State of the Air in Australia 1999-2008 - Department …...6 | State of the Air in AustraliaSummAry this State of the Air report provides an analysis of air quality from 1999–2008

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State of the Air in Australia1999–2008

© Commonwealth of Australia 2010

This work is copyright. You may download, display, print and reproduce this material in unaltered form only (retaining this notice) for your personal, non-commercial use or use within your organisation. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney General’s Department, Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 or posted at www.ag.gov.au/cca.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities.

While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

Maps

Coastline and State Borders data is Copyright (1998) Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia

Digital Elevation Model 3 second Jarvis A., H.I. Reuter, A. Nelson, E. Guevara, 2006, Hole-filled seamless SRTM data V3, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), available from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org.

Air Monitoring Station data provided by Air Quality Section October 2010

Data used are assumed to be correct as received from the data suppliers.

© Commonwealth of Australia 2011

Produced by ERIN for the Air Quality Section, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, January 2011.

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Acknowledgement

The Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities prepared this report using air quality data provided by states and territories. Each jurisdiction nominated a technical officer as a point of contact to provide advice on data issues. The department greatly appreciates the help of the following officers: David Power (ACT), Paul Purdon (NT), Michael Groth (Tas.), Alan Betts (NSW), Arthur Grieco (WA), Rob Mitchell (SA), Don Neale (Qld) and Andrew Marshall (Vic).

The department would also like to acknowledge the Bureau of Meteorology, especially John Shortridge, for managing the national air quality database and Environment Link (Catherine Wilson, Jack Chiodo and Graeme Lorimer) for data analysis.

A steering committee of representatives from state and territory environment and health agencies helped with the initial planning of the report, provided advice on policy and other issues, and helped in reviewing the draft report. A special word of thanks goes to Anne-Louise Crotty (NSW), Bob Hyde (Tas.), David Wainwright (Qld), Paul Torre (Vic.), Mike Manton, John Dempsey (Australian Government), Kristie Stevens (WA), and Robert Mitchell and Pauline Weckert (SA).

Finally, the department would like to acknowledge contributors who provided input into the content and scope of the initial consultation paper of the State of the Air report.

2 | State of the Air in Australia

contentS

Summary 5

About this report 13

Scope of the report 14

Data sources 14

Structure of the report 15

1. Measuring and assessing air quality in Australia 17

1.1 Air quality standards 18

Air quality monitoring networks 29

1.2 Air quality assessment 25

Air quality index 25

Calculating the AQI 25

1.3 Data presentation 26

2. State and trends of air pollution 29

2.1 Ozone 30

Nature of ozone 30

Sources of ozone precursors 30

Health effects of ozone 31

State and trends of ozone pollution 33

2.2 Particulate matter 60

Nature of particulate matter 60

Sources of particulate matter 61

Health effects of particulate matter 62

State and trends of particle pollution 62

3

2.3 Carbon monoxide 107

Nature of carbon monoxide 107

Sources of carbon monoxide 107

Health effects of carbon monoxide 108

State and trends of carbon monoxide pollution 108

2.4 Nitrogen dioxide 115

Nature of nitrogen dioxide 115

Sources of nitrogen dioxide 115

Health effects of nitrogen dioxide 115

State and trends of nitrogen dioxide pollution 115

2.5 Sulfur dioxide 128

Nature of sulfur dioxide 128

Sources of sulfur dioxide 128

Health effects of sulfur dioxide 128

State and trends of sulfur dioxide pollution 128

2.6 Lead 147

Nature of lead 147

Sources of lead 147

Health effects of lead 147

State and trends of lead pollution 148

2.7 National summary 150

Ozone 150

Particulate matter 154

Carbon monoxide 157

Nitrogen dioxide 157

Sulfur dioxide 158

Lead 158

2.8 International comparisons 160

3. Air pollution and health 163

3.1 Who is at risk? 164

3.2 Public health 164

3.3 Cost of air pollution 167


4. Air pollution management 169

4.1 Air pollution monitoring 170

4.2 Emissions control strategies 172

Fuel quality standards 172

Emissions standards for new motor vehicles 172

Wood heaters 176

Managing industrial emissions 176

4.3 Other strategies 176

Tracking pollutant emissions 176

Air pollution research 178

5. Air quality outlook 179

5.1 Pressures and challenges 180

Transport 180

Road congestion 181

Energy consumption 182

Climate change 183

5.1 Future responses 184

Vehicle emissions standards 184

Low carbon energy future 185

References 188

Glossary and abbreviations 190

List of figures & tables 193

5

SummAry

Levels and trends 6

Ozone 7

Particles 8

Carbon monoxide 9

Nitrogen dioxide 9

Sulfur dioxide 9

Lead 9

Health impacts of air pollution 9

Air quality management 10

Air quality outlook 10


SummArythis State of the Air report provides an analysis of air quality from 1999–2008 in Australia’s major urban and regional monitoring regions.

Air quality is assessed against the national ambient air quality standards set for pollutants in the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure (AAQ NEPM). Air quality is also compared to an air quality index (AQI) as a guide for people who are especially sensitive to air pollution.

In the AQI, air quality is rated Very Good if pollution levels are less than a third of the standard; Good if levels are between one-third and two-thirds of the standard; Fair if levels are between two-thirds and 99 per cent of the standard; and Poor to Very Poor if levels are more than 100 per cent of the standard or more.

Levels and trends

In the last decade there have been significant decreases in the levels of a number of air pollutants. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and lead levels have all declined in urban air to levels significantly below the national air quality standards. The air quality rating for all these pollutants is Good or Very Good in most regions, apart from in a few mining and industrial centres.

These improvements are largely because of better standards for fuel quality and motor vehicle emissions.

Ozone and particulate matter levels did not decrease in the assessment period. Occasionally peak ozone levels approached or exceeded the national standards in some Australian cities. Peak particulate matter levels frequently exceeded the standards in nearly all regions.

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Ozone

Ozone is not emitted directly from sources, but forms in the presence of sunlight from nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds emitted from motor vehicles and industrial and domestic sources.

Sydney and the Illawarra regions of New South Wales generally experience higher ozone levels than other regions. In the past decade, ozone levels in these regions exceeded the standards in most years. Peak ozone levels in other regions vary from year to year, and only occasionally exceed the standards, if at all (See Figure 1 in which levels are shown in parts per million or ppm).

In the Sydney region, ozone achieves a Fair air quality rating most of the time. In other regions peak ozone levels generally achieve a Good air quality rating.

Episodes of elevated ozone levels in New South Wales and other regions are seasonal and occur in the warmer months when there is plenty of sunlight. They are generally short-lived and last only a few hours. High ozone levels are often associated with regional bushfires.

Figure 1: Average maximum 1-hour average ozone levels in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in selected capital cities

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Melbourne Sydney Brisbane Perth

NEPM standard


Particles

Particles are emitted either directly from a range of natural sources and human activities; or are formed indirectly by conversion of precursor pollutants through photochemical processes.

Peak PM10

levels commonly exceeded the national standard in the assessment period in all parts of Australia. See Figure 2 below for a distribution of exceedence days in different regions.

Peak particle levels tend to be seasonal and are most often associated with summer dust storms, bushfires and prescribed burning, which can affect entire regions.

Figure 2: The annual average number of PM10 exceedence days (1999–2008)

When the peak PM10

levels (that is, the top 5 per cent of measurements) are excluded, PM

10 measurements achieve a Good to Fair

air quality rating in most parts of Australia.

Regional cities in south-eastern Australia generally have slightly poorer air quality ratings for particles than major cities. This is most likely because regional cities bear the brunt of bushfire smoke and dust storms. Regional cities also tend to be affected more by wood heaters and hazard reduction burns, and inland cities by agricultural activities. Many of these sources are seasonal (such as wood heater smoke in winter).

In urban centres, traffic and industrial emissions are significant sources of particles all year round.

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Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide forms during incomplete combustion and its main sources are motor vehicles and other combustion activities.

Peak carbon monoxide levels generally achieve a Very Good air quality rating and are less than one-third to one-fifth of the national standard in all regions. Carbon monoxide levels have declined across Australia in the last decade largely because of improved emission controls on motor vehicles.

Nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide is a product of combustion and its main sources are motor vehicle exhaust, electricity generation and other combustion-related activities.

Peak nitrogen dioxide levels achieve a Good to Very Good air quality rating in all regions. Levels are generally less than a half to one-third of the national standard or lower.

Levels of nitrogen dioxide have generally remained fairly steady in the last decade, but have decreased from some two decades ago.

Nitrogen dioxide is still a pollutant of concern because of its role as a precursor for ozone formation.

Sulfur dioxide

In Australia the main sources of sulfur dioxide are electricity generation from coal, oil or gas and processing of metal and mineral ores that contain sulfur.

Sulfur dioxide levels are low in urban areas across Australia for all of the averaging times and achieve a Very Good air quality rating. No urban sites exceeded the national standards and peak levels were generally less than one-third of the standard.

Sulfur dioxide levels are higher in regional towns near industrial centres with smelting operations. In these regions, levels commonly exceed the standard and the air quality rating can occasionally be Poor to Very Poor.

Lead

Lead levels have decreased significantly in urban environments over the last two decades after the introduction of unleaded petrol. Levels are now less than 10 per cent of the national standard.

Lead levels can be high in some regional towns with large industrial point sources, and levels may exceed the national standards.

Lead differs from the other air pollutants in that it stays in the environment and can enter the body by breathing in contaminated air or by ingesting contaminated dust, food or water. Exposure through all of these pathways should be avoided.

Health impacts of air pollution

Air pollution is an important public health issue and imposes high health and monetary costs on the community and governments. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (Begg et al, 2007) estimated that urban air pollution was responsible for more than 3000 premature deaths in 2003, mainly of the elderly. This was almost twice the number of deaths caused by traffic accidents in the same year. Heart disease was the most common cause of death from long-term exposure to air pollution (Figure 3).

Air pollution also exacerbates asthma and contributes to other respiratory illnesses in children and the elderly. Asthma was the leading cause of disease in children in 2003.


Figure 3: The proportion of deaths attributed to long-term exposure to urban air pollution

Air quality management

Air quality management in Australia is complex and responsibilities lie with all levels of government—federal, state and local. At the national and state level, air quality management focuses on monitoring air quality to ensure it meets national air quality standards; and on implementing programs (both regulatory and non-regulatory) to reduce emission directly from pollution sources.

To date, national vehicle emissions standards and fuel quality standards have greatly contributed to reducing emissions from motor vehicles and improving air quality. These improvements are expected to continue in the future. Targeted pollutant reduction activities carried out by individual states and territories have also been successful (see chapter 4 for more information).

Governments also support scientific research to learn more about air pollution, particularly its health effects, sources and behaviour.

The national ambient air quality standards are currently being reviewed to consider whether any should be modified based on the available health evidence.

Air quality outlook

Future developments in population and economic growth and energy consumption—the driving forces of air pollution—and the associated abatement policies designed to limit pollution emissions, will largely determine the outlook for Australia’s air quality in the next couple of decades.

Over the next decade, air quality is predicted to improve with enhancements in motor vehicle technology and as new vehicles replace older ones. However, Australia’s overall energy consumption and transport demand have continually increased in

Deaths by cause

17%

22%

9% 4%48%

Ischaemic heart diseaseLung cancerStrokeChronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseOther

11

line with economic and population growth (Figures 4 and 5), and so gains made to air quality in the last few decades could be lost over time.

Global climate change is predicted to have a range of impacts on ambient air quality in the coming decades, and this is another factor that could determine the outlook for air quality in Australia.

The predicted higher temperatures and drier weather from global climate change are expected to increase the frequency and severity of dust storms and bushfires and result in higher photochemical activity and emissions of ozone precursors. This could lead to more smog and higher ozone and particle levels in many locations.

Significant decreases in ozone or particulate matter pollution are unlikely in the foreseeable future, given current trends in these pollutants, and the predicted growth in motor vehicle use and the effect of climate change.

Because air pollutants and greenhouse gases are often emitted by the same sources, policies put in place to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will influence air quality.

Air quality will generally benefit from greenhouse gas abatement policies; however, there are situations in which emission control measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emission could increase emissions of some air pollutants. These situations will need to be taken into account when developing and adopting strategies to combat climate change. Air pollution and greenhouse gas abatement programs should be integrated as far as possible.

Figure 4: Forecast growth in total vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) in Australia (1990–2020)

Projected VKT in Australia by vehicle type

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020

bil

lio

n k

ilo

met

res

trav

elle

d

Cars Light commercial vehiclesArticulated trucks Rigid and other trucksBuses Motor cycles


Figure 5: Australia’s primary energy sources

Note: Black and brown coal together account for the greatest share of fuel, followed by petroleum

products, natural gas and renewable energy sources (ABARE, 2010).

Primary energy consumption in Australia by fuel type

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1977-78 1982-83 1987-88 1992-93 1997-98 2002-03 2007-08

Pet

ajo

ule

s

Black coal Brown coal Oil Gas Renewables

13

About thiS report

Scope of the report 14

Data sources 14

Structure of the report 15


About thiS report

Scope of the report

This State of the Air report provides an analysis of ambient (outdoor) air quality from 1999–2008 in Australia’s major air monitoring regions.

The pollutants analysed in the report are those that are regulated nationally under the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure (AAQ NEPM).

The report builds on the first national State of the Air report published in 2004, which analysed national ambient air quality from 1991–2001.

Data sources

The air quality data in this report were collected by each state and territory as part of their monitoring for compliance with the AAQ NEPM. The data is stored in a National Air Quality Database housed at the Bureau of Meteorology.

National emissions data in the pie charts for individual pollutants was sourced from the National Pollutant Inventory (http://npi.gov.au/), and is current for 2008.

Some data and information were obtained from existing published reports or from jurisdictions in the form of summary statistics. The sources of these data are cited in the text. Significant information gaps are also noted in the text.

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Structure of the report

The report is divided into five chapters.

Chapter 1 provides information about air quality monitoring in Australia and the locations of the monitoring sites. It also describes how air quality is assessed and how to interpret the air quality data.

Chapter 2 analyses the state and trends of air quality in the assessment period for the six common air pollutants regulated under the AAQ NEPM. The chapter includes brief summaries of the nature, sources and health effects of these pollutants.

Air quality is assessed using the national air quality standards as benchmarks. Air quality is also measured against an air quality health index (AQI) to assist interpretation for people who are especially sensitive to air pollution.

Chapter 3 discusses the effect of air quality on public health.

Chapter 4 provides an overview of the range of government actions and strategies to manage air pollution and assesses whether these have been effective in improving air quality.

Chapter 5 discusses the outlook for air quality, the pressures and challenges and the potential directions required for continued improvements in air quality.

16 | Footer

17

meASuring And ASSeSSing Air quAlity in

AuStrAliA

1.1 Air quality standards 18

1.2 Air quality assessment 25

1.3 Data presentation 26


1. meASuring And ASSeSSing Air quAlity in AuStrAliA

1.1 Air quality standards

Australia’s current ambient air quality management strategy is guided by the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure (AAQ NEPM) which was made in 1998 and formally commenced in 2002.

The AAQ NEPM establishes a set of uniform national air quality standards and goals against which to measure and assess air quality. It also specifies uniform methods for measuring, monitoring and reporting on air quality to ensure a consistent approach throughout Australia. The pollutants, standards and goals in the AAQ NEPM are summarised in Table 1.1.

National ambient air quality standards are set for six common air pollutants (often called ‘criteria’ pollutants) considered to be of concern because of their widespread distribution and known health effects.

The air quality standards specify the concentrations for each pollutant that should not be exceeded within the required averaging times.

The air quality goals specify the number of days per year that the standards may be exceeded and a timeframe of 10 years within which these goals should be achieved. The exceedences are permitted to allow for natural events such as wildfires and dust storms that affect air quality but cannot be easily managed.

In 2003 the AAQ NEPM incorporated an advisory reporting standard for PM

2.5—

particulate matter less than 2.5 microns (µm) in diameter. These are reference standards for data collection and reporting. See Case study 1.1 for a definition.

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Air quality monitoring networks

The AAQ NEPM provides guidance on the number of air monitoring stations needed for a region based on the size of the population. Monitoring is generally required in major urban and regional centres with populations above 25 000 people.

The Australian monitoring network is shown in Figure 1.1. The location of monitoring sites in each state is shown in more detail in Figures 1.2 to 1.8.

Not all of the six pollutants are measured at every monitoring station or in every NEPM region. Monitoring is not required if previous measurements or screening studies have shown that specific pollutant levels would be consistently below the national standard for that pollutant in that region.

Table 1.1: AAQ NEPM standards and goals for key pollutants

Pollutant Standard Averaging time Goal

Carbon monoxide 9.0 ppm* 8 hours 1 day

Nitrogen dioxide 0.12 ppm

0.03 ppm

1 hour

1 year

1 day

none

Ozone 0.10 ppm

0.08 ppm

1 hour

4 hours

1 day

1 day

Sulfur dioxide 0.20 ppm

0.08 ppm

0.02 ppm

1 hour

1 day

1 year

1 day

1 day

none

Lead 0.50 µg/m3* 1 year none

Particulate matter PM10

50 µg/m3 1 day 5 days

Particulate matter PM2.5

25 µg/m3

8 µg/m3

1 day

1 year

advisory reporting

standard

* see glossary


Case study 1.1: Air quality standards and guidelines

Air quality standards can take different forms and may be given different names—guidelines, standards, limit values and advisory reporting standards—to reflect differences in definition and legal standing.

An air quality guideline (e.g. World Health Organization air quality guidelines) is a recommended level or concentration of an air pollutant that should not be exceeded to ensure that human health is protected. Air quality guidelines for human health protection are exclusively based on health criteria. The guidelines specify a pollutant concentration and an averaging time, but they do not necessarily specify other criteria, such as monitoring and measurement procedures, or compliance requirements.

Air quality standards are also set to protect human health; however, they differ from air quality guidelines in that they are adopted by a regulatory authority as enforceable. Air quality standards specify a concentration, averaging time and compliance criteria, such as a permitted number of exceedences of the standard and timeframes for compliance with the standards. They also specify the monitoring and measurement procedures or protocols. Air quality standards may take into account economic and social considerations as well as human health protection.

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom and those in the European Union, air quality standards are referred to as limit values. Limit values generally specify a level that must be attained within a given period and then not be exceeded once attained.

The advisory reporting standards for PM2.5

are not mandatory like a NEPM compliance standard, but they offer the same level of health protection as a NEPM compliance standard. They do not have an associated goal for setting an allowable number of exceedences of the standard. The monitoring protocol associated with the advisory reporting standards establishes a reference method and monitoring and reporting requirements, but gives jurisdictions flexibility in the timing and extent of monitoring they conduct. Any data collected using the monitoring reference method can be assessed against the advisory reporting standard.

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Figure 1.1: Ambient air monitoring sites in Australia

Figure 1.2: Monitoring stations in the Sydney and Illawarra regions of New South Wales

Albany

Hobart

Mackay

Darwin

Albury

BunburyWhyalla

Tamworth

Bathurst

Geraldton

Busselton

Gladstone

Mount Isa

Warrnabool

Launceston

Townsville

Port Pirie

Wagga Wagga

400 0 400 800200

Kilometres

Air Monitoring Stations

Background shows elevation

See Perth region map

See South East Queensland region map

See Lower Hunter region map

See Sydney andIllawarra region map

See Port Phillip region map

See Adelaide region mapCanberra

See Latrobe Valley region map

Sydney

Rozelle

Oakdale

Richmond

Prospect

Chullora

Warrawong

Macarthur

Liverpool

Bringelly

Wollongong

Saint Marys

Albion Park

Kembla Grange

10 0 10 20 305

Kilometres




Figure 1.3: Monitoring stations in the Lower Hunter region of New South Wales

Wallsend

Newcastle

Beresfield

2 0 2 4 6 81

Kilometres



Rocklea

Brisbane

Toowoomba

SpringwoodFlinders View

Deception Bay

Mountain Creek

10 0 10 205

Kilometres



Figure 1.4: Monitoring stations in the South East Queensland region and Toowoomba

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Figure 1.5: Monitoring stations in the Perth region of Western Australia

Perth

Wattleup

Duncraig

Caversham

Swanbourne

South Lake

Rockingham

Quinns Rock

Hope Valley

Rolling Green

10 0 105

Kilometres



Melton

Altona

Geelong

Richmond

Brighton

MelbourneFootscray

Dandenong

Point Cook

Alphington

Point Henry

Mooroolbark

10 0 10 205

Kilometres



Figure 1.6: Monitoring stations in the Port Phillip region of Victoria


Figure 1.7: Monitoring stations in the Latrobe Valley region of Victoria

Netley

Adelaide

Elizabeth

Northfield

Christies Beach

Kensington Gardens

4 0 4 8 122

Kilometres



Figure 1.8: Monitoring stations in the Adelaide region of South Australia

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1.2 Air quality assessment

In this report air quality is assessed against the national ambient air quality standards and goals and also compared to an air quality health index.

Air quality standards are designed to protect human health and are based on detailed analysis of health and exposure data. It should be noted, however, that many air pollutants are non-threshold pollutants (see glossary) with no safe levels and may cause effects in sensitive people (such as asthmatics, people with existing respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses) even at low concentrations. This means there is a residual risk to public health even if air quality standards are met (Table 1.2).

Air quality index

A number of state governments in Australia and some overseas jurisdictions have devised an air quality index (AQI) to characterise the quality of the air. The AQI reflects the residual risks to public health at a given index level.

A low index means that very few people are likely to experience health effects and these effects would be mild. As the value increases, a larger percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health effects (Table 1.2).

Calculating the AQI

An index value for any given pollutant is its concentration expressed as a percentage of the relevant standard:

Index = pollutant concentration X 100

standard

An index value less than 100 means the pollutant has not exceeded the standard. A value equal to or greater than 100 means the pollutant has exceeded the relevant air quality standard.

Table 1.2: Air quality index

Very Poor

150+ Air quality is unhealthy and everyone may begin to experience health effects. People from sensitive groups may experience more serious health effects.

Poor 100–149 Air quality is unhealthy for sensitive groups. The general population is not likely to be affected in this range.

Fair 67–99 Air quality is acceptable. However, there may be a health concern for very sensitive people.

Good 34–66 Air quality is considered good, and air pollution poses little or no risk.

Very Good

0–33 Air quality is considered very good and air pollution poses little or no risk.

Note: Each category in the AQI corresponds to a different level of air quality and associated health risk.


1.3 Data presentation

In this report air quality trend data for each pollutant and averaging time are expressed as:

• the maximum concentration

• the 95th percentile concentration

• the 50th percentile concentration

• maximum and average number of exceedences of the standard

Peak or maximum pollutant concentrations tend to be highly variable and generally caused by unusual and extreme meteorological and pollution events.

Percentile concentrations are a common measure scientists use to smooth out the peaks and to provide a better indicator of underlying trends in air pollution.

The 95th and 50th percentiles were chosen for this report. The 95th percentile represents the value below which 95 per cent of the air quality observations fall. Similarly, the 50th percentile is the median concentration and is the value below which 50 per cent of the observations fall.

For example, in a year in which there are 360 days of valid monitoring data for a particular monitoring station there would be 8640 1-hour averages (360 x 24) and a data set of 360 1-hour maxima. The 95th and 50th percentiles would be the 18th and 180th highest values, respectively, of this data set.

The maximum concentration for a monitoring region with more than one monitoring station is calculated by averaging the annual peak values from each monitoring station in the region to obtain one value for each reporting year (Figure 1.9).

Similarly, the 95th percentile concentration and 50th percentile concentrations are calculated by averaging the respective percentile values from each monitoring station to obtain one value for each airshed and reporting year.

The maximum number of exceedence days in a monitoring region is calculated from the worst performing station; that is, the station with the highest number of exceedence days of any station in that region and year (Figure 1.10).

The average number of exceedence days is calculated by counting the number of exceedence days at all stations in that year and dividing by the number of stations in the region.

27

Figure 1.9: Example trend plot showing the average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile concentrations compared to the NEPM standard (horizontal line)

Trends in pollutant level in airshed

0

2

4

6

8

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n

NEPM standard

Maximum concentration

95th percentile

50th percentile

Note: The top dashed line represents the average maximum concentration, the middle line represents the

average 95th percentile concentration, and the bottom line represents the average 50th percentile

concentration.

Figure 1.10: Example plot of the maximum and average number of exceedence days

Days not meeting the standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

AverageNEPM goal

Note: The red line represents the NEPM goal or the allowable number of exceedences in the reporting year.


29

StAte And trendS oF Air

pollution

2.1 Ozone 30

2.2 Particulate matter 60

2.3 Carbon monoxide 107

2.4 Nitrogen dioxide 115

2.5 Sulfur dioxide 128

2.6 Lead 147

2.7 National summary 150

2.8 International comparisons 160


2. StAte And trendS oF Air pollution

2.1 Ozone

Nature of ozone

Ozone is a gas with the chemical formula O3.

In the upper atmosphere, ozone screens out harmful ultraviolet radiation. At ground level, ozone is a noxious pollutant.

Ground level ozone is not emitted directly from sources but forms naturally during daylight hours when other chemicals, known as ozone precursors, react in the presence of sunlight. The main ozone precursor pollutants are nitrogen oxides (NO and NO

2, collectively

denoted as NOX) and volatile organic

compounds (VOCs). Because ozone at ground level forms more readily in hot, sunny weather, it is predominantly a summertime air pollutant.

Sources of ozone precursors

Ozone precursors are emitted from natural (biogenic) and man-made (anthropogenic) sources. Natural sources include bushfires, trees, biological decay and lightning strikes.

Living trees emit volatile organic compounds and these can contribute to the formation of ozone in urban areas where levels of nitrogen oxides are high.

Fossil fuel combustion and direct evaporation of petrol and solvents are major man-made sources of ozone precursor pollutants.

The National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) indicates the top sources of VOCs in Australia are motor vehicles and vegetation burning, which account for 33 per cent and 21 per cent of national emissions, respectively (Figure 2.1).

Electricity generation and motor vehicles are major sources of NO

X and account for

36 per cent and 26 per cent of national emissions, respectively (Figure 2.1). Coal is used as the main source of fuel in 80 per cent of power stations in Australia.

31

Health effects of ozone

Ozone is highly corrosive and when it is breathed in it reacts with the membranes lining the nose, throat and airways. Short-term exposure to a moderate level of ozone causes irritation of the eyes and respiratory system. Higher levels of exposure over longer periods may lead to bronchitis and sometimes pneumonia. Ozone also appears to make the lungs more susceptible to bacterial infections.

Asthmatics, children, the elderly and people with existing chronic respiratory diseases and allergies are more susceptible to the ill-effects of ozone. Healthy individuals exposed to high ozone levels while exercising can also experience symptoms such as chest pain, coughing, wheezing and congestion.


Figure 2.1: The main sources of ozone precursor chemicals based on the NPI

Main sources of volatile organic compounds

33%

21%11%

10%

7%

18%

Motor vehicles Vegetation burning/wildfires

Solvents and aerosols Domestic solid fuel burning

Architectural coatings All other

Main sources of nitrogen oxides

36%

26%

11%

5%4%

18%

Electricity generation Motor vehicles

Vegetation burning/wildfires Metal ore mining

Coal mining All others

33

State and trends of ozone pollution

The following charts show trends in 1-hour and 4-hour average ozone concentrations in NEPM regions in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory where ozone is monitored. Tasmania and the Northern Territory are not required to monitor ozone levels.

Trend charts compare the NEPM standards for ozone with the average maximum 1-and 4-hour average concentrations and the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations between 1999 and 2008.

The trend charts are accompanied by charts of the maximum and average number of days that the NEPM standards were exceeded in the 10-year assessment period.

New South Wales

Ozone data are available for four regions in New South Wales—Sydney (9 stations), Illawarra (4 stations), Lower Hunter (3 stations) and Bathurst (1 station from 2001–07).

During the 10-year assessment period, Sydney’s average maximum 1-hour average ozone concentration exceeded the NEPM standard in all years, except 2008. The observed levels were up to 40 per cent higher than the standard in some years (Figure 2.2). The number of exceedence days of the 1-hour standard ranged from one to eight, with the highest number occurring in 2001 and 2006 (Figure 2.3).

The average 95th percentile of the 1-hour average concentrations ranged between 0.056 and 0.073 ppm or 56 to 73 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile was around one-third of the standard in the assessment period (Figure 2.2).

Similar results are observed for the maximum 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Sydney (Figure 2.4). The maximum number of exceedence days of the 4-hour standard ranged from one to 11, with the highest number occurring in 2001 (Figure 2.5).

The 95th percentile 4-hour average concentration ranged between 60 to 80 per cent of the standard in the assessment period. The 50th percentile was around 40 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.4).

There are no obvious trends in either the 1-hour or the 4-hour average ozone concentrations. Concentrations have varied from year to year.

Elevated ozone levels in Sydney and the Illawarra generally occur in the early afternoon in the warmer months following reaction of precursors in the presence of sunlight (See Case study 2.1). Peak events are short-lived, although on occasions they may persist for up to seven to 10 hours in the case of an extreme event such as a bushfire.


Figure 2.2: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in Sydney

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.3: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

Days in Sydney not meeting the 1 hour ozone standard

0

1

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3

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5

6

7

8

9

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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35

Figure 2.4: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in Sydney

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Figure 2.5: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

Days in Sydney not meeting the 4 hour ozone standard

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2

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6

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12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Case study 2.1: Formation of ozone in Sydney

Ozone is a secondary pollutant in that it is not directly emitted from a source, but is formed by the reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. It is of particular concern in the warmer summer months. The speed of ozone formation depends largely on temperature and the ratio of the precursor pollutants (VOC:NOx).

The Sydney region is essentially a large basin bound by elevated terrain to the north, west and south. The air quality is determined by the temperature and wind regimes and how the wind regimes interact with the topography. High ozone levels in Sydney occur under a range of meteorological conditions and at different locations depending on the prevailing weather.

Emissions of NOx and VOCs produced by morning peak-hour traffic, industry and other sources begin to react in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. The afternoon sea breeze transports the reacting plume across Sydney. While all parts of Sydney can experience ozone concentrations above the NEPM standards at some time, the west and south-west of the city are the regions more often affected.

Morning and afternoon air flows in Sydney

Morning air flows Afternoon air flows

In the Illawarra region, the maximum 1-hour average ozone level exceeded the NEPM standard in seven out of 10 years, for up to four days (Figures 2.6 and 2.7).

The maximum 4-hour average ozone level exceeded the NEPM standard in nine out of 10 years, also for up to four days (Figures 2.8 and 2.9).

The 95th percentile 1-hour average concentrations were 44 to 59 percent of the standard. The 95th percentile 4-hour average concentrations were 51 to 65 percent of the standard. The 50th percentile was around one-third of the 1-hour standard and 40 per cent of the 4-hour standard.

Figures 2.6 and 2.8 suggest a slight decrease in 1-hour and 4-hour average ozone levels since around 2003 or 2004 in this region; although the data record is too short to say if this trend will continue.

37

Figure 2.6: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in the Illawarra

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.7: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

Days in the Illawarra not meeting the 1 hour ozone standard

0

1

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5

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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of

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Maximum

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Figure 2.8: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in the Illawarra

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.9: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

Days in the Illawarra not meeting the 4 hour ozone standard

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3

4

5

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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AverageNEPM goal

39

In the Lower Hunter region, 1-hour average ozone levels exceeded the NEPM standard on only one occasion in 2004 at all three stations in the airshed (Newcastle, Wallsend and Beresfield). There were no exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the assessment period (Figures 2.10 and 2.11).

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations ranged between 45 and 57 per cent of the standard and the 4-hour average ozone concentrations ranged between 54 and 65 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 30 per cent of the standards.

There was a sharp decrease in maximum ozone levels from 2004, although this trend is not as clear in the 95th percentile levels.

Figure 2.10: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in the Lower Hunter

0.00

0.02

0.04

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Figure 2.11: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in the Lower Hunter

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

One monitoring station operated in Bathurst for seven years between 2001 and 2007 to assess ozone levels in this region (Figures 2.12 and 2.13). There were no exceedences of the ozone standards in the assessment period.

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations were less than half of the 1-hour standard and the 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentration ranged from 56 to 69 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 30 to 40 per cent of the standards.

There are no obvious trends in ozone concentrations in Bathurst. Levels vary quite a bit from year to year.

41

Figure 2.12: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Bathurst (2001–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Bathurst

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0.04

0.06

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.13: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Bathurst (2001–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Bathurst

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Queensland

Ozone data are available for three regions in Queensland—South East Queensland, where there are four monitoring stations, and Toowoomba and Townsville where there is one monitoring station each. Monitoring began in Toowoomba in 2003 and in Townsville in 2004.

There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland after 2004. Before 2004, exceedences were recorded at Rocklea (one in 1999, two in 2002) and at Flinders View (one each in 1999 and 2000 and two in 2004) (Figure 2.15).

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in South East Queensland ranged between 0.046 and 0.055 ppm or from 46 to 55 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around a third of the standard.

The maximum 1-hour average ozone concentrations in South East Queensland declined slightly in the assessment period, whereas the percentile concentrations were steady.

There were no exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland after 2004. Before this, exceedences were recorded at Rocklea (one in 1999 and 2002), Deception Bay (one in 1999) and Flinders View (one in 1999, 2002 and 2004) (Figure 2.17).

The 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations ranged from 55 to 65 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around a third of the standard (Figure 2.16).

The maximum 4-hour average ozone concentrations in South East Queensland declined slightly over the assessment period, whereas the percentile concentrations remained steady.

Figure 2.14: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in South East Queensland

0.00

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0.04

0.06

0.08

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0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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50 percentile

NEPM standard

43

Figure 2.15: Maximum number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland (1999–2008).

Days in SE Queensland not meeting the 1 hour ozone standard

0

1

2

3

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

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NEPM goal

Figure 2.16: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone average concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in South East Queensland

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0.08

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0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Figure 2.17: Maximum number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

Days in SE Queensland not meeting the 4 hour ozone standard

0

1

2

3

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

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NEPM goal

In Toowoomba, there were no exceedences of the ozone standards in the six-year assessment period (Figures 2.18 and 2.19). The 95th percentile 1-hour average concentrations were around half of the standard and the 4-hour average concentrations were less than 60 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile 1-hour average concentrations were around a third of the standard and the 4-hour average concentrations were less than 40 per cent of the standard.

There were no obvious trends in ozone levels in the assessment period.

In Townsville, there were no exceedences of the ozone standards in the five-year assessment period (Figures 2.20 and 2.21). The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations were less than 40 per cent of the standard and the 4-hour average concentrations were less than 50 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations were less than a third of the standard and the 4-hour average concentrations were less than 40 per cent of the standard.

There were no obvious trends in ozone levels in the assessment period.

45

Figure 2.18: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Toowoomba

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.19: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Toowoomba

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Figure 2.20: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Townsville (2004–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Townsville

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.21: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Townsville (2004–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Townsville

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0.08

0.10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

47

Victoria

Victoria monitors ozone in two regions, the Port Phillip region, which includes the cities of Melbourne and Geelong; and the Latrobe Valley region, which contains small regional cities surrounded by rural areas. In 2008 there were seven stations monitoring ozone levels in Melbourne, two in Geelong, and two in the Latrobe Valley.

In the Port Phillip region, the 1-hour average ozone standard was exceeded in four out of 10 years (Figures 2.22 and 2.23). The exceedences in 2003 and 2006 were attributed to widespread bushfires that increased ozone levels by increasing emissions of ozone precursor chemicals.

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations were generally around half of the NEPM standards (0.044–0.057 ppm). The 50th percentile concentrations were generally less than one-third of the standards.

Figure 2.22: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in the Port Phillip region

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Figure 2.23: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

Days in Port Phillip not meeting 1 hour ozone standard

0

1

2

3

4

5

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Average

NEPM goal

In the Port Phillip region, the 4-hour ozone standard was exceeded in seven out of 10 years. The exceedences in 2003 and 2006 were again attributed to widespread bushfires (Figures 2.24 and 2.25).

The 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations were around half to 60 per cent of the standard (0.040–0.048 ppm). The 50th percentile concentrations were generally less than one-third of the 4-hour standard.

Peak 1-hour and 4-hour average ozone levels in the Port Phillip region increased in the assessment period. However, there are no obvious trends in the percentile concentrations.

In the Latrobe Valley, the 1-hour average ozone standard was only exceeded in 2006 because of widespread bushfires (Figures 2.26 to 2.27).

The 95th percentile concentrations ranged from 0.038–0.05 ppm or less than half of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were generally around one-third or less of the standard.

The higher peak levels in later years of the assessment period suggest an increasing trend; although there is significant year-on-year variation and bushfires occurred in these years.

There are no obvious trends in the 95th and 50th percentiles concentrations that would support a rising trend in ozone levels.

49

Figure 2.24: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in the Port Phillip region

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.25: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

Days in Port Phillip not meeting 4 hour ozone standard

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM goal


Figure 2.26: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008).

1 hour average ozone levels in the Latrobe Valley

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.27: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008)

Days in Latrobe Valley not meeting 1 hour ozone standard

0

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2

3

4

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Average

NEPM goal

51

In the Latrobe Valley, the 4-hour average ozone standard was exceeded only in 2006 and again the exceedence was attributed to widespread bushfire activity (Figures 2.28 to 2.29).

The 95th percentile concentrations ranged from 0.035–0.049 ppm or less than half of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were generally around one-third or less of the standard.

Peak and percentile 1-hour and 4-hour average ozone levels were slightly lower in the Latrobe Valley than in the Port Phillip region. The data also suggests a rising trend in later years, but again, there are no obvious trends in the 95th and 50th percentiles concentrations that would support this.

Figure 2.28: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in the Latrobe Valley

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard


Western Australia

In 2008 there were six stations monitoring ozone in the Perth airshed. Five of these stations operated for the entire assessment period. One station, South Lake, was commissioned in March 2000.

In Perth, the 1-hour average ozone standard was exceeded twice in the assessment period (in 1999 and 2004). The exceedences are not evident in Figure 2.30 because of averaging of data from all of the stations.

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Perth were generally around half of the standard (0.048–0.054 ppm) and the 50th percentile concentrations were around one-third of the standard.

Figure 2.29: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008)

Days in Latrobe Valley not meeting 4 hour ozone standard

0

1

2

3

4

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Average

NEPM goal

In Perth, maximum 4-hour average ozone concentrations exceeded the standard in 1999 and 2001 (Figure 2.33). The exceedences are not evident in Figure 2.32 because of averaging of data from all of the stations.

The exceedences were most likely due to afternoon and evening sea breezes recirculating urban daytime pollutants.

The 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations were generally around half to 60 per cent of the standard (0.042–0.048 ppm) and the 50th percentile concentrations were less than 40 per cent of the standard.

Ozone levels in Perth were relatively steady over the assessment period.

53

Figure 2.30: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

1 hour average ozone levels in Perth

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.31: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in Perth (1999–2008)

Days in Perth not meeting 1 hour ozone standard

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Figure 2.32: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

4 hour average ozone levels in Perth

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Figure 2.33: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in Perth (1999–2008)

Days in Perth not meeting 4 hour ozone standard

0

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3

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM goal

55

South Australia

In 2008 there were five stations monitoring ozone in South Australia, all in the Adelaide airshed.

The maximum 1-hour and 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Adelaide were below the standards on nearly all occasions in the assessment period, except for one exceedence of the 1-hour standard at the Netley station in 2006 (Figures 2.34 and 2.35).

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations were between 0.042 and 0.049 ppm or less than half of the standard; and the 50th percentile concentrations were around one-third of the standard.

The 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations were between 0.038 and 0.045 ppm or around half of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 35 per cent of the standard. No trends are evident in the data.

Figure 2.34: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Adelaide

0

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Figure 2.35: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Adelaide

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0.1

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Australian Capital Territory

Ozone is monitored at two stations in the ACT, one in Civic and one in Monash. The data records started in 2002.

There was one exceedence of the 1-hour average ozone standard and one exceedence of the 4-hour average ozone standard at Monash in 2003 (Figures 2.36 and 2.37). The exceedences were attributed to the 2003 bushfires.

The 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations at Monash ranged between 0.045 and 0.057 ppm or around half of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around one-third or less of the standard.

The 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations were between 0.044 and 0.054 ppm or around 60 to 70 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were less than 40 per cent of the standard.

Figure 2.38 and Figure 2.39 show ozone data from the Civic monitoring station. Three exceedences of the 1-hour standard and one exceedence of the 4-hour standard occurred in Civic in 2006 and in 2007. The ozone peak in 2006, which occurred at night, is a localised anomaly and cannot be explained.

57

Figure 2.36: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations at Monash (2002–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Monash

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.37: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations at Monash (2002–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Monash

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Figure 2.38: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Civic (2002–08)

1 hour average ozone levels in Civic

0

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0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

Figure 2.39: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Civic (2002–08)

4 hour average ozone levels in Civic

0.00

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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NEPM standard

59

Summary

Ozone concentrations exceeding the NEPM standard occurred more frequently in Sydney and the Illawarra region than in any other region in Australia during the assessment period.

Ozone levels in Sydney exceeded the standards from one to 11 days a year, with peak levels in some years of up to 140 per cent of the standard, equating to a Poor AQI rating and unhealthy air on those days.

The Illawarra region and the Port Phillip region had the next highest number of ozone exceedence days during the assessment period, ranging from none to four. Peak ozone levels were generally lower in both of these regions than in Sydney.

Ozone levels in other capital cities exceeded the ozone standards only infrequently if at all; although peak levels were occasionally close to the standards. In regional cities, apart from the Lower Hunter and the Illawarra regions in New South Wales, peak ozone levels were well below the standards.

The AQI rating for the 95th percentile concentrations was Fair (60–80 per cent of standards) in Sydney and Good elsewhere in New South Wales (45–65 per cent of the standards).

In all other monitoring regions in Australia, the AQI ratings for the 95th percentile concentrations were Good (generally less than 50–60 per cent of the standard) and the air was healthy. The AQI rating for 50th percentile ozone concentrations was Very Good to Good in all regions (30–40 per cent of the standard).

No improvements in ozone pollution have occurred in any region over the assessment period. Peak ozone concentrations vary from year to year and percentile concentrations remain relatively unchanged in most regions.

Bushfire activity can increase the severity and frequency of ozone events as appears to have happened in the Port Phillip region in the latter part of the assessment period.


2.2 Particulate matter

Nature of particulate matter

Particulate matter (PM) refers to a chemically and physically diverse class of air pollutants occurring in the form of mixtures of discrete solid particles, liquid droplets, or a combination of both, that is, a solid particulate nucleus surrounded by liquid.

The particles of most concern to human health are those that can be inhaled into the lungs. Generally, these have a diameter of less than 10 micrometres (µm). Particles in this size range are commonly referred to as PM

10.

Very small particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 µm are referred to as PM

2.5. These

are small enough to be inhaled into the smallest airways.

The major components of particulate matter are sulphate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, carbon (soot), mineral dust and water. The composition of the particle pollution varies with the source.

Figure 2.40: Relative sizes of the different fractions of particulate matter (concept adapted from Brook, 2008)

0.01 µm 0.1 µm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm

Molecules Virus Bacteria Cells Pollen Hair

PM0.1

PM2.5

PM10

61

Sources of particulate matter

Particles may be classified as primary or secondary depending on their formation mechanism. Primary particles are emitted directly from sources. Secondary particles are formed indirectly by conversion of precursors through photochemical processes.

A wide range of natural and man-made sources emit primary particles. Natural sources include dust from soil, pollen from plants, sea salt and bushfires.

Man-made sources include combustion of oil, gas and coal, and dust from industrial activities.

Motor vehicle emissions and secondary particle production appear to be the main sources of particle pollution in urban air. In summer, windblown dust and sea salt (near the coast) also make up a major component of the coarser particles. In winter, wood smoke from domestic heating contributes a significant amount of particulate pollution in some regions.

The main industrial sources of particle pollution are mining (coal and metal ore) and electricity generation.

The NPI estimates that the main non-industrial sources of PM

10 in Australia are

vegetation burning, dust, solid fuel burning (wood fires) and motor vehicles (Figure 2.41).

Figure 2.41: Main non-industrial sources of PM10

based on the NPI Main sources of particulate matter (PM10)

38%

31%

26%

3% 2%

Vegetation burning/wildfires Windblown dust

Road dust Solid fuel burning

Motor vehicles


Health effects of particulate matter

Exposure to fine particulate pollution (<10 µm) has been associated with an increased risk of upper respiratory tract irritation and infection; impaired lung function; exacerbation of existing respiratory illness and cardiovascular diseases; and increased risk of death from these diseases. Studies suggest that smaller particles (<2.5 µm or PM

2.5) may be more important in causing

cardiovascular illnesses and mortality, and larger particles (<10 µm or PM

10) may be

more important in exacerbating asthma and upper respiratory illnesses.

Elderly people and people with existing respiratory diseases (for example, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute bronchitis, asthma) and cardiovascular diseases (for example, ischemic heart disease) are at greater risk of ill effects when exposed to particles than healthier individuals.

State and trends of particle pollution

The following charts show trends in the concentration of particulate matter (PM

10 and PM

2.5) in Australian states and

territories.

The PM10

charts compare the NEPM standard for PM

10 with the maximum

24-hour average and the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations.

The PM2.5

charts compare the NEPM advisory reporting standards for PM

2.5

with the respective maximum 24-hour average and the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations, and the annual average concentrations.

The PM10

trend charts are accompanied by charts comparing the maximum and average number of exceedences of the PM

10 standard

with the NEPM goal. There is no goal for PM

2.5 (see Case study 1.1).

Case study 2.2 highlights some points about measuring particulate matter to keep in mind when interpreting the data.

63

Case study 2.2: Interpretation of data from particulate matter measurement

Measuring particulate matter is complex and there is a range of measurement methods available. Two different methods are commonly used by states and territories to collect data on particles for NEPM purposes. These are High Volume (HiVol) samplers and Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) analysers. HiVol samplers measure mass by gravimetric methods and the samples are collected and processed manually every 24 hours (or at longer intervals). The results are averaged on a daily basis. TEOM analysers also measure mass, but in a different way to HiVol samplers. They take continuous measurements which are processed automatically.

Most states and territories now favour TEOMs as the predominant method for measuring particles. All PM data in this report from New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Victoria and the Northern Territory are TEOM measurements. PM

10 results from Tasmania and the ACT are a mix of monitoring

methods depending on availability of data in the National Air Quality Database.

Comparative studies in Australia and elsewhere have shown that the relationship between the TEOM and HiVol measurements is sensitive to aerosol composition, and environmental and operating conditions. Technical experts recommend that TEOM PM

10 data be adjusted to reduce or eliminate the observed tendency of TEOMs to

underestimate PM10

levels relative to those derived by HiVol when a significant fraction of particles are volatiles (NEPC, 2001). These recommendations have not been adopted consistently by all states and territories in the treatment of the data in the database used for this report.

Monitoring of PM10

started in different years at different locations in the 10-year assessment period and this appears as data gaps at the beginning of some of the trend plots. PM

2.5 is not monitored consistently across Australia and monitoring also started at

different times in different locations. There are therefore considerable data gaps in the PM

2.5 record in the National Air Quality Database and this report.

At present there is no Australian standard method for measuring PM2.5

. A national PM2.5

Equivalence Program is assessing the accuracy and precision of PM

2.5 instruments. The

NEPM advisory reporting standards for PM2.5

are not based on TEOM instrumentation and comparisons with the standard in this report are for interest only.


New South Wales

PM10

trend data is available for a total of 17 monitoring stations in New South Wales, eight in the Sydney region, three in the Illawarra region, two in the Lower Hunter region, and one each at Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga. There was no PM

2.5 data in the National Air Quality

Database for this report.

In Sydney the average daily maximum PM10

levels exceeded the NEPM standards in most years in the assessment period. The highest number of exceedence days of the PM

10

standard occurred in 2002 and 2003 (Figures 2.42 and 2.43).

These were stand-out years in terms of the high number of exceedences and very high PM

10 concentrations recorded

across all monitoring regions in New South Wales. The high particle levels were attributed to widespread and severe weather conditions.

In 2002, bushfires in January, November and December; and dust storms in October and November caused very high PM

10

levels across New South Wales. There were extremely high PM

10 levels on 19 and 20

March 2002, which were associated with a severe widespread dust storm. In 2003, bushfires in January and February; and dust storms in March, July and October also caused high PM

10 levels across NSW.

The highest PM10

levels occurred at Albury and Wagga Wagga where concentrations reached nearly 20 times the NEPM standard (Figure 2.48).

Although not apparent in the trend plot because of scaling, the 95th percentile concentrations in Sydney were around 25 to 35 mg/m3 or 50 to 70 percent of the standard in most years, except in 2002, when levels were around 90 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations averaged around 18 mg/m3 or 36 per cent of the standard.

No trends are evident in PM10

concentrations in Sydney.

Bushfire smoke at Lake Hume

65

Figure 2.42: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM10

concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Sydney airshed

0

50

100

150

200

250

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentileNEPM standard

Figure 2.43: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the PM10

standard in the Sydney region (1999–2008)

Days in the Sydney airshed not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

NEPM goal


In the Illawarra region, there were up to 12 exceedences of the PM

10 standard in the

assessment period.

The 95th percentile concentrations in the Illawarra were slightly higher on average than in Sydney and ranged between 30 and 40 mg/m3 or around 60 to 80 per cent of the standard in most years. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 18 mg/m3 or 36 per cent of the standard (Figures 2.44 and 2.45).

Again, no trends are evident in PM10

concentrations in the Illawarra region.

In the Lower Hunter region, there were up to 25 exceedence days of the standard in 2002, but there were fewer over the assessment period than elsewhere in New South Wales. The 95th percentile concentrations were between 25 and 40 mg/m3 or 50 to 80 per cent of the standard in most years, with the exception of 2002, when levels slightly exceeded the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations in the Lower Hunter were around 18 mg/m3 or 36 per cent of the standard.


concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Illawarra region

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile


67


standard in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

Days in the Illawarra region not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

NEPM goal


concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Lower Hunter region

0

50

100

150

200

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile




standard in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

Days in the Lower Hunter region not meeting PM10 standard

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

AverageNEPM goal

Figures 2.48 to 2.50 show PM10

levels for regional New South Wales. These combine results from Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga.

Most of the exceedences of the PM10

standard occurred at Wagga Wagga, except in 2003, when Albury had 29 exceedence days compared to 21 at Wagga Wagga (Figure 2.50).

The 95th percentile concentrations in regional New South Wales were the highest of all regions and ranged between 25 and 45 mg/m3 or around 50 to 90 per cent of the standard in most years (Figure 2.48).

Figure 2.49 shows the PM10

concentrations in regional New South Wales without the maximum concentrations, to better show the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations.

In 2002 and 2003, the average 95th percentile concentration of 55 mg/m3 exceeded the PM

10 standard. The 50th

percentile concentrations were similar to the rest of New South Wales and around 36 per cent of the standard.

Albury and Wagga Wagga bear the brunt of dust storms coming from the west causing high particle levels. Emissions from broadacre agricultural activity can also lead to frequent exceedences of the PM

10

standard, particularly in autumn.

69


concentrations in regional NSW, comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in regional NSW

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.49: The average 95th and 50th percentile PM10

concentrations in regional NSW, comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08)

Percentiles of PM10 in regional NSW

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard



standard in regional NSW, comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08)

Days in regional NSW not meeting PM10 standard

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

AverageNEPM goal

Queensland

PM10

data are available for four monitoring stations in South East Queensland and four stations in regional Queensland—one each at Toowoomba, Gladstone, Mackay and Townsville.

In South East Queensland, the PM10

standard was exceeded on none to three days each year (except in 2002) and the NEPM goal was met (Figure 2.52). In 2002, the PM

10 standard was exceeded on five

days at Mountain Creek, seven days each at Springwood and Flinders View, and eight days at Rocklea. All of these exceedences were attributed to a combination of dust storms and bushfires.

The 95th percentile concentrations in South East Queensland range between 25 and 35 mg/m3 or around 50 to 70 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 mg/m3 or 30 per cent of the standard. The percentile PM

10 levels in South

East Queensland stayed relatively flat in the assessment period (Figure 2.51).

71


concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in South East Queensland

0

50

100

150

200

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.52: Maximum number of exceedences of the PM10

standard in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

Days in the South East Queensland not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays NEPM goal


In regional Queensland, the daily maximum PM

10 levels vary greatly from year to year and

between cities. The highest levels generally occurred in 2002 and 2005 in each of the cities monitored (Figures 2.53 to 2.57).

All sites except Mackay had less than five exceedence days in any one year and therefore met the NEPM goal. Mackay exceeded the NEPM goal in four out of the eight assessment years.

The exceedences were attributed to dust storms, dust from nearby commercial activities, agricultural burning and bushfire smoke, either alone or in combination.

The 95th percentile concentrations in regional Queensland were similar to those in South East Queensland. In Mackay, they were slightly higher and ranged between 30 and 40 mg/m3 or around 60 to 80 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.55). The 50th percentile concentrations in regional Queensland were around 20 mg/m3 or 40 per cent of the standard.

There are no obvious trends in the PM10

levels in regional Queensland.

Figure 2.53: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM10

concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Toowoomba

0

50

100

150

200

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

73


concentrations in Gladstone (2002–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Gladstone

0

50

100

150

200

250

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


concentrations in Mackay (2000–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Mackay

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µ/m

3)

Maximum

95 percentile




concentrations in Townsville (2004–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Townsville

0

50

100

150

200

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µ/m

3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.57: Number of exceedences of the PM10

standard in regional Queensland (2000–08)

Days in regional Queensland not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Mackay

Toowoomba

Gladstone

Townsville

NEPM goal

Note: The length of the data record differs between monitoring stations.

75

PM2.5

trend data is available for two stations in South East Queensland (one each at Rocklea and Springwood) and for one station in Toowoomba. The data records begin in 2003 (Figures 2.58 to 2.61).

In South East Queensland, the 24-hour average advisory reporting standard for PM

2.5

was exceeded on one day in 2003 and in 2006 and on five days in 2004 (Figure 2.60).

In Toowoomba, the 24-hour average advisory reporting standard was exceeded once in both 2003 and 2004 in the five-year assessment period (Figures 2.60).

There were no exceedences of the annual average advisory reporting standard for PM

2.5

(Figure 2.61).

Queensland monitoring reports indicated that bushfire smoke and dust storms account for many peak events. Other causes include hazard reduction burning, domestic wood heaters, agricultural burning, construction works and local industry sources.

The levels of PM2.5

in South East Queensland decreased slightly in the assessment period.

Figure 2.58: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM2.5

concentrations in South East Queensland (2003–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in South East Queensland

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µ/m

3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

Advisory reporting standard


Figure 2.59: Maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM2.5

concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–07)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Toowoomba

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µ/m

3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


Figure 2.60: Number of exceedences of the daily PM2.5

advisory reporting standard in South East Queensland (2003–08) and Toowoomba (2003–07)

Days in Queensland not meeting the PM2.5 advisory reporting standard

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

SE Queensland

Toowoomba

77

Figure 2.61: Annual average PM2.5

concentrations in South East Queensland (2003–08) and in Toowoomba (2003–07)

Annual average PM2.5 levels in Queensland

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

SE Queensland

ToowoombaAdvisory reporting standard

Victoria

In Victoria, PM10

data is available for seven stations in the Port Phillip region (six in Melbourne and one in Geelong), and two in the Latrobe Valley.

In the Port Phillip region, the daily maximum PM

10 levels exceeded the NEPM standard

on one to 17 days, with the number of exceedence days increasing in the last six assessment years. The NEPM goal has not been met since 2001 (Figure 2.63).

The 95th percentile PM10

concentrations in the Port Phillip region ranged between 30 and 40 mg/m3 or around 60 to 80 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 mg/m3 or 30 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.62). There was high year-to-year variability in PM

10 levels in the Port Phillip region and no

apparent trends.

Figures 2.64 and 2.65 show PM10

concentrations and the number of exceedence days in the Latrobe Valley. TEOM instrumentation for PM

10 monitoring

was introduced in 2003 and the PM10

data records started then.

In the Latrobe Valley region, the number of days the PM

10 standard was exceeded

ranged from none in 2005 to 15 in 2006. The NEPM goal was not met in the last three years (Figure 2.65).


concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region were similar to those in the Port Phillip region and ranged between 30 and 40 mg/m3 or around 60 to 80 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 30 per cent of the standard. There are no apparent trends in the data (Figure 2.64).



concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Port Phillip region

0

50

100

150

200

250

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile



standard in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

Days in the Port Phillip region not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

AverageNEPM goal

79


concentrations in the Latrobe Valley (2003–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Latrobe Valley

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile



standard since 2003 in the Latrobe Valley (2003–08)

Days in the Latrobe Valley not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

NEPM goal


PM2.5

data are available at two sites in the Port Phillip region. PM

2.5 levels exceeded

the 24-hour advisory reporting standard on several days each year at each monitoring location in the region (Figure 2.66).

The 95th percentile PM2.5

concentrations in the Port Phillip region ranged between 15 and 20 mg/m3 or around 60 to 80 per cent of the standard.

Annual average PM2.5

levels were close to or exceeded the annual advisory reporting standard (Figure 2.67).

There are no clear trends in PM2.5

levels, which are quite variable.

High particle levels in the Port Phillip region are attributed to three main causes: urban sources under calm cold inversion conditions; smoke from bushfires and fuel reduction burning; and windborne dust in drought conditions. The high frequency of exceedences in 2003 and 2006 are attributed to the prevalence of bushfires and drought in Victoria in those years.

The influences on PM10

levels in the Latrobe Valley are similar to those in the Port Phillip region; however, there are also power stations in the region.


concentrations in the Port Phillip region (2003–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in the Port Phillip region

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


81


levels in the Port Phillip region (2003–08)

Annual average PM2.5 levels in the Port Phillip region

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)


Case study 2.3: Seasonal variations in PM10

levels

Particulates are released from a wide range of sources, including natural sources, such as windblown dust and bushfires. Natural sources can lead to wide variations in the levels of PM

10 throughout the year. In general, exceedences of the PM

10 standard are

more common during the warmer months, when extreme values many times greater than the standards are recorded in many regions.

The following graph of monitoring data from Warrnambool, which is a regional town on Victoria’s coast, shows that PM

10 levels are higher during the warmer months when

bushfires and dust storms are more likely.

Maximum monthly PM10 levels in Warrnambool

November 2006 - October 2007

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Nov-06 Dec-06 Jan-07 Feb-07 Mar-07 Apr-07 May-07 Jun-07 Jul-07 Aug-07 Sep-07 Oct-07

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

NEPM standard


Natural sources also influence PM10

levels in urban areas. The following graph shows PM

10 levels in Alphington, a suburb of Melbourne, in 2007. The PM

10 levels are

significantly higher in mid-summer, suggesting natural sources may also be responsible for the elevated levels in January.

Maximum monthly PM10 levels in Alphington, 2007

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n(µ

g/m

3)

NEPM standard

South Australia

PM10

data are available for four monitoring stations in the Adelaide region and one monitoring station each at Port Pirie and Whyalla in the Spencer region. The PM

10

data records started in 2002 in Adelaide and in 2004 in the Spencer region.

The daily maximum PM10

levels exceeded the standard on six to 11 days at the worst performing stations in Adelaide, with the highest number of exceedence days occurring in 2006 and 2007 (Figure 2.69).


levels in Adelaide ranged between 30 and 35 mg/m3 or around 60 to 70 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 mg/m3 or about 30 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.68). No trends are evident.

In the Spencer region the PM10

standard was exceeded by between three to 17 days, with the highest number of days occurring in 2008; although the highest concentration occurred in 2005 (Figures 2.70 and 2.71).

PM10

concentrations and the number of exceedences were generally higher in the Spencer region than in Adelaide. The 95th percentile PM

10 concentrations in the

Spencer region ranged between 35 and 45 mg/m3 or around 70 to 90 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile levels were around a third of the standard (Figure 2.70).

There was an increase in the number of days that exceeded the NEPM standard in the latter part of the assessment period, but no apparent changes in the percentile concentrations.

83


concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Adelaide airshed

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


standard in Adelaide (2002–08)

Days in Adelaide airshed not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

NEPM goal



concentrations in the Spencer region (2004–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Spencer region

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile



standard in the Spencer region (2002–08)

Days in Spencer region not meeting PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

AverageNEPM goal

85

PM2.5

data were available for only one station (Netley) in Adelaide beginning in 2006 (Figure 2.72). There were only two days, both in 2006, when PM

2.5 levels

exceeded the NEPM advisory reporting standard. The data record for PM

2.5 is too

short to determine a trend.

South Australian monitoring reports attributed most exceedences of the particle standards to windblown dust on hot northerly wind days, and smoke from bushfires in South Australia

and neighbouring states.

Figure 2.72: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM2.5

concentrations in Adelaide (2006–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Adelaide

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


Smoke haze, lake Hume, Victoria


Tasmania

Tasmania monitored PM10

and PM2.5

at two sites, one in Launceston and one in Hobart. The PM

10 monitoring record started from

2000 in Hobart and from 1992 in Launceston.

Daily maximum PM10

levels in Hobart exceeded the standard on none to five days during the assessment period (Figure 2.74).

The 95th percentile levels were around 30 mg/m3 or about 60 per cent of the standard and appeared to have stabilised since 2005. The 50th percentile levels were just over 20 per cent of the standard.

Maximum PM10

levels in Hobart have generally decreased, and in last three years, were below the NEPM standard (Figure 2.73).

The daily maximum PM10

levels in Launceston were significantly higher than in Hobart. Since 1992, the number of exceedence days has ranged between one and 50 days. The NEPM goal of five exceedence days was only met in the last two years, 2007 and 2008 (Figure 2.76).

In most years peak PM10

levels were more than twice the standard, and the 95th percentile levels were up to twice the standard in some years. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 15mg/m3 since 2002 or 30 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.75).

In the 17 years of monitoring there was a clear decrease in both maximum and 95th percentile PM

10 levels. In the last two years,

the 95th percentile levels were around 60 per cent of the standard.


concentrations in Hobart (2000–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Hobart

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

87


standard in Hobart (2000–08)

Days in Hobart not meeting PM10 standard

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

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f d

ays

NEPM goal


concentrations in Launceston (1992–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Launceston

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Max

95 percentile

50 Percentile

NEPM standard



standard in Launceston (1992–2008)

Days in Launceston not meeting PM10 standard

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

NEPM goal

The PM2.5

data record for Hobart started in 2006 and for Launceston in 2005 (Figures 2.77–2.79).

Both regions exceeded the 24-hour average advisory reporting standard on a number of days per year, with levels and number of exceedences being much higher in Launceston (Figures 2.77 and 2.78).

In Launceston the 95th percentile levels and the annual average remained above the advisory reporting standards (Figures 2.78 and 2.79). There is not enough data to determine trends in PM

2.5.

Launceston has had an ongoing problem with particle pollution because of a combination of topography, poor dispersion meteorology, local emissions from domestic wood heaters, fuel reduction burning and routine burns conducted by the forestry industry.

Frequent temperature inversions in Launceston lead to poor dispersion of smoke emissions and particles become trapped in the airshed until weather conditions change and the particles can be dispersed.

The main reason for the decline in PM10

levels in Launceston over the last decade is the concerted effort made to reduce wood heater emissions in the city (see Case study 2.4).

89


concentrations in Hobart (2006–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Hobart

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile



concentrations in Launceston (2005–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Launceston

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile



Figure 2.79: The annual average PM2.5

concentrations in Hobart and Launceston (2005–08)

Maximum annual PM2.5 levels in Tasmania

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (µ

g/m

3)

Hobart

Launceston


Domestic wood smoke pollution, Tasmania

91

Case study 2.4: Managing wood smoke PM10

in Launceston

Launceston is the second largest urban centre in Tasmania after Hobart and is situated at the head of the Tamar River Valley in Northern Tasmania. In the past Launceston has experienced some of the worst winter air quality in Australia. The poor air quality is largely due to widespread burning of wood—a cheap and popular domestic fuel in Tasmania—combined with local topography and calm winter inversion conditions, which place a “lid” on smoke pollution and allow it to build up to high concentrations. Wood heater use in Launceston increased through the 1980s and early 1990s so that by 1994 about 66 per cent of all households used wood for heating.

In 1997, when the record below started, Launceston experienced 50 exceedences of the AAQ NEPM PM

10 standard. However, over the last decade, there has been a significant

drop in PM10

concentrations and the number of exceedences of the standard. These decreases are the result of a range of initiatives focused on reducing wood smoke pollution in which all levels of government participated (see below).

Trends in PM10

exceedences and the year different initiatives were introduced

PM10 exceedences in Launceston

5047

4138

26

13

26

1013

6 51

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

exce

edin

g t

he

stan

dar

d

LEC pamphlet

Airwatch

Smoke patrols

Council buy back

NHT buy back

Media campaigns

Regulations

List of initiatives

LEC pamphlet: Launceston Environmental Centre—pamphlets published on air pollution and wood smoke (2000).

Airwatch: national schools program in Tasmania (2001–03).

NHT buy-back: a wood heater buy-back scheme funded by the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) ($2.01 million) that resulted in replacement of over 2200 wood heaters with cleaner alternatives (2001–04).


Smoke patrols: patrols funded by NHT and Launceston City Council to identify excessively smoking wood heaters and to educate identified operators (2002–05).

Media campaigns: advertising campaign in local newspapers, TV and radio to educate the community about wood smoke issues (2002–07).

Council buy-back: a wood heater buy-back scheme by the Launceston City Council to remove 100 wood heaters (2007–ongoing).

Regulations: Tasmanian Environmental Management and Pollution Control (Distributed Atmospheric Emissions) Regulations 2007 were implemented to regulate wood heater emissions and backyard burning (August 2007).

Source: Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment

Western Australia

Trends in PM10

levels are available for three sites in the Perth region, three sites in the southwest of Western Australia and one site in the midwest of Western Australia.

In Perth, daily maximum PM10

levels exceeded the standard in six out of nine years, although the highest number of exceedence days was three, which is below the goal allowing five exceedence days (Figure 2.81).

The 95th percentile concentrations were around 30 mg/m3 or 60 percent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were around a third of the PM

10 standard

(Figure 2.80).

Bunbury was the only PM10

monitoring site in the southwest region of Western Australia until 2007 when Albany and Busselton were added to the monitoring network.

Daily maximum PM10

concentrations exceeded the standard on seven days in 2008 and on zero to four days in other years (Figures 2.82 and 2.84).

The 95th percentile concentrations were consistently around 30 mg/m3 or about 60 percent of the standard. The 50th percentile levels were around a third of the standard (Figure 2.82).

Elevated particle levels in 2004 and 2006 in the southwest region were attributed to smoke haze from controlled burning events in surrounding areas.

93


concentrations in Perth (2000–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Perth airshed

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


standard in Perth (2000–08)

Days not meeting PM10 standard in the Perth airshed

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

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f d

ays

Maximum

Average

NEPM goal



concentrations in the southwest region of Western Australia.

Daily maximum PM10 levels in the Southwest region

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

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µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Note: Data from 1999–2006 is for Bunbury only. Data from 2007 include Bunbury, Albany and Busselton.

A monitoring station was established at Geraldton in the midwest of Western Australia in 2005 to monitor windblown dust and smoke from bushfires, hazard reduction burns, stubble burning and wood-fired home heaters.

The trend data indicates that PM10

levels exceeded the standard on two to 10 days in the assessment period (Figures 2.83 and 2.84).

In 2007 and 2008, the standard was exceeded on 10 days at Geraldton (shown as the midwest in Figure 2.84) and the NEPM goal was not met in these years.

The 95th percentile levels were just under the standard in most years and the 50th percentile levels were around 40 per cent of the standard. While the assessment period is too short to define trends at Geraldton, the PM

10 concentrations are generally higher

than in the other monitoring regions.

Most exceedences at Geraldton were attributed to windblown dust.

Trends in PM2.5

levels are available for three sites in Perth and two sites in the southwest of Western Australia at Bunbury and Busselton.

In Perth, daily maximum PM2.5

levels exceeded the advisory reporting standard between zero and four days per year. The 95th percentile concentrations were between 12 and 15 mg/m3 or about 50 to 60 per cent of the standard (Figures 2.85 and 2.86). The 50th percentile concentrations were less than a third of the advisory reporting standard.

95


concentrations at Geraldton (2005–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels at Geraldton

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


standard in the southwest and midwest regions of Western Australia (2000–08)

Maximum number of days not meeting the PM10 standard

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Southwest

Midwest

NEPM goal



concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in the Perth airshed

0

10

20

30

40

50

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


Figure 2.86: Maximum and average number of days exceeding the PM2.5

advisory reporting standard in Perth (1999–2008)

Days not meeting PM2.5 advisory reporting standard in Perth airshed

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

97

In the southwest region of Western Australia, daily maximum PM

2.5 levels exceeded

the advisory reporting standard on one to eight days per year. Maximum levels were generally higher in the Southwest region than in Perth, and the 95th percentile levels were around 16 mg/m3 or about 65 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.87 and 2.88). The 50th percentile concentrations were less than a third of the advisory reporting standard.

The exceedences in the southwest were attributed to smoke haze from controlled burning.

The annual average PM2.5

levels in Western Australia have remained around the NEPM advisory reporting standard in Perth. They have exceeded the PM

2.5 advisory reporting

standard each year in the southwest region except in 2007 and 2008 when they were below the standard (Figure 2.89).


concentrations in the southwest region of Western Australia (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in the Southwest airshed

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentileAdvisory reporting standard


Figure 2.88: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the PM2.5

advisory reporting standard in the southwest region of Western Australia.

Days not meeting PM2.5 advisory reporting standard in the Southwest

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

Maximum

Average

Note: Data from 1999–2006 is for Bunbury only. The data from 2007 include Bunbury, Albany and Busselton.


concentrations in Perth and the southwest region of Western Australia (1999–2008)

Annual average PM2.5 levels in Western Australia

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Perth

Southwest regionAdvisory reporting standard

99


The Australian Capital Territory monitors PM

10 at one site in Monash, Canberra

(Figures 2.90 and 2.91). The daily maximum PM

10 levels in Monash exceeded the

PM10

standard in nine out of 10 years and the NEPM goal was not met in two of those years.

The highest PM10

levels and the highest number of exceedence days occurred in 2003 and coincided with major bushfires in the region.


concentrations ranged between 30 and 64 mg/m3 or around 70 to 130 per cent of the standard, with the highest levels occurring in the early years of the decade. The 50th percentile concentrations were around 30 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.90).

There are no obvious trends in daily maximum PM

10 levels, but the 95th

percentiles concentrations appear to be decreasing.

The Australian Capital Territory monitors PM

2.5 at one site in Monash, Canberra.

The PM2.5

records start from 2004.

The 24-hour average advisory reporting standard for PM

2.5 was exceeded on zero

to 20 days during the five-year assessment period; although the number of days exceeding the standard was lower in 2007 and 2008 than the previous three years. The 95th percentile concentrations hovered around the standard (Figures 5.92 and 5.93).


levels were close to, or exceeded the advisory reporting standard in all years. The data record for PM

2.5 is too short to define a trend.


levels in Monash, Canberra (1999–2008)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Canberra

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

50 percentile

95 percentile

MaximumNEPM standard



standard in Monash, Canberra (1999–2008)

Days in Canberra not meeting PM10 standard

0

5

10

15

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays NEPM goal


concentrations in Monash, Canberra (2004–08)

Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Canberra

05

10152025

3035404550

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3

)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


101

Figure 2.93: Maximum number of exceedences of the PM2.5

standard in Monash, Canberra (2004–08)

Days in Canberra not meeting PM2.5 advisory reporting standard

0

5

10

15

20

25

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er

of

da

ys


concentrations in Monash, Canberra (2004–08)

Annual average PM2.5 levels in Canberra

5

6

7

8

9

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3

) Advisory reporting standard


The major source of particle pollution in the Australian Capital Territory is the accumulation of smoke from domestic wood heaters during cold and stable atmospheric conditions.

Domestic wood heaters are estimated to account for about 72 per cent of PM

10

pollution in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT EPA 2010).

Other sources contributing to high particle levels in some years were smoke from regional bushfires and windborne dust.

The slight decrease in 95th percentile PM

10 concentrations over the assessment

period reflects local efforts to reduce wood smoke pollution through programs such as public education and enforcement activities, the licensing of firewood merchants, implementation of the ‘Don’t Burn Tonight Campaign’ and the Wood Heater Replacement Program.

Smoke haze

103

Northern Territory

PM10

data from the Northern Territory are available for one site in Darwin. The monitoring record started in 2004.

The data show that daily maximum PM10

levels exceeded the NEPM standard in three of the five monitoring years. The number of exceedence days of the standard ranged from one to two per year, therefore the NEPM goal was met each year (Figure 2.96).

The 95th percentile concentrations were generally between 28 and 33 mg/m3 or around 60 percent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were less than a third of the standard (Figure 2.95).

The data record is too short to determine a trend in PM

10 levels.

The Northern Territory monitors PM2.5

trends at one site in Darwin. The monitoring record started in 2004.

PM2.5

levels exceeded the 24-hour advisory reporting standard in all five years of monitoring. The number of days the standard was exceeded range from two to five per year (Figure 2.98).

The 95th percentile concentrations were generally between 17 and 20 mg/m3 or around 70 to 80 percent of the PM

2.5 advisory

reporting standard (Figure 2.97).


levels were close to or exceeded the advisory reporting standard in all years of the assessment period (Figure 2.99).

The data records are too short to determine trends in PM

2.5 levels in the Northern

Territory.

Smoke from dry season bushfires in the landscape surrounding Darwin is the principle source of high particle levels in Darwin.


concentrations in Darwin (2004–08)

Daily maximum PM10 levels in Darwin

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

ug

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile




standard in Darwin (2004–08)

Days in the Darwin not meeting daily PM10 standard

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

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f d

ays

NEPM goal



Daily maximum PM2.5 levels in Darwin

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

(µg

/m3)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile


105

Figure 2.98: Maximum number of exceedences of the PM2.5

advisory reporting standard in the Darwin (2004–08)

Days in Darwin not meeting the daily PM2.5 advisory reporting standard

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays



Annual average PM2.5 levels in Darwin

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

(µg

/m3) Advisory reporting standard


Summary

All urban and regional airsheds in Australia exceeded the PM

10 standard at some time

during the assessment period, and many exceeded the NEPM goal of five allowable exceedences per year.

The number of days per year in which the concentration of PM

10 exceeded the

NEPM standard was generally higher in south-eastern Australia than in northern and Western Australia. The number was also higher in regional towns than in capital cities. Wagga Wagga had the highest number of exceedence days of all the monitoring stations.

Of the main cities, Canberra, Launceston, Sydney and Melbourne experienced the most exceedences. Perth, Hobart and Darwin were the only capital cities that did not exceed the NEPM goal in any year.

The AQI ratings for the 95th percentile concentrations were Fair to Good in most monitoring regions; however, in Launceston the air quality rated Poor and in Canberra it rated Fair to Poor.

The 50th percentile concentrations were similar in all regions and generally less than 30 per cent of the standard so that air quality was Very Good half of the time.

Elevated particle levels in south-eastern Australia are largely the result of the extended and extreme drought conditions and the associated dust storms and bushfires that characterised the assessment period.

In addition to extreme weather events, regional sources also contributed to high particle levels and account for much of the regional variability in PM

10 levels. Regional

sources include agricultural activities, hazard reduction burns, smoke from domestic wood heaters and industrial activities.

Improvements in PM10

pollution in the assessment period were only evident in Hobart, Launceston and Canberra. PM

10

levels in these cities decreased in the latter part of the assessment period. The main reasons for the declines are campaigns to reduce wood smoke pollution from domestic wood heaters, which are major sources of PM

10 emissions in these areas.

PM2.5

monitoring data are available for 16 sites across Australia. In 2008 the two Queensland sites and the South Australian and Tasmanian sites met the 24-hour advisory reporting standard. Levels at other sites were just below or exceeded the advisory reporting standards.

Only Western Australia monitored PM2.5

for a sufficient period of time to consider trends. Peak PM

2.5 levels are highly variable from

year to year, whereas the 95th and 50th percentile levels are generally steady.

107

2.3 Carbon monoxide

Nature of carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a gas with the chemical formula CO. It forms from incomplete combustion.

Carbon monoxide is present as a minor constituent of the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of volcanic activity, bush fires, or other types of burning (for example crop residues or regeneration) and burning fossil fuels.

Sources of carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide in urban areas comes mainly from the exhaust of internal combustion engines including motor vehicles and small engines (for example portable and back-up generators and lawn mowers) and also from incomplete burning of various other fuels (such as wood, coal, charcoal, oil, kerosene, propane, natural gas and garbage).

The NPI estimates the main sources of carbon monoxide in Australia are vegetation burning, wildfires and motor vehicles. When combined, these account for more than 70 per cent of emissions (Figure 2.100).

Figure 2.100: Main non-industrial sources of carbon monoxide based on the NPI

Main sources of carbon monoxide

37%

35%

15%

4%9%

Vegetation burning/wildfires Motor vehicles

Metal manufacturing Domestic solid fuel burning

Other


Health effects of carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells. It reduces the amount of oxygen carried around in the blood needed for vital organs such as the brain, nervous tissues and the heart to work properly.

Carbon monoxide affects both healthy and unhealthy people. Symptoms such as headaches, nausea and dizziness will become noticeable if more than 2.5 per cent of haemoglobin is bound to carbon monoxide. Very high concentrations; that is, up to 40 per cent, of the haemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide will lead to coma and death. Exposure to carbon monoxide during pregnancy is associated with low birth weight in newborns.

State and trends of carbon monoxide pollution

Carbon monoxide was monitored at 18 sites across Australia in 2008. However, between 1999 and 2008 the number of monitoring sites varied as some sites were discontinued and others established.

The following charts show trends in the 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in NEPM regions in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory from 1999 to 2008. Tasmania and the Northern Territory are not required to monitor carbon monoxide levels.

The charts compare the daily maximum 8-hour average concentrations and the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations with the NEPM standard for carbon monoxide.

New motor vehicles

109

New South Wales

New South Wales monitors carbon monoxide at five sites in Sydney, and at one site each in Wollongong (for the Illawarra region) and Newcastle (for the Lower Hunter region).

The maximum 8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in Sydney, the Illawarra region and the Lower Hunter region were all significantly below the NEPM standard (Figures 2.101–2.103) and there were no exceedence days in the assessment period.

In Sydney the average maximum carbon monoxide concentrations ranged between 1.75 and 5.31 ppm (Figure 2.101).

The average 95th percentile concentrations ranged between 1.25 and 3.0 ppm or 14 to 30 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were less than one fifth of the standard from 2005 onward.

Although carbon monoxide levels were well below the standards, the peaks in the early years (2000–04) were influenced by

levels recorded at a monitoring station in the Sydney Central Business District (CBD). After a review of the New South Wales monitoring network, this site was discontinued in 2005.

In the Illawarra region maximum carbon monoxide levels ranged between 1.3 and 4.16 ppm and were less than half of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations were between 0.75 and 1.5 ppm or about 8 to 16 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations were less than one fifth of the standard (Figure 2.102).

In the Lower Hunter region maximum carbon monoxide levels ranged between 3.27 and 1.74 ppm, or were generally less than one-third of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations ranged between 0.95 and 2.0 ppm or around 10 to 20 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.103).

Maximum and percentile carbon monoxide concentrations have gradually declined in all regions of New South Wales in the last decade and even peak levels are now less than a third of the standard.

Figure 2.101: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–08)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in Sydney

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.103: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in the Lower Hunter

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.102: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in the Illawarra

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

111

Figure 2.104: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in South East Queensland

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Queensland

Queensland monitors carbon monoxide at two sites in South East Queensland.

The average maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide levels in South-East Queensland were significantly below the standard (Figure 2.104) and there were no exceedence days in the assessment period. Maximum concentrations peaked in 2001 at about 7 ppm.

The 95th percentile concentrations ranged between 1.0 and 3.8 ppm in the assessment period, or between 10 and 40 per cent of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations are less than 20 per cent of the standard.

The maximum and 95th and 50th percentile concentrations have gradually declined over the decade and concentrations are now less than one-third of the standard. The 50th percentile concentrations have declined to less than one-tenth of the standard.


South Australia

South Australia monitors carbon monoxide at one site in Adelaide.

The maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide levels in Adelaide were significantly below the standard (Figure 2.105) and there were no exceedences days in the assessment period.

Peak levels were around 1.4 ppm or less than 15 per cent of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations were around 0.3 ppm or less than 5 per cent of the standard.

Peak and percentile concentrations in Adelaide have declined over the decade.

Victoria

Victoria monitors carbon monoxide at three sites in the Port Phillip region, two sites in Melbourne and one site in Geelong.

The average maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide levels in the Port Phillip region were significantly below the NEPM standard (Figure 2.106) and there were no exceedence days in the assessment period.

Maximum carbon monoxide concentrations were generally less than half of the standard and the average 95th percentile concentrations were less than 20 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were less than one-tenth of the standard.

The maximum and percentile concentrations generally declined during the assessment period.

Figure 2.105: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in Adelaide

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

113

Figure 2.106: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in the Port Phillip region

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Western Australia

Western Australia monitors carbon monoxide at three sites in Perth.

The average maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide levels in Perth were significantly below the standard (Figure 2.107) and there were no exceedence days in the assessment period.

Maximum concentrations were generally less than half of the standard and the average 95th percentile concentrations were between 1.0 and 2.5 ppm or less than 30 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were less than one-tenth of the standard.

The maximum and percentile carbon monoxide concentrations declined over the assessment period.


The Australian Capital Territory monitors carbon monoxide at two sites in Canberra. The average maximum eight-hour average carbon monoxide levels in Canberra were significantly below the standard (Figure 2.108) and there were no exceedence days in the assessment period.

Maximum carbon monoxide levels were less than half of the standard and the average 95th percentile concentrations were generally less than 3.0 ppm or one-third of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were less than one-tenth of the standard.

The maximum and percentile carbon monoxide concentrations declined over the assessment periods. Levels are now less than one-third of the standard.


Figure 2.107: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in Perth

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.108: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08)

8 hour average carbon monoxide levels in Canberra

0

2

4

6

8

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

115

Summary

Carbon monoxide was monitored at 18 sites across Australia in 2008, although the number of sites varied slightly in the 10-year assessment period.

Nationally there were no exceedences of the 8-hour average carbon monoxide standard. Peak and percentile concentrations of carbon monoxide were well below the standard in all regions and levels gradually decreased over the assessment period. The AQI ratings for carbon monoxide were Very Good in all regions.

Improvements in carbon monoxide pollution are mainly due to the introduction of tighter vehicle emission standards, improvements in motor vehicle emission control technology and the gradual replacement of older vehicles with less polluting vehicles (see Case study 2.5).

2.4 Nitrogen dioxide

Nature of nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide is a gas with the chemical formula NO

2. A small amount of nitrogen

dioxide is formed naturally in the atmosphere by lightning and some is produced by plants, soil and water. However, only about 1 per cent of the total amount of nitrogen dioxide found in urban air is formed this way.

Nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide (NO) are formed during high-temperature combustion in the atmosphere, when oxygen combines with nitrogen. The exhaust gases from motor vehicles are major sources of nitrogen oxides (NO

X), as are the emissions from

electrical power generation plants. Motor vehicle exhaust has more NO than NO

2,

but once the NO is released into the atmosphere it quickly combines with oxygen in the air to form NO

2.

Nitrogen dioxide contributes to the formation of photochemical smog and ozone.

Sources of nitrogen dioxide

The major source of nitrogen dioxide in Australia is the burning of fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas. About 80 per cent of the nitrogen dioxide in cities comes from motor vehicle exhaust. Other sources of nitrogen dioxide are petrol and metal refining, electricity generation from coal-fired power stations, other manufacturing industries and food processing.

Health effects of nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide predominantly affects the respiratory system by damaging the lining of the smaller airways. It inflames the lining of the lungs and it can reduce immunity to lung infections. This can cause problems such as wheezing, coughing, colds, flu and bronchitis.

Children, asthmatics, the elderly and patients with chronic respiratory or other lung diseases are more susceptible to exposure than healthy adults.

State and trends of nitrogen dioxide pollution

The following charts show changes in the concentration of nitrogen dioxide in NEPM regions in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory from 1999 to 2008. Tasmania and the Northern Territory are not required to monitor for nitrogen dioxide.

The charts compare the maximum 1-hour average and the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations with the NEPM 1-hour standard for nitrogen dioxide. Where figures are available the annual average concentrations are compared to the annual nitrogen dioxide standard.


New South Wales

In 2008 New South Wales operated nine nitrogen dioxide monitoring stations in Sydney, three in the Illawarra region and three in the Lower Hunter region. However, not all stations monitored nitrogen dioxide for the full 10-year assessment period. For example, the Sydney region stations at Chullora and Macarthur were established in 2003 and the Sydney CBD site operated from 2000 until it was closed in early 2005.

The average maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Sydney, the Illawarra and the Lower Hunter regions did not exceed the NEPM standard in the assessment period. Average maximum concentrations were generally less than half the standard in most years (Figures 2.109 to 2.111).

Traffic

The average 95th percentile nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Sydney were between 0.03 and 0.04 ppm or around 25 to 33 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.109).

The average 95th percentile concentrations in the Illawarra region and the Lower Hunter region were around 0.03 ppm, or 25 per cent of the standard in the assessment period. The average 50th percentile concentrations were less than 15 percent of the standard (Figures 2.110 and 2.111).

Peak nitrogen dioxide concentrations in New South Wales have been declining since about 2000, whereas the 95th and 50th percentile concentrations held steady.

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in New South Wales ranged between 20 and 30 per cent of the annual standard. Levels in Sydney were slightly higher than in the other regions, especially in the first half of the assessment period (Figure 2.112).

117

Figure 2.109: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Sydney (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Sydney

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.110: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in the Illawarra

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.111: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in the Lower Hunter

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.112: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in New South Wales (1999–2008)

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in New South Wales

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Sydney Illawarra Lower Hunter

NEPM standard

119

Queensland

Queensland monitors nitrogen dioxide at five sites in South East Queensland, and at one site each in Toowoomba, Gladstone and Townsville.

There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide standard at any monitoring site in Queensland in the assessment period (Figures 2.113–2.116).

Maximum nitrogen dioxide concentrations at all sites are less than half of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations are around one-third, or less, of the standard and the 50th percentile concentrations are around 15 per cent of the standard in South East Queensland and less in other locations.

The percentile concentrations generally stayed steady over the assessment period.

The annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Queensland are significantly less than one-third of the annual standard and decreased slightly during the assessment period (Figure 2.117).

Figure 2.113: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in South East Queensland

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.114: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Toowoomba

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.115: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Gladstone (1999–08)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Gladstone

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

121

Figure 2.116: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Townsville (2004–08)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Townsville

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.117: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008)

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Queensland

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

SE Queensland Toowoomba

Gladstone Townsville

NEPM standard

Note: The data combines five sites in South East Queensland and one site each in the other locations.


South Australia

South Australia monitors nitrogen dioxide at five sites in the Adelaide region.

The average maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Adelaide are generally less than half of the NEPM standard (Figure 2.118) and no exceedences occurred in the assessment period.

The average 95th percentile concentrations were steady at around 0.03 ppm or about one-third of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were about 15 per cent of the standard. No trends in nitrogen dioxide levels are apparent.

Figure 2.118: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Adelaide

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

123

Victoria

Victoria monitors nitrogen dioxide at five sites in the Port Phillip region (four sites in Melbourne and one in Geelong) and at two sites in the Latrobe Valley.

There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide standard in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions in the assessment period. The maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in both regions were generally less than half of the standard (Figures 2.119 to 2.120).

The average 95th percentile concentrations in the Port Phillip region were around 0.035 ppm or 30 per cent of the standard. The average 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.119).

The average 95th percentile concentrations in the Latrobe Valley were slightly lower than in the Port Phillip region and were around 0.027 ppm or 23 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.120).

The annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in both regions are less than one-third of the annual standard. Annual average concentrations appear to have dropped slightly in the assessment period (Figure 2.121).

Figure 2.119: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Port Phillip

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

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atio

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pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.120: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Latrobe Valley (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in the Latrobe Valley

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.121: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008)

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Victorian airsheds

0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

0.035

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Port Phillip Latrobe Valley

NEPM standard

125

Western Australia

Western Australia monitors nitrogen dioxide at eight sites in the Perth region. There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide standard in Perth during the assessment period. Average maximum nitrogen dioxide levels were generally less than half of the NEPM standard (Figure 2.122).

The average 95th percentile concentrations in Perth were around 0.032 ppm or 30 per cent of the standard and the average 50th percentile concentrations were less than 15 per cent of the standard.

The annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Perth are less than one-third of the annual standard (Figure 2.123).

Nitrogen dioxide levels decreased slightly in the assessment period.

Figure 2.122: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Perth

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.123: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Perth

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

NEPM standard


The Australian Capital Territory monitors nitrogen dioxide at two sites in Canberra.

There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide standard during the assessment period (Figure 2.124). The average maximum nitrogen dioxide levels were generally less than half of the standard, although two peaks are evident in 2003 and 2008. The reason for these peaks is unclear.

The average 95th percentile concentrations in Canberra were 0.03 ppm or less than one-third of the standard and the average 50th percentile concentrations were around 15 per cent of the standard. No trends are apparent and levels remained steady during the assessment period.

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels are around a third of the standard and have also generally remained steady (Figure 2.125).

Summary

Nationally nitrogen dioxide was monitored at up to 42 sites and no exceedences of the 1-hour average or annual average standards were recorded in the assessment period.

Nitrogen dioxide pollution from 1999 to 2008 has levelled off in most monitoring regions, although in some regions it may have declined slightly during this time (see Case study 2.5).

The 95th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations are generally less than one-third of the standard in most regions and the AQI ratings are Very Good. The 50th percentile concentrations were generally less than 15 per cent of the standard.

Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations were generally less than a third of the annual standard and the AQI ratings were also Very Good.

127

Figure 2.124: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide levels in Canberra

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

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tio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.125: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08)

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in Canberra

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (p

pm

)

NEPM standard


2.5 Sulfur dioxide

Nature of sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide is a gas with the chemical formula SO

2. Sulfur dioxide is produced

by humans burning fossil fuels and is also produced naturally from erupting volcanoes, ocean algae, biological decay and forest fires.

Sulfur dioxide dissolves easily in water to form sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is a major component of acid rain, which can damage forests and crops, change the soil acidity and make lakes and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish. Acid rain also contributes to the decay of building materials, paints, monuments and statues.

Acid rain is not a recognised national problem in Australia and is more of an issue in the northern hemisphere where the density of major industries and cities is higher and there is long-range transport of pollution from one country to another.

Sources of sulfur dioxide

In Australia the main sources of sulfur dioxide emissions are electricity generation from coal, oil or gas, and smelting of mineral ores that contain sulfur (such as aluminum, copper, zinc, lead and iron). These sources account for around 90 per cent of emissions according to the NPI (Figure 2.126).

In the past, motor vehicle exhaust was a major source of sulfur dioxide. However, the introduction of low-sulfur fuels has significantly reduced levels in urban air (see Chapter 4).

The highest concentrations of sulfur dioxide are now usually found around industrial point sources, such as petrol refineries, metal and mineral ore processing plants and power stations.

Health effects of sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide irritates the nose, throat, and airways to cause coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath or a tight feeling around the chest. The effects of sulfur dioxide are felt very quickly and most people would feel the worst symptoms in the first 10 to 15 minutes after breathing it in. People most at risk of developing problems if exposed to sulfur dioxide are those with asthma or similar conditions. Its effect on health is increased in the presence of airborne particles.

State and trends of sulfur dioxide pollution

The following charts show changes in the maximum 1-hour average, 24-hour average and annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations from 1999–2008 at monitoring sites in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia. The Australian Capital Territory, Tasmania and the Northern Territory are not required to monitor for sulfur dioxide.

Trends are compared to the relevant NEPM standard for sulfur dioxide. Where there are exceedences, the trend charts are accompanied by charts showing the number of days the NEPM standards were exceeded.

129

Figure 2.126: Main sources of sulfur dioxide based on the NPI

Industrial pollution, Port Kembla (Photo: Jenny Tomkin)

Main sources of sulfur dioxide

47%

42%

2%8%

1%

Electricity generation Metal manufacturing

Metal ore mining Petroleum and coal production

Other


New South Wales

New South Wales monitors sulfur dioxide at six sites in the Sydney region, three sites in the Lower Hunter region and two sites in the Illawarra region.

There were no exceedences of the 1-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in any region in New South Wales during the assessment period (Figure 2.127).

Average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Sydney ranged from 0.013 to 0.019 ppm or less than 10 per cent of the standard.

In the Illawarra region, average sulfur dioxide levels were higher and more variable than in Sydney. They ranged from 0.025 to 0.075 ppm or between 12 to 37 per cent of the standard.

In the Lower Hunter region, average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels were also higher than in Sydney, ranging from 0.043 to 0.059 ppm or around 20 to 30 per cent of the standard.

Average maximum 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations were around 15 per cent or less of the standard in all monitoring regions in New South Wales during the assessment period (Figure 2.128).

Figure 2.127: The average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in NSW airsheds

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

pp

m)

Sydney

Illawarra

Lower Hunter

NEPM standard

131

In Sydney the highest 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations were less than 8 per cent of the standard. In the Illawarra and Lower Hunter regions, the concentrations were slightly higher than in Sydney, but still significantly lower than the standard.

Similar results were found for the annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in New South Wales (Figure 2.129). The highest annual average sulfur dioxide levels were in the Illawarra in 2005, but these were still less than 15 per cent of the annual standard.

There are a number of large industrial emitters of sulfur dioxide in the Illawarra region concentrated in the Port Kembla area and a number of sources are present in the Lower Hunter region. This explains the higher concentrations in these regions compared to Sydney.

In the Lower Hunter region, industrial sources include primary metallurgical works and coal-fired power generators.

Maximum 1-hour average and annual average sulfur dioxide levels in the Illawarra region have decreased since 2004 and 2005.Although hourly sulfur dioxide levels are well below the national standard, this declining trend could be related to the closure of significant point sources near the Warrawong monitoring site in the early 2000s. The Warrawong site was closed in 2006 as part of a review of the NSW monitoring network.

There are no obvious trends in sulfur dioxide levels in Sydney or the Lower Hunter during the assessment period—levels have remained fairly steady.

Figure 2.128: The average maximum 24-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in NSW airsheds

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Sydney

Illawarra

Lower Hunter

NEPM standard


Figure 2.129: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008)

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in NSW airsheds

0.000

0.004

0.008

0.012

0.016

0.020

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Sydney

Illawarra

Lower Hunter

NEPM standard

Queensland

Queensland monitors sulfur dioxide at two sites in South East Queensland, two sites in Townsville, and one site each in Gladstone and Mount Isa.

There were no exceedences of any of the sulfur dioxide standards in the 10-year assessment period in Queensland, with the exception of Mount Isa.

Maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Queensland (excluding Mount Isa) are less than one-fifth of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations are around one-tenth of the standard (Figure 2.130).

Similarly, the 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations are around 12 per cent or less of the standard (Figure 2.130).

Sulfur dioxide levels in Gladstone in Queensland were higher than levels in South East Queensland, although they did not exceed the NEPM standards.

In 2008 maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels reached 70 per cent of the standard. In 2006 the 95th percentile levels reached 25 per cent of the standard.

The higher levels in Gladstone may be associated with smelter operations and electricity generation.

133

Figure 2.130: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Queensland

0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.20

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Note: Data from Mount Isa is not included.

Figure 2.131: The average maximum and 95th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008).

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Queensland

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

NEPM standard

Note: Data from Mount Isa is not included.


Figure 2.132: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Gladstone (2003–08)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Gladstone

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nc

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m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

In Mount Isa the maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels exceeded the standard by as much as seven times, and the 95th percentile concentrations exceeded the standard by as much as two times during the assessment period. The 1-hour average standard was exceeded every year, with the number of exceedences ranging from 18 to 50 days (Figures 2.133 and 2.134).

The 24-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Mount Isa exceeded the standard in most years of the assessment period. This was, however, on fewer occasions than the 1-hour average standard, ranging from none to two exceedence days (Figures 2.135 and 2.136).

The annual average sulfur dioxide levels in Mount Isa did not exceed the annual standard; however, they were around two to four times higher than levels elsewhere in Queensland.

In South-East Queensland, Townsville and Gladstone, annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations were generally 10 per cent or less of the standard (Figure 2.137).

In Mount Isa there were no marked trends in sulfur dioxide levels or the number of exceedence days of the standards during the assessment period.

There was high year–to-year variability in maximum concentrations and some variability in 95th percentile concentrations, although these did not necessarily correspond. For example, maximum 24-hour average levels were high in 2007, whereas the percentile concentrations were steady.

The high levels of sulfur dioxide in Mount Isa are due to emissions from metal smelting and sulfuric acid manufacturing industries. Mount Isa is home to one of the largest copper and lead mining and smelting operations in Australia.

135

Figure 2.133: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Mount Isa

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

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n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.134: Number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Mount Isa (1999–2008)

Days at Mount Isa not meeting 1 hour sulfur dioxide standard

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er o

f d

ays

NEPM goal allows 1 exceedence per year


Figure 2.135: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa (1999–2008)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Mt Isa

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

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pp

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Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.136: Number of exceedence days of the 24-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Mount Isa (1999–2008)

Days in Mount Isa not meeting the 24 hour sulfur dioxide standard

0

1

2

3

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er

of

da

ys

NEPM goal

137

Figure 2.137: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa and the average for the rest of Queensland (1999–2008)

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in Queensland

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Mt Isa

Rest of QLDNEPM standard


Figure 2.138: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Adelaide

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

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pp

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Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

South Australia

South Australia monitors sulfur dioxide at one site in Adelaide and one site in Port Pirie.

Maximum and percentile sulfur dioxide levels in Adelaide were significantly below the NEPM standards for all averaging periods and have remained low for the past 10 years (Figures 2.128 and 2.139).

Maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Port Pirie were up to three times higher than the standard in the assessment period, with the standard being exceeded each year for between 16 and 33 days.

The 95th percentile concentrations also exceeded the standard over this time. The 50th percentile concentrations were well below the standard (Figure 2.140).

The 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Port Pirie were below the NEPM standard, but the maximum levels did increase in the latter part of the assessment period (Figure 2.142).

The 95th percentile concentrations were around half of the standard or less and the 50th percentile concentrations were less than one-tenth of the standard.

The high sulfur dioxide levels in Port Pirie are due to emissions from the Port Pirie lead smelter.

139

Figure 2.139: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Adelaide

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

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n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.140: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Port Pirie (2002–08)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Port Pirie

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.141: Number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Port Pirie (2002–08)

Days in Port Pirie not meeting the 1 hour sulfur dioxide standard

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Nu

mb

er

of

Da

ys

NEPM goal allows one exceedance per year

Figure 2.142: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Port Pirie (2002–08)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Port Pirie

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

141

Victoria

Victoria monitors sulfur dioxide at three monitoring stations in the Port Phillip region (two in Melbourne and one in Geelong) and two sites in the Latrobe Valley. Sulfur dioxide levels in both regions were well below the standards during the assessment period.

In the Port Phillip region, the average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels were around 12 to 25 per cent of the standard and the average 95th percentile concentrations were less than 10 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.143).

In the Latrobe Valley region, the average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels were around 25 to 50 per cent of the standard and marginally higher than in the Port Phillip region. The average 95th percentile concentrations were similar and less than 10 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.144).

Figure 2.143: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Port Phillip

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard


Figure 2.144: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in the Latrobe Valley

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

The maximum 24-hour average and the annual average sulfur dioxide levels were marginally lower in the Port Phillip area (Figure 2.145 and 2.146) than in the Latrobe Valley region, and generally less than 10 per cent of the standards.

No trends in levels are evident in the Port Phillip region. In the Latrobe Valley, the maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations have increased in recent years, but the percentile concentrations remained steady (Figure 2.144).

There are a number of power plants in the Latrobe Valley using brown coal to produce electricity. The marginally higher levels and increasing trend in maximum sulfur dioxide levels could be caused by the increased energy production at these plants due to Victoria’s growing population.

143

Figure 2.145: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Victoria

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Port Phillip

Latrobe Valley

NEPM standard

Figure 2.146: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008)

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in Victoria

0.000

0.004

0.008

0.012

0.016

0.020

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Port Phillip

Latrobe Valley

NEPM standard


Western Australia

Western Australia monitors sulfur dioxide at four sites in the Perth region.

Sulfur dioxide concentrations were significantly below the NEPM standards during the assessment period.

The average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide levels ranged from 0.05 to 0.08 ppm, around 20 to 40 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.147). The average 95th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations were around 10 per cent of the standard.

The average maximum 24-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Perth were around 10 per cent of the standard. The 95th percentile concentrations were significantly less than 10 per cent of the standard and the 50th percentile concentrations were too low to show on the plot at scale (Figure 2.148).

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in Perth were around 15 per cent of the standard (Figure 2.149).

Sulfur dioxide levels in Perth held steady over the assessment period.

Figure 2.147: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

1 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Perth

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

50 percentile

NEPM standard

145

Figure 2.148: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008)

24 hour average sulfur dioxide levels in Perth

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Maximum

95 percentile

NEPM standard

Figure 2.149: Average annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Perth (1999–2008)

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in the Perth region

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

NEPM standard


Summary

Ambient sulfur dioxide levels are low in urban areas across Australia for all of the averaging times. No urban sites exceeded the NEPM standards, except Mount Isa in Queensland and Port Pirie in South Australia.

Typical maximum 24-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in urban areas are between 10 and 15 per cent of the standard, and annual average levels are less than 15 per cent of the standard, achieving a Very Good AQI rating.

The maximum 1-hour average levels are typically less than 10 and 30 per cent of the standard, also achieving a Very Good AQI rating.

In Mount Isa, maximum 1-hour sulfur dioxide levels were more than three times the NEPM standard and in Port Pirie they were more than twice the standard. Both sites typically had more than 20 exceedence days each year during the assessment period.

Petrochemical plant, Altona, Victoria

The 24-hour average standard was exceeded at Mount Isa but not at Port Pirie, although peak levels appear to be increasing in Port Pirie.

Sulfur dioxide levels are higher in Mount Isa and Port Pirie because these regional towns are located near industrial smelting operations.

Sulfur dioxide levels in regional areas and cities such as the Illawarra and Lower Hunter regions in New South Wales, Gladstone in Queensland and Traralgon in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria, are marginally higher than levels found in major cities, although the levels did not exceed the NEPM standards.

The higher levels in these regional cities and towns are generally associated with industrial activities, including smelter operations and electricity generation.

147

2.6 Lead

Nature of lead

Lead is a heavy metal and basic chemical element with the chemical formula Pb. Lead occurs in nature as a trace element in certain minerals, ore deposits and soil.

Lead has been used for various applications in modern and historical times. Historically it was used in coins, as a pigment in glass and pottery, in plumbing, building and even in cosmetics. In modern times it has been used in batteries, as an anti-knock additive in petrol and pigment in paint. More recently lead use has been restricted in many products such as petrol and paint.

Sources of lead

Before lead was restricted in petrol, the main source of airborne lead in urban areas was exhaust emissions from vehicles using leaded petrol. The national phase-out of lead in petrol in Australia began in 1993 and was completed on 1 January 2002, although some states phased it out earlier.

The highest concentrations of airborne lead are now typically found near industrial point sources where major lead industries operate. These industries include lead mining, smelting and operations that use lead or products containing lead.

Soil near heavily used streets and roads may still contain lead because airborne lead settles on soil where it builds up over time. This lead can become airborne in windblown dust.

The NPI estimates that lead emissions from metal manufacturing and metal ore mining account for around 44 per cent of emissions, and road dust from paved and unpaved roads accounts for around 41 per cent of emissions (Figure 2.150).

Health effects of lead

Lead differs from other air pollutants because it is persistent in the environment and can enter the body by both inhalation of airborne lead, or through ingestion of dust or food contaminated by lead.

Although small amounts of lead do not cause any specific symptoms, as much as 10 per cent of the lead that enters an adult’s body stays there. Even small amounts can gradually build up in the body.

Large amounts of lead in the body can cause pain in joints and muscles, anaemia and high blood pressure. In children the symptoms of lead exposure can be poor development of motor abilities and memory, reduced attention span, and colic and gastric problems.

Any amount of lead can be a health risk for pregnant woman because the unborn baby is exposed to lead in the mother’s blood. A large amount of lead in the mother’s body can cause premature birth, low birth weight, or even miscarriage or stillbirth.


State and trends of lead pollution

Before the phase-out of leaded petrol in Australia, the NEPM standard for lead was regularly exceeded in urban environments. However, over the past two decades lead levels in urban air have declined significantly (Figure 2.151). Because of the decline, lead monitoring is no longer carried out in large urban environments.

Lead monitoring is still carried out in regional towns and cities with major industrial sources, because concentrations may still exceed the NEPM standard (Figure 2.152).

Figure 2.150: The main sources of lead based on the NPI

Main sources of lead

41%

26%

18%

8%7%

Paved and unpaved roads Metal manufacturing

Metal ore mining Motor vehicles

Other

Petrochemical plant, Altona, Victoria

149

Figure 2.151: Annual average lead levels in urban air between 1991 and 2001.

Annual average Pb levels (average of 16 urban sites)

0.0

0.3

0.5

0.8

1.0

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n (

ug

/m3

)

NEPM standard

Note: Before about 1993 lead levels in urban air commonly exceeded the NEPM standard. However, urban lead levels have progressively declined and are now well below the NEPM standard, even in high traffic areas.

Figure 2.152: Lead levels at two locations in Port Pirie, South Australia.

Lead levels at Pt Pirie, South Australia

0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

ug

/m3)

Frank Green Park Oliver Street

NEPM standard

Note: Port Pirie has the world’s largest primary lead smelter and lead levels may still exceed the NEPM standard. Lead levels at Oliver Street in Port Pirie exceeded the annual standard in six out of seven years between 2002 and 2008. Levels at Frank Green Park were below the standard.


2.7 National summary

Air quality in Australia is generally good for most pollutants when assessed against the NEPM standards and the air quality index (AQI).

Air Quality Index (% of standard)

Very Poor 150+

Poor 100–149

Fair 67–99

Good 34–66

Very Good 0–33

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and lead levels are generally well below the national standards and achieve Good to Very Good AQI ratings, with a few exceptions. Levels of these pollutants have also declined or remained steady over the 10-year assessment period.

Ozone and particulate matter levels are not declining and commonly exceed the national standards.

Sulfur dioxide and lead levels remain high in some regional areas with large industrial point sources, where they may exceed the standards.

Ozone

Sydney and the Illawarra regions of New South Wales generally experience higher ozone levels than other regions in Australia. Levels exceeded the ozone standards in most years during the assessment period. Sydney generally achieved a Poor AQI rating for peak ozone concentrations.

Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and Canberra occasionally experience peak ozone levels close to or exceeding the standards. These cities generally achieve a Good to Fair AQI rating. Peak concentrations in the Port Phillip region, encompassing Melbourne, more often exceeded the 4-hour average ozone standard and achieved a Poor AQI rating in some years (Figures 2.153 to 2.156).

In Sydney the 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations are between 60 and 70 per cent of the standard, achieving a Fair AQI rating (Figure 2.157). In other urban areas, the concentrations are around 50 per cent of the standard, achieving a Good AQI rating. The 50th percentile ozone concentrations are consistently around one third of the 1-hour standard in all regions.

In Sydney the 95th percentile 4-hour average concentrations are between 60 and 80 per cent of the standard, achieving a Fair AQI rating (Figure 2.158). In other urban areas the 95th percentile 4-hour average concentrations are around 60 per cent of the standard, achieving a Good AQI rating (Figure 2.158). The 50th percentile ozone concentrations are consistently around 40 per cent of the 4-hour standard in all regions.

There were no discernible overall trends of ozone levels at the 44 monitoring sites between 1999 and 2008. Meteorological conditions conducive to elevated ozone vary in frequency and intensity from year to year leading to variations in peak ozone levels.

151

Figure 2.153: The average maximum 1-hour average ozone concentrations in four major cities (1999–2008)


0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)


NEPM standard

Note: Sydney commonly exceeds the standards, whereas the other cities only occasionally exceed the standards.

Figure 2.155: The average maximum 4-hour average ozone concentrations in four major cities (1999–2008)


0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)


NEPM standard

Note: Sydney commonly exceeds the standards, whereas Melbourne occasionally exceeds the standards.


Figure 2.154: The annual average number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average ozone standard (1999–2008), based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region.

Figure 2.156: The annual average number of exceedence days of 4-hour average ozone standard (1999–2008), based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region

153

Figure 2.157: The average 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008)

95th percentile of 1 hour average ozone

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)


NEPM standard

Figure 2.158: The average 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008)

95th percentile of 4 hour average ozone

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)


NEPM standard


Particulate matter

Maximum PM10

levels exceeded the NEPM standard on occasions in all regions in Australia during the assessment period. The NEPM goal of five exceedence days in a year was also not met in some years in many regions (Figure 2.159).

Maximum PM10

concentrations varied from region to region. In urban areas they were up to four times higher than the standard and up to 14 times higher in some regional areas.


concentrations also varied from region to region. All regions were below the standard with the exception of Canberra, Hobart, Launceston and some regional towns in some years (Figures 2.160 and 2.161).

Table 2.1 shows the 95th percentile PM10

concentrations in capital cities and their AQI ratings. Darwin, Brisbane and Perth achieved Good AQI ratings for the 95th percentile PM

10 concentrations. Sydney, Melbourne,

and Adelaide achieved Good to Fair ratings (Table 2.1).

Hobart achieved a Good to Poor AQI rating for the 95th percentile PM

10 concentrations

and Canberra achieved a Fair to Poor rating. The poor ratings in both regions were influenced by air quality in the early years of the assessment period.


concentrations (not shown in the table or figures) in all regions are around a third or less of the standard in most regions and achieve a Very Good rating.

Figure 2.162 compares the average 95th percentile PM

10 concentration in

all capital cities with regional cities. On average, regional cities tend to have slightly higher maximum (not shown in plot) and 95th percentile PM

10 concentrations

than major cities.

Extreme levels of PM10

, many times greater than the standard in all regions, tend to occur in the warmer months and result from natural events such as bushfires and dust storms that affect entire regions. Notable years for severe bushfires in south-eastern Australia were 2002–03 and 2006–07. A major regional dust storm also occurred in south-eastern Australia (extending into Queensland) in October 2002.

Elevated levels of particulate matter in some areas and years are also caused by hazard reduction burns, wood smoke from domestic wood heaters, and agricultural and industrial activities.

No clear trends in PM10

levels were observed in the assessment period because of the considerable year-to-year variability. The exceptions were Launceston, Tasmania, and to a lesser extent Hobart and Canberra, where levels decreased. The declines in particulate pollution in these cities are largely the result of efforts to reduce wood smoke pollution from domestic wood heaters. For more information see Case study 2.4.

Table 2.1: The 95th percentile PM10

levels as a percentage of the standard

City Percentage of standard AQI rating

Darwin 40–60 Good

Perth 60 Good

Brisbane 60 Good

Sydney 50–90 Good to Fair

Melbourne 60–80 Good to Fair

Adelaide 60–70 Good to Fair

Hobart 70–130 Good to Poor

Canberra 70–130 Fair to Poor

155

Figure 2.159: The annual average number of PM10

exceedence days between 1999 and 2008, based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region.


Figure 2.160: The average 95th percentile 24-hour average PM10

concentrations in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008)

95th percentile of daily PM10 in Australian capital cities

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n(µ

g/m

3)


NEPM standard

Note: Most cities achieved a Good to Fair AQI rating.


concentrations in Adelaide, Hobart, Darwin and Canberra (1999–2008)

95th percentile of daily PM10 in Australian capital cities

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n(µ

g/m

3)

Adelaide Hobart Darwin Canberra

NEPM standard

Note: Most cities achieved a Good to Fair AQI rating.

157


concentrations in regional and capital cities

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (µ

g/m

3)

Regional cities Capital cities

NEPM standard

95th percentiles daily PM10 levels

Note: Regional cities have slightly higher average 95th percentile PM10

levels than capital cities.

Nitrogen dioxide

Maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide levels are generally less than half the NEPM standard in urban environments and the 95th percentile concentrations are less than one-third of the standard. This equates to a Good to Very Good AQI rating.

Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations are also less than one-third of the annual standard, equating to a Very Good AQI rating.

Nitrogen dioxide levels remained fairly steady in the last decade; although they appear to have declined slightly in some regions. Declines are more obvious in the longer-term records, which show peak concentrations declined quite significantly in the last two decades. The drop is most likely due to improved emission controls on motor vehicles (Figure 2.164).

Carbon monoxide

Maximum carbon monoxide levels in major urban areas are generally less than one-third of the NEPM standard and 95th percentile concentrations are generally around 20 per cent of the standard. The AQI ratings are Very Good for peak concentrations. Carbon monoxide levels across Australia have decreased in the last decade or so largely due to improved emission controls on motor vehicles (Figure 2.163).


Sulfur dioxide

Maximum sulfur dioxide levels in major urban areas are generally less than 25 per cent of the NEPM standards for all averaging times. The 95th percentile concentrations are much lower still, giving an AQI rating of Very Good.

Sulfur dioxide levels across Australian cities have remained fairly steady over the last decade.

Sulfur dioxide levels remain high in some regional towns, such as Mount Isa and Port Pirie, with large industrial point sources. In these places they often exceed the NEPM standard, particularly for the short averaging times. The AQI ratings were Poor to Very Poor for peak 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations.

Lead

Lead levels have decreased significantly in urban environments over the last two decades as a result of removing it from petrol. Levels are now less than 10 per cent of the standard.

Lead levels remain high in some regional areas with large industrial point sources, where they may exceed the standards. Lead levels were available for only one such region in this report (Port Pirie). Peak lead levels in some years were more than 100 per cent of the standard and the air quality was Poor at these times.

159

Case study 2.5: Pollution in the Sydney CBD

Figures 2.163 and 2.164 show levels of carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide at a peak site in George Street, Sydney from 1982–2004 and 1980–2008, respectively. The station was located just above the level of bus and truck exhaust fumes, and where high-rise buildings limit dispersion. The figures show a significant reduction in emissions of these air pollutants over this timeframe. Similar reductions can be seen across Australia. Government actions over the past two decades to reduce emissions from motor vehicles contributed to this marked improvement in air quality.

Figure 2.163: Maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Sydney CBD (1982–2004)

8 hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Sydney

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Co

nce

ntr

atio

ns

(pp

m)

NEPM standard

Figure 2.164: Maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Sydney CBD (1980–2009)

1 hour average nitrogen dioxide conentrations in Sydney

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Co

nce

ntr

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ns

(pp

m)

NEPM standard


2.8 International comparisons

This section compares levels of ozone, PM10

, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide in several major Australian cities with levels in major cities overseas.

The international data was sourced from the World Health Organisation (WHO) report, Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005—Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. The WHO report provides the most recent published international comparative data on air quality. The report did not include any Australian cities in its analysis. The Australian data are the maximum concentrations measured between 2000 and 2005 under the AAQ NEPM.

It is important to note that while the AAQ NEPM provides strict criteria for how air quality is measured, the same assurances cannot be made for the international data. The WHO report provides no details on location of air monitors (for example, roadside or close to major sources), the type of instruments used, or the quality of the data.

It is also worth noting that many of the cities included in the international comparison are classified as mega-cities with populations greater than 10 million. Pollutant emissions are likely to be higher than in Australian cities with smaller populations.

Figures 2.165–2.168 indicate that annual average PM

10 and sulfur dioxide levels in

Australian cities are low compared to other cities, whereas 1-hour average ozone levels in Sydney are high compared to other cities. Ozone levels are similar to those in Los Angeles. Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels are comparatively low and comparable to several major international cities.

The WHO report provides summary comments on global trends in air quality stating that:

Many air pollution indicators have shown a downward trend during the last decade, the most obvious being the reduction of sulfur dioxide in most parts of the world. Nitrogen dioxide concentrations and the general levels of ozone, on the other hand, do not show the same declining tendencies.

These comments equally apply to the Australian trends for these pollutants, at least in the last decade.

The WHO report did not provide a general comment on particle levels. The picture appears to be mixed with an upward trend in Asia, no discernible trend in Europe or Latin America and a fall in levels in America.

There is no data for peak 24-hour average PM

10 levels in the WHO report so

comparisons with Australian peak levels for the shorter averaging time is not possible.

161

Figure 2.165: The highest 1-hour average ozone levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities

Note: Maximum ozone levels in Sydney between 2000 and 2005 are similar to levels found in Athens. Levels in Melbourne and Perth are comparable to New York, Paris and Singapore

Figure 2.166: Annual average PM10

levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities

Annual average PM10 levels in selected cities (2000-2005)

0

50

100

150

200

New D

elhi

Cairo

Beijin

g

Rome

Man

ila

Mex

ico C

ity

Bangk

ok

Berlin

Los A

ngele

s

Hong K

ong

Tokyo

Lond

on

Athen

s

New Y

ork

Sydne

y

Melb

ourne

Perth

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

µg

/m3)

Note: PM10

levels in Australian cities are low, relative to most other major cities.


Figure 2.167: Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities

Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in selected cities (2000-2005)

0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

0.035

0.040

Mex

ico C

ity

Athen

s

Beijin

g

Los A

ngele

sCair

o

Tokyo

New Y

ork

Hong K

ong

Barce

lona

Rome

Perth

New D

elhi

Melb

ourne

Lond

on

Sydne

y

Singa

pore

Bangk

ok

Berlin

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Note: Nitrogen dioxide levels are comparatively low in Australian cities compared to most major cities and are comparable to Rome, New Delhi, London and Singapore.

Figure 2.168: Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities

Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in selected cities (2000-2005)

0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

Mex

ico C

ity

Beijin

g

New Y

ork

Athen

s

Hong K

ong

Singa

pore

Los A

ngele

s

Barce

lona

Tokyo

Melb

ourne

Sydne

y

Brisba

ne

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

pp

m)

Note: Sulfur dioxide levels are low in Australian cities compared to major international cities.

163

Air pollution And heAlth

3.1 Who is at risk? 164

3.2 Public health 164

3.3 Cost of air pollution 167


3. Air pollution And heAlth

research has shown for a long time that high levels of air pollution can affect human health. Air pollution principally affects human health by damaging the body’s respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

Many air pollutants are non-threshold pollutants (see glossary) with no safe levels and may cause effects in sensitive people even at low concentrations.

3.1 Who is at risk?

The extent to which a person is harmed by air pollution depends on their total exposure to the pollution, the duration of exposure and the person’s sensitivity to pollution.

Groups considered most vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution are people with pre-existing respiratory conditions (e.g. asthma) and cardiovascular diseases, children and the elderly. Healthy adults who exercise in polluted air may also be adversely affected by some pollutants because they are breathing more deeply and at higher rates.

3.2 Public health

Air pollution is an important public health issue that imposes high health and monetary costs on the community and governments.

The health effects of air pollution can be mild or severe, ranging from subtle irritating effects to early death. The less severe symptoms may pose a greater public health and cost burden than the severe effects because they are experienced by a larger segment of the population (Figure 3.1).

The AIHW Burden of Disease and Injury report (Begg et al, 2007) estimated that urban air pollution was responsible for more than 3000 premature deaths in 2003, mainly among the elderly (Figure 3.2). This is almost twice the number of deaths due to traffic accidents, which in 2003 was 1600 (Department of Infrastructure, 2009).

165

The most common causes of death from long-term exposure to air pollution were chronic conditions such as heart disease, lung cancer, stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Figure 3.3). The study did not consider health conditions that result from short-term exposure to air pollution, although these conditions were estimated to be responsible for around one-third of total deaths.

To put this into perspective, of 14 major risk factors examined in this report, urban air pollution accounted for 1 per cent of the disease burden (0.7 per cent for long-term exposure and 0.3 per cent for short-term exposure).

The top five risk factors for disease were tobacco smoking, high blood pressure, obesity, physical inactivity and high blood cholesterol (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Disease burden (all causes) attributed to various risk factors

Risk factor Attributable burden (%)

Tobacco smoking 7.8

High blood pressure 7.6

Obesity 7.5

Physical inactivity 6.6

High blood cholesterol 6.2

Urban air pollution 1.0

Figure 3.1: Pyramid showing the common health indicators used in public health risk assessment of air pollution and the severity of effects

Note: The pyramid also illustrates the proportion of people likely to be affected. The more severe effects at the top of the pyramid are the least common and affect a smaller proportion of the population. The mildest effects at the bottom of the pyramid are the most common and affect a larger proportion of the population (AIRNET, undated).

Severity of effect

Proportion of population affected

Premature mortality

Hospital admissions

Emergency room visits

Visits to doctor

Reduced physical performance

Medication use

Symptoms

Impaired lung function

Subtle effects


Figure 3.2: Deaths in 2003 that can be attributed to the long-term effects of urban air pollution

Deaths by gender and age group

0

50

100

150

200

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300

0-1

5-9

15-1

9

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9

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9

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9

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9

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9

75-7

9

85-8

9

95-9

9

Age group

Nu

mb

er o

f dea

ths

Male

Female

Note: Urban air pollution was responsible for more than 3000 premature deaths in 2003, mainly among the elderly (Source: Begg et al, 2007).

Figure 3.3: Proportion of deaths that can be attributed to long-term exposure to urban air pollutionDeaths by cause

17%

22%

9% 4%48%

Ischaemic heart diseaseLung cancerStrokeChronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseOther

Note: Heart disease is the biggest killer of Australians that can be attributed to air pollution and resulted in almost half of the deaths related to air pollution.

167

Air pollution from motor vehicles is estimated to account for up to 4500 cases of respiratory and cardiovascular disease and bronchitis, and up to 2000 premature deaths annually in Australia (BTRE, 2005).

Air pollution exacerbates asthma and contributes to other respiratory illnesses in children. In 2003 asthma was the leading illness in Australian children, and the 11th leading contributor to the overall burden of disease in Australia (AIHW, 2008).

It is predicted that asthma will continue to rank as one of the major causes of disease burden in Australia for the next two decades, particularly among females (AIHW, 2008).

Nitrogen dioxide and particle pollution are estimated to account for an average 3.1 and 3.9 per cent respectively of total hospitalisations due to asthma in Melbourne (AIHW, 2010).

3.3 Cost of air pollution

Determining the cost of air pollution is difficult and contentious for both methodological and ethical reasons. The uncertainties in this process usually result in a wide range of cost estimates.

One of the difficulties is placing a value on the health effects of air pollution. For example, some people argue that it is not possible to place a monetary value on illness and death.

Nevertheless the estimated health costs of ambient air pollution are significant, and governments require estimates to make choices about where best to invest limited resources to improve air quality and avoid the associated deaths and diseases.

Only a limited number of Australian studies have estimated the health cost of air pollution. The Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics estimated the health costs of transport-related air pollution were between $2.7 and $3.8 billion in the capital cities of Australia in 2005 (BTRE, 2005).

The New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW DEC) estimated the annual health costs of ambient air pollution in the greater Sydney metropolitan region, which includes Sydney, Illawarra and the Lower Hunter, to be between $1 billion and $8.4 billion per annum from 2000 to 2002 (NSW DEC, 2005).


169

Air pollution mAnAgement

4.1. Air pollution monitoring 170

4.2 Emissions control strategies 172

4.3 Other strategies 176


4. Air pollution mAnAgement

Australia’s strategy for managing air pollution in the last decade has focused largely on setting national air quality standards, monitoring air pollution levels for compliance with the standards and reducing emissions from major sources. these strategies have resulted in significant improvements in air quality for many pollutants.

4.1. Air pollution monitoring

Australia introduced national ambient air quality standards and monitoring protocols for common pollutants in 1998 under the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure (AAQ NEPM), which formally commenced in 2002.

Long-term monitoring of air quality has helped air quality managers to detect and interpret air quality trends, target management responses toward problem pollutants and determine the effectiveness of the responses.

The air quality data in this report shows a reduction in the concentration of some pollutants over the last decade as a result of emissions reduction programs to levels well below the NEPM standards. The data also highlights where future management efforts need to be.

Air quality monitoring data also provides important information to scientists attempting to advance the understanding of the causes of and solutions to air pollution. When combined with health data, air monitoring data also enables us to better understand the link between air pollution and health effects.

171

Many jurisdictions are making air monitoring data available in real time over the internet and are using air pollution forecasts as a warning tool for individuals sensitive to pollution.

The AAQ NEPM is currently undergoing a review to examine the need for revising the national air quality standards and monitoring protocols.

In addition to the AAQ NEPM, Australia established a National Environment Protection Air Toxics Measure in 2004 (NEPC, 2004). The Air Toxics NEPM currently sets monitoring investigation levels for five priority air toxics: benzene, toluene, xylene, formaldehyde and benzo(a)pyrene. State and territory governments are monitoring for these air toxic pollutants at locations where there is a risk of people being exposed to them, such as near roads and in industrial areas. The monitoring data gathered will inform future decisions on the management of these pollutants and the development of national standards, if needed.


4.2 Emissions control strategies

Motor vehicles are major contributors to air pollution in urban areas and reducing their emissions through fuel quality and emissions standards has been a major focus of national air quality management strategies.

Fuel quality standards

National fuel quality standards set out in the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 provide the legislative basis for cleaner fuels and lower emissions and enable the use of new technology engines that rely on fuel of a sufficient quality to operate properly and efficiently.

Tighter fuel quality standards have resulted in major improvements in the emissions profile of the Australian vehicle fleet and improvements are expected to continue as old cars are replaced by newer ones.

The introduction of unleaded petrol in 1986, and the eventual phase-out of leaded petrol in 1993, effectively eliminated airborne lead from our cities and enabled the adoption of catalyst technology in vehicles which significantly reduced a range of other pollutants (see section 2.6).

Switching from high-sulfur fuel to low-sulfur fuel has resulted in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter from motor vehicles and enabled the adoption of more stringent vehicle emissions standards as well (see Case study 4.1).

More information on fuel quality standards is available online at http://www.environment.gov.au/atmosphere/fuelquality/standards/petrol/index.html.

Emissions standards for new motor vehicles

Australian Design Rules (ADRs) are national standards for vehicle safety, anti-theft and emissions. The standards apply to vehicles newly manufactured in Australia, or imported as new or second-hand vehicles and supplied to the Australian market.

The emission ADRs are performance standards that specify the maximum levels of emissions permitted under a specified test for fine particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and total hydrocarbons.

In the early 2000s, Australia began harmonising ADRs for new motor vehicle emissions with the more stringent European categories (known as Euro standards) set by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The introduction of progressively more stringent emission ADRs between 1994 and 2007 has significantly reduced motor vehicle pollution. These reductions are expected to continue in the medium term as older vehicles are replaced (see Case study 4.2 and section 5.1).

More information on motor vehicle standards is available online at http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/environment/emission/index.aspx.

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Case study 4.1: Low-sulfur content in fuel reduces sulfur dioxide and particle pollution

Fuel quality standards have progressively reduced the sulfur content of fuel and significantly reduced the levels of sulfur dioxide in air. Sulfur levels in premium unleaded petrol were reduced to 50 ppm in 2008. Sulfur levels in diesel were capped at 500 ppm in 2002, reduced to 50 ppm in 2006 and then to 10 ppm in 2009.

Lowering sulfur in diesel fuel has helped to lower emissions of fine particles and sulphates from this significant source. The changes to fuel quality standards enabled complementary changes to the Australian Design Rules for diesel vehicle emissions standards. Since 1996 these have seen limits placed on emissions of particles from new diesel vehicles.

Many low emissions technologies in motor vehicles require low or ultra-low sulfur fuels, and all catalyst-based technologies perform better with low-sulfur fuel. New emissions control technologies can achieve step-down reductions in particulate emissions—actual reductions will vary depending on engine technology. Low-sulfur fuel also enables retrofitting of emission control technologies, such as particulate traps, to existing fleets.

Changes in sulfur content in diesel fuel since 1999

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2009

par

ts p

er m

illio

n

Potential reductions in particle emissions with incremental changes in the sulfur content in diesel

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

2000 1500 1000 500 50 10

Fuel sulfur content (ppm)

PM

em

issi

on

s (g

m/k

m)

500 ppm equates to a 15-30% PM reduction

10 ppm equates to >95% PM reduction

Source: International Council on Clean Transportation: 10 Reasons to move to low sulphur fuel. http://www.theicct.org/documents/0000/0245/10Reasons_ICCT_2005.pdf (accessed 2009).


Case study 4.2: Tighter ADRs reduce emissions from motor vehicles

Over the last 15 years there have been significant improvements in air quality. The increasing proportion of vehicles meeting tighter emission standards in ADRs has played a major part in these improvements.

A recent study measured emissions from 347 vehicles from the Australian vehicle fleet in four age categories covered by a different ADR, including passenger, sports utility and light commercial vehicles.

Year of manufacture Australian Design Rule

1994–98 ADR 37/00

1999–2003 ADR 37/01

2004–05 ADR 79/00

2006–07 ADR 79/01

The study found reductions in emissions of total hydrocarbons (not shown), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), fine particulate matter (PM

2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO) (Source:

Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, 2009).

NOx emissions

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

1994-1998 1999-2003 2004-2005 2006-2007

date of manufacture

gra

ms

per

kilo

met

er

maximum

minimum

average

175

PM2.5 emissions

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1994-1998 1999-2003 2004-2005 2006-2007

date of manufacture

mic

rog

ram

s p

er k

ilo

met

er

maximum

minimum

average

CO emissions

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1994-1998 1999-2003 2004-2005 2006-2007

date of manufacture

gra

ms

per

kil

om

eter

maximum

minimum

average


Wood heaters

Many Australian households use wood heaters and open fireplaces for home heating. Wood smoke is a major contributor to particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide and air toxic emissions. Wood smoke is a problem in many towns and cities, especially on very cold, still nights.

The Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4013 is used to regulate the maximum particle emission rates from new wood heaters in most states and territories within Australia. However, an emissions audit has shown that over half of wood heaters fail the emissions performance standards (DEH, 2004).

The Australian Government is currently reviewing national management actions to reduce wood heater emissions. The set of actions being considered include setting national emission standards, tightening existing emission standards, establishing a comprehensive national certification and audit scheme, and addressing in-service emissions.

While certification systems are useful in controlling wood smoke, experience has shown that the biggest improvements in local air quality have resulted from a combination of management approaches that include replacing high emitting wood heaters with cleaner heaters (see Case study 2.4).

Managing industrial emissions

State and territory governments are responsible for regulating industrial emissions and implementing emissions reduction programs in their jurisdictions.

Because the sources and physical and meteorological characteristics vary in each airshed, different approaches may be used by jurisdictions to tackle their specific air quality problems (see Case study 4.3 for an example).

Information on legislation and programs to regulate and manage industrial and other air emissions can generally be found on state and territory environment agency websites.

4.3 Other strategies

Tracking pollutant emissions

The Australian Government tracks annual emissions for 93 chemicals that are released into the air. The information is published on the NPI website and can be accessed by the community, industry and governments to find out about emissions in their local area or jurisdiction.

The NPI holds emissions data reported by industrial facilities and collected by participating states and territories.

Industrial facilities generally estimate emissions annually using a technique described in an appropriate NPI handbook or other approved method.

State and territory environment agencies estimate emissions less regularly. They estimate emissions from mobile and non-industrial sources, such as the transport sector and domestic activities, and from smaller industrial or commercial facilities that are not required to report to the NPI.

177

Case study 4.3: Managing ozone pollution in Sydney

The New South Wales emissions inventory shows that primary sources of the ozone precursor pollution (NOx and VOCs) are motor vehicles and fuels, aerosols, solvents, paints, solid fuel combustion and industry. As part of its ozone management strategy, the New South Wales government is phasing in Stage 2 vapour recovery from 2010 to reduce VOC emissions in Sydney. Vapour recovery is the capture of the evaporated volatile liquid forced out of a tank when a motor vehicle, petrol tanker or storage tank is filled. This is the source of the petrol smell at service stations. Larger service stations are required to have Stage 2 vapour recovery first and smaller ones later. A similar process, called Stage 1 vapour recovery is already used in Sydney to capture petrol and other evaporated volatile compounds from transport tankers and storage tanks.

Schematic diagram of vapour recovery Stage 2

Capturing the petrol fumes at the petrol bowser is called vapour recovery Stage 2. The fumes are captured by sucking them into a hose that is part of the bowser nozzle and returning the petrol fumes to the underground storage tank, as shown in the schematic diagram.

For more information on what the New South Wales Government is doing to manage air quality refer to Action for Air and Motor Vehicles and Fuels Strategy available at http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/air/.


Air pollution research

Air pollution research forms an important part of Australia’s air quality management strategy.

The Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) funds research on air quality and health to inform development of ambient air quality standards. Recent reports include the Children’s Health Air Pollution study, Multi-city Mortality and Morbidity study and the Time Activity study.

The Australian Government also supports research to advance knowledge of air pollution and plan management strategies. In 2010, for example, two research reports on indoor air quality were published. In 2009, 13 research reports on various aspects of air quality were published through the Clean Air Research Program.

A major study of the emissions from petrol engine vehicles was conducted to provide current, robust emissions data for emissions modelling and to inform policy development for vehicle emissions management (see Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, 2009). This study is referred to as the Second National In-Service vehicle Emissions study (NISE 2), and is a follow-up study from an earlier study (NISE 1).

Air quality research reports can be found at the following websites:

• http://www.environment.gov.au/atmosphere/publications/index.html

• http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/16.

179

Air quAlity outlook

5.1 Pressures and challenges 180

5.2 Future responses 184


5. Air quAlity outlook

5.1 Pressures and challenges

Urban air quality has improved over the last decade, largely because of better fuel quality and vehicle emissions standards. However, these improvements could easily be overridden by increases in transport demand and energy consumption—the main driving forces of man-made air pollution.

Australia’s urban population is predicted to reach over 35 million by 2056 (ABS, 2008). This is likely to have a significant impact on transport demand and energy consumption and the outlook for air quality in the medium to longer term.

Global climate change is predicted to have a range of impacts on ambient air quality in the coming decades. This is another factor that could determine the outlook for air quality in Australia.

Policies designed to combat climate change, such as moving toward a low carbon future, could potentially benefit air quality by reducing carbon and associated pollution emissions. On the other hand, changes in meteorological conditions caused by climate change could be detrimental to air quality and increase air pollution.

Transport

Economic and population growth is expected to increase transport demand and associated motor vehicle use and urban road congestion.

Forecasters predict that total vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) will grow by 37 per cent between 2005 and 2020 as the demand for passenger travel and movement of goods increases (Figure 5.1).

Despite the expected increase in vehicle traffic, emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides are projected to decline to 2020 and offset growth in VKT as a result of cleaner vehicles replacing older dirtier ones (BTRE, 2003).

181

Emissions of fine particulate matter are forecast to remain fairly stable over the base case projections; although particulate matter from diesel vehicles is expected to decline (Figure 5.2).

Road congestion

As Australia’s urban population and the number of motor vehicles increase, road congestion will also increase, leading to more concentrated pollution emissions than would occur if traffic was free flowing.

Road congestion caused by slower speeds, traffic queuing and increased travel times is estimated to contribute between 15 to 35 per cent of the emissions generated by urban motor vehicles, depending on the pollutant. With congestion growing, this percentage is projected to increase by 2020 (BTRE, 1996).

Traffic congestion can be reduced by reducing demand for motor vehicle use in urban centres and by expanding the public transport networks.

Figure 5.1: Projected VKT in Australian by vehicle type

Note: Forecasters predict that total VKT in Australia will grow by 37 per cent between 2005 and 2020 as the demand for passenger travel and movement of goods increases. Commercial vehicle traffic is forecast to grow by around 3.5 per cent and private car traffic, already the highest category, by around 1.7 per cent per annum (Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics, 2003).

Projected VKT in Australia by vehicle type

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020

bil

lio

n k

ilo

met

res

trav

elle

d

Cars Light commercial vehiclesArticulated trucks Rigid and other trucksBuses Motor cycles


Figure 5.2: Projected emissions from motor vehicles in Australia

Energy consumption

Total energy consumption in Australia was around 5772 petajoules in 2007–08 and the primary sources of energy were petroleum (oil), black and brown coal and gas (Figure 5.3).

The major energy-using sectors are electricity generation, transport and manufacturing, which together account for more than 75 per cent of energy consumption. Other big energy using sectors are mining, residential, and commercial and services sectors. These account for the remaining 25 per cent of energy consumption. While Australia’s overall energy consumption has continually increased in line with population and economic growth, the

rate of growth in consumption has slowed over the last couple of decades. For example, total energy consumption in Australia grew at an annual rate of around 2 per cent in the last decade, compared with an annual rate of 4 per cent in the 1970s.

The declining rate of growth in energy consumption is mainly the result of more efficient technologies and higher growth in less energy intensive sectors (such as the commercial and services sector) relative to the more energy-intensive manufacturing sector (ABARE, 2010).

Projected vehicle emissions in Australia to 2020

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020

Ind

ex o

f to

tal e

mis

sio

ns

CO NOx VOCs (total) PM (total)

Note: Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOX)

are projected to decline to 2020 and offset growth in VKT as a result of more efficient vehicles replacing older ones, whereas emissions of fine particulate matter will remain fairly stable over the base case projections (Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics, 2003).

183

Climate change

Climate and weather patterns, including temperature, precipitation, clouds, atmospheric water vapour, wind speed, and wind direction influence atmospheric chemical reactions and atmospheric transport processes. These in turn influence air pollution.

In Australia, global climate change is predicted to result in higher temperatures, dryer weather and a higher number of extreme weather events in the coming decades. This is in turn predicted to have a range of impacts on ambient air quality, including more dust storms and bushfires, higher ozone precursor emissions and photochemical activity, and more urban air pollution (Cope et al, 2008; IPCC, 2007).

Primary energy consumption in Australia by fuel type

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1977-78 1982-83 1987-88 1992-93 1997-98 2002-03 2007-08

Pet

ajo

ule

s

Black coal Brown coal Oil Gas Renewables

Figure 5.3: Australia’s primary energy sources

Note: Black and brown coal account for the greatest share of the fuel mix, at around 40 per cent, followed by petroleum products (34 per cent), natural gas (22 per cent) and renewable energy sources (5 per cent) (ABARE, 2010).

Emissions of ozone precursors from vegetation, motor vehicle tailpipes and fuel evaporation are temperature dependent and increase as the temperature increases. Consequently higher temperatures will potentially lead to more smog and higher ozone levels in many locations.


5.2 Future responses

Developments in the driving forces of air quality over the next decade (such as population and economic growth, and energy consumption) and the associated abatement policies designed to limit emissions will largely determine the outlook for Australia’s medium- to long-term air quality.

Vehicle emissions standards

The Australian Government has a policy of harmonising Australia’s vehicle emissions standards with the international standards established by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The current Australian Design Rules adopt the standards known as Euro 4.

New Euro 5 and Euro 6 standards have recently been developed for light-duty vehicles in Europe. The Australian Government is considering the merits of adopting these latest standards in Australia.

If the Euro 5 and Euro 6 standards are introduced, vehicle emissions of a number of pollutants are expected to continue to decline.

For example, with the existing Euro 4 standard, particle emissions would continue declining to 2020 and then rise again in line with increased vehicle use. With the introduction of Euro 5 and Euro 6 standards, particle emissions are predicted to be around 78 per cent lower in 2040 relative to Euro 4 or no change (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4: Projected particle emissions under Euro 5 and 6 compared to business as usual

Projected particle emissions from motor vehicles

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038

To

tal P

M e

mis

sio

ns

('00

0 to

nn

es)

No change Euro 5 and 6

Note: The new Euro 5 and Euro 6 standards are projected to reduce particle emissions from light duty diesel vehicles over the longer term (Department of Infrastructure, Transport Regional Development and Local Government, 2009).

185

Low carbon energy future

Many of the driving forces underlying climate change, such as population and economic growth, and energy consumption and production are also the driving forces for air pollution.

Air pollutants and greenhouse gases are often emitted by the same sources. Consequently, policies put in place to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, including burning less fossil fuel and adopting low carbon emissions technologies, are generally expected to have a beneficial impact on air quality.

There are situations, however, in which technical emission control measures aimed at reducing one type of emission from a particular source, can increase emissions of other substances. For example, substituting gasoline engines with more fuel-efficient diesel engines could potentially lead to higher emissions of particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and black carbon. Increased take-up of electric vehicles could potentially increase emissions of particulate matter and nitrogen oxide over time by increasing demand for electricity produced from coal-fired power generation (Reedman et al, 2010).

Renewable and decentralised energy production also has the potential to benefit or harm air quality. For example, increased use of biomass or biofuel, often promoted as renewable energy, has the potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions but to increase air pollutant emissions, such as acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide and evaporative volatile organic compounds (EEA, 2004).

Putting small scale decentralised (distributed) power stations where they are needed may save greenhouse gases, but the emissions from those generators may worsen local air quality (EEA, 2004).

Clearly, the linkages between control options for greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution emissions will need to be taken into account when developing and adopting strategies to combat climate change to ensure air quality is not compromised. Abatement of air pollution and greenhouse gases has generally been treated separately and these should be integrated as far as possible.


187

reFerenceS, gloSSAry And

AbbreviAtionS


reFerenceS

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2008, Population projects, Australia, 2006 to 2101, http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3222.0.

ABARE, 2010, Energy in Australia 2010, http://www.abare.gov.au/publications_html/energy/energy_10/energyAUS2010.pdf.

ACT EPA, 2010, ACT Air Quality report, 2009, http://www.environment.act.gov.au/.

AIRNET, Air Pollution and the Risk to Human Health—Health Impact Assessment, AIRNET Work Group 4, http://airnet.iras.uu.nl/.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2008, Burden of disease due to asthma in Australia 2003, http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/acm/acm-16-10749/acm-16- 10749.pdf.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2010, Monitoring the impact of air pollution on asthma in Australia, a methods paper, data calculated for Melbourne in 2006.

Begg et al, 2007, The burden of disease and injury in Australia 2003, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, AIHW cat. no. PHE 82. http://www.aihw.gov.au/bod/index.cfm.

Brook, Robert D, 2008, ‘Cardiovascular effects of air pollution’, Clinical Science, 115 (175–187).

Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (BTRE), 2003, Urban pollutant emissions from motor vehicles: Australian trends to 2020, final draft report for Environment Australia, http://www.btre.gov.au/docs/joint_reports/urbanpollutants_draft.aspx.

Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (BTRE), 2005, Health impacts of transport emissions in Australia: economic costs, Working Paper 63, Canberra.

Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics (BTRE), 1996, Traffic congestion and road user chargers in Australian capital cities, Report 92, http://www.btre.gov.au/info.aspx?ResourceId=349&NodeId=58 .

189

Cope et al, 2008, A methodology for determining the impact of climate change on ozone levels in an urban area, final report, CSIRO.

Department of the Environment and Heritage (DEH), 2004, National wood heater audit programme report, http://www.deh.gov.au/atmosphere/airquality/publications/pubs/ audit-program.pdf.

Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government, 2009a, Road Deaths Australia 2008 Statistical Summary, http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/2009/pdf/rsr_04.pdf.

Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government, 2009b, Regulation impact statement for review of Euro 5/6 light vehicle emission standards.

EEA, 2004, Air pollution and climate change policies in Europe: exploring linkages and the added value of an integrated approach, EEA Technical report No 5/2004. EEA, Copenhagen.

EPHC, 2010, National environment protection (air toxics) measure mid-term review report 2010, http://www.ephc.gov.au/.

IPPC, 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 104, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm.

NEPC, 2001, Collection and reporting of TEOM PM10

data, National Environment Protection Measure Technical Paper No 10, Peer Review Committee, http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/74.0

NEPC, 2004, National Environment Protection (Air Toxics) Measure established in 2004, http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/35.

NSW Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC), 2005, Air pollution economics: health costs of air pollution in the greater Sydney metropolitan region.

Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, 2009, Light duty petrol vehicle emissions testing, second national in-service vehicle emissions study (NISE 2), http://www.environment.gov.au/atmosphere/publications/index.html.

World Health Organisation (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines, Global Update 2005: Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.


gloSSAry And AbbreviAtionS

AAQ NEPM: National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure.

ADRs: Australian Design Rules.

advisory reporting standard: a health-based standard to assess the results of monitoring for particles as PM2.5. These standards do not have a timeframe for compliance associated with them.

airshed: the geographical region that shares the same air supply. Ambient air quality is expected to be generally similar across a given airshed.

air quality index (AQI): an index for any given pollutant that is its concentration expressed as a percentage of the relevant standard. Each category in the AQI corresponds to a different level of air quality and associated health risk.

ambient air: the external air environment. It does not include the air inside buildings or structures.

Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC): established in June 2001 by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG). EPHC addresses broad national policy issues relating to environmental protection, particularly in regard to air, water, waste and heritage issues. (For more information see http://www.ephc.gov.au/).

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

inversion: generally refers to a temperature inversion, such as an increase in temperature with height in the atmosphere. Can also refer to the layer (inversion layer) within which such an increase occurs. An inversion can lead to pollution such as particles and smog being trapped close to the ground.

micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m3): the unit used for determining concentrations of particulate matter in air. A microgram is one-millionth of a gram.

191

NEPM: National Environment Protection Measures are broad framework-setting statutory instruments defined in the National Environment Protection Council Act 1994. They outline agreed national objectives for protecting or managing particular aspects of the environment. For more information see http://www.ephc.gov.au/nepms.

NEPM goal: the maximum annual allowable number of days the relevant standard can be exceeded that should be achieved in 10 years of making the AAQ NEPM.

NEPM monitoring station: facility for measuring the concentration of one or more pollutants in the ambient air in a NEPM region or subregion.

NEPM region: an area within a boundary surrounding population centres as determined by the relevant participating jurisdiction.

NEPM standard: the recommended level or concentration of an air pollutant which it is desirable not to exceed to ensure that human health is adequately protected.

nitrogen oxides (NOx): refer to compounds of oxygen and nitrogen, or a mixture of such compounds. Common forms are nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO

2)

and nitrous oxide (N2O). In atmospheric

chemistry, nitrogen oxides generally refers to NO and NO

2.

NPI: National Pollutant Inventory. See www.npi.gov.au.

parts per million (ppm): a common unit of concentration of gas or vapour in air. It is defined as parts of gas or vapour per million parts of air by volume at 25 degrees C and 1 atmosphere of pressure.

percentiles: the value of a variable below which a certain per cent of observations fall. So the 20th percentile is the value (or score) below which 20 per cent of the observations may be found.

petajoule: the joule is the standard unit of energy in general scientific applications. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one second. One petajoule, or 278 gigawatt hours, is the heat energy content of about 43,000 tonnes of black coal or 29 million litres of petrol.

PM2.5

: Particulate matter with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less. A micrometre is one-millionth of a metre.

PM10

: Particulate matter with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter of 10 µm or less.

residual risk: the extent of the remaining health risk associated with an air quality standard after 100 per cent compliance with standards is achieved. Air quality standards are based on the best available evidence about health and exposure, but gaps may remain in the scientific evidence when standards are set, including whether there is a ‘safe’ or threshold level for effects, and how effects may change for mixtures of pollutants and with pollutants from different sources (such as. particles from motor vehicles versus windblown dust).


TEOM: Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance, an instrument used to continuously monitor airborne particulate matter.

threshold pollutant: a threshold pollutant is one that exhibits a maximum level, or threshold, below which no health effects are observed.

non-threshold pollutant: has diminishing health effects with decreasing concentration, but there will always be some effect even at extremely low concentrations.

vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT): VKT refers to the kilometres travelled by road vehicles. It excludes rail, sea, or air transport modes, which also have impacts on the environment. This indicator does not take traffic congestion or driver behaviour into account.

volatile organic compounds (VOC): refers to organic chemical compounds which have significant vapour pressures, that is, they have a tendency to evaporate into a gaseous form. There are hundreds of VOCs that include both man-made and naturally occurring chemical compounds.

193

liSt oF FigureS & tAbleS

Figure 1: Average maximum 1-hour average ozone levels in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 7

Figure 2: The annual average number of PM10 exceedence days (1999–2008) PAGE 8

Figure 3: The proportion of deaths attributed to long-term exposure to urban air pollution PAGE 10

Figure 4: Forecast growth in total vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) in Australia (1990–2020) PAGE 11

Figure 5: Australia’s primary energy sources PAGE 12

Figure 1.1: Ambient air monitoring sites in Australia PAGE 21

Figure 1.2: Monitoring stations in the Sydney and Illawarra regions of New South Wales PAGE 21

Figure 1.3: Monitoring stations in the Lower Hunter region of New South Wales PAGE 22

Figure 1.4: Monitoring stations in the South East Queensland region and Toowoomba PAGE 22

Figure 1.5: Monitoring stations in the Perth region of Western Australia PAGE 23

Figure 1.6: Monitoring stations in the Port Phillip region of Victoria PAGE 23

Figure 1.7: Monitoring stations in the Latrobe Valley region of Victoria PAGE 24

Figure 1.8: Monitoring stations in the Adelaide region of South Australia PAGE 24

Figure 1.9: Example trend plot showing the average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile concentrations compared to the NEPM standard (horizontal line) PAGE 27

Figure 1.10: Example plot of the maximum and average number of exceedence days PAGE 27

Figure 2.1: The main sources of ozone precursor chemicals based on the NPI PAGE 32

Figure 2.2: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 34

Figure 2.3: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 34

Figure 2.4: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 35

Figure 2.5: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 35

Figure 2.6: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 37

Figure 2.7: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 37

Figure 2.8: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 38

Figure 2.9: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 38

Figure 2.10: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 39

Figure 2.11: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 40

Figure 2.12: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Bathurst (2001–08) PAGE 41

Figure 2.13: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Bathurst (2001–08) PAGE 41

Figure 2.14: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 42

Figure 2.15: Maximum number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland (1999–2008). PAGE 43

Figure 2.16: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone average concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 43


Figure 2.17: Maximum number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 44

Figure 2.18: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08) PAGE 45

Figure 2.19: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08) PAGE 45

Figure 2.20: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Townsville (2004–08) PAGE 46

Figure 2.21: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Townsville (2004–08) PAGE 46

Figure 2.22: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 47

Figure 2.23: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 48

Figure 2.24: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 49

Figure 2.25: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 49

Figure 2.26: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008) PAGE 50

Figure 2.27: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008) PAGE 50

Figure 2.28: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008) PAGE 51

Figure 2.29: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008) PAGE 52

Figure 2.30: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 53

Figure 2.31: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 1-hour average ozone standard in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 53

Figure 2.32: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 54

Figure 2.33: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the 4-hour average ozone standard in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 54

Figure 2.34: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 55

Figure 2.35: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 56

Figure 2.36: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations at Monash (2002–08) PAGE 57

Figure 2.37: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations at Monash (2002–08) PAGE 57

Figure 2.38: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Civic (2002–08) PAGE 58

Figure 2.39: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Civic (2002–08) PAGE 58

Figure 2.40: Relative sizes of the different fractions of particulate matter (concept adapted from Brook, 2008) PAGE 60

Figure 2.41: Main non-industrial sources of PM10

based on the NPI PAGE 61

Figure 2.42: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM


Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 65

Figure 2.43: Maximum and average number of exceedences of the PM

10 standard in the

Sydney region (1999–2008) PAGE 65



Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 66


10 standard in the

Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 67


10 concentrations

in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 67


10 standard in

the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 68


10 concentrations in regional

NSW, comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08) PAGE 69

195

Figure 2.49: The average 95th and 50th percentile PM

10 concentrations in regional NSW,

comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08) PAGE 69


10 standard

in regional NSW, comprising Albury, Bathurst, Tamworth and Wagga Wagga (2000–08) PAGE 70


10 concentrations in

South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 71

Figure 2.52: Maximum number of exceedences of the PM

10 standard in South East

Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 71

Figure 2.53: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM

10 concentrations in Toowoomba

(2003–08) PAGE 72


10 concentrations in Gladstone

(2002–08) PAGE 73


10 concentrations in Mackay

(2000–08) PAGE 73


10 concentrations in Townsville

(2004–08) PAGE 74


standard in regional Queensland (2000–08) PAGE 74


2.5 concentrations in South

East Queensland (2003–08) PAGE 75

Figure 2.59: Maximum, 95th and 50th percentile PM2.5

concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–07) PAGE 76

Figure 2.60: Number of exceedences of the daily PM2.5

advisory reporting standard in South East Queensland (2003–08) and Toowoomba (2003–07) PAGE 76


concentrations in South East Queensland (2003–08) and in Toowoomba (2003–07) PAGE 77



Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 78


10 standard in the




Latrobe Valley (2003–08) PAGE 79


10 standard since

2003 in the Latrobe Valley (2003–08) PAGE 79


2.5 concentrations in the



levels in the Port Phillip region (2003–08) PAGE 81



Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 83


10 standard

in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 83



Spencer region (2004–08) PAGE 84


10 standard in the

Spencer region (2002–08) PAGE 84


2.5 concentrations in Adelaide

(2006–08) PAGE 85


10 concentrations in Hobart (2000–08)

PAGE 86


standard in Hobart (2000–08) PAGE 87


10 concentrations in Launceston

PAGE 87


standard in Launceston (1992–2008) PAGE 88


2.5 concentrations in Hobart (2006–08)

PAGE 89


2.5 concentrations in Launceston

(2005–08) PAGE 89

Figure 2.79: The annual average PM2.5

concentrations in Hobart and Launceston (2005–08) PAGE 90


10 concentrations in Perth

(2000–08) PAGE 93


10 standard in

Perth (2000–08) PAGE 93



southwest region of Western Australia. PAGE 94


10 concentrations at Geraldton

(2005–08) PAGE 95



standard in the southwest and midwest regions of Western Australia (2000–08) PAGE 95


2.5 concentrations

in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 96

Figure 2.86: Maximum and average number of days exceeding the PM

2.5 advisory reporting

standard in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 96


2.5 concentrations in the

southwest region of Western Australia (1999–2008) PAGE 97


2.5 advisory

reporting standard in the southwest region of Western Australia. PAGE 98


concentrations in Perth and the southwest region of Western Australia (1999–2008) PAGE 98


10 levels in Monash, Canberra

(1999–2008) PAGE 99


10 standard in Monash, Canberra

(1999–2008) PAGE 100


2.5 concentrations in Monash,

Canberra (2004–08) PAGE 100


2.5 standard in Monash, Canberra

(2004–08) PAGE 101


concentrations in Monash, Canberra (2004–08) PAGE 101


10 concentrations in Darwin

(2004–08) PAGE 103


10 standard in Darwin (2004–08)

PAGE 104


2.5 concentrations in Darwin

(2004–08) PAGE 104


2.5 advisory reporting standard

in the Darwin (2004–08) PAGE 105


concentrations in Darwin (2004–08) PAGE 105

Figure 2.100: Main non-industrial sources of carbon monoxide based on the NPI PAGE 107

Figure 2.101: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Sydney region (1999–08) PAGE 109

Figure 2.102: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 110

Figure 2.103: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 110

Figure 2.104: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 111

Figure 2.105: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 112

Figure 2.106: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 113

Figure 2.107: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 114

Figure 2.108: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08) PAGE 114

Figure 2.109: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Sydney (1999–2008) PAGE 117

Figure 2.110: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Illawarra region (1999–2008) PAGE 117

Figure 2.111: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Lower Hunter region (1999–2008) PAGE 118

Figure 2.112: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in New South Wales (1999–2008) PAGE 118

Figure 2.113: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in South East Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 119

Figure 2.114: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Toowoomba (2003–08) PAGE 120

Figure 2.115: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Gladstone (1999–08) PAGE 120

197

Figure 2.116: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Townsville (2004–08) PAGE 121

Figure 2.117: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 121

Figure 2.118: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 122

Figure 2.119: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 123

Figure 2.120: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Latrobe Valley (1999–2008) PAGE 124

Figure 2.121: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008) PAGE 124

Figure 2.122: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 125

Figure 2.123: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 126

Figure 2.124: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08) PAGE 127

Figure 2.125: Annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in Canberra (2002–08) PAGE 127

Figure 2.126: Main sources of sulfur dioxide based on the NPI PAGE 129

Figure 2.127: The average maximum 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008) PAGE 130

Figure 2.128: The average maximum 24-hour average sulfur dioxide levels in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008) PAGE 131

Figure 2.129: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in three regions in New South Wales (1999–2008) PAGE 132

Figure 2.130: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 133

Figure 2.131: The average maximum and 95th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 133

Figure 2.132: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Gladstone (2003–08) PAGE 134

Figure 2.133: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa (1999–2008) PAGE 135

Figure 2.134: Number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Mount Isa (1999–2008) PAGE 135

Figure 2.135: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa (1999–2008) PAGE 136

Figure 2.136: Number of exceedence days of the 24-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Mount Isa (1999–2008) PAGE 136

Figure 2.137: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Mount Isa and the average for the rest of Queensland (1999–2008) PAGE 137

Figure 2.138: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 138

Figure 2.139: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Adelaide (2002–08) PAGE 139

Figure 2.140: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Port Pirie (2002–08) PAGE 139

Figure 2.141: Number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average sulfur dioxide standard in Port Pirie (2002–08) PAGE 140

Figure 2.142: The maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Port Pirie (2002–08) PAGE 140

Figure 2.143: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip region (1999–2008) PAGE 141

Figure 2.144: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Latrobe Valley region (1999–2008) PAGE 142

Figure 2.145: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008) PAGE 143

Figure 2.146: Annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Port Phillip and Latrobe Valley regions (1999–2008) PAGE 143


Figure 2.147: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 1-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 144

Figure 2.148: The average maximum, 95th and 50th percentile 24-hour average sulfur dioxide concentrations in Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 145

Figure 2.149: Average annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 145

Figure 2.150: The main sources of lead based on the NPI PAGE 148

Figure 2.151: Annual average lead levels in urban air between 1991 and 2001 PAGE 149

Figure 2.152: Lead levels at two locations in Port Pirie, South Australia PAGE 149

Figure 2.153: The average maximum 1-hour average ozone concentrations in four major cities (1999–2008) PAGE 151

Figure 2.155: The average maximum 4-hour average ozone concentrations in four major cities (1999–2008) PAGE 151

Figure 2.154: The annual average number of exceedence days of the 1-hour average ozone standard (1999–2008), based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region PAGE 152

Figure 2.156: The annual average number of exceedence days of 4-hour average ozone standard (1999–2008), based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region PAGE 151

Figure 2.157: The average 95th percentile 1-hour average ozone concentrations in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 153

Figure 2.158: The average 95th percentile 4-hour average ozone concentrations in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 153

Figure 2.159: The annual average number of PM10

exceedence days between 1999 and 2008, based on the worst performing station in a monitoring region PAGE 155

Figure 2.160: The average 95th percentile 24-hour average PM


Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (1999–2008) PAGE 156



Adelaide, Hobart, Darwin and Canberra (1999–2008) PAGE 156


10 concentrations in regional

and capital cities PAGE 157

Figure 2.163: Maximum 8-hour average carbon monoxide concentrations in the Sydney CBD (1982–2004) PAGE 159

Figure 2.164: Maximum 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the Sydney CBD (1980–2009) PAGE 159

Figure 2.165: The highest 1-hour average ozone levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities PAGE 161

Figure 2.166: Annual average PM10

levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities PAGE 161

Figure 2.167: Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities PAGE 162

Figure 2.168: Annual average sulfur dioxide levels in selected Australian cities compared to major international cities PAGE 162

Figure 3.1: Pyramid showing the common health indicators used in public health risk assessment of air pollution and the severity of effects PAGE 165

Figure 3.2: Deaths in 2003 that can be attributed to the long-term effects of urban air pollution PAGE 166

Figure 3.3: Proportion of deaths that can be attributed to long-term exposure to urban air pollution PAGE 166

Figure 5.1: Projected VKT in Australian by vehicle type PAGE 181

Figure 5.2: Projected emissions from motor vehicles in Australia PAGE 182

Figure 5.3: Australia’s primary energy sources PAGE 183

Figure 5.4: Projected particle emissions under Euro 5 and 6 compared to business as usual PAGE 164

Table 1.1: AAQ NEPM standards and goals for key pollutants PAGE 19

Table 1.2: Air quality index PAGE 25

Table 2.1: The 95th percentile PM10

levels as a percentage of the standard PAGE 154

Table 3.1: Disease burden (all causes) attributed to various risk factors PAGE 165

199


Documents

State of the Air in Australia 1999-2008 - Department …...6 | State of the Air in AustraliaSummAry this State of the Air report provides an analysis of air quality from 1999–2008