eleha(e +216//- 25!!=

35 erome uses lictor to denote the headsmanK c!= 7rud= Perist4 3=6!= Inder the8m"ire< a militar( su0ordinate< normall( called speculator% "ut to death the "ersonunder sentence< while an o!!icer was res"onsi0le !or the execution +c!= 0elow ep4 1=15-= erome ma( have "re!erred lictor to speculator% since the !ormer ex"ressiono0viousl( re!lects the !unctions o! the lictores in the %e"u0lican era who< carr(inthe fasces o! maistrates with imperium +the 0undle o! rods with an axe-< arrested<summoned< and executed %oman citi>ensK c!= Mommsen +1466- 61*!= and 623!!=K



















matura no# a"venit -< vol= i< "= and 1/1 'comm4 a" loc4(+ c!= Scour!ield +1643- 12*!=KScour!ield +164- $61= &il0er +C&5L *$< "= - reads misericor"iam "omini celatura

no# a"venit +?niht came on to conceal the merc( o! the ord;-=

$3 7s= 114 +11-=/= erome writes )ominus au#iliator meus% where the 9ulate has )ominus mihi a"iutor +?the ord is on m( side;-=

$$ For Christian charities< c!= Erause +166*- with !urther readin=

$* C!= 8ccles= 12= and &ier= ep4 =11=2K Vita Pauli 1$ +7 23< 2/!=-=

$/ lictor4 erome reards the headsman as a "ersoni!ication o! the devil=

$ erue scilicet ossa4 Scour!ield +1643- 124!=K Scour!ield +164- $61 != suests erue silicet ossa? ?di u" the 0ones< i! it is "ermissi0le !or (ou;=

-8EH-

$4 ius summum summa malitia? Terent= Heaut4 6/K c!= the "rover0ial summum ius

summa iniuria in Cic= off4 1=15=33 and .tto +1465- 16!=

$6 C!= Cha"ter 2=

*5 Arian 0isho" o! Milan< who "ro0a0l( died in 3$< and "redecessor o! Am0roseK c!=Mc(nn +166$- 13!!=K 25!!= and 3/!!= ,t has 0een deduced !rom this sentence that theletter must have 0een written a!ter Auxentius; death= But , think rt>macher +1651'4- i *3!= is riht< that mortuus does not necessaril( re!er to the 0isho";s eternal rest< 0ut can 0e read as an allusion to his earlier condemnation 0( a %oman council under)amasus= So sepultum paene ante -uam mortuum can mean ?0uried< so to s"eak<

while (et alive; +i=e= Auxentius was ecclesiasticall( ?dead; 0e!ore the time o! hisdeath-K c!= also %e0enich +1662a- 5 pace Cavallera +1622- ii 12!=K Scour!ield +1643-33!=K Scour!ield +164/- 114 and Schwind +166- 11=

*1 )amasus +0isho" o! %ome 3//'4$-= erome o0viousl( re!ers to a success!uldi"lomatic mission 0( 8varius to the im"erial court< to su""ort )amasus in his !iht!or the e"isco"al see aainst his rival Irsinus< who had also 0een consecrated 0isho"in 3//= ,n the 0lood( strule more than 155 "ersons were killed< so that the em"eror9alentinian , was !orced to interveneK he 0acked )amasus and 0anished Irsinus toColone< 0ut it was not until the 0einnin o! the 345s that the trou0les ceasedK c!=7ietri +16/- $5!!=K Mc(nn +1662- 1/!!= and %e0enich +1662a- /$!!=

*2 9er= 7eorg4 $=1$!=

*3 9alentinian ,< em"eror o! the west !rom 3/$ to 3*=

7 T!E T!EOLO8IAN1 C!= n= 16=23=

2 C!= Cant= 2=1*=


















3 C!= er= 2=13=

$ C!= Cant= $=12=

* C!= %om= 1=4=

/ erome had 0een 0a"ti>ed at %omeK c!= &ier= ep4 1/=2=1= For a traditional account o!the event< c!= Eell( +16*- 23K !or a di!!erent chronoloical settin !or erome;s 0a"tism< c!= %e0enich +1662a- 24!!=

C!= Mt= 13=$*!=

4 k= 1=3K c!= Mt= 2$=24=

6 C!= k= 1*=13=

15 C!= k= 4=4=

-8:9-

11 C!= Mt= 13=22< 23=

12 sol iustitiae4 C!= Mal= $=2 and )]ler +2161-=

13 C!= k= 15=14=

1$ C!= ,s= 1$=12!!=

1* Mt= 1*=1$=

1/ Mt= 1*=13=

1 C!= 2 Tim= 2=25=

14 C!= A"oc= 2=2K 14=6=

16 tua beatitu"o4 This title was widel( used 0( Christian writers< c!= .;Brien +1635- 3!!=

25 C!= Mt= 1/=14=

21 C!= ev= 16=/!=

22 C!= en= =23=

23 For the location o! erome;s desert domicile< c!= &ier= ep4 *=1K =1=1K 1/=2=2K Vita

Pauli / + PL 23< 21 !=-K %e0enich +1662a- 4*!!= and Cha"ter 2=

2$ tua sanctimonia4 For the title< iven to 0isho"s onl(< c!= .;Brien +1635- 6=

2* sanctum )omini4 Most certainl( an allusion to the 8ucharist that was sent as as(m0ol o! ecclesiastical communion=

































2/ 7ro0a0l( the ?orthodox; 0isho"s who were exiled at the 0einnin o! the 35s 0( theem"eror 9alensK c!= &ier= ep4 3=2=1 and a0ourt i< "= 1/3 +comm4 a" ep4 1*=2=2-=

2 C!= &ier= ep4 1/=2=2: ?Meletius< 9italis< and 7aulinus sa( that the( are on (our side<and , could 0elieve the assertion i! it were made 0( one o! them onl(= As it is< eithertwo o! them are l(in or the( all are=;

24 C!= k= 11=23=

26 At the councils o! icaea +32*- and Alexandria +3/2-< Arius and Arianism werecondemned= &owever< at Alexandria< the homoousios !ormula o! icaea wasrein!orced +the Son is o! one su0stance YousiaZ with the Father-< and the .rienistdistinction o! the h$postaseis o! the three divine "ersons was admitted= Althouh thedecisions o! the s(nod ave rise to new controversies< erome is exaeratin thenovelt( o! the ?three h$postaseis; theolo( to "lease )amasus=

35 The Meletians were called the ?!ield communit(; since the( were denied access tothe churches o! AntiochK c!= as earl( as PL 22< 3*/ n= +i-K rt>macher +1651'4- i 1/6

n= 1K Eell( +16*- *2 n= 24 +contra a0ourt i< "= 1/$< comm4 a" loc4-=

31 homo 3omanus+ c!= Act= 22=2*= For erome;s imae o! %ome< c!= 7aschoud +16/-256!!= and Suano +1643-=

-8:8-






















$2 C!= 2 Cor= 11=1$=

$3 )amasus did not re"l(< and so erome wrote another letter< ?shorter 0ut even moreim"ortunate; +Eell( 16*O *3-K c!= &ier= ep4 1/=

$$ .n 8varius< c!= Cha"ter 2=

$* 7erha"s the !ollowers o! the Ariani>in 0isho" Silvanus o! Tarsus=

1 THE !HR2RAPHER1 oster 6ullius +i=e= Marcus Tullius Cicero-=

2 Cicero is said to have translated 7laton;s Protagoras and 6imaeus+ c!= also Guint<inst4 15=*=2K &ier= ep4 *=*=2K 15/=3=3K Vulg4 Pent4 "rol= +"= $ #e0erPr(son- andBartelink +1645- $6!= .n erome;s de"endence u"on Cicero;s translations o! reek "hiloso"hical texts< c!= Courcelle +16$4- *2! !=

3 The Phaenomena o! the &ellenistic "oet Aratus +c= 31* to 0e!ore 2$5 BC- arededicated to the descri"tion o! the "oles< the northern and southern constellations<the circles o! the celestial s"here< and weather sins= atin translations +the so'called Aratea- were made 0( 9arro< Cicero< ermanicus< and Avienus= Cicerorendered the work as a (oun man +c!= Cic= nat4"eor4 2=$1=15$-K $45 continuouslines and c4 5 in quotations are extant !rom his translation o! the Phaenomena=

'142'

$ C!= Cic= off4 2=2$=4K &ier= ep4 *=*=2K 15/=3=3K Vulg4 Pent4 "rol= +"= $ #e0erPr(son-and Bartelink +1645- *5=

* .ne ma( conclude !rom these lines that erome had read the oriinal version o!Xeno"hon;s ,economicus= erome< the ?Ciceronian; +c!= &ier= ep4 22=35=$-< re!erredto Cicero;s authorit( to sanction his translation theor( and his renderin sense !orsense and not word !or word 'non verbum e verbo% se" sensum e#primere "e sensu(+ c!= &ier= ep4 *=*=2K 15/=3=3 and Bartelink +1645- $/!!=K C= Becker< s4v4Cicero< 3AC 3<16*< 11*!=K Courcelle +16$4- $2!!=K #inkelmann +165- *34!!=

/ tumultuarium opus4

notarius4 7ro0a0l( erome dictated the historical records< !or the chronoloical ta0lesneeded to 0e co"ied outK c!= Sch]ne +1655- =

4 Se"tuaint +?XX;-= The most im"ortant reek version o! the .ld Testament= ewishtradition attri0utes its oriin to the initiative o! 7tolem( ,, 7hiladel"hus< kin o!8("t +24*'$/ BC-< who asked !or a translation o! the &e0rew aw and enaed 2learned ews +hence the title ?Se"tuaint;- who< on the ,sland o! 7haros< made areek version !or the ro(al li0rar( at Alexandria= ater< 7tolem(;s name wasconnected with all the .ld Testament= ,nternal evidence indicates that the Se"tuaintwas the work o! di!!erent translators 0etween the third centur( BC and the 0einnino! the Christian era= The Se"tuaint earl( 0ecame the .ld Testament o! the reek'



























s"eakin Christians= C!= also Cha"ter 13 and Cha"ter 1*=

6 The names re"resent three reek versions o! the .ld Testament that werere"roduced in .rien;s &exa"la +i=e= in .rien;s edition o! the .ld Testament< inwhich the &e0rew text< a transliteration into reek characters and !our reektranslations were arraned in "arallel columns-= Aquila was a native o! Sino"e in7ontus< who lived under &adrian +11'34-= Accordin to 8"i"hanius< he 0ecame a "rosel(te to udaism +mens4 et pon" 1$-= A!ter learnin &e0rew !rom ra00is< herevised the text o! the Se"tuaint= &is translation< which is ver( literal< was ado"ted 0( reek's"eakin ews= A0out S(mmachus hardl( an(thin is known= &e "ro0a0l(lived in the later second centur( and erome called him an 80ionite Christian +vir4ill4 *$K Comm4 in Hab4 3=11'3-K 8"i"hanius< however< s"eaks o! him as a Samaritan wholater converted to udaism +mens4 et pon"4 1/-= Inlike Aquila< S(mmachus "re!erredreada0le st(le to ver0al accurac(= Accordin to erome +vir4ill4 *$-< Theodotion+second centur(L- was an 80ionite ChristianK ,renaeus re!ers to him as a ewish "rosel(te + Haer4 3=21=1- and 8"i"hanius as a !ollower o! Marcion +mens4 et pon"4 1-= &e translated or revised the reek

-8:B-

version o! the .ld Testament which is !ound in .rien;s &exa"la a!ter theSe"tuaint= C!= !urther Tov +1662- 1$3!!=

15 For certain sections o! the .ld Testament< u" to three !urther reek versions wereadded in the &exa"la=

11 Cultivated reek and %oman readers o!ten critici>ed the low literar( level o! theBi0le= Christian writers res"onded to this "ro0lem in two di!!erent wa(s: the( either

de!ended the literar( qualit( o! the Bi0le or stressed the im"ortance o! the contentand minimi>ed the relevance in st(leK c!= alread( orden +21656- ii *1/!!= andEamesar +1663- $/!!= with !urther readin=

12 C!= &ier= ep4 22=26==

13 &orace +Guintus &oratius Flaccus-=

1$ )i!!erent t("es o! reek and atin metre= The sa""hic and alcaic stan>as aretraditionall( laid out as !our lines< 0ut can also consist o! three versesK c!= .C)3 65!!=< s4v4metre< reek and metre< atin=

1* For the histor( o! Christian rece"tion o! Flavius ose"hus< c!= &= Schrecken0er< s4v4ose"hus< 3AC 14< 1664< 61 !!= with !urther readin=

1/ minium4 A su0stance (ieldin a 0riht red "iment< "ro"erl( cinna0ar< or the "imentitsel! +.) 1112< s4v4-= .n the use o! red and 0lack ink and other technicalinnovations< c!= Sch]ne +1655- $4!!=K Mras +1624- and %= &elm in 7C& $< "= XX, !!=

1 membrana4 The chronicle was written on "archment< not on "a"(rusK c!= Sch]ne+1655- $!=












14 A) 32/=

16 Suetonius +aius Suetonius Tranquillus-=

25 erome;s sources are controversial= 9arious historiora"hical works and authors

have 0een discussed= For exam"le 8utro"ius< who wrote a short %oman histor( !rom%omulus to the em"eror ovian< the breviarium o! Festus< magister memoriae o!9alens< and the so'called <aisergeschichte% which Alexander 8nmann !irst "ostulated at the end o! the nineteenth centur( +hence ?8nmannscheEaisereschichte;-= For !urther readin< see Cha"ter 3 +note 3*-=

21 A) 34= The latter em"eror mentioned is 9alentinian ,,=

22 C!= #iesen +16/$- 2/2!=

23 A!ter the 0attle o! Adriano"le in Thrace +6 Auust 34-< in which the em"eror9alens and two'thirds o! the %oman arm( were killed< othic rou"s were a

"ermanent threat to the %oman 8m"ire= ratian and Theodosius< who conductedvarious cam"ains< !ailed to ex"el the oths< so that Theodosius sined a treat( withthem +3 .cto0er 342-< which reconi>ed them as !ederates and assined them lands=

-8:D-

$3 THE EPI&TL2RAPHER1 C!= ev= 2=11=

2 C!= Mt= ==

3 That is the da( o! his mart(rdom< 26 une= From the end o! the second centur(< theanniversar( o! the mart(r;s death was ke"t as the !east o! his +heavenl(- 0irthda(=

$ For the com"arison o! orator( to wrestlin< c!= e== Cic= Brut4 3K Guint< inst4 2=4=3!=

* C!= 8>ek= 1/=11=

/ C!= er= 3/=$!!=K Baruch /=

C!= Mt= 3=1/K k= 3=22=

4 &ier= ep4 22=

6 C!= Tim= 2=15=

15 C!= 2 Cor= 3=2=

11 C!= er= 3/=23= ehoiakim< kin o! udah=

12 &os= =11=

13 = icinius ucullus< who had secured the command aainst Mithridates 9,< kin



















o! 7ontus< de!eated the latter;s all(< Tiranes< kin o! Armenia< in a 0attle nearTiranocerta in /6 BC= ucullus is said to have 0rouht the cherr( tree !romCerasus< a town at the Black Sea< to ,tal(K c!= 7lin= H 1*=2*=152K Tert= Apol 11=4KAmm=Marc= 22=4=1/K F= .lck< s4v4Eirsch0aum< P@ 11=1< 1621< *12=

1$ C!= er= 2$=1!!=1* in eo% -uo allatum est% i"% -uo" allatum est% prae"icamus4 it=: ?, will "raise in the

verse< in which the 0asket o! !is is mentioned< the !ruit that has 0een 0rouht tome=;

1/ er= 2$=3=

1 A"oc= 3=1*!=

14 .n erome;s dietar( "roramme and his radical cam"ain !or !astin< c!= rimm+166/- 1*!!=

16 al= 1=15=

$$ THE &ATIRI&T1 For re!erences to "h(sicians and medicine in the writins o! erome< c!= Eell(

+16$$- 14r!= For the "h(sician;s imae in earl( Christianit(< c!= %= &er>o< s4v4Ar>t< 3AC 1< 16*5< 25'$=

2 C!= ,s= 25=2=

3C!= er= 13=1'= erome uses the reek word per[9pmaO !or irdle to show hisreek learnin= etsch'Brunner 1664O 12* n= 22/ ma( 0e riht in com"arin the

irdle that eremiah hid at the 8u"hrates with the ascetic li!e< and the 8u"hrateswith the %oman Ti0er=

'14*'





























15 For cornicula% the small crow< c!= &or= ep4 1=3=16= For erome;s imitation o! 7ersius+&at4 1=33K *=11- in this clause< c!= 7reaux +16*4- //2 and Bur>acchini +16*- /5!=

11 9er= Aen4 /=$=

12 C!= 7ers= &at4 3=42K *=13 and Bur>acchini +16*- /1!=

13 -ua"rante "ignam elo-uentiam nare subsanno4 The ex"ression re!ers to .nasus;missha"en nose< 0ut erome also seems to "la( with the meanin o! -ua"rans% thatdesinated a coin o! the value o! one quarter o! an as= The -ua"rans% which wasminted until Antoninus 7ius +c!= &= Chantraine< s4v4quadrans< in P@ 2$< 16/3< //5-<could also 0e understood as a token o! minimal value< a ?!arthin;< and F=A=#riht< in his oe0 edition o! &elect Letters of &t4 *erome +1633- 1/6 hastranslated: ?, sneer scorn!ull( at his eloquence which would 0e dear at a !arthin;Kc!= also a0ourt ii +16*1- 4/: ?e raille une @loquence de quatre sous;= The sentencema( 0e in!luenced 0( 7ers= &at4 1=$5!=K /2 or *=61K c!= 7reaux +16*4- //3KBur>acchini +16*- /3=

1$ nummarii sacer"otes4 For erome;s "olemics aainst mone('seekin "riests< c!=&ier= ep4 *2=/=1=K *2=/=$!= +leac('huntin< c!= C6h 1/=2=25Q-K *2=6=1K //=11=3KComm4 in &oph4 3=1' +CCL /A< "= /6/-< and #iesen +16/$- /*!!=K %e0enich<#ohlt\ter and &eilie +2551-=

1* noctuae and bubones are also mentioned in &ier= ep4 22=2=4< which was written 0e!ore letter $5K c!= Cavallera +1622- ii 2$!=

1/ C!= Cic= Cael4 *5< and illiam +16*3- 15$=

1.nasus is derived !rom .nesimus which means ?the hel"!ul;< ?the "ro!ita0le;<

?the 0ene!icial;= Some have deduced !rom this "assae that .nasus was called.nesimus< or 0ore a similar name< such as Bonosus or 7ro!uturus< c!= e== a0ourtii +16*1- 16/K #iesen +16/$- 25*= enci +166*- 63!= tries to show that erome;senem( must have 0een a certain .nasus Faustus o! Seesta=

14 C!= Guint< inst4 1=/=3$: lucus a non lucen"o4 #iesen +16/$- 25* com"ares

'14/'

erome;s arument with uv= 4=35'4< ?where the "oet warns an aristocrat aainst 0elievin that no0ilit( consists in hih 0irth alone;=

16 A !ine dis"la( o! traditional erudition= The atin name !or the Fates< Parcae% isconnected with parcere% and the Furiae were called 5umeni"esm reek +i=e= the?racious; or the ?well'dis"osed;-=

25 C!= 7ers= 2=3 != +altered-< and Bur>acchini +16*- *2=

1 T!E BIO8RAP!ER





















1 ,t has 0een arued that this "hrase '"iu tacui( hints at the date o! the Life of Malchus +i=e= to its com"osition immediatel( a!ter erome;s settlement in Bethlehem in 34/<when he started his literar( activit( aain-K c!= Cavallera +1622- ii 2/'35= But in "arara"h 2 erome;s old Antiochene "atron 8varius is called papa +0isho"-< ano!!ice he did not hold 0e!ore 344 +c!= %e0enich 1662aO $-= Thus< scholars ma( 0e

riht in datin the work around 365'1K c!= e== Eech +16- 1*K Eell( +16*- 15!=2 erome did not write such a histor(= For erome;s criticism o! the Christian church o!

his time< c!= #iesen +16/$- *5!=

3 .n Maronia and erome;s "atron 8varius< c!= Cha"ter 2 and %e0enich +1662a-*2!!=K 46!!= The re!erence to the "lace and the well'known 0isho" are su""osed toincrease the credi0ilit( o! the narrative=

$ C!= k= 1=*!=

* Malchus descri0es his li!e in a !irst'"erson narrative to em"hasi>e the authenticit( o!the stor(=

/ Malchus was a tenant !armer 'colonus( on an estate o! a "rivate landlord and tied tothe "lace where he had 0een reistered=

For the ?desert o! Chalcis;< where erome is said to have s"ent some time< c!=Cha"ter 2=

4 C!= 7rov= 2/=1K 2 7et= 2=22=

6 C!= en= 3=*=

15 C!= k= 6=/2=

11 C!= n= 15=12=

12 8dessa +mod= Ir!a- was an im"ortant 0isho"ric in northern Meso"otamia=

13 The descendants o! A0raham;s son ,shmaelK c!= en= 1/=1*K 1=25K 21=4!!=K 2*=12!!=Kal= $=21!!= 8arl( Christian writers used the name to descri0e nomadic tri0es innorthern Ara0ia= ater< ,shmael was considered to 0e the ancestor o! the Ara0ian 0edouins=

1$ C!= en= 26!!= and 8x= 2=1*!!=

1* C!= 8"h= /=*=

-8:E-

1/ ,n the earl( church< women lived associated with men in s"iritual marriae= The(were called subintro"uctae or agapetae= The "ractice is o""osed 0( erome +c!= e==ep4 22=1$ and ep4 11=/!!=- and other Christian writers= The councils o! 8lvira +can4 2K A) 35/L-< Anc(ra +can4 16K A) 31$-< and icaea +can4 3K A) 32*- "assed
























canons aainst it=

1 C!= 7rov= /=/!!= and 35=2*< 0ut also 9er= Aen4 $=$52!!=

14 uter4 A leather 0a !or holdin water= ,t could also 0e in!lated and used to kee" a "erson a!loat in waterK c!= .) 211/< s4v4

16 C!= 9er= Aen4 2=25$=

25 C!= Sen= 6roa"4 *15'12 and &aendahl +16*4- 114=

21 That is the distance !rom the el0ow to the ti" o! the middle !iner +a0out a !oot and ahal!W$$$mm-=

22 A similiar stor( is to 0e !ound in Xeno"hon o! 8"hesus +$=/-< where Anthia isim"risoned in a ditch 0( two savae dos< which do her no harm< since the( are !edwell 0( a warder=

23 )erived !rom "romas +runnin-< "romas camelus 'R"rome"arius( descri0es a !ast'

movin camel=

2$ The "u# Mesopotamiae Sa0ianus is "erha"s to 0e identi!ied with the magistere-uitum per ,rientem 3*6'/5 Sa0inianusK c!= 7%8 i 44!=

2* Maronia=

1) T!E BIBLICAL SC!OLAR1 uscius anuvinus +that is ?!rom anuvium;-< who translated Menander< accused his

contem"orar( Terence +c= 165'*6 BC- o! "laiari>in reek "la(s and destro(in thecharacter o! the oriinal 0( interatin !orein material into the ?renderin;= Terence

re"lied to this criticism in his "roloues to which erome alludesK c!= Ter= An"r4 "rol=*!!=K 5un4 "rol= 23!= erome;s o""onent cannot 0e identi!ied< 0ut uscius anuvinusis also mentioned in Apol4 1=35 +CCL 6< "= 26-K c!= ardet +1663- 122!= and&a(ward +166*- 44!!= ,t is o0vious that erome wrote these lines to re!ute chares o! "laiarism=

2 9iril who was 0orn on 1* .cto0er 5 BC in Andes< a villae near Mantua=

3 C!= Suet= Vit4 Verg4 "= // %ei!!erscheid=

$ Marcus Tullius CiceroK c!= Guint< inst4 12=11=24=

* atin repetun"ae= ,t is a !ine "la( u"on the meanin o! the word= The -uaestio "erepetun"is was a court esta0lished in the late %oman

-8::-

%e"u0lic to secure com"ensation !or the illeal acquisition o! !orein "ro"ert( 0(%oman o!!icials=



























/ C!= Mt= =/=

For erome;s attacks aainst the detractors o! his scholarl( work< c!= #iesen +16/$-255!!= %u!inus was also called ?swine; and ?runter; '7runnius(+ c!= %e0enich+1662a- 25 and n= $1=

4 &or= Carm4 2=15=15'11=

6 C!= 7S= Guint= )ecl4 mai4 13=2=

15 9er= 5cl4 /=6'15=

11 For ?race; and ?eu"hon(; in his translations o! &e0rew texts< c!= &ier= ep4 15/=3K 26K**=

12 C!= &aendahl +16*4- 135: ?,! re!erences to secular authors< unless !ounded on !acts<are rarel( to 0e met with in this work< it is consonant with the warnin eromeex"resses in the "re!ace NO= ,n the "re!ace< however< he makes u" !or the loss= ,t is

a cento< com"osed o! o"en or hidden quotations=; &ere< as so o!ten< eromerhetoricall( denies the chare o! usin rhetoric and utili>es his classical erudition to "roclaim his inorance=

13 Throuhout the entire work< erome< as Eamesar +1663- 6 has em"hasi>ed< ?iscom"letel( "artial to the &e0rew text;= There!ore< he mentions errors in theSe"tuaint and ex"resses his reservations a0out the reek .ld Testament !rom the 0einninK c!= also &a(ward +166*- 62!!=

1$ it= ?0ark; 'latrare(=

1* C!= note 4 to Cha"ter 6= The idea that the Sevent( translators hid certain thins !rom7tolem( derives !rom ra00inical traditionK c!= &a(ward +166*- 6*=

1/ C!= *os4 Ant4 12=11=15'6K Contra Apionem 2=$/=

1 .n the three reek versions o! the .ld Testament that were re"roduced in .rien;s&exa"laK c!= note 6 to Cha"ter 6=

14 That is .rien= erome calls him Adamantius: ?the man o! steel;K c!= also &ier=Comm4 in 6it4 3=6 + PL 2/< /35)-=

16 C!= 9er= 7eorg4 $=1/=

25 From reek t2moi +i=e= detailed commentaries-= erome divided .rien;s exeetical

oeuvre in short treatises 'sch2lia(% homilies< and loner studies 't2moi(+ c!= e== histranslation Hom% in ,rig4 59ech= +7C& 33< "= 314-=

21 For erome;s use o! the ex"ression ?&e0rew verit(;< c!= QH7 13=1'$K

16= 1$'1*K $6=*'/ and a( +164*- 46!!= and 1$2!!=

22 .n the 0asis o! erome;s testimon(< Eamesar +1663- /!!= has arued that .rien wasnot in the !irst "lace concerned with the &e0rew























-8:H-

text and that his use o! the &exa"la is "rimaril( exeetical +contra autin 16O3$$!!= and others-=

23 This ex"ression ma( 0e an allusion to CiceroK c!= a( +164*- 2*!= re!errin to Cic= 3ep4 2=35=*2K ,ff4 3=1=/6K 6usc4 3=3K 3ab4Post4 1*=$1=

1+ T!E LITERAR< !ISTORIAN1 For erome;s !amil( and his social standin< c!= Eell( +16*- *!!= and %e0enich

+1662a- 22!!=

2 )almatiae Pannoniae-ue confinium4 confinium means a common 0oundar( 0etweentwo +or more- territoriesK c!= .) s4v4 The exact location o! Stridon is still su0ect toscholarl( dis"uteK it seems that the town was in the "rovince o! )almatia< not too

distant !rom Aquileia and 8monaK c!= Eell( +16*- 3!!=K Bratok +1665-K and %e0enich+1662a- 21 and n= $ =

3 Since Theodosius was "roclaimed Auustus on 16 anuar( 36< the !ourteenth (earo! his rein covers the "eriod !rom 16 anuar( 362 to 14 anuar( 363K c!= Barnes+2164*- 23*=

$ Accordin to autin +16430- and +164$a-< erome orani>ed the !ollowin list in!our di!!erent rou"s< which cover certain "eriods o! his li!e: +i- the ?desert "eriod;3$'K +ii- the sta( at Antioch and Constantino"le 3/'42K +iii- %ome 342'*K +iv-7alestine 34/'63= These rou"s are either arraned chronoloicall( or divided intosu0rou"s that are also "resented in chronoloical order=

* PL 23< 1'24=

/ 7erha"s &ier= ep4 1'1< 0ut see Schwind +166- 12 n= 3=

&ier= ep4 1$=

4 CCL 6B< ed= A= Canellis=

6 7C& $W 5usebius @erke < ed= %= &elmK c!= Cha"ter 6=

15 EG Homiliae in !eremiam + PL 2*< *4*'/62- and EG Homiliae in 59echielem +c!= 7C& 33< ed= #=A= Baehrens< ""= 314'$*$K &C 3*2< ed= M= Borret= The reek text is lost-=

11 &ier= ep4 14A and B +on ,s= /=1'6- accordin to &il0er;s edition in C&5L *$=

12 &ier= ep4 +16 and 25- on the meanin o! the word ?hosanna;=

13 &ier ep4 21 on k= 1*=11'32=

1$ &ier= e"= +3* and- 3/ on en= $=1*K 1*=1/ and 2=21!!=























1* That is< the translation o! two homilies o! .rien +c!= 7C& 33< ed= #=A= Baehrens< ""= 2'/5K &C 3 0is< ed= .= %ousseau= The reek text is lost-=

1/ PL 23< 143'25/ +163'21/-=

-8H9-

1 &ier= ep4 22=

14 C!= &ier= ep4 23'6K 32K 3$K 3'4< and $5'$= etsch'Brunner +1664- 1/$!!= arues thatep4 $3'$ are likel( to have 0een written a!ter erome had le!t %ome= For theh("othesis that ep4 33 +to 7aula-< the !amous list o! .rien;s works< was "art o! theoriinal collection 6o Marcella% c!= autin +164$a- 326!= erome;s inclusion o! theletters amon the literar( works listed here reveals that the( were written !or a wideraudience=

16 &ier= ep4 36= C!= Feichtiner +166*0-=

25 For erome;s commentaries and 0i0lical studies mentioned here< c!= Cha"ter /=

21 C!= Cha"ter 13=

22 C!= SC 34/< ed= = )outreleauK )outreleau +164-K Simonetti +1644-=

23 36 homilies o! .rien +c!= 7C& $6< ed= M= %auer< ""= 1'222K &C 4< ed= &= Crou>elet al4+ an 8nlish translation 0( =T= ienhard in 6he Fathers of the Christian

Church% vol= 6$< #ashinton< )C 166/-=

2$ ,t seems that all o! these tractates disa""eared with the exce"tion o! two on 7salms

15 and 1*< which are "art o! those !ourteen homilies which )om ermain Morindiscovered at the end o! the nineteenth centur( and which constitute an alternateseries o! erome;s tractatus in Psalmos+ c!= CCL 4< ""= 3*3'$$/K !or an 8nlishtranslation +0( M== 8wald-< c!= 6he Fathers of the Church% vol= *< #ashinton< )C16//< 3!!= The( have 0een stronl( in!luenced 0( .rienK c!= 7eri +1645-=

2* That is< 6he Life of Malchus the Captive Monk+ c!= Cha"ter 12=

2/ A= Bastiaensen< C= Moreschini< Vite "ei santi% vol= $< %ome 16*< 2'1$3K 261'31=C!= 7 23< 26!!=

2 C!= Cha"ter 12=

24 For the !irst "eriod o! erome;s residence at Bethlehem< not one letter addressed to7aula and 8ustochium has survivedK !or earlier letters< c!= &ier= ep4 22K 35K 31 +seeCha"ter 15-K 33K 36= So< this statement is o0viousl( a sliht exaeration= .n theother hand< man( o! his commentaries and translations are directed to 7aula and8ustochium or other no0le women= erome was even attacked 0( some o! hiso""onents !or encourain the scholarl( am0itions o! womenK c!= #iesen +16/$-114=




























26 The sequence o! commentaries listed here !ollows the canonical order= &owever<some manuscri"ts +and editions- alter the list as !ollows: Micah< Ra"haniah< ahum<&a00akuk< and &aai= .n the order in which these commentaries were written< c!=)uval< &C 323< 14!!= The( are an extremel( im"ortant source !or the exeetical

-8H8-

tradition o! earl( Christianit(< as< !or instance< the maor studies o! )uval +163-< a(+164*-< and Eamesar +1663- have shown=

35 There are man( additions to this cha"ter in later manuscri"ts mentionin other workso! eromeK c!= Feder +162- 111!!=

19 T!E TRANSLATOR1 ,n the atin text there is a "la( on words: )esi"erii mei "esi"eratas accepi epistulas=

)esiderius ma( 0e identi!ied with the addressee o! letter $/ and "erha"s also with a

corres"ondent o! 7aulinus o! ola and Sul"icius Severus who 0ore this nameK c!=%e0enich +1662a- 2$* and 7ietri and 7ietri +1666- **1 +)esiderius 2-=

2 That is an allusion to )an= 6=23 where )aniel< accordin to the 9ulate< is called vir

"esi"eriorum? ?man o! desires;= ,t is< however< more likel( that the &e0rew oriinalindicates that )aniel was reatl( 0eloved 0( od=

3 it= ?0arkin; 'latratus(=

$ For Theodotion< c!= note to Cha"ter 4=

* Mt= 2=1*=

/ Mt= 2=23=

n= 16=3=

4 n= =34=

6 1 Cor= 2=6=

15 &os= 11=1=

11 ,s= 11=1=

12 Rech= 12=15=

13 7rov= 14=$=

1$ ,s= /$=$=

1* The "olemic is directed aainst the teachin o! 7riscillian< 0isho" o! Avila +341'*-<and his !ollowersK c!= &ier= Comm4 in !s4 1=/$=$!= +CCL 3A< "= 3*-K ep4 125=15=2KC4 Vigil4 / + PL 23< 3/5B'C-K and Chadwick +16/- 21!=K Bartelink +1645- 64=


















%u00ish: neniae% lit= sons sun at a !uneral< 0ut the ex"ression is a""lied slihtinl(to literar( com"ositions=

1/ C!= note 4 to Cha"ter 4=

1 erome raises the question o! the divine ins"iration o! the translators and "rotests

aainst the notion that the( were ins"iredK c!= Cha"ter /=

14 Aristeas was an o!!icial at the court o! 7tolem(= A "seude"ira"hic letter is attri0utedto him in which the enesis o! the Se"tuaint is descri0ed +?etter o! Aristeas;-=

16 Flavius ose"hus +A) 3P34 to 0einnin o! second centur(-< the

-8H6-

reat ewish historian< was a 7harisee and mem0er o! a "riestl( !amil( in erusalem=For his *ewish Anti-uities% in twent( 0ooks< he also ada"ted ewish'&ellenistic

works like the Letter of Aristeas +12=11=156-= &e made it clear that the 7entateuchalone had 0een translated at 7tolem(;s request 0( the Sevent( translatorsK c!= os= Ant4 12=11=15'156K Contra Apionem 2=$/=

25 &ere< basilica% accordin to its et(molo(< means ?ro(al residence;=

21 erome mentions Cicero;s translations o! 7lato< Xeno"hon< and )emosthenes also inep4 *=*=2K c!= Bartelink +1645- $6!!= with !urther readin= )emosthenes; s"eech !n

)efence of Ctesiphon% delivered in 335 BC and also known as ,n the Crown% is anoratorical master"iece=

22 erome had alread( made this "oint in his 7re!ace to Hebrew Questions on 7enesis

to de!end himsel! aainst his detractors< c!= Cha"ter 13= There< he arued that thesevent( translators altered the texts o! Scri"ture 0ecause the( intended to disuise them(steries o! the advent o! Christ and to "revent Ein 7tolem( !rom thinkin thatews miht 0elieve in two deities= &ence< the &e0rew text is su"erior to theSe"tuaintK c!= Eamesar +1663- /4=

23 C!= 1 Cor= 12=24K 8"h= $=11=

2$ erome asks his o""onents to test the correctness o! his version< since ewishscholars su""orted his translatin "rorammeK c!= Cha"ter /=

2* 3eprobaverunt4 The translation !ollows an emendation "ro"osed 0( )= 9allarsiK c!=

PL 24< 143 n= 2= The manuscri"t readin is probaverunt which #e0erPr(son +"= $-and ardet +CCL 6< "= /3K &C 353< "= 1/- have ado"ted= But< then< as ardet +1663-222 has rihtl( o0served< erome has advanced ?aruments "ar l;a0surde;=

1/ T!E CONTRO4ERSIALIST1 C!= ,s= 13=21!= and 3$=1$'1/=

2 o0 3=4K $5=1*!!=





















3 9er= Aen4 4=163!!=

$ A m(thical three'0odied monster who lived in 8r(theaK c!= &es= 6heog4 24'6$KA"ollod= 2=15/'6K 9er= Aen4 /=246K &or= carm4 2=1$=!=

* That is< slee"( headK erome;s !avourite "la( on the name 9iilantiusK c!= also ep4 /1=$=2K 156=1 and 3= .ther o""onents were also ridiculed !or their name= ovinian;sname< !or instance< is derived !rom ove + A"v4 !ovin4 2=34 PL 23< 3*2B-K c!= #iesen+16/$- 225 n= //=

-8HB-

/ C!= A"v4 !ovin4 2=3 + PL 23< 3*5B-= 8u"hor0us wounded 7atroclus +&om= ,l=1/=45/!!=- and was killed 0( Menelaus +ibi"4 1=$*!!=-= 7(thaoras claimed to have 0een 8u"hor0us in a !ormer incarnationK c!= &or= carm4 1=24=6!!=

.n ovinian< c!= Cha"ter *=

4 ,s= 1$=21=

6 The Phasi"es aves ?are erome;s standard s(m0ol o! lutton(; +#iesen 16/$O223-=

15 9iilantius or his !ather was "erha"s the kee"er o! an innK c!= ep4 /1=3=2 +withre!erences to wine and mone(- and C4 Vigil4 4=

11 9iilantius; Aquitanian hometown has the same name as Guintilian;s 0irth"lace inS"ain< Calaurris +Calahorra-K c!= e== Crou>el +162- 163!=

12 C!= ,s= 1=22= The quotation ?has a dou0le sini!icance;= ,t is ?!requentl( used 0(Christian writers to descri0e the dilution o! the wine o! true reliion with the watero! heres(< 0ut erome also intends it as a slur on the "ro!ession o! 9iilantius;!ather; +#iesen 16/$O 223-=

13 C!= &ier= ep4 156=1=1< where 8xu"erius o! Toulouse is also attacked=

1$ er= *=4=

1* 7s= 32+31-=6=

1/ !bi"4

1 &ier= ep4 11= C!= #iesen +16/$- 4$!=K %e0enich +1662a- 242!!=K ]ssl +1664-=

14 ovinian also is said to have vomited !orth his work like a sot a!ter a niht;sde0auchK c!= A"v4 !ovin4 1=1 + PL 23< 222A-=

16 C!= ennad= vir4ill4 3*=

25 it= neniae+ c!= note 1* to Cha"ter 1*=


























21 From atin convenire% to come toether= For the histor( o! Convenae +WudunumConvenae-< c!= M= ,hm in P@ $=1< 1655< 112=

22 The Vectones or Vettones were a tri0e in north'eastern usitania=

23 reek and %oman writers used the ex"ression Celti0erians to descri0e di!!erent "eo"le +such as the Arrebaci or Arevaci- who lived in middle S"ain=

2$ The !ormer Soloi= 7om"e( settled some o! the de!eated "irates there and called thecit( 7om"eio"olis= ,t is to 0e distinuished !rom 7om"eio"olis in 7a"hlaonia<which was !ounded 0( naeus 7om"eius Manus soon a!terwards +/*'$ BC-=

2* vincula Hippocratis +?&i""ocrates; shackles;- are also recommended in &ier= ep4 156=2=*K in ep4 12*=1/=3< he re!ers to Hippocratis fomenta +?&i""ocrates; !oments;-=For this medical thera"(< c!= Theodoret= affect4 1=* +&C *< "= 15*- and Temkin+1661- $*=

'16$'

2/ C!= Acts 1$=11!!=

2 Acts 15=2/=

24 C!= &ier< vir4ill4 K 7hilost= Hist4eccl4 3=2 +"= 31!= Bide>P#inkelmann-K Chron=7asch= s4a4 3*/ und 3* +C&HB% ed= = )indor!< "= *$2-K 7roc"= ae"if4 1=$=14 and %e0enich+25550-=

26 C!=Chron= 7asch= s4a4 $5/ and $11 +C&HB% ed= = )indor!< "= */6!!=-= Thetranslation o! the remains o! Samuel illustrates the im"ortance o! the rowincollection o! relics at Constantino"leK c!= )eleha(e +21633- ** and )aron +2164$-$54!=

35 Mt= 22=32K Mk= 12=2/!=

31 A"oc= 1$=$=

32 There is an alternative readin< ?shut u" in the co!!in; +area instead o! ara-K c!= PL 23< 3*6 and n= 2=

33 C!= A"oc= /=15=3$ C!= 8x= 32=35!!=

3* C!= Acts =*6!=

3/ C!= Acts 2=3=

3 C!= 8ccles= 6=$=





















34 C!= n= 11=11=

36 C!= 1 Thess= $=13=

$5 This is an allusion to the !ourth 0ook o! 8sdrasP8>ra +=3*!!=-< which< like ,,,8sdras< erome reected as uncanonicalK c!= &ier= Vulg4 5s"4 "rol= +"= /34 #e0er-=

$1 That is Mani +21/'-< the !ounder o! the Manichaean reliion=

$2 Balsamus< Bar0elus< and eusi0oras are connected with the oriins o! nosticism=The ?Thesaurus o! Mani; is also mentioned 0( Auustine +c!= e== contra Fel4 1=1$-as "art o! Mani;s writins where nostic traditions are ado"tedK its identi!ication iscontroversial=

$3 Christian authors associated nosticism with the teachin o! Basilides who tauhtat Alexandria in the second quarter o! the second centur(=

$$ This malicious recommendation is also to 0e !ound in other o! erome;s invectivesK

c!= e== &ier= ep4 *=13=1 and Bartelink +1645- 121K #iesen +16/$- 223!=$* it= neniae+ c!= note 1* to Cha"ter 1*=

$/ %om= 15=2=

$ C!= Mt= 2/=4!!=K Mk= 1$=$!!=

$4 %om= 1$=* +%9: ?et each man 0e !ull( assured in his own mind;-=

$6 C!= Mt= 2*=1!!=

*5 C!= k= 12=3*=

*1 n= *=3*=

*2 7s= 116+114-=15*=

'16*'

*3 C!= Cic= Verr4 2=1=$5 and &aendahl +16*4- 2$/=

*$ Bisho" o! C(>icus in M(sia +3*6'/5-< who held Anomoean'Arian views< died in 36$=

** The 7hr(ian Montanus +second hal! o! the second centur(- initiated an a"ocal("tic

movement= The Montanists lived in ex"ectation o! the out"ourin o! the 7araclete onthe church< o! which the( saw the !irst mani!estation in their own "ro"hets and "ro"hetesses= Montanism soon develo"ed ascetic !eatures=

*/ That is< antidote to the scor"ion;s 0ite= Tertullian;s work &corpiace de!ends themoral value o! mart(rdom aainst nostic relativism= For erome;s view o!Tertullian< c!= Mohrmann +16*1- 111!=

* Cainites were a nostic sect mentioned 0( ,renaeus +haer4 1=31- and other Christian








































virtual inclusion o! himsel! in the ranks o! the a"ostles and mart(rs and hisdesination o! 9iilantius; o""osition as 0las"hem(=;

13 T!E T!RENODIST1 7rinci"ia is also the addressee o! &ier= ep4 /* ex"lainin 7salm $$ and received a

co"( o! erome;s commentar( on MatthewK she asked erome to comment u"on the&ong of &ongs +&ier= Comm4 in Mt4 "rol= CCL < "= /O-= 7rinci"ia had dedicatedhersel! to a li!e o! chastit( and was a !riend o! Marcella !or man( (ears= C!= 7%8 ii65$ and Feichtiner +166*a- 21*!!=

2 C!= Cic= Att4 13=$*=1=

3 C!= &ier= ep4 /5=1=1: epotianus meus% tuus% noster +?m( e"otianus< (ours< ours;-<and Fave> +163- 131=

$ For Marcella;s !amil(< see 7%8 i *$2!= +Marcella 2- and 1134 +stemma 13-K etsch'Brunner +1664- 23!!= +with !urther readin-K and 2* +stemma-= For erome;s re!usal

to "raise the lineae o! the deceased< c!= &ier= ep4 /5=4=1K =2=3K 6=2=1K 154=3=1K135=3!=K and Scour!ield +1663- 13/!=

* For erome;s ascetic rede!inition o! no0ilit(< c!= &ier= ep4 1=6=2K /5=4=1K 15=13=$K154=1=1K 135==11=

/ Marcella;s mother Al0ina +7%8 i 32 Al0ina 1O- had "erha"s married a descendanto! Claudius Marcellus +7%8 i **2 Marcellus 15O-< who was Praefectus urbis

3omae 262'3K c!= Chastanol +16/2- 25!= Marcella was 0orn c4 33*'$5K c!= Barnes+1663- 2*$ n= 2$ and etsch'Brunner +1664- 26K 23 n= 1=

&er hus0and;s name is not known=

4 aeratius Cerealis +7%8 i 16!!= Cerealis 2O-< Praefectus urbis 3omae 3*2'3 andconsul 3*4< descended !rom one o! the most "rominent %oman !amilies= &e was a 0rother o! 9ulcacius %u!inus< consul 3$ and "raetorian "re!ect< and o! alla< thewi!e o! Constantine;s 0rother ,ulius Constantius and mother o! allus CaesarK c!=Chastanol +16/2- 13*!=K etsch'Brunner +1664- 26!!=

6 k= 2=3/!=

15 For male"icta civitas% c!= Cic= Cael4 34K Flac4 /4K and illiam +16*3- 15/=

-8HE-

11 7S= 116+114-=1=

12Mt= *=2*= &ere< erome o!!ers two translations o! the reek oriinal: Yisthieuno2nZ\esto benevolus and esto bene sentiens= The latter is the literal translation o!the reek ex"ression= ,n the 9ulate< however< we read: esto consentiens ?come toterms with;=





























13 erome o!ten uxta"oses the vices o! worldl( women and the virtues o! the saintl(ascetics= Clothin and make'u" are !avourite to"icsK c!= e== &ier= ep4 22=1/=2K22=32=1K 34=3!=K 15=*=1K 15=15=1K 124=2=1!=K 124=3=*=

1$ erome "raises e"otian< ucinus< e0ridius< 7aula and others who ave their

"ossessions to the "oorK c!= e== &ier= ep4 /5=125=1K *=$=1K 6=$=1K 154=*=1= For thetheoloical motivation and social !unction o! almsivin in late antiquit(< c!=%e0enich +2551- with !urther readin=

1* The conversion to asceticism did not dissolve the traditional structure o! anaristocratic household= The num0er o! clients< here descri0ed as widows and virins<still de!ined the social standin o! a mem0er o! the %oman no0ilit(= #hen 7aula le!t%ome in 34*< ?man( virins; oined her< and the !irst inha0itants o! her monasteriesin Bethlehem were her %oman male and !emale slaves 'servi et ancillae(+ c!= &ier=ep4 154=2=2 and 1$=$=

1/ C!= &ier= ep4 6=6=1=

1 7S= 116+114-=11=

14 7S= 1=2=

16 For the meditation on the law< c!= also &ier= ep4 *2==1K /5=11=3K 155=3=3=

25 1 Cor= 15=31=

21 7s= 116+114-=15$=

22 Acts 1=1=

23 Croesus was a !amiliar instance adduced to illustrate reat wealthK c!= e== &ier= ep4 *3=11=3K *=12=*K /5=11=2K 4$=$=*K 114=*=$K 12*=15=1= For erome;s use o! "aane#empla% c!= %e0enich +16620-=

2$ C!= 1 Tim= *=23= For erome;s attitude to !astin< c!= rimm +166/- 1*!!=

2* erome de!ended the veneration o! mart(rs in Against Vigilantius and in ep4 156K c!=Cha"ter 1/=

2/ For the "aan and Christian o""osition to ascetic conversion< c!= ordini +1643-K%e0enich +1662a- 15!!K and Sivan +16630-=

2 For Athanasius; sta( in %ome c4 3$5 and the oriins o! the monastic movement in%ome< c!= Barnes +1663- $!!K enal +166*-K and etsch'Brunner +1664- *1!!= with!urther readin= 7eter succeeded Athanasius at Alexandria in 33< 0ut was ex"elled 0( his theoloical

-8H:-

o""onents and took re!ue with the %oman 0isho" )amasus= ,n 3< he attended a





















s(nod at %ome= The title ?"o"e; +reek: or K atin: papa% ?!ather;- was !romthe third centur( used as an honori!ic desination o! an( 0isho"K in the eastern "art o!the %oman 8m"ire< however< it seems to have 0een con!ined to the 0isho" o!Alexandria= ,t was not until the sixth centur( that the word papa was reserved !or the 0isho" o! %omeK c!= .;Brien +1635- 4*= Anton( o! 8("t +c4 2*5L3*/- was aher mit who lived a li!e o! asceticism and retired com"letel( into the desertK theevidence !or his 0iora"h( is the Vita Antonii 'Life of Anton$( o!ten rearded as 0(Athanasius= 7achomius is the !ather o! coeno0itic Christian monasticism= A0out 325<he !ounded a monaster( at Ta0ennisi in the The0aid near the ile< where he soonattracted lare num0ers o! monks=

24 A no0le %oman lad( who !ollowed Marcella;s exam"leK c!= 7%8 ii 1521= For otheraristocratic women who ado"ted the ascetic li!e< c!= Feichtiner +166*a- 1/4!!=

26 The "hrase comes !rom the 0einnin o! 8nnius; translation o! the Me"ea +8nnius< Me"ea e#ul !r= 1=1: utinam ne in nemore Pelio securibus] Caesa acci"isset abiegna

a" terram trabes NP&ad the axe these "inetrees !elledO-= erome quotes 8nnius toex"ress his rie! !or the loss o! two no0le women=

35erome derives Madala !rom the &e0rew word !or ?tower;< Ymig"alZ=

31 C!= n= 25=1$!!=

32 A manuscri"t o! the twel!th centur( and some editions add: contemptae-uenobilitatis ac "ivitiarum maiorem gloriam "ucimus? ?and hold those to 0e worth( o!hiher lor( who have renounced 0oth rank and wealth;= &il0er< in his 9iennaedition o! erome;s letter< has not ado"ted this readinK c!= C&5L */=1< "= 1$6 comm4a" loc=

33 C!= n= 14=1*!=

3$ C!= n= 16=2/!=

3* Tertullian< )e monogamia 1< called him ?Christ;s eunuch;=

3/ C!= 7lat= Phae"o /$aK /eK 45e'41a= The dictum is likel( to have 0ecome known toerome throuh Cic= 6usc4 1=35=$K c!= &aendahl +16*4- 2*5 and 353K Scour!ield+1663- 143!=

3 1 Cor= 1*=31= The quotation !rom 7aul is connected with the 7latonic sa(in also in

&ier= ep4 /5=1$=2 and Am0r= e#c4&at4 2=3*K c!= Scour!ield +1663- 14$!!=34 k= 1$=2=

36 7s= $$=22=

$5 8cclus= =3/=























-8HH-

$1 7ers= &at4 *=1*3= ote the com0ination o! 0i0lical and classical quotations in this "arara"hK c!= &aendahl +16*4- 353 and Bur>acchini +16*- *$=

$2 C!= %om= 12=1=

$3 For erome;s ourne( to %ome in 342< c!= Cha"ter $=

$$ 2 Tim= $=2=

$* Marcella;s scri"tural studies can 0e seen as an intellectual activit( which trans!ormedthe traditional aristocratic "ractice o! otium into an ascetic disci"line< c!= Feichtiner+166*a- 13=

$/atin: aptum +c!= Guint< inst4 11=1=1!!=- means ?the suita0le< a""ro"riate< !ittin;<

0oth in morals and in rhetoric +c!= Arist= rhet4 3=K Cic= ,rat4 5-= For interation o!

this conce"t into ancient ethics< c!= Cic= ,ff4 1=15!!=K 11*!!=K 1$$=$ 1 Tim= 2=12= .n this to"ic in "atristic discourse< c!= rn0er +1644-=

$4 iterall(: ?a nail;s width; 'unguis(+ c!= Cic= Att4 13=25=$=

$6 There are various theories concernin the location o! Marcella;s suburbanus ager% and some have identi!ied it with an im"erial estate at the 9ia omentanaK c!= etsch'Brunner +1664- $1!!=

*5 Since erome and Marcella did not exchane letters 0etween 34* and 363< autin+164$a- 335!!= has conectured that a!ter erome had le!t %ome in 34* discord was 0rouht into his relation with Marcella who ma( have su""orted even erome;secclesiastical rival Siricius= C!= also Feichtiner +166*a- 1*!= &owever< etsch'Brunner +1664- 12!!= has recentl( re!uted autin;s theor(=

*1 erome continues to descri0e the .rienist controvers(K c!= Cha"ter *=

*2 For the "rover0ial ex"ression< c!= &ier= ep4 =*K Apol4 3=2$ +CCL 6< "= 6/- and .tto+1465- 2/ !=K ardet +1663- 323=

*3 C!= 8>= 3$=14=

*$erome "la(s u"on words: the meanin o! Y2lbiosZ is identical with that o!

Ymak^riosZ? ?0lessed< ha""(< !ortune;= Macarius was a %oman no0le and su""orter o!%u!inus who traslated .riens treatise ,n First Principle at his requestK c!=8=A=clark+1622- 12/K 7%8 ii /6/ +Macarius 1-=

**erome uses the reek word Y"i^p$rosZ=

*/ Pharisaeorum schola desinates the %oman cler( who o""osed eromeK c!= ?thesenate o! the 7harisees; in &ier= )id(m= spit4 "rol= +&C 34/< "= 13/!!=-K Cavaller































+1662- ii 4/!!=K autin +1643a- 3$5!!=

* C!= %om= 1=4=

*4 The %oman 0isho" Siricius +34$'66-< the successor o! )amasus< su""orted %u!inus<here denounced as hereticus= For the literar( sources o! erome;s estimate o!

Siricius< c!= Adkin +166/0-=

-699-

*6 C!= al= 1=15=

/5 C!= k= 1/=4=

/1 %u!inus o0tained a letter !rom Siricius when he le!t %ome !or AquileiaK c!= &ier= Apol4 3=21K$ +CCL 6< "= 62=6/-K Cavallera +1622- i 2$ n= 2K autin +162K 163- 21and n= 15$=

/2 Siricius; successor Anastasius , +366'$52-< who 0acked the ascetic movement< showed !avour to erome and his %oman circle= .0viousl(< Marcella and7ammachius had "ressed him to convoke a s(nod at %ome in $55 which condemned.rien;s 0las"hemiesK c!= Eell( +16*- 2$/!!=K 7ietri +16/- 65*!!=K 1244!!=

/3 The ?head o! the world; 'orbis ca put( is %ome= erome alludes to the !all o! %ome in$15= Anastasius died in $52= For erome;s sentiments towards %ome< c!= Suano+1643- and aurence +166c-=

/$ er= 1$=1 ,!= The words concernin ,srael are a""lied to %ome=

/* Some manuscri"ts read: postea ab heretico fuerant errors correpti instead o!correcti +i=e= ?then the( had 0een corru"ted 0( their heretical teachin;-K c!= &il0erin C&5L */=1< "= 1*3=

// %u!inus= Since the .rienist controvers(< erome had called his !ormer !riend ?thescor"ion;< ?the ross swine;< and the ?runtin "i; '7runnius(+ c!= Cavallera +1622-ii 131!!=

/ C!= 9er= Aen4 11=3/1 and Adkin +16660-=

/4 k= 14=4=

/6 C!= Mt= 2$=12=

5 C!= al= 2=13=

1 A vitriolic onslauht t("ical o! erome= ,t is di!!icult to decide whom erome re!ersto as Barna0as= ohn o! erusalem has 0een su""osed< who was an all( o! %u!inusand excommunicated erome and his communit( at Bethlehem in 36* +c!= Cha"ter*-= But the allusion is "erha"s to %u!inus aainK c!= PL 22< 156$ n= +d-=

2 7s= 15$+153-=26=




























3 C!= 7s= 1$/+1$*-=$=

$ k= 12=25=

* The Canaanite name !or erusalem=

/ B( Alaric in A) $54K c!= Matthews +21665- 24$!!= and &eather +1661- 213!!=

Aain 0( Alaric< A) $56=

4 B( Alaric on 2$ Auust A) $15= For Christian reactions on the !all o! %ome< c!=Strau0 +16*5- 2$6!!=K 7aschoud +16/- 214!!=K )oinon +1665-= #hen erome heard!or the !irst time that %ome was 0esieed 0( Alaric< he exclaimed: -ui" salvum est%

si 3oma perit ?,! %ome 0e lost< where shall we look !or hel"L; +&ier= ep4 123=1/=$-=

-698-

For a detailed descri"tion o! the events< c!= e== Seeck +1621P2- v< 361!!=

6 Canni0alism is also attested 0( other writersK c!= e== .l(m"= !r= =1 Blockle( and7roco"= Bell4Van"4 1=2=2=

45 ,s= 1*=1=

41 C!= 7S= 6+4-= 1'3= The !irst verse is translated accordin to the text o! theSe"tuaintK the &e0rew oriinal reads: ?NO the( have de!iled (our hol( tem"le andlaid erusalem in ruins=;

42 C!= 9er= Aen4 2=3/1'* and 3/6= erome quotes the whole o! vv= 3/1'$ and com0ines

vv= 3/* and 3/6= &e causes a dramatic e!!ect ?0( "lacin toether without an( "relude< and without an( intermediar( link< two Bi0licalO texts and the su0lime9irilian lines a0out the ruin o! Tro(; +&aendahl 16*4O 2*6-= For the use o!9eril;s Aeneid to illustrate the 0ar0arian incursions into the %oman 8m"ire< c!=Courcelle +16/-=

43 9er= Aen4 /=2//=

4$ o0 1=21 accordin to the Se"tuaint= The &e0rew text reads: ?aked came , out o!m( mother;s wom0< and naked shall , return whence , came= The ord ives and theord takes awa(K 0lessed 0e the name o! the ord=;

4* Some manuscri"ts have post ali-uot "ies? ?a!ter a !ew da(s;=4/ e"otianus too died smilin< while ever(one around him we"tK c!= &ier= ep4 /5=13=2=

4 erome quite o!ten mentions that his work was done 0( lam"liht late at niht +atin:lucubratiuncula or lucubratio- or that he had to dictate in reat hurr(< to em"hasi>ehis scholarl( restlessness and literar( assiduit(= For erome;s redaction o! hiswritins< c!= Arns +16*3- 3!!=



























17 T!E ASCETIC E6PERT1 C!= Cic= 3ep4 !r= * +"= 13 Rieler-=

2 C!= &om= !l4 1=2*$6WCic= &en4 15=31K 7s= 116+114-=153=

3 Prophetarum 4 A nice exam"le o! erome;s e!!ort to demonstrate his knowledeo! reek=

$ C!= &or= &at4 1=1=2*!=

* genus femineum est4 Aain< erome inserts a reek word to show his erudition=

/ C!= um= 11=

C!= .v= Am4 1=4=15$=

4 7rov= *=3 +accordin to the Se"tuaint-=

-696-

6 C!= A"oc= 15=6!=

15 C!= ev= 2=11=

11 C!= 8x= 2*=/K 2=25=

12 C!= 8x= 12=4=

13 1 Cor= *=4=

1$ er= 1*=1 +accordin to the Se"tuaint-=

1* C!= 1 Cor= =25K =2$=

1/ 1 Cor= =14=

1 C!= en= 3=21!!=

14 C! = en= 3=2*=

16 C!= 1 Thess= $=$=

25 er= 2=13=

21 C!= 7rov= *=1*=

22 C!= 1 Cor= =21!!=




























23 1 7et= 3==

2$ 8"h= *=13=

2* A "la( on words: "um infantem Pacatulam institua YTZ multarum subito male

mihi pacatarum be lia suscepi=

2/ se#us femineus4 For erome< 7acatula is a (oun womanK there!ore< his mainconcern is !eminine trainin and not the education o! a child=

2 C!= &or= Carm4 3=1/=1= )anaU was the m(tholoical dauhter o! Acrisius< kin o!Aros< and 8ur(dice= Acrisius im"risoned her in a 0ron>e cham0er to "rotect hervirinit(< since he had 0een warned 0( an oracle that his dauhter;s son would killhim= But Reus visited )anaU in a shower o! old< and she ave 0irth to 7erseus=

24 C!= 1 Tim= *=13=

26 The Christian ideal o! womanhood has interated traditional elements o! !emale

conduct "raised 0( "aan authors +e== chastit(< sexual "urit(< ravit(-K c!= e== iv=1=*4=*K 7lin= ep4 =16=$K Funke +16/$P*-K Strau0 +16/4-= #ool'workin ands"innin were "art o! the traditional occu"ation o! a %oman matron=

35 C!= &ier ep4 135=16=1=

31 C!= Curt= /=3=11=

32 7u0= S(r= &ent4 *2 +"= 145 %i00eck< Comicorum 3omanorum Fragmenta(= Alsoquoted in &ier= ep4 15=4=1=

33 That is< 7aris< the son o! 7riam< who a0ducted &elen to Tro(< which was the causeo! the Troan #ar= &e is also called Alexander=

3$ For erome;s critical statement o! the ascetic "ractices o! no0le women< c!= #iesen+16/$- 1$*K on Christian "olemics aainst women in eneral< see Thraede +162-2*/!!=K on the traditional sources o! erome;s criticism< c!= aurence +16640-=

3* For erome;s reaction to the sack o! %ome 0( Alaric< c!= also ep4

'253'

12/=2K 12=11!= +Cha"ter 1-K and Comm4 in 59ech4 3< "rol= +CCL *< "= 6!=-= Shortl( 0e!ore %ome was sacked< he asked: ?#here shall we look !or hel"< i! %ome 0e lost

'-ui" salvum sit% si 3oma perit(L; +ep4 123=1/=$-K c!= also Strau0 +16*5-K #iesen+16/$- $*!=K and Suano +1643- *$!!=

3/ C!= &ier= ep4 123=1$=/ and Tert= Apol4 36=1*=

3 C!= um= 1/=$/!!=

34 8x= 32=15=






























36 %om= 6=3=

$5 C!= ,s= 2$=2=

$1 8x= 32=32=

$2 7rov= 1$=24=$3 audentius was 7acatula;s !ather= othin else is known o! himK c!= 7%8 ii $63

+audentius $- and 7ietri and 7ietri +1666- 462 +audentius 15-= ,n older editions<the letter is addressed to him 'A" 7au"entium(% 0ut accordin to ,= &il0er;s criticaledition +C&5L */=1< "= 1*/- 7acatula was its reci"ient=

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Documents

Stefan Rebenich, Jerome